Module 3.1 Electron Theory New

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Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category Basic A/B1/B2
Sub Module 3.1 Electron Theory
MODULE 3: ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.1ELECTRON THEORY
Sub Module 3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY and CONDUCTION
Sub Module 3.3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Sub Module 3.4 GENERATION OF ELECTRICIY
Sub Module 3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Sub Module 3.6 DC CIRCUITS
Sub Module 3.7RESISTANCE/RESISTOR
Sub Module 3.8 POWER
Sub Module 3.9 CAPACITANCE/CAPACITOR
Sub Module 3.10MAGNETISM
Sub Module 3.11INDUCTANCE/INDUCTOR
Sub Module 3.12DC MOTOR/GENERATOR THEORY
Sub Module 3.13AC THEORY
Sub Module 3.14 RESISTIVE (R), CAPACITIVE (C), and Inductive (L)
CIRCUITS
Sub Module 3.15TRANSFORMERS
Sub Module 3.16 FILTERS
Sub Module 3.17 AC GENERATORSFILTERS
Sub Module 3.18 AC MOTORS
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MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.1
ELECTRON THEORY
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CONTENTS
STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGES
WITHIN: ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS, COMPOUNDS -------- 1
THE ATOMIC STURCTURE -------------------------------------------- 6
FORCES, WHICH HOLDS ATOMS AND MOLECULES
TOGETHER ----------------------------------------------------------------- 8
IONISATION ---------------------------------------------------------------12
ELECTRIC CURRENT --------------------------------------------------12
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF CONDUCTORS ---------------13
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF INSULATORS -----------------13
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS -------13
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STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

WITHIN: ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS, COMPOUNDS
To understand the nature of electricity and the basic electrical
properties of materials the construction of matter has to be
studied. The simple structure of atoms and how they are linked
gives the matter electrical properties.
Matter
Matter can be defined as anything that has mass and has
volume and is the substance of which physical objects are
composed. Essentially, it is anything that can be touched. Mass
is the amount of matter in given object. Typically, the more
matter there is in an object the more mass it will have. Weight is
an indirect method of determining mass but not the same. The
difference between mass and weight is that weight is
determined by how much something or the fixed masses pulled
by gravity. Categories of matter are ordered by molecular
activity. The four categories or states are:
A solid is the state of matter in which the object has both
definite shape and definite volume. A solid will not change
shape or volume even if it is placed into a different container.
Hence we can say that particles in a solid are arranged in a
fixed pattern and are packed closely together. There is a very
strong force of attraction between the particles and they vibrate
about their fixed position. Ice is an example of a solid.

A liquid is the state of matter in which the substance has a

definite volume but not a definite shape. A liquid will take the
shape of the container it is in; however, the amount of space it
takes up will remain the same. Hence we can say that particles
in a liquid is packed, but not in an orderly manner, the distance
between the particles are more as compared to solids therefore
particles can interchange their positions however a force of
attraction exist between particles. Water is an example of a
liquid.
A gas is the state of matter in which a substance has neither a
definite shape nor definite volume. A gas takes the shape and
the volume of the container it is in. That is to say a gas is unique
in the sense that it will expand or contract to fit its container. In
other words particles in a gas are spread widely. Particles move
freely and randomly in all directions at high speeds, there is a
negligible force of attraction between the particles. Water
vapour is an example of a gas.
A plasma is a state of matter much like a gas, in that it does not
have definite shape or volume. The plasma tends to have an
abundance of free electrons, so it behaves very differently than
gases. While plasma is very rare on Earth it makes up well over
90% of the matter in the universe. Stars are examples of
plasmas.
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Figure3.1.2: Plasma
Figure3.1.1: Particle arrangement of the 3 States of Matter
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Element
An element is a substance or an identity that cannot be reduced
or broken down into any other substance or identity by chemical
means. Iron, gold, silver, copper, hydrogen and oxygen are
examples of elements. Every element has a unique identity
called its symbol and it is composed of only one type of atom or
sometime molecules e.g. Oxygen at room temperature appears
only in the form of a molecule O2

