1.

Composites are materials consisting of two or more chemically

distinct constituents on a macro-scale, having a distinct interface
separating them, and with properties which cannot be obtained by any
constituent working individually.
a
b
c

Figure 1.1 Phases of a composite system:

acontinue phase (matrix); bdisperse phase (reinforcement);
c-interface

The polymeric matrix is required to fulfill the following main

functions: to bind together the fibres and protect their surfaces from
damage during handling, fabrication and service life of the composite; to
disperse the fibres and separate them and to transfer stresses to the
fibres. The matrix should be chemically and thermally compatible with the
reinforcing fibres.
The interface region is small but it has an important role in
controlling the overall stress-strain behavior of the composites. It exhibits
a gradation of properties and it is a dominant factor in the resistance of
the composite to corrosive environments. It also has a decisive role in the
failure mechanisms and fracture toughness of the polymeric composites.
2.Types of composites
Composites are commonly classified at two distinct levels.The first
level of classification is made with respect to the matrix constituent and
the major composite classes include:

polymer matrix composites (PMCs);

metal-matrix composites (MMCs);
ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs).

In each of these systems the matrix is typically a continuous phase

throughout the component. The second level of classification, is derived
from their form:
Particulate reinforced composites are generally made up of
randomly dispersed hard particle constituent in a softer matrix. Examples
of particulate composites are metal particles in metallic, polymeric or
ceramic matrices

Flake composites are formed by adding thin flakes to the matrix

material
Fibre reinforced composites (fibrous composites) are the most
commonly used form of the constituent combinations. The fibres of such
composites are generally strong and stiff and therefore serve as primary
load-carrying constituent. The matrix holds the fibres together and serves
as an agent to redistribute the loads from a broken fibre to the adjacent
fibres .

Figure 1.2 Composite materials with different forms of constituents

Laminated composites are formed from thin elementary layers
(laminae, plies) fully bonded together.
8. Define the volume and mass fractions of fibrous
composites
Fiber volume ratio, or fiber volume fraction, is the percentage of fiber
volume in the entire volume of a fiber-reinforced compositematerial.
Vf

vf
vc

Vm

vm
vc

vc v f v m

and
;
vc - the volume of the composite
vf - the volume of fibres
vm- the volume of the matrix

Considering the definition of mass fractions and replacing the mass by the
product of density and volume, the conversion between the mass fractions
and volume fractions can be obtained:
Vf

c
Mf
f

Vm

c
Mm
m
; Vf + Vm = 1

The mass fractions, similar to volume fractions, are defined as the ratio
of mass of respective phase to the mass of composite.

Mf

mc m f mm

mf

Mm

mm
mc

mc
;
and
mc, mf and mm the corresponding masses of the composite, fibres and
the matrix material respectively.
Considering the definition of mass fractions and replacing the mass by the
product of density and volume, the conversion between the mass fractions and
volume fractions can be obtained:

Mf

f
Vf
c

Mm

m
Vm
c
; Mf + Mm = 1

9. Determine the density of fibrous composites in terms of

fibre and mass fractions
The density c of the composite can be obtained in terms of the
densities of the constituents (f and m) and their volume fractions or
mass fractions. The mass of a composite can be written as:

c vc f v f m vm
Dividing both sides of Equation by vc and using the definition for the
volume fractions, the following equation can be derived for the
composite material density:

c f V f mVm
The density of composite materials in terms of mass fractions can be obtained
as:

Mf

1
f M m m

13. Transverse modulus

The transverse modulus is a matrix-dominated property being sensitive
to the local state of stress. The transverse modulus of a unidirectional
composite is much smaller than its longitudinal modulus.
f

cT
The composite transverse elongation (

) is the sum of the fibre (

m
and matrix ( ) elongation respectively. The elongation of each
constituent can be written as the product of the strain and its
cumulative thickness:
cT fT mT
cT cT l c ;

fT f l f ;

cT l c f l f m l m

mT m l m

the length fractions must be equal to the volume fractions:

Vf

lft

Vm

lc t

lmt
lc t

Assuming the fibres and matrix to deform elastically and the stress is
the same in the fibre, matrix and composite, in the transverse direction,
we can write:

c T
ET

V f m Vm
Ef
Em

and:
1

ET

Vf
Ef

Vm
Em

which is the inverse rule of mixtures for the transverse modulus

which can be also written as :

ET

E f Em
E mV f E f Vm

where Ef is the transverse modulus of the fibres.

Graphical Representation

14. Shear modulus of a unidirectional composites

f
lc
c
LThe behaviour of unidirectional composites under in-plane shear loading is
dominated by the matrix properties and the local stress distributions.

LT
TL
a.

b.

