Introduction to Geo-Mechanics

Geomechanics involves the geological study of the behavior of the rock and soil. The two main
classification of geo-mechanics are - a) Soil Mechanics and b) Rock Mechanics. The state of equilibrium
of a rock formation is distributed by drilling, production or injection resulting in changes to the
mechanical state of the rock. Such changes can seriously impact all the above mentioned operational
phases. As it is said that perception without facts is very disastrous, similar is the case ie, without a
strategy to minimize potential geo-mechanical problems the upend project cannot be economical. Geo
mechanical factors affect every part of the life cycle of an oil and gas reservoir. It is important to access
and manage these, form predicting drilling risks in the first well to maximizing recovery from mature
assets.
Geo-mechanics concerns itself with the interplay between forces and materials in the earth. These
forces ranges in scale from macroscopic gravitational and tectonics forces to the microscopic forces of
attraction between grain molecules and matrix.

Applications of Geo-mechanics in various operational modesGeo-mechanics serves as a key to wellbore stability and has a widespread application in enhancement of
a better model right from initial exploratory to production phases.
1. In the exploratory phase geo-mechanics is integrated into basins models that investigate how
the basin may have evolved as sediments were deposited and subsequently deformed. These
information of subsequent deposition and sediments environments is drawn by geologists from
studying the local geology(depositional history), seismic mapping(2D or 3D surveys) and via well
to well correlations.
2. In the pre drill phase available informations from various sources is integrated to model pore
pressure, fracture gradient and risk of drilling problems such as hole collapse or differential
sticking. The objective is to assist in the planning of casing, drilling fluid properties and drilling
practices so as to minimize the overall cost of the well. A geo-mechanical study may sometimes
also contribute to the bit selection and choice of well trajectory.
3. While drilling a pre drilled model is refined through observations of well behavior, petrophysical
data, samples circulated from downhole and interactions between the bit and bottom hole
assembly(BHA) with the formation. Modification to the orginal mud weight plan or casing design
may be required based on the informations while drilling.
4. After the drilling phase geo-mechanics palys a role in completion design and reservoir modeling.
For ex:-the ability to fracture a rock and obtain enhance production is highly dependent on
downhole rock properties obtained through geomechanical investigation.
Another application is the investigation of possible sanding problems during production. As the reservoir
becames pressure depleted, the result is more stress on the grains, leading to loss of porosity and
permeability and sometimes subsidence of overlying formations- all of which are within the domain of
geo-mechanics to model.

Parameters important in Geo-mechanics:Some of the parameters need to be calculated in understanding the geo-mechanics of a particular area
Overburden stress- It is defined as the stress arising from the weight of the rock overlying the zone
under consideration. With the burial depth increases, the overlying pressure (overburden stress)
increases. This decreases the pore pressure between the grains and thus the porosity of the formation.
The overburden stress can be calculated assuming the average bulk density of the overlying formation
given by

ob=

------------------------------------------------------(i)

where;

ob= Overburden stress; =Bulk density; g= Acceleration due to gravity(9.8g/cc)

During compaction the formation water is constantly expelled from its pore spaces. As long as the
formation water is expelled the formation are hydrostatic or normally pressurized. Due to its high
permeability and effective porosity formation water is expelled out from its pore spaces under
compaction. This vertical pressure
pore pressure(Pf)
ie,

ob= z+Pf

(ob)

is supported jointly by rock matrix stress(z) and formation

(in psi)-------------------------------------------------------------------(ii)

Some abnormal pressure exists in zones which are not in direct communication with its
adjacent strata. The boundaries of the abnormally pressurized zone are impermeable,
preventing fluid communication and making trapped fluid support a larger proportion of
overburden stress. In this situation the porosity of the formation will not follow the natural
compaction trend. Along with high porosity the bulk density() and formation resistivity will be
lower at abnormally pressurized formations.
The bulk density() of a formation is estimated by

b=g(1-)+ fl-------------------------------------------------(iii)
where,

b= Bulk density(g/cc)
g= grain density(g/cc), fl=fluid density(g/cc), =Porosity of the formation

For shale formation the porosity() changes with depth which can be described using the

relationship

-KDs

= o e

-------------------------------------------------(iv)

where,
= porosity at depth of interest
o= porosity at surface
K= Porosity decline constant
DS= Depth of interest
When Eq(iv) is substituted in Eq(iii) the new equation turns as

-KDs

b= g(1- o e
Substituting the value of

-KDs

)+ fl o e

-----------------------------------(v)

b in Eq(i) we get
-KDs

ob= (1 o e

-KDs

)+ fl o e

*g dDS

After intregration RHS becames

ob = 0.052.sw.DW + 0.052.g.Dg 0.052/K.( g fl).o.(1-e-kDs)

where
Dg= Depth of sediment from sea bottom(ft)

sw =Sea Water Density(ppg)

Detection of Abnormalities during Drilling
When the abnormal pressure is encountered while drilling various parameters are observed
and crossplotted. Some of these detection methods are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Penetration Rate
d Exponent
Sigmalog
Torque Measurement
Overpull and Drag
Hole fill
Pit Level/Differential Flow/Pump pressure
Measurement while Drilling
Mud Density() /Temperature(oF)/Resistivity
Lithology
Shale Density
Shale Factor based on Cation Exchange Capacity(CEC)
Shape, Size and abundance of Cuttings