Molecules
A combination of two or more atoms of similar or dissimilar
elements is called a molecule. It is the smallest particle of
matter that can exist and still retain its identity, such as a water
(H2O) molecule illustrated in Figure 3.1.3. Most substances
occur in nature as compounds.
Compound
A compound is a chemical combination of two or more elements
which chemically combine together to form an altogether a new
substance which properties does not match with its
constituents. Water is one of the most common compounds
and is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Mixture
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more elements or
compounds together in which the individual constituents does
not lose their properties e.g. a solution of Salt and Water. There
are certain processes which can isolate the constituents from a
mixture.
Figure 3.1.3: water molecule
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The Periodic Table Of The Elements
Modern Form of Periodic Table
The periodic table is an arrangement of chemical elements in

the form of a table, to get a first-hand glimpse of 'periodically'
recurring properties of elements. The credit for the modern form
of periodic table goes to the Russian professor of chemistry,
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. With the discovery of new
elements and new theories on the structure of atoms; however,
the basic structure of Mendeleev's original periodic table has
undergone several changes.
In the modern form of periodic table, the elements are arranged

in accordance with their increasing atomic number. There are a
total of 117 chemical elements in the periodic table. Out of
them, 94 elements are obtained naturally on Earth and the rest
are all synthetic elements. The elements are grouped in four
blocks: s, p, d and f. The radioactive elements are placed below
the main table as lanthanides and actinides. Usually, each
element is represented with its symbol, atomic number and
atomic mass in the periodic table.
Mendeleev's Periodic Table

The renowned Russian professor Mendeleev developed his
periodic table in 1869. Mendeleev's conceptualization of the
periodic table was far more superior then any of the periodic
tables developed in his time. He kept some of the cells in his
table empty, to accommodate the missing elements, which
would be discovered in future. He could predict the chemical
properties of those unknown elements. Later, when those
elements were discovered, their properties actually matched
with Mendeleev's predictions. The drawback of this table,
however, was that the lengths of all the rows were fixed.
The vertical column of the periodic table, also called a 'Group',

includes those elements which have the same electronic
configuration in the outermost shell of their atoms. For this
reason, elements in the same group show similar properties.
The horizontal row of the periodic table is called a 'Period'. A
row of the table signifies the number of shells that are filled by
electrons in an atom.
There are 08 Groups in accordance to the number of electrons
in the Valence shell and 07 Periods in accordance with the
number of shells in an atom, in which the periodic table is
divided. The largest group is 3B called Transition
Elements/metals starting from Sc to Zn. When group 1 elements
react with Group 7 elements then they form Ionic Bonds and
when they combine with the Group 4 elements they form
Covalent Bonds.
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Figure3.1.4: Periodic table of elements
The periodic table is a complete database that has all the required information about chemical elements. Its utility is not just confined
to the field of chemistry alone, but it is equally useful in biology, physics, engineering, etc.
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THE ATOMIC STURCTURE

When the structure of matter is looked at below the atomic level,
it is found that the atoms of all elements are made up of three
main components, protons, electrons and neutrons. The
characteristics of a particular element are determined by the
number of each of these components in its atom.
Each element has its own symbol; each compound has the
symbols of the elements into which it can be broken down,
usually written to show how many of each type of atom there
are in each molecule. So the symbol for carbon dioxide is
written as CO2, indicating that each molecule has one carbon
atom and two oxygen atoms joined together.
Every atom consists of a central nucleus around which one or
more electrons orbit. Electrons carry a negative electrical
charge; the protons in the nucleus have a positive charge.
Not a lot is known about the nature of these charges except that
there are two kinds and they are opposite to each other, and
when we bring them together, like charges repel and unlike
charges attract. Under normal conditions the number of
electrons and protons in an atom are equal, it is then said to be
electrically neutral. The third part of the atom that was
mentioned, the neutron, is in the nucleus but has no charge.
The neutron has the same mass as the proton, so nearly all the
weight of an atom is contained in the nucleus.
Electrons have a much smaller mass and may be easily
removed from their orbit around the nucleus. The mass of the
proton is approximately the same as the mass of the neutron.

The mass of an electron is much less at about 1/2000 of the

proton mass.
The Periodic Table lists the elements in order of increasing
atomic mass, so it starts with hydrogen, then helium, then
lithium and so on. The order number of each element is called
its atomic number Z; so for hydrogen, Z=1. For helium Z=2, for
lithium Z=3, etc.
Atomic number Z is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus.
Each hydrogen atom has only one proton in its nucleus. Each
helium atom has two protons in its nucleus. Yet the mass of a
helium atom is about four times that of a hydrogen atom. Why?
Electrons are too light to account for the difference. Neutrons
are responsible. A helium atom with a mass about four times
that of a hydrogen atom must have two neutrons in its nucleus
as well as two protons.
Mass number A (sometimes called atomic mass) is the
number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus
The electrons orbit the nucleus in layers we call shells, and
there is a limit to the number of electrons which can be
accommodated in each shell. Working outwards from the
nucleus, the K shell can have a maximum of two electrons, the
L shell can have eight, M shell eighteen and so on.
For example copper has twenty nine protons and twenty nine
electrons orbiting. The layers or shells are made up as two
electrons in the K shell eight in the L shell, eighteen in the M
shell leaving one to orbit in the N shell. For the atoms to
combine to form elements they share the electrons in the outer
shells, these electrons are called valency electrons
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Figure 3.1.5: The Atom

