9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 4
E . LY N N J A C O B O W I T Z
A Look at Teaching
Standards in ASL Teacher
Preparation Programs
There are six organizations providing teaching standards: the Education Section of the National Association of the Deaf,
the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, the American
Sign Language Teachers Association of the National Association of
the Deaf, the Association of Teacher Educators, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, and the Virginia Department of Education. Their standards focus on five different areas: (a)
ASL teachers for K12, (b) teachers of world languages other than
English for K12, (c) teachers of world languages other than English
in institutions of higher education, (d) ASL teacher educators in institutions of higher education, and (e) teacher preparation programs.
Table 1 lists the national organizations and the standards.
Four of the national standards are intended for the evaluation of
language teachers: the National Association of the Deaf: Education
Section (NAD: ES), the National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards (NBPTS), American Sign Language Teachers Association
(ASLTA), and Virginia Department of Education (VDE). One set of
standards is for the evaluation of teachers who prepare future teachers: the Association of Teacher Educators (ATE). Finally, one set of
standards is for the evaluation of programs that prepare K12 teachers: National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE). Even though the standards are intended to evaluate three
E. Lynn Jacobowitz is Associate Professor of American Sign Language at Gallaudet
University in Washngton, D.C.
4
Sign Language Studies Vol. 8 No. 1 Fall 2007
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 5
Foci
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 6
Explanation
1. Proficiency in ASL
6. Curriculum development
7. Instruction
8. Instructional setting
9. Communication
11. Leadership
Available at www.nad.org.
at these standards for ASL teachers reveals that these standards fall into
four categories: language skills, teaching, scholarship/knowledge, and
service and other professional initiatives.
First, the NAD: ES standards suggest a focus on language skills.
Teachers must demonstrate not only competent expressive and recep-
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 7
tive ASL skills but also excellent English communication skills. Second,
teachers who are prepared according to the NAD: ES standards are expected to show competency in teaching, including the preparation of
lessons and assessment of students. In addition, teachers who are evaluated according to these standards are expected to have a strong
knowledge base or demonstrate scholarship, including metalinguistic
awareness of ASL, as well as child and language development. These
standards also include the pursuit of auxiliary skills, such as using technology or integrating diversity training. Fourth, NAD: ES teachers
should demonstrate service and other professional initiatives on several
levels. They can do so by collaborating with school systems, advocating for ASL, identifying problems, recommending solutions, acquiring knowledge, and setting goals.
Table 3 shows that two of the standards address both ASL and English language skills. Surprisingly, only one standard focuses directly on
teaching skills. Three emphasize service and other professional initiatives,
including awareness of the instructional setting, leadership, and the acquisition of knowledge. Finally, five (almost a majority) speak to the
teachers knowledge, which should encompass Deaf culture, curriculum development, applied linguistics, awareness of the rationale for ASL
instruction, and knowledge of child and language development.
Table 3. NAD: ES National Standards (Categorized)
Language Skills
Teaching
ASL proficiency
Instruction
Communication
(English and ASL)
Knowledge/
Scholarship
Instructional setting
Curriculum
development
Leadership
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 8
Explanation
Knowledge of students
Fairness
Knowledge of language
Knowledge of culture
Knowledge of language
acquisition
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 9
Explanation
Articulation of curriculum
and instruction
Learning environment
Instructional resources
Assessment
Reflection and
professional growth
Schools, families,
and communities
Professional community
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 10
Assessment
Knowledge
of culture
Instructional
resources
Fairness (diverse
learning styles)
Knowledge
of students
Learning
environment
Language Skills
Teaching
Knowledge of
world languages
other than English
Multiple paths
to learning
Professional
community
Articulation of
curriculum and
instruction
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 11
involvement with the professional community; and advocacy for education in world languages other than English.
Qualified Certification
Proficiency in American
Sign Language
Basic knowledge of
ASL teaching
Knowledge of ASL
linguistics
Development of
course outlines and
lesson planning
Available at www.aslta.org.
Professional Certification
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 12
Teaching
ASL proficiency
assessment and
evaluation of
ASL skills
Knowledge/
Scholarship
ASL linguistics
professional
development
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 13
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 14
Teaching
ASL
understanding
Apply
linguistics to
teaching
Knowledge/
Scholarship
ASL usage
English usage
Understanding of ASL
linguistics
Read/
comprehend ASL
Knowledge of national
standards for foreign
language learning
Understanding of
English writing
Knowledge of
proficiency-based
objectives for foreign
language teaching
Methodology for foreign
language instruction
Assessment
Knowledge of relationship between foreign
language study and the
rest of the curriculum
Current curricular
developments
Knowledge of the professional literature
related to foreign language teaching
Relationship of language study to other
areas of the curriculum
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 15
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 16
Teaching
Knowledge/
Scholarship
Model best
Contribute to the
teaching practices fields of teaching,
learning, or teacher
education
Pursue lifelong
professional
development
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 17
The ATE standards were not designed for language education programs and therefore make no reference to its teachers language skills.
