small office should recognize that its size could be both a weakness and strength. The size would
limit it to strategies that do not require large human resource commitments, but would allow it to
use strategies requiring rapid dissemination of information throughout the organization.
Recognition of relative strengths and weaknesses is helpful in identifying promising strategies.
RBA system development must include consideration of methods of goal measurement. Some
strategic planning processes include this step; others leave this question to be addressed by a
separate process. Addressing goal measurement involves articulation of objectives, indicators,
and benchmarks. Objectives are the short-term conditions needed to achieve desired conditions
of well-being for children, families, or communities in the long term. Indicators are quantifiable
measures of progress; they provide numeric assessment of the desired conditions of well-being
Benchmarks are target levels of performance expressed in measurable terms and specified time
frames, against which actual achievement is measured.
III. State Experiences with Strategic Planning: Lessons Learned
Many states have developed strategic plans to guide results-based accountability systems.
Examination of numerous planning processes yielded the following lessons:
Successful efforts involve stakeholders and gain their support. Strategic plan
development requires consideration and articulation of values and priorities; the plan
should reflect views expressed by all those involved in the process. States that have
successfully designed and adopted plans included all those interested in the strategic
planning process. For example, processes have been developed to involve program
managers, providers, legislators, and the public in the articulation of visions. Some states
have held public meetings; others have coupled meetings of policymakers with public
opinion polls asking about the core values of citizens. Inclusion of key stakeholders can
take many months and requires that resources be devoted to the activity. However, it is
essential to the success and sustainability of the effort.
Prioritizing goals is an essential step in developing a strategic plan for a RBA system.
Strategic plans are not merely laundry lists of goals, but rather reflect the priorities of
those participating in the planning process. The most useful plans are succinct and easily
translated into useful measures. Inclusion of too many goals causes states, agencies, and
programs to become overwhelmed with the details of data collection and reporting.
Friedman (1996) recommends choosing a limited number of broad goals that reflect
multiple objectives.
Successful public strategic planning processes address conflicting mandates and goals.
State officials and managers of public programs are often faced with the need to negotiate
between conflicting mandates and goals when articulating strategic plans. For example,
job training legislation may include a program goal of placement of all trainees within
one month of program completion. Another goal in the same legislation may be that
trainees retain employment for at least one year. These goals may conflict: employment
that is obtained quickly may not be the best match for the trainees, so they may be more
likely to leave these jobs. In such cases, legislation may have been drafted with input
from numerous representatives with conflicting views. As public managers develop
strategic plans, they should recognize that programs may have conflicting mandates and
be explicit about what the agency can and cannot do in light of the mandates.
KEY OBJECTIVES FOR THE ORGANIZATION
Organizations must achieve certain objectives in order for Leadership Development programs
to be successful. Some of these objectives are:
Assist employees in developing and increasing their self-awareness so that they have a
better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses.
Create leaders and encourage individual autonomy at increasingly lower levels within the
company.
Integrate the overall approaches to management development with other human resource
strategies such as performance management, career development, and recruitment
strategies.
Figure 1
The organizational process.
1. Review plans and objectives: Objectives are the specific activities that must be
completed to achieve goals. Plans shape the activities needed to reach those goals.
Managers must examine plans initially and continue to do so as plans change and new
goals are developed.
2. Determine the work activities necessary to accomplish objectives: Although this task
may seem overwhelming to some managers, it doesn't need to be. Managers simply list
and analyze all the tasks that need to be accomplished in order to reach organizational
goals.
3. Classify and group the necessary work activities into manageable units: A manager
can group activities based on four models of departmentalization: functional,
geographical, product, and customer.
4. Assign activities and delegate authority: Managers assign the defined work activities to
specific individuals. Also, they give each individual the authority (right) to carry out the
assigned tasks.
5. Design a hierarchy of relationships:A manager should determine the vertical (decisionmaking) and horizontal (coordinating) relationships of the organization as a whole. Next,
using the organizational chart, a manager should diagram the relationships.
DEVELOPING AN INFORMATION SYSTEM:
The steps involved in developing an Information System are:
Analysis
Feasibility Study
System Design
Testing
Implementation
Documentation
ANALYSIS:
This is a very important part in the development of an Information System and involves
looking at an organization or system (such as a nursery school) and finding out how
information is being handled at the moment.
If there is no computer system then the first task will be to look at existing manual systems.
It is possible to find out about existing systems in a number of ways:
If the aim is to improve an existing computer system the methods of analysis previously
mentioned are still important.
The analysis phase often includes a feasibility study.
At the end of this phase a decision needs to be made as to what software to use.
FEASIBILITYSTUDY:
The aim of a feasibility study is to see whether it is possible to develop a system at a reasonable
cost. At the end of the feasibility study a decision is taken whether to proceed or not.
A feasibility study contains the general requirements of the proposed system.
Let us consider the task of setting up an Information System for a nursery and seeing how
Information Technology can help it run more efficiently.
The study might identify the following general requirements for the system:
To be simple and easy to use.
To store all relevant details of the members.
To produce membership lists, membership cards and mailing labels.
To produce posters, flyers and similar material advertising the nursery.
DESIGN:
The areas that need to be considered in the design process are listed below:
1. Outputs
2. Inputs
3. File Design
4. Hardware
5. Software
OUTPUTS:
Some of the outputs for a system for a nursery might be:
a) Details of the children looked after within the nursery.
Name
Smith, Tony
Jackson, Jake
Timms, Tony
Fogett, Carol
Address
12 Fields Rd
9 Man Gdns
87 Colly Row
9 Shaw St
Telephone No.
0543 3445545
0563 9545752
0543 8653653
0563 9657564
Membership No.
001342
001234
001789
001455
Mr Timms
87 Colly Row
Todthope
TD3 8DE
Mrs