The total shear deformation of the composite, c, is the sum of the shear
deformations of the fibre, f, and the matrix, m; each shear deformation
LT
can be then expressed as the product of the corresponding shear strain
TL
(c, f, m) and the cumulative widths of the material(lc, lf, lm):m
c

c f m

c l c f l f m lm

Assuming linear shear stress-shear strain behaviour of fibres and matrix,

the shear strains can be replaced by the ratios of shear stress and the
corresponding shear modulus:

f
LT

lc
l f m lm
G LT
Gf
Gm

f
m
lm

lf

where GLT is the in-plane shear modulus of the composite, Gf is the shear
modulus of fibres and Gm the shear modulus of matrix. But the shear
stresses are equal on composite, fibres and matrix and we obtain:

V
V
1
f m
G LT G f Gm

G LT

or
Graphical Representation

G f Gm
GmV f G f Vm

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

The Halpin-Tsai equations can be used to give better predictions:

GLT Gm

1 2 2 V f
1 2 V f

Gm 1

Gm 2

where:
and 2 is the reinforcing efficiency factor for in-plane shear. The best
agreement with experimental results has been found for 2=1

Figure 3.30 a) Model of unidirectional composite for predictio

15. Poisson's ratios of unidirectional composite lamina

Two Poisson ratios are considered for in-plane loading of a unidirectional
fibre reinforced unidirectional composite. The first Poisson ratio, LT,
relates the longitudinal stress, L, to the transverse strain, T, and is
normally referred to as the major Poisson ratio:

LT

T
L

where L is the longitudinal strain and the loading scheme is:

L0, T=0 and LT=0. The second one called the minor Poisson ratio, TL,
relates the transverse stress, T, to the longitudinal strain, L:

TL

L
T

when T0, L=0 and LT=0.

Undeformed composite
m
Deformed composite
f
lm

L
lf

Figure 3.34 Model of unidire

prediction of Pois

The total transverse deformation of the composite, c, is the sum of the

constituent transverse deformations, f and m.
Assuming that no slippage occurs at the interface and the strains experienced
by the composite,,and that the widths are proportional to the volume fractions
the following formula is obtained for the major Poisson ratio:

v LT v f V f vmVm
Equation is the rule of mixtures for the major Poisson ratio of a
unidirectional composite.

LT
m

f
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
Vf

Figure 3.35 Poisson ratio vLT as a function of

fibre volume fraction (mf)
The following functional relationship (presented in macromechanics of
composites) exists between engineering constants:

LT ET TL EL
Thus the minor Poisson ratio can be obtained from the already known
engineering constants EL, ET and LT:

TL LT

ET
EL
or in the extended form:

TL f V f m 1 V f

Em / E f 1 V f EmV f
E f V f Em 1 V f

16. Which stiffness characteristics of fibrous composites

require corrections and how are they performed?

17.Which composites characteristics may be determined

using the "rule of mixtures"?

18. Which composites characteristics may be determined

using the "inverse rule of mixtures"?

19. Determine the longitudinal tensile strength of

unidirectional composites
When a fibre reinforced composite is subjected to longitudinal
tension the constituent with the lower ultimate strain will fail first. When
the ultimate tensile strain of the fibre is lower than that of the matrix
(fu<mu) the composite will fail when its longitudinal strain reaches the
ultimate strain in the fibre.
Then, the longitudinal tensile strength of the composite can be
calculated with:
f Lt f ftV f m (1 V f )
where:
fLt = longitudinal composite tensile strength
fft =longitudinal fibre tensile strength

m
= average matrix stress at the fibre fracture strain (Fig. 3.8a)
Vf= fibre volume fraction

Expressing m by the product of the matrix elastic modulus times the

corresponding strain the following formula can be utilized to determine
the composite longitudinal tensile strength:
f Lt f ft [V f

Em
(1 V f )]
E fL

If the fibre volume fraction is below the so called Vmin the matrix is able to
support the entire composite load when all the fibres break. The composite
eventually fails when the matrix reaches its ultimate tensile strength (fmt).
Thus the ultimate strength of a composite with the fibre volume fraction
f Lt f mt (1 V f )

less than Vmin is given by:

V f Vmin

f mt m
f ft f mt m

A critical fibre volume fraction, Vcrit, which must be exceeded for strengthening

V f Vcrit

f mt m
f ft m

can be defined as follows:

When the ultimate matrix tensile strain is lower than that of the fibre (mu<fu)
the composite fails when its longitudinal strain reaches the fracture strain of
the matrix.
Then, the longitudinal tensile strength of the composite can be calculated with:

f Lt f V f f mt (1 V f )

24. The offshore platforms have become a new important sector of

use for advanced polymer composites. CFRP composites are utilised not
only in underwater piping but also in structural parts of the platform. As
the drilling in depths of water increases the weight of pipes and
underwater structural components becomes a major issue. The whole
assembly must be supported by the floating platform. Carbon fibre
composites with a density 5.5 times lower than that of steel provide

significant increased buoyancy compared to steel. In addition CFRP

composites provide greater resistance to corrosion and better thermal
insulation to the pumped oil. By selecting the type of carbon fibre and
suitable constituent volume fractions CFRP can match the stiffness and
strength of steel members. On the offshore platform the initial fears of fire
hazard decreased after the research work showed that composite
laminates thicker than 8mm perform better than steel in a major fire. The
stairways and walkways are also made of composites for weight saving
and corrosion resistance. Even the cables and ropes made of steel are
now being replaced by similar items made of aramid or high modulus
polyethylene fibres.