Figure 3.1.6 : Energy shells and electron quota
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FORCES, WHICH HOLDS ATOMS AND MOLECULES

TOGETHER
The forces, which hold two or more atoms and molecules of a
similar or dissimilar elements together is called Bond. In other
words, these forces are electrostatic in origin due to the charged
particles in each atom. Electrons are mostly responsible, but
there are several ways in which they cause bonding forces.
``Ionic Bonding
Atoms like to have a filled outer shell of electrons. Sometimes,
by transferring electrons from one atom to another, electron
shells are filled. The donor atom will take a positive charge, and
the acceptor will have a negative charge. The charged atoms or
ions will be attracted to each other, and form bonds. The
compound NaCl, or table salt, is the most common example.
Crystals of common salt (i.e. sodium chloride) are bonded in
this way. An uncharged sodium atom has a single electron in its
third shell, the inner shells being full. Each uncharged chlorine
atom has seven electrons in its third shell; again the inner shells
are full as shown in figure 6. Now the third shell is full with eight
electrons, and since atoms prefer full shells, then chlorine atom
likes to gain an extra electron whereas each sodium atom likes
to lose an electron. So when sodium and chlorine atoms form a
sodium chloride crystal, each sodium atom gives up an electron
to a chlorine atom. The sodium atoms become positive ions and
the chlorine atoms become negative ions as in figure 7. The
electrical forces between the ions cause them to become
regularly arranged, as shown in the Figure 8. The force between
adjacent oppositely charged ions is called an ionic bond. Put
an ionic crystal in water and it will dissolve. The effect of the
water is to weaken the electrical forces between the ions. The

ions break off and the crystal dissolves to form a solution. Most
inorganic crystals are ionic.
Covalent Bonding
When atoms are unable to gain electrons to complete part-filled
shells, they can share electrons. Shared electrons act as bonds
between the atoms; this is referred to as a covalent bond.
Covalent bonds are called directional because the atoms tend
to remain in fixed positions with respect to each other.
For example, oxygen molecules are each composed of two
oxygen atoms joined by a covalent bond. Each uncharged
oxygen atom has 8 electrons (Z = 8), arranged with two in the
innermost shell and six in the second shell. If an oxygen atom
shares two of its outer shell electrons with another oxygen
atom, which also contributes two electrons for sharing, each of
the two oxygen atoms has a full outer shell. Each covalent bond
requires one electron from each atom. So the two oxygen atoms
form two covalent bonds since each atom contributes two
electrons for sharing, as shown in the Figure 9.
Molecules of organic compounds are held together by covalent
bonds between their atoms. Organic compounds contain carbon
atoms, and an uncharged carbon atom (Z = 6) has two
electrons in its innermost shell and four in its second shell. The
second shell can take up to eight electrons, so to fill it a carbon
atom forms four covalent bonds with other atoms. For example,
methane gas molecules each have a carbon atom joined to four
hydrogen atoms; each hydrogen atom forms a covalent bond
with the carbon atom to satisfy the full shell requirement of the
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hydrogen atom. So by forming four covalent bonds, the carbon

atom fills its second shell.
Figure 3.1.7 : Formation of ionic bond in NaCl.
Figure 3.1.9 : Ionic bond
Figure 3.1.8 : Formation of ionic bond in NaCl.
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Figure 3.1.10 : Covalent bonding between two oxygen

atoms

Figure 3.1.11 : Covalent Bonding of a methane molecule
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Metallic Bonding
In a metal the atoms have lost their outermost electrons, which
move freely inside the metal at room temperature. The metal
atoms therefore become positive ions; they are held in place in
regular order by the electrical forces between the ions and the
free electrons. The atoms are arranged in an order, which can
differ from one metal to another. So when a metal solidifies, lots
of tiny crystals, called grains, are formed inside the metal. All
metals conduct electricity. The reason is that they all contain
free electrons. When a potential difference is applied across a
metal, the free electrons present inside the metal move towards
the positive terminal. So an electric current in a metal is due to
the movement of free electrons.
Van Der Waal Bonding