One may assume that all teachers are fluent in the language of instruction. Interestingly, only one of the seven standards directly addresses
teaching skills and simply suggests that teachers should be able to
model the best teaching practices. Two standards speak to knowledge
and scholarship: They encourage teachers to continue to develop
through scholarship and lifelong learning. Finally, in the most heavily
represented category, service and other professional initiatives, four
standards call on teachers to collaborate with the university and the
community to advocate for excellence in teaching and to improve the
profession.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 18
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 19
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 20
Standards/
Areas
Language
Skills
Teaching
Service
and Other
Knowledge/ Professional
Scholarship Initiatives
Areas of
Greatest
Emphasis
NAD-ES
2/11 (19%)
(11 standards)
1/11 (9%)
4/11 (36%)
4/11 (36%)
Knowledge/
scholarship and
service (tied)
1/14 (7%)
NBPTS
(14 standards)
5/14 (36%)
3/14 (21%)
5/14 (36%)
Teaching and
service (tied)
ASLTA
(7 standards)
2/7 (29%)
3/7 (43%)
1/7 (14%)
Knowledge/
scholarship
1/7 (14%)
5/18 (28%)
VDE
(18 standards)
ATE
(7 standards)
1/7 (14%)
2/7 (29%)
4/7 (57%)
Service
NCATE
NA
(13 standards)
NA
NA
NA
NA
Average
NA
9/57 (16%)
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 21
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 22
all
all
2 out of
2 out of
2 out of
2 out of
2 out of
all
2 out of
all
all
all
2 out of 3
all
all
all
all
all
1 out of 3
1 out of 3
3
3
3
3
3
3
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 23
With regard to overseeing budgetary and resource issues and attempting to connect the ASLTPPs to the larger community, all three
administrators dealt with salary decisions, equipment maintenance,
supplies, laboratories, and libraries. However, one administrator did
not strive to involve the ASLTPP in the local communities and local
schools. And only one administrator arranged for the involvement of
the ASLTPP in both the community and the local schools.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 24
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 25
Other important elements of ASLTPPs are teacher educators qualifications, backgrounds, professional development, and perceptions of
job responsibilities. Both similarities and differences exist among the
ASLTPPS and the national teaching standards.
Comparison of National Teaching Standards and
Teacher Educator Characteristics
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 26
Number of Teachers
Roles
teacher
advisor
internship intermediary
all
2 out of 3
2 out of 3
Responsibilities
professional development
curriculum development
student learning and competencies
diversity in curriculum
all
all
all
all
Qualifications
certification
license
professional development
ASL skills
English skills
1 out of 3
none
all
all
all (NA)
Table 15 shows what the national standards suggest for teacher educators and how the teacher educators of the three ASLTPPs measure
up. The left-hand column indicates what the standards promote: roles,
responsibilities, and qualifications. The right-hand column indicates
the facultys degree of compliance in meeting these standards.
Table 16 shows the common characteristics of the ASLTPP teacher
educators, such as hearing status, signing experiences, ASL skill-development teaching experiences, teacher-preparation experiences,
ASLTA certifications, tenure status, and staff support. The table summarizes the occurrence of these characteristics among teacher educators and staff members in the three ASLTPPs.
The teacher educators backgrounds were similar. In 1999 all of the
teacher educators in the ASLTPPs were deaf, as well as native or nearnative signers. This characteristic is crucial to administrators when
hiring ASL teacher educators, as well as ASL teachers in ASL skilldevelopment programs. Six out of eight ASL teacher educators had
been signing since they were born. Seven out of eight had taught sign
language for more than ten years, and five out of eight had been an
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 27
n=8
deaf
more than fifteen years of signing
yes
yes
professional participation
yes
yes
yes
yes (6)
no (2)
yes (3)
no (5)
yes
ASL teacher trainer for more than ten years. With these facts in
mind, we can conclude that all three programs hired deaf faculty
members to train students to become ASL teachers. This also indicates the importance of the teachers ASL skills and working knowledge of Deaf culture.
Four out of eight ASL teacher educators had taught for at least 21
years. There is an even split between two groups who had taught for
fewer than 10 years or more than 11. This characteristic is not crucial
enough to warrant the administrators attention, but it may be important in the future when ASL teacher preparation programs expand.
Although teaching loads varied among the sites, five out of eight
teacher educators taught at least three courses in the spring and fall semesters. Three teacher educators had taught ASL structure. Three taught
ASL arts (ASL literature, ASL poetry, and storytelling), and three taught
ASL teaching methodologies. At least three teacher educators taught
ASL assessment, and three taught ASL skills. None of the eight teacher
educators taught every one of these classes. Table 17 summarizes these
ASL teacher educators teaching loads.
