How Do Television
Programs Viewed at
an Early Age Affect
Racial Attitudes?
A Research Proposal
Joey Galin
Thoughinrecentyears,withtheadventofstreamingserviceslikeNetflixandHulu,
traditionaltelevisionusagehasgonedown,itstillplaysamassiveroleinchildrenslives.The
averageAmericanwillspendnineyearsoftheirlifeinfrontofthetelevisionandtheaverage
Americanyouthwatchessixhundredmorehoursoftelevisionthantheyspendinschooloverthe
courseofayear(Herr).AccordingtoJeanPiagetscognitivedevelopmenttheory,itisduringthe
criticalstagesoftheConcreteoperationalstageandtheFormaloperationalstage(fromages711
and1115)wherechildrenbegintoformtheirunderstandingoftheworldaroundthem(Huit).As
televisionhasbecomeubiquitousinAmericansociety,massmediascholarshavedeveloped
numeroustheoriesaboutitseffectsonhumanbehaviorandperceptionoftheworld.Oneofthe
strongesttheoriesinmassmediastudiesisthecultivationtheory,whichpositsthatlongterm
exposuretotelevisioncanresultinperceptionsofrealityverydifferentfromwhattheymightbe
ifviewerswatchedlesstelevision(Cohen99).Researchhasestablishedthatthecultivation
theoryhasseriousmerit.Forexample,middleschoolchildrenwhowerehabituallyexposedto
programsthatdepictedserioussocialconflictsweremuchmorelikelytohavefearsabout
encounteringspecificcrowdsinmiddleschool(personschemata),hadmuchhigher
expectationsoflessfriendlinessandmorebullying,andhadgreateranxietyaboutattending
theirfutureschool(Potter386387).Inaddition,itwasfoundthatthosewhosawhighconflict
episodesanticipatedmorehostilityandlessfriendlinessintheirfutureschoolandfeltmore
anxiousandlesspositiveaboutgoingtherethanthosewhosawlowconflictepisodes(Potter
387).
Aschildrenhavelittleexperiencewiththeoutsideworld,televisioncanhelpimprint
stereotypesandinformtheirperceptionsoftheworld.Thewrongmessagescanhaveextremely
negativeeffects.Oneofthemostcitedexamplesistheperceptionofbodyimageinyoung
women.Numerousstudieshaveshownthatexposuretoadvertisingwithattractivemodelscan
temporarilyraisecomparisonstandardsforphysicalattractiveness,enhancebeliefsaboutthe
importanceofphysicalattractiveness,andlowerbodysatisfaction(Eisend102).Inaddition,it
hasbeendiscoveredthatincreasedmediausepredicteddisorderedeatingsymptomatology(or
eatingdisorders)inwomen(Harrison40).Likewise,inmedia,unattractivenessiscommonly
linkedwithevil,whereasthefemaleheroinesareattractiveandkind(Chapman).These
dichotomoustraitsareinternalized,rationalized,andsociallegitimizedbytheworldaround
youngwomen,leavingthembothinsecureandfilledwithfeelingsofselfloathing(Chapman).
Womenofcoloraresubjecttopossiblymoreunforgivingstandardsofbeautycomparedtomost,
astheyaregenerallyconsideredbeautifulonlyiftheyapproximatethewhiteidealincluding
tamedhair,lighterskintone,andwhitefacialfeatures[,and]asthisideaisperpetuated,thereisa
constantdisavowalofonesownflesh(Chapman).Theeffectsofsuchamentalityhavebeen
notedinnumerousexperiments,mostfamouslywiththeDollTest,wherebothblackandwhite
childrenassignedpositivecharacteristicstoawhitedolloverablackoneandpreferredtoplay
withthewhiteone.Thestudywassoinfluentialitwasusedasevidenceinthelandmarkcase
Brownv.BoardofEducation(Brownat60).Massmediaindeedhasapowerfulinfluenceover
instillationofculturalvaluesandexpectationsofreality.