Van der Waals bonds are very weak compared to other types of
bonds. The electrons surrounding an atom are always moving.
At any given point in time, the electrons may be slightly shifted
to one side of an atom, giving that side a very small negative
charge. This may cause an attraction to a slightly positively
charged atom nearby, creating a very weak bond. At most
temperatures, thermal energy overwhelms the effects of Van
der Waals bonds.
Uncharged liquid molecules exert Van der Waals forces on one
another; if a molecule tries to move away from its neighbors at
the liquid surface, the molecule experiences a pull back into the
liquid because of Van der Waals forces between it and its
neighbors. Surface tension of liquids is explained in terms of
these weak attractive forces.
Figure 3.1.12 : Metallic bonding

Figure 3.1.13 : Wan der Waals force between molecules
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IONISATION
The process whereby the atoms are caused to loose or gain
electrons is termed as ionization.
It is possible with atoms that they could lose or gain electrons
from other atoms and when this happens the atom is said to be
positively or negatively charged. From what we said about the
charges on electrons and protons, if an atom loses an electron
then there would be more protons than electrons. This would
result in the atom taking up an overall positive charge; we then
call this atom a positive ion. If the exchange of electrons
resulted in the atom gaining electrons, then it would become
negatively charged (more electrons than protons), this we call a
negative ion.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is a flow of electric charges. The current
can flow quite easily through some materials, called conductors.
The atoms of these elements give up electrons or receive
electrons in the outer orbits with little difficulty. Whereas the
current finds it nearly impossible to flow through other types of
materials termed insulators.
All of the electrons within an atom have the same electrical
charge, but some electrons have more energy as measured by
wavelength. Having more energy causes electrons to act a little
hyper; having too much energy causes electrons to go wild. Use
the following analogy to help you think about charges and
energy:
Two identical cars will represent our electrons. Both cars are
driving on the inside lane of an oval track (this is their orbital
shell) at the same speed. Both cars also have a slight vibration
(energy). The vibration limits the cars' traction. Now, because
the cars are identical, they have the same engine, or charge.
And, no matter where you drive these cars, they always have
the same engine, so they always have the same charge. For the
moment, both cars also have the same a slight vibration, so
they have the same energy. However, if we give one car a
faster vibration (more energy), that car loses some traction and
drifts to a higher lane (shell). If we add even more vibration, the
car looses all traction skids right off the track (becomes a free
electron).
Physicists describe the energy level of an electron as falling into
a particular energy band. Those electrons with lower energies
are described as being in a particular band and they make up
the lower shells. Those electrons with higher energies fall into
other bands and make up the higher shells. Valence electrons
have the most energy in an atom, so they are described as
being in the valence band.
Valence Band
The electrons in the valence band have a low enough energy
level that they are bound to their parent atom or molecule.
Because they are bound to their parent, they cannot flow
through the material, spreading energy as an electric current.
Conduction Band
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The electrons in the conduction band have a relatively high

energy, allowing them to separate from their parents and spread
their energy to other atoms, propagating an electric current.
Usually, there is a discrete difference in the energies of these
two bands. This energy difference, or gap, is called the band
gap. If you want a valence electron to become a conduction
electron, you have to apply at least as much energy as the band
gap, thereby raising the energy level of the electron to the more
excited state. If you supply energy less than the band gap, the
electron doesn't jump to the more excited state.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF CONDUCTORS
Let us now think of how current flows through a conductor, most
conductors are metals such as copper, silver and gold. All
metals have less than their full complement of electrons in the
outer shell, and those that are present are loosely bound to their
parent atom. They can easily be detached from the atom and
move about in the space between atoms. For this reason they
are called free electrons. So if an electron leaves, remember it
takes its negative charge with it, leaving behind a positive ion.
The interior of the metal under normal conditions can now be
visualized as a framework of positive ions in a fixed regular
pattern known as a crystal lattice, through which the free
electrons may move freely. At temperatures above absolute
zero the free electrons are in a constant state of motion which
changes, with temperature. The positive ions are also vibrating
about their mean position in the crystal lattice.
In spite of all this intense activity within the interior of the metal,
there is no overall movement of electrons, and the piece of
metal as a whole is electrically neutral since the total number of
negative charges is equal to the positive charges.