Professional development was another important characteristic of
the teacher educators. All of them attended both local and national
professional-development conferences, and half of them presented
ASL-related workshops at both local and national conferences. Table
18 summarizes their professional participation in 1999.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 28
Frequency
3
0
0
5
8
3
3
2
8
3
0
0
4
1
8
2
2
1
2
11 courses; 7 ASLTPP-related
2
2
1
2
7 courses; 5 ASLTPP-related
5
3
2
4
14 courses, 9 ASLTPP-related
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 29
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 30
Frequency
Conducting Research
NA
not a problem
slight problem
moderate problem
big problem
Total
3
1
0
0
4
8
3
1
0
2
2
8
0
3
4
1
0
8
Creating Materials
NA
not a problem
slight problem
moderate problem
big problem
Total
0
1
3
3
1
8
0
3
3
1
1
8
0
3
2
3
0
8
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 31
Frequency
instructor
assistant professor
associate professor
adjunct professor
senior lecturer
Total
1
2
1
3
1
8
Frequency
2
1
0
1
4
Frequency
1
1
1
1
4
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 32
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 33
riculum development, creation of materials), the data did not reveal specific details about teachers service activities or connections with local
schools and communities. Interestingly, however, several of the faculty
members were very active in the national, international, and political
arenas and often participated in groundbreaking work. Teachers roles
in the ASLTPPs might not support service of this kind. In other words,
the university evaluation procedures may not give ASL professionals
credit for the national and international ASL work they do, especially
when it does not yield scholarly publication in refereed journals.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 34
Likewise, none of the three programs had specific English skills requirements for teachers or students beyond prerequisite coursework,
grade point averages, or demonstration of adequate English skills according to an administrators perception of competence. This suggests
that the ASLTPP curricula, teaching staff, and programs administrators
could do more to promote students ASL and English language skills.
Moreover, the language skills area appears to be underrepresented in
the ASLTPPs, but in any case, they accurately reflect the lack of emphasis on these skills noted in the survey of the national standards.
Teaching
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 35
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 36
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 37
Finally, the NCATE category of the unit for professional education suggests that accredited programs enjoy significant autonomy,
adequate staff and facilities, and authority within the university. This
study reveals that administrators of two out of three of the ASLTPPs
lacked the authority they needed to supervise and evaluate the faculty
they appointed. Likewise, the administrators indicated (Administrator
#3, April 25, 2000; Administrator #1, April 27, 2000; Administrator #2, May 10, 2000, pers. comm.) that supervising a meager
budget and maintaining the facilities were two of their most difficult tasks.
No Child Left Behind
A special note should be made about the No Child Left Behind Act,
which was enacted into law by President George W. Bush. According
to the Department of Education website, the Department is providing three new areas of flexibility for teachers to demonstrate that they
are highly qualified. In order to be considered highly qualified,
teachers must have a bachelors degree, as well as full state certification
or licensure, and prove that they know each subject they teach. One
of the areas of flexibility provides for current multisubject teachers
to be evaluated by an alternative method created by the states in order to meet these requirements. This has tremendous impact upon
ASL teachers, especially with such limited ASLTPP opportunities
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 38
Summary
The major findings for the 1999 calendar year are related to one of three
categories: (a) standards, ASLTPP programs, and ASLTPP administration; (b) teachers; and (c) curricula. They are as follows:
1. Standards, ASLTPP programs, and ASLTPP administration
No single, nationally recognized ASLTPP program evaluation instrument was available to evaluate these programs.
No nationally recognized and/or standard ASL or English language skills evaluation was conducted for faculty or students of
the ASLTPPs.
None of the programs had a specific and regular program assessment protocol in place.
Administrators suggested that the lack of autonomy in their programs led to breakdowns in their ability to adequately supervise
and support faculty and to make appropriate budgetary decisions.
These ASLTPPs did little to ensure diversity in the faculty and
student population.
2. Teachers and teaching
Teachers were not specifically trained to work effectively with
students from diverse populations.
Teachers were not specifically trained to work in a variety of
teaching environments.
Teachers were neither adequately prepared nor compensated in
their contracts for the attainment of a terminal degree. Only one
out of eight teachers held a PhD. The majority were neither
tenured nor on the tenure track.
Fifty percent of teachers were hired as contract teachers and
were often not adequately supervised or supported.
Fifty percent of teachers were often hired as contract teachers
and were adequately engaged in professional development,
scholarly work, or service to the local community in the form
of community-based partnerships.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 39
References
ASL Legislation Report. 2000, February 17. Silver Spring, Md.: American
Sign Language Teachers Association. http://aslta.aslwebcom/national/
legislative/index.html (accessed February 21, 2000).
ATE Standards for Teacher Educators. 1998, June 22. Reston, Va.: Association of Teacher Educators. http://www.siu.edu/departments/coe/ate/
atestand.html (accessed December 31, 1999).
Brod, R., and B. Huber. 1997. Foreign Language Enrollments in United States
Institutes of Higher Education. Modern Language Association Bulletin
28(2): 60.
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 40
16682-SLS 8.1
9/21/07
9:58 AM
Page 41