14. X-ray Diffraction

15. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance(NMR)
One of which are explained in details with mathematical formulas
d Exponent-Sometimes while drilling the same formations applying the same drilling parameters like
Weight on Bit(WOB), Rate of Penetration(ROP), Hydraulics, a change in ROP is caused basically due to
P (Borehole pressure- Formation Pressure). In case of decrease in formation pressure pressure
differential(P) increases which results in decrease of ROP. On the contrary with increase in formation
pressure P decreases which results in high ROP.
Mathematically d-exponent is calculated as

d =[log10(R/N*60)/log10(12*W/10E6*D) ]----------------------------------------------------------(1)
Where,
R=Penetration Rate(ft/hr)
N=Rotation Speed(rev/min)
W=Weight on bit(lb)
D=Hole Size(in)
The term R/(60*N)<1.Though the d-exponent curve does not solely represents the abnormal pressure
zone as because it assumes a constant mud weight while calculating d-exponent. But while drilling
programme variation in mud weight is necessary to sustain the formation pressure.To account for the
effect the so called corrected d-exponent dc was developed

dc=d(fl/equi)

----------------------------------------------------------(2)

where,
d=d-exponent calculated from(1)

fl=Formation Fluid density from the hydrostatic gradient

equi=Mud weight in ppg
After the abnormal pressure is detected various wireline logs are run to calculate the amount of
overpressure it possess from its orginal trend. The most used logs to evaluate the magnitude of
overpressure zone are as follows
1. Resistivity/Conductivity logs
2. Sonic Logs
3. Density logs
4. Neutron logs
5. Vertical seismic profiling(VSP)
6. Gamma Ray Spectrometer

Methods used by industry to evaluate the amount of overpressure are:1. Equivalent Depth Method
2. Ratio Method
3. Eatons Method

Geo-mechanics related to Rock Strength

Geomechanics give ideas about the direction of stress experienced within the rock when drilling or
artificial fractrure is entained. Though which prediction of casing setting depth(CSD) and stimulation
jobs are easily done. Rock strength which can be specified in terms of tensile strength, shear strength
and compression strength . But in the context of fracture related jobs only the tensile strength of rock is
counted.(The tensile strength of rock is defined as the pulling force required to rapture a rock sample
divided by the samples cross-sectional area.)
Diagrammatic Direction of the insitu stress experienced by the rock
1(Maximum Principal
Stress)

2=(Least Principal
stress)

3=(Intermediate
Principal stress)
At any point below the earth surface three mutually perpendicular stresses exists. The maximum
principal stress (1) is normally vertical and is equal to overburden stress in vertical wells. The value of
overburden stress is 1psi/ft for relaxed areas and 0.8psi/ft for tectonically active areas. The intermediate
and minimum total principal stresses (2 and 3 respectively) are horizontal and directly influence the
fracturing of rock. However the creation of the borehole within the earths surface produces a
magnification of stresses around the borehole walls such that the resulting stresses are several times
larger than the least principal stress.
One of the factor which concerns mainly to minimum total insitu stress is the fracture gradient which is
an important parameter which need to be calculated before designing the casing in a drilled hole.

Two methods used to calculate fracture gradient are direct and indirect methods. The direct method
relies on determining the pressure required to fracture the rock and the pressure required to propagate
the resulting fracture. Indirect method uses stress analysis to predict fracture gradient.

Surface pressure

The direct method used in industry is the leak-off-test(LOT).

LOT is normally run in the open hole section before surface or intermediate casing in order to determine
the maximum pressure that the casing seat can withstand before taking fluid while the next hole is being
drilled. In this test the hole is first filled with fresh mud and the annular preventor is closed. After each
increment of mud (1/4-1/8 bbl) ,the shut in pressure is observed and plotted against time or volume of
mud pumped in.
Breakdown
Leak-off-pressure pressure

Frac closure
pressure

Fracture propagation press

D
C
E

Time
Increment of mud pumped in

Upto point A the formation can withstand the total pressure imposed(surface pressure +Hydrostatic
pressure) without fracturing. The portion OA is analogous to elastic portion of stress-strain graph of
metals. At point A the formation begins to take fluid resulting in non-linear relationship between
pressure and time. At point B, the applied pressure exceeds the wellbore stresses which results in
formation breakdown and a sudden drop in surface pressure as depicted by line BC. The pressure at
point B is defined as formation breakdown pressure. Continued injection will then merely extend the
fracture created by breakdown pressure denoted by line CD termed as fracture propagation pressure.
The fracture propagation pressure is normally taken to be equal to the minimum principal stress(3) on
the assumption that a fracture outside the vicinity of the hole can be made when the value of 3 is
exceeded. Point E in the figure is the instantenous shut in pressure when the pumping is stopped.this
pressure is known as fracture closure pressure. To ensure that leak-off is detected as soon as it occurs,
pumping should be stopped at regular intervals and the shut-in pressure of successive cycles should be
noted. If an increase in the difference is ovserved then there is a clear indication that the leak-off is
taking place.
Some other indirect methods rely on the stress analysis.The methods are as follows

1. Hubbert and Willis method

To calculate the fracture gradient this methods use the mathematical formula as
FG=.33(V/D)+.66(Pf/D)
where,
V= Overburden stress
Pf= Pore pressure
D=depth(TVD)
The main disadvantage of the Hubert and Willis method is that it predicts a higher fracture
gradient in abnormal pressure and a lower fracture gradient in subnormal pressure.
2.

Eatons Method
This method is slightly modification of Hubbert and Willis method in which both V and

Poissons ratio () are assumed variable and it is the most widely used method in oil
industry.
Mathematically
FG= [(/(1- ))( (V-Pf)/D)+Pf/D ]

References

www.halliburtonblog.com
www.wikipedia.org
www.slb.com
Reservior Geomechanics authored by Mark D. Jobeck
Drilling Engineering by H.Rabia
Drilling Engineering-Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang F. Prassl (Curtin University of Technology)