Theimagespeopleseeontelevisioneverydayreinforceandsimultaneouslyshape
culturalnarratives.Forexample,analysesofportrayalofminoritiesinmediahavediscovered
thatpeopleofcolorhavebeengenerallyportrayedasstereotypicallyasathletes,orinlower
classoccupations(Larson224).Thesestereotypeshavebeeninplayforyears,withresearch
fromthe1970sindicatingthatatthetimethatblacks[were]overrepresentedinsmaller,less
importantroles,ascriminalsandvictims,andinroleswherethey[were]dominatedbywhites
[and]themajorityofblackTVcharacters[had]beenisolatedinsituationcomedyghettos,where
theyhavealmostnointeractionwithwhitecharactersmostoftheblackfamiliesarepoorand
fatherless,andthecharacterstendtobeunsuccessful,funloving,andspendmuchoftheirtime
insultingotherblackcharacters(Zuckerman281282).Thetelevisionshowsthatutilizethese
stereotypesareatoncecreatingandaffirmingthesestereotypesintheirviewers.In1798
abolitionistsdescribedfreedblacksasgiventoIdleness,Frolicking,[and]Drunkenness
(Mendelberg32).Stereotypescreatedcenturiespriorwererecycledandshowntonewaudiences,
thusperpetuatingthisculturalmythfornewgenerations.Inaddition,researchhasnotedthatthe
Americanmedialandscapeincludesfewerblackmalesoverall,fewassociatedwithtechnical
andotherintellectualpursuits,andfewwhofit[the]descriptionofcompetent,capable,and
successfulmembersofbusinessesandfamilieswhohaveattainedsomedegreeofmaterial
wealth(TheOpportunityAgenda23).Theseportrayals,coupledwiththetroublingstatisticthat
40%ofalargesampleofwhiteelementaryschoolchildrenreportedthattheylearnedabout
blackpeoplefromtelevisionprograms(Zuckerman282)clearlydemonstratethatmedia
portrayalscanandhavestronglyaffectedindividualsperceptionofhowtheworldatlarge
operatesandoftentimesinnegativeways.
Thoughthecultivationeffectcanhaveextremelynegativeconsequences,itisreallya
neutralphenomenon.Whenpositiveandfactualmessagesaredisseminatedthroughoutthe
media,itcanhelpcreateapositiveperceptionoftheworld.Forexample,researchhasexplored
thepresenceofminorities(definedasAfricanAmerican,Hispanic,AsianandNativeAmerican)
inadsmarketedatchildren.Theresearchrevealedthatinthecommercialsinwhicheachchild
wascounted,24%ofthemwere[minority]children,comparedto18%inthegeneralpopulation
(Larson231).Likewise,asastrongamountofthecommercialsusedintheirsamplecontained
fourorfewercharacters,itisclearthattheywerenotsimplyusedastokenrepresentations,but
ratherhav[ing]somemajor,aswellassupportingrolesonecouldexpectthatthese
portrayalswouldcontributetoanexpectationthatracialdiversityininterpersonalrelationships
isnatural(Larson231)Researchindicatesthatmediaisextremelypowerfulinshaping
collectiveperceptionoftheworld.Mediaexposurecanhaveextremelypositiveeffectsonones
perceptionoftheworld,oritcanhaveextremelynegativeeffects;itjustdependsonifthe
messagebeingbroadcastedispositiveornegative.
TheRacializationofPolicy
Obamaselection,onceheraldedasasymbolthatracisminAmericawasbecominga
thingofthepast,hasactuallyresultedintheoppositebeingtrue.Thoughthe2008electionwas
indeedracialized,specificallywiththeattemptbysomemembersoftheTeaPartytopainthim
asbothanIslamistandaKenyansoastocreatetheimpressionthathewasnotfittorule
becauseasapersonofcolorheisaperpetualoutsiderandracialOther(EnckWanzer2324),
thevitriolicrhetoricof2008devolvedinthesubsequentelection.Notonlydidsizable
proportionsofbothDemocratsandRepublicansmanifestantiblackattitudes,itturnsoutthat
neutralizingantiblackattitudesledtoaprojectedincreaseinMr.Obamas2012voteshareof4
percentagepointsandaprojecteddecreaseinMr.Romneys2012voteshareof5percentage
points(Pasek23).VotersclearlywereaffectedbyObamasraceandRepublicansattemptedto
playupthosetensions,exemplifiedbyDonaldTrumprunningforPresidentprimarilyonthe
platformthatObamawasnotarealAmericanandwasinfactfromKenya.Whilehewas
ridiculed,hismessagewasreceivedbythebirthermovementandhewasgivenprimetimeairon
nationalnewschannels(Maloy).