Another way of describing this is to say these materials have a

very small or non-existent band gap.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF INSULATORS
Non metallic materials are normally materials that do not have
many free electrons in their outer shell and the attraction
between the electrons and their parent atom is very strong. It
therefore follows that current flow through these materials would
be virtually impossible, these materials we call insulators.
Typical insulators are rubber, ceramics, glass and PVCs.
Materials with 5 or more valence electrons try to gain electrons.
Because they aren't interested in conducting electrons away,
these materials tend to make good insulators. Or, to put it
another way, the band gap is very large. Very few, if any,
electrons naturally exist within the conduction band, so these
materials don't conduct electricity.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS
There is another type of material that falls in between both
conductor and the insulator, we call it a semiconductor. It is this
material that has given rise to the electronic age of computers.
The special properties of the semiconductor are such that under
normal conditions it is an insulator and does not pass current,
but under certain conditions it can be made to pass current, and
then can be made to return to its normal non conducting state
again without any damage. This switching can be done
hundreds of thousands of times a second if required. Materials
commonly used are silicon and germanium. The force that is
used to switch semiconductors is voltage.
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When a voltage is high enough it will produce a current through

the semi conductor, when it is reduced to a certain value no
current will flow. A semiconductor is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator, for example with no voltage applied the
resistance is a few hundreds to a few thousands of ohms, with
the voltage applied it falls to almost zero.
In a semiconductor, the band gap is not too small to make them
good conductors, so they are natural (albeit poor) insulators.
However, because the band gap is narrow, you can apply a
minimal amount of energy and raise the valence electrons to
free electrons, turning the insulator into a conductor.
Another interesting thing about semiconductors is that, in pure
form (also known as intrinsic semiconductors), they make good
crystals. Consider the semiconductor silicon. As you would
expect, silicon has 4 electrons in its outer shell. In a pure silicon
crystal, each silicon atom forms a covalent bond with 4 other
silicon atoms, giving each atom the ideal total of 8-shared
valence electrons. As a result of this happy bonding, all of the
valence electrons are bound to their parent atoms.
Law of octet:
Tendency of an atom to complete valence shell with 8 electrons
irrespective of its shell number, It is difficult for an atom having
more than 4 electrons to liberate any electron and much easier
to acquire electrons for completing its valence shell. Therefore
such atoms are Insulators. Similarly for atoms < 4 electrons are
Conductors having tendency to liberate their valence electrons
easily in comparison to acquiring any.
Figure 3.1.14 : Covalent Bonding in Silicon
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Figure 3.1.15 : Valance and conduction bands in conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators
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Now, imagine what happens if you energize one of those

valence electrons into the conduction band. (This phenomenon
is known as the thermal agitation of the lattice.) The electron is
pushed free of the atom and allowed to wander about the
crystal. However, the rest of the valence electrons in the crystal
are all tightly held by their covalent bonds, so there are no spare
electrons to fill the hole left by the departing electron.

Thus conduction of current in a pure semiconductor, known as

intrinsic conduction, takes place (current flow is conventionally
in the opposite direction to electron flow). Intrinsic conduction
increases with increase in temperature at the approximate rate
of 5% per degree Centigrade for germanium and 7% per C for
silicon.
This hole, which is very much like a bubble in the electron shell,
is essentially an absence of desired negative charge, making
the hole act like a positively charged particle. If a free electron
happens to come near an atom with a hole, the atom (which
wants to fill the hole and go back to having 8 valence electrons)
pulls the free electron into the hole. The free electron loses
some of its energy and returns to being a non-conducting
valence electron. But suppose there arent any free electrons
around to fill the hole. Then, as the other valence electrons
move about trying to fill the hole, they leave behind new holes.
So, if a valence electron moves to fill the hole, that electron
leaves a hole behind, which attracts another electron, which
leaves a new hole, and so on. In other words, holes promote the
flow of electrons. If you connect a material with free electrons to
a material with holes, the electrons flow across the connection
and fill the holes.
The movement of both holes and electrons through the crystal
is quite random but the holes appear to travel more slowly than
do electrons. (This is because the movement of a hole in a
particular direction actually consists of a series of discontinuous
electron movements in the opposite direction.) If an electric field
is set up in the crystal the holes tend to drift in the direction of
the field and the electrons to drift in the opposite direction.
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Figure 3.1.16 : Intrinsic semiconductor is an insulator

having a complete electron shell.

Figure 3.1.17 : However, thermal energy can create few

electron hole pairs resulting in weak conduction.
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STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

A liquid is the state of matter in which the substance has a

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Figure3.1.1: Particle arrangement of the 3 States of Matter

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Figure 3.1.3: water molecule

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Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

The Periodic Table Of The Elements

Modern Form of Periodic Table

The periodic table is an arrangement of chemical elements in

In the modern form of periodic table, the elements are arranged

Mendeleev's Periodic Table

The vertical column of the periodic table, also called a 'Group',

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Figure3.1.4: Periodic table of elements

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