The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, April 2007.

Copyright 2007 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or
in paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

Using Microturbines

By Robert Zogg, P.E., Member ASHRAE; John Bowman; Kurt Roth, Ph.D., Associate Member ASHRAE; and
James Brodrick, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE

icroturbines use small combustion turbines to

provide electric power for distributed generation
(DG) applications, including combined heat and
power (CHP). Compared to conventional gas turbine generators, microturbines typically have lower electric generation
capacities (30 to 500 kW versus more than 1 MW), lower
pressure ratios (about 4 versus 8 to 10), radial-flow designs
(versus axial-flow designs), and incorporate recuperators
(versus typically unrecuperated designs). Microturbines
are promoted as lightweight, compact, low noise/vibration,
low emissions, and fuel-flexible compared to competing DG technologies such as internal-combustion-engine
generators.

Characteristics and Development Status

Figure 1 depicts a schematic of a typical microturbine
integrated with a CHP system that provides power, heating,
and cooling. The compressor section raises air pressure to
about four atmospheres and the air then enters a recuperator
that preheats the air using turbine exhaust. Subsequently, the
heated air enters the combustor, where pressurized fuel is
injected and burned. Since commercial buildings are typically
supplied with low-pressure natural gas, a compressor generally
is needed to pressurize the gas prior to injection. After combustion, the exhaust products enter the turbine, which provides
shaft power to the compressor and a generator. The generator
typically produces high-frequency power that is converted to

Advertisement formerly in this space.

48

ASHRAE Journal

ashrae.org

April 2007

60 Hz ac power at the desired voltage. The turbine exhaust

(typically about 1,100F [600C]) then enters the recuperator. The recuperator exhaust (typically about 500F [260C])
is then released to the atmosphere (in DG systems) or enters
one or more heat-recovery heat exchangers to provide heating
and/or cooling loads (in CHP systems). CHP systems using
absorption chillers require a reliable bypass damper to avoid
damaging the chiller with hot exhaust gases when little or no
cooling load exists.
Microturbines have been commercially available for almost
20 years. The dominant microturbine manufacturer was founded
in 1988 and claims more than 3,500 microturbine cumulative
sales.1 Given the market dominance of this manufacturer,
cumulative installations from all manufacturers probably do
not exceed 5,000 units. Typical efficiencies (including gascompressor parasitics) range from about 23% to 26% (higher
heating value [HHV]) (25% to 29% [lower heating value
{LHV}]) for generation capacities ranging from 28 to 100
kW, respectively.2
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) launched its Advanced
Microturbine Program in 2000, including projects with five
manufacturers.3 The goals of the program were to achieve:
Fuel-to-electric conversion efficiency of at least 36%
(HHV) (40% [LHV]);

Less than 7 ppm NOx emissions (using natural gas);

11,000 hours of reliable operation between major overhauls;
45,000 hours of service life;
System costs of less than $500/kW; and
Fuel flexibility (including natural gas, diesel, ethanol,
landfill gas, and biofuels).
Key strategies to improve efficiencies used by developers
working with the DOE include:
Increasing generation capacity to 200 kW to 300 kW while
maintaining tight tolerance control, reducing leakagerelated losses as a fraction of total output;
Achieving higher turbine inlet temperatures by using
temperature-resistant materials, such as high-temperature
alloys and ceramics;
Improving recuperator effectiveness and temperature resistance; and
In at least one case, using a Rankine bottoming cycle to
extract additional power from the microturbine exhaust.
The DOE program ended in 2006. Although project final
reports are not yet public, some performance information is available. For example, one developer reports achieving 30% (HHV)
(33% [LHV]) generation efficiency with a 200 kW (nominal)
simple-cycle microturbine and 35% (HHV) (38% [LHV]) when

Advertisement formerly in this space.

April 2007

ASHRAE Journal

49

Microtubine

Fuel
High Frequency
Generator

Turbine

Compressor

Combustor
Recuperator

Power
Conditioning

1,100F
(600C) Typ.

500F
(260C) Typ.

Air

200F
(90C)

200F
(90C) Min.

200F
(90C) Min.
Exhaust-Fired
Single-Effect
Absorption
Chillera

Hot Water
Heat Exchanger

Gas-Fired
Boiler

Electric Chiller

Hot Water
Loop

Chilled Water Loop

54F
(12C)

Building Loads

44F
(7C)

Note: Single-effect chiller shown

for installation. Double-effect
chillers also can be used.