InfurtherevidenceofhowObamaspresidencyhasbeenaffectedbyrace,researchhas
indicatedthatindividualswithlowhealthcareknowledgeandhighracialresentmentscores
wouldnotsupporthealthcarereformbyObama,butifitwaspresentedascomingfromClinton,
racialresentmentwouldnotplayaroleandtheywouldhaveamuchhigherlikelihoodof
supportingit(Tesler107108).Itiscleartoseethatracialresentment,especiallywithablack
president,playsalargeroleindeterminingwhetherornotapersonwillsupportapoliticalpolicy
measure.Muchlikehowforalargepercentageofthepopulationracehasbeeninextricably
associatedwithObamaspolicies,sotohavecertainpublicprogramsthroughouthistory.
ThoughAmericans,regardlessofpartyidentification,showstrongmajoritysupportof
increasingspendingonspecificsocialwelfareinitiatives(suchashealthcarespending,spending
forelderly,spendingoneducation,andspendingoninitiativestohelpthepoor),whenasked
specificallyaboutwelfare,Americansareoverwhelminglyinfavorofdecreasingspending
(Gilens28).Thereasonwelfareissounpopularisbecauseithaslongbeenoneofthemost
racializedissuesinAmericanpolitics.Forexample,thebeliefthatblacksarelazyisthe
secondmostpowerfulpredictorofwelfarespendingpreferences,butisthemostimportant
influenceontheperceptionthatwelfarerecipientsareunderserving(whichisitselfthemost
powerfulpredictorofwelfarespendingpreferences)(Gilens96).Racialattitudesplaya
significantroleindeterminingwhetherornotanindividualsupportswelfare.Therelianceon
racialattitudesisafunctionofindividualsonwelfareandbelowthepovertylinebeing
stereotypedbythecollectiveconsciousnessoftheAmericanpublicasprimarilyblack.Surveys
havenotedthatAmericansbelieveblackpeoplecompose50percentofallpoorpeople,whilein
actualitytheyconstituteaminorityofbothpoorpeople(ofwhom27percentareblack)and
welfarerecipients(ofwhom36percentareblack)(Gilens102).
Amajorreasonforthissplitbetweenpublicperceptionandrealityisthenewsmedia.
Startingintheyear1965,newsportrayalofpoorpeoplebecameracializedandmediacoverage
fromtheearly1960stendedtousepicturesofpoorblackstoillustratestoriesabout,waste,
inefficiency,orabuseofwelfare,andpicturesofpoorwhitesinstorieswithmoreneutral
descriptionsofantipovertyprograms(Gilens117).Suchapatterncontinuedthroughoutthe
sixtiesandintotheeighties.Intimesofrecession,wherepoorpeoplewerepredominatelyviewed
assympathetic,imagesofwhitepoorpeopleaccompaniednewsstories.Intimeswherepoor
peopleweredeemedunsympathetic,itwasimagesofblackpeopleaccompanyingstorieswelfare
abuseandmismanagement(Gilens127).Asthecultivationtheoryandthemajorityof
Americanserroneousbeliefsaboutthedemographicsofpovertysuggest,thosesustained
practicesinthemediahavehadalargeeffectonAmericansperceptionoftheircountry.Those
engrainedculturalstereotypeshaveplayedaroleinthewayAmericansvote;perhapsearly
exposuretoalternativeandpositivedepictionsofblackpeoplecouldhelpstymiethestrengthof
thosestereotypesandtheireffectonAmericanpolitics.
Hypotheses
1. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
starringpositiverepresentationsofblackpeopleduringyearscriticaltocognitive
developmentwillscoreverylowonmeasuresofracialresentmentandwillshowstronger
supportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
2. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
featuringrepresentationsofblacksupportingcharactersduringyearscriticaltocognitive
developmentwillshowmoderatelevelsofracialresentment,butwillscorehigherthan
thosewhoviewedtheprogramsstarringpositivedepictionsofblackcharacters.
Likewise,theywillshowmoderatesupportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
3. Whencontrolledforsocioeconomicstatus,parentalguardianspoliticalidentification,
andparentalguardianseducationlevels,individualswhoviewedtelevisionprograms
featuringnorepresentationsofblackcharacterswillhavehigherscoresontheracial
resentmentmeasuresandwillhaveonaveragelowersupportforraciallyegalitarian
policies.
4. Thecontrolgroup,whowillwatchnonracialprogramming,willhavevaryingmeasures
ofracialresentmentandvaryingsupportforraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
ResearchPlanOverview
Myexperimentwillbedividedintotwophases.Inthefirstphase,Iwillselectthree
hundredwhitesevenyearoldstudentsatrandomfromfivedifferentlargeschooldistrictsinfive
differentregionsofthecountry(theNorthwest,theNortheast,theMidwest,theSouthwestand
theSoutheast).Thefivehundredrandomlyselectedindividualswillbethenrandomlyassigned
tofourdifferentgroups.Thefirstgroupwillbeassignedtelevisionprogramsstarring
predominatelyblackcasts.Thesecondgroupwillbeassignedtelevisionprogramsthathave
blacksupportingcharacters.Thethirdgroupwillbeshownprogramsthatfeaturenoprominent
blackcharactersatall.Thecontrolgroupwillwatchshowsthathavenoracialconnections.The
secondphaseoftheexperimentwilltakeplacenineyearsafterthestartoftheexperimentand
willinvolvetwosections.Thefirstisasurveytomeasurelevelsofracialresentment.Thesecond
isanadditionalsurveymeasuringtheirsupportforthreedifferentpoliciestosupportracial
egalitarianism.
Experiment
Phase1
Thefirstphaseoftheexperimentwilllastforfouryears.Thestudentswillbeinvolvedin
thestudyfromthetimetheyarenineuntilthetimetheyarethirteenyearsold.Attheverystart,
thechildrensparentalguardianswillfilloutasurveythatrecordsspecificinformation,including
theirpoliticalidentification,theirlevelofeducation,andtheirsocioeconomicbackground.Those
measureswouldexplainthehomeatmospheretosomedegreeandwillallowustounderstand
andcontrolforfactorsthatmayalsoaffectachildsdevelopmentofpositiveornegativeracial
attitudes,asthosespecificfactorshavestronglevelsofinfluenceoverracialattitudes(Gilens
86).ThespecificagerangeissignificantbecauseaccordingtoPiagetscognitivedevelopment
theory,thosearefourcrucialyearsinthedevelopmentoftheirperceptionsoftheworldand
inhabittwoseparatestagesofhistheory(Huit).Iwillusetelevisionasathechoiceofmedia
becausetheaveragesixtoelevenyearoldspends28hoursperweekinfrontofthetelevisionand
isthelargestuseofleisuretimeforchildren(Herr).Thesubjectswillbechosenfromthefive
differentregionsoftheUnitedStates.Ineachregion,Iwillpullsamplesfromruralschools,
suburbanschools,andurbanschools,asthiswillallowforagreaterrepresentationofmembers
ofAmericansociety.Oncethestudentsarerandomlyassignedtotheirgroups,theexperiment
willbegin.
Eachgroupwillhaveavarietyofprogramstochoosefromandeachchildwillbe
requiredtowatchtwentyhoursofprogrammingperweek,whichisslightlylessthanthetwenty
eighthourstheaveragechildwatches(Herr).Toensurethateachchildwatchestherequisite
amount,thestudentswillbeallbegivenspeciallymodifiedcableboxesthathaveallofthe
programsrelevanttothestudyonit.Foreverygroup,therewillbeaparentallockthatblocks
accesstotheotherprograms.Inconjunctionwiththecableboxes,thesubjectswilltakereceive
shortweeklyquizzesonthecontentoftheprograms.Passingthequizzeswillearnthemvarious
typesofawards,therebyincentivizingtheviewingoftheirassignedtelevisionprograms.The
programsingrouponewereselectedduetothefactthattheprogramsstarcharacterswereall
black.Theprogramsavailabletogrouptwowerechosenbecauseablackcharacterplayeda
significantroleinovereightypercentoftheepisodesaired.Theprogramsingroupthreewere
chosenbecausenoregularblackcharacterappearedmoreinthirtypercentoftheepisodes
shown.Andfinally,thecontrolgroupviewedtelevisionshowsthathadnohumancharacters.
GrouponesavailableprogramswillbetheProudFamily,theFreshPrinceofBelAir,ThatsSo
Raven,KenanandKel,andStaticShock.GrouptwowillbegiventheoptionsofwatchingHey
Arnold,NedsDeclassifiedSchoolSurvivalGuide,TeenTitans,DannyPhantom,andDeGrassi.
GroupthreewillbegiventheoptionsofwatchingDrakeandJosh,Rugrats,iCarly,theWild
Thornberrys,andDextersLaboratory.Finally,groupfourwillviewprogramswithnoracial
charactersatallandwillbegiventheoptiontowatchSpongebobSquarepants,Catdog,Renand
Stimpy,AngryBeavers,andAh!RealMonsters.