140F
(60C)

180F
(82C)

Figure 1: Schematic of a microturbine-based CHP system.

using two 200 kW microturbines and a water-cooled, organic

Rankine bottoming cycle (total capacity of 465 kW).4
Energy and Emissions Considerations
The efficiency of grid-supplied electricity (including
generation, transmission, and distribution losses) averaged
31.5% (HHV) in the U.S. for 2004.5 Commercially available
microturbines (see previous efficiency ranges) are less efficient than the grid and, therefore, do not save energy when
operating as power-only systems. Even when used in a CHP
system providing both cooling and heating to a large office
building, detailed simulations suggest that a 24% (HHV) (26%
[LHV]) microturbine can provide only marginal primary energy savings.6 In the same study, even the high thermal loads
associated with hospitals provided minimal primary energy
savings. Further complicating the efficiency story, microturbine efficiencies drop when operating above the rating-point
ambient-air temperature of 59F (15C), resulting in lower
generation efficiencies during peak summer days. Clearly,
efficiency improvements, such as those pursued under the
DOE Advanced Microturbine Program, are needed before
microturbine-based CHP systems can reduce primary energy
consumption in most commercial building applications. Mi50

ASHRAE Journal

croturbines, however, may be able to lower energy costs by

reducing grid purchases during peak periods.
While the emissions characteristics of microturbines generally meet regulatory requirements, requirements are becoming
stricter in many areas. For example, a California Air Resources
Board (ARB) regulation sets strict emissions limits for DG
systems. Natural-gas-fired DG systems sold in California must
be certified to meet the following emissions standards (based
on electric output):
NOx: 0.07 lb/MWh (32 g/MWh);
CO: 0.10 lb/MWh (45 g/MWh); and
Volatile Organic Compounds: 0.02 lb/MWh (9 g/MWh).6
The ARB regulation, however, allows a generous emissions credit for CHP systems. ARB currently lists only one
microturbine product (a CHP system) that is certified for sale
in California.7
Cost Challenges
One source estimates that the installed costs of microturbines
(power only) range from about $2,600/kW for a 30 kW capacity
to about $1,800/kW for a 100 kW capacity.2 The same source
estimates the installed cost of a 100 kW internal-combustionengine system (power only) at about $1,000/kW56% less

ashrae.org

April 2007

than a microturbine of the same capacity. However, as noted

earlier, microturbines are currently produced in low volumes.
It is reasonable to expect that increased sales volumes could
appreciably lower costs.
Promising DG Applications
Despite the efficiency and cost challenges, potentially attractive
niche markets for microturbines include:
California CHP systems, where
using microturbines (rather than
internal-combustion engines) may
facilitate meeting ARB emissions
regulations;
Greenhouse CHP systems where the
microturbine is exhausted directly into
the greenhouse, providing inexpensive
and very efficient heating plus carbon
dioxide to enhance plant growth;
Power generation from landfill gas,
where tolerance of low-energycontent fuels is essential; and
Some roof-mounted DG or CHP
systems where the compact, lightweight, and low noise/vibration
characteristics of microturbines
may be essential to avoid expensive
structural reinforcement and vibration-isolation measures.

7. Certified DG Technologies area of the California Air Resources

Board Web site: http://tinyurl.com/3cvhre (or www.arb.ca.gov/energy/dg/
dg.htm#Certified).

Robert Zogg, P.E.; John Bowman; and Kurt Roth, Ph.D.;

are associate principals with TIAX LLC, Cambridge, Mass.
James Brodrick, Ph.D., is a project manager with the Building
Technologies Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.

References

1. Capstone Turbine Corporation. 2006. Product

Innovations by the Worlds Leading Microturbine
Manufacturer. Presentation at the ASME Turbo
Expo: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. http://tinyurl.
com/yp85u3 (or www.eere.energy.gov/de/conf06_turbo_expo.html).
2. Gas Research Institute and the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2003. Gas-Fired
Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations. http://tinyurl.com/yro8xc (or www.nrel.
gov/docs/fy04osti/34783.pdf).
3. The Microturbines program area of the Web
site for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of
Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, Distributed Energy Program. http://tinyurl.com/28s558 (or
http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/microturbines/).
4. Rosfjord, T., D. Haught and D. Geiling. 2005.
Cooperative Research and Development for Advanced Microturbine System. Presented by United
Technologies Research Center at the U.S. Department
of Energy, Distributed Energy Peer Review. http://
tinyurl.com/2xbb97 (or www.energetics.com/depeerreview05/pdfs/presentations/turbines/tu_b2-2.pdf).
5. D&R International 2006 Buildings Energy
Data Book. 2006. Prepared by D&R International
for the U.S. Department of Energy. http://buildingsdatabook.eere.energy.gov/.
6. ADL. 2002. Cooling, Heating and Power
(CHP) for Commercial Buildings Benefits Analysis.
Final Report by Arthur D. Little Inc., to the U.S.
Department of Energy. http://tinyurl.com/suzq2
(or www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/chp_benefits_
commercial_buildings.pdf).

April 2007

Advertisement formerly in this space.

ASHRAE Journal

51