Phase2
Phase2willbeginfiveyearsafterphase1.Allmembersoftheexperimentwillbegiven
twosurveys;onethatsimplyasksforpartyidentificationandwhattheirplansforthefutureare
(inordertodeterminewhowillreceivehighereducationandwhowilljointheworkforce
immediately),andthesecondwillbetheoftcitedKinderandSanders(Mendelberg131)survey
thatmeasureslevelsofracialresentment.KinderandSanderssurveyasksrespondentstoagree
ordisagreewithsixstatements:1.Irish,Italians,Jews,andmanyotherminoritiesovercame
prejudiceandworkedtheirwayup.Blacksshoulddothesamewithoutanyspecialfavors.2.
Overthepastfewyearsblackshavegottenlessthantheydeserve.3.Itsreallyamatterofsome
peoplenottryinghardenough;ifblackswouldonlytryhardertheycouldbejustaswelloffas
whites.4.Generationsofslaveryanddiscriminationhavecreatedconditionsthatmakeit
difficultforblackstoworktheirwayoutofthelowerclass.5.Governmentofficialsusuallypay
lessattentiontoarequestorcomplaintfromablackpersonthanfromawhiteperson.6.Most
blackswhoreceivemoneyfromwelfareprogramscouldgetalongwithoutitiftheytried.Items
two,fourandfivearescoredonareversescale.TheresultswillbescoredusingtheLikert
formatrangingfromstronglyagreetostronglydisagreeandthenscorethelevelsona01scale,
with0meaninglowlevelsofracialresentmentand1meaninghighlevelsofracialresentment.
Thereisampleevidencethatracialpredispositions,measuredinthisway,areanimportant
determinantofopinionsonracialmatters[and]themoreracialresentmentpeoplefeel,the
moreopposedtheytendtobetopoliciesandcandidatesattemptingtoadvanceracialequality
(Mendelberg131).
Thesecondfacetofphase2willbeasurveywiththreestatementsaboutracially
egalitarianpolicymeasures,againusingtheLikertformat.ThefirststatementwillreadWelfare
spendingshouldbeincreased,thesecondAffirmativeactionisunfairtothemajorityof
Americans,andthethirdLawmakersshouldmandatepolicewearGoprostocurbpolice
malfeasance,andthefourthChildreninpoorperformingacademicdistrictsshouldbegiven
theoptionofattendingbetterschools.Welfareandaffirmativeactionaretwopoliciesracially
egalitarianpoliciesthathavebeeninplaceforyears,thethirdisahypotheticalpolicydesigned
tocurbinstitutionalizedracism,andthefourthisacallforastrongerapplicationofanaspectof
NoChildLeftBehind.Itemthreewouldbescoredonareversescale.Theresponseswillbe
measuredona01scale,with0beingegalitarian,and1meaninginegalitarian.
DataAnalysis
Usingthepreliminarydatacollected,wewillcontrolforthesubjectssocioeconomic
backgroundandtheeducationlevelsandpoliticalpreferencesoftheirguardians.Nextwe
calculatetheaverageoftheresponsestotheracialresentmentandegalitariansurveys.After
thosehavebeencalculated,weexaminethedifferencesinscoresbetweenthefourgroups.To
isolateourindependentvariableofblackrepresentationinmediaconsumed,wewillcontrolfor
thedifferencesbetweentheregionsandsocialbackgroundsoftheindividuals.Thesurveys
wherethesubjectsindicatetheirplansforfurtheringeducationorjoiningtheworkforceandtheir
partyidentificationwillallowustocontrolfortwootherstrongfactorsindeterminingracial
attitudes.Therefore,wewillbeabletoaccuratelyassesshowmuchthemediatheyviewedas
childrenshapedtheircurrentracialattitudesandtheirviewsonraciallyegalitarianpolicies.
Conclusion
Thoughitisfarfromtheonlysourcethatindividualsusetodeveloptheirperceptionsof
reality,researchhasshownthatideasandimagesbroadcastedovertelevisionplayaverystrong
roleonhowindividualsviewtheworld.Likewise,researchhasindicatedthatracialattitudesare
averystronginfluenceoverindividualssupportordenunciationoverpoliticalpolicy.This
experimentwouldhelpdeterminetheextenttheprogramsviewedasachildhelpreinforceor
challengeexistingculturalstereotypesandcouldencouragethoseinthemediatodevelopless
stereotypicrepresentationsofblacksinthemedia,asitwouldremindthoseinthemediathat
theyareresponsibleforwhethernegativestereotypespersistorfadeawayaswemoveintothe
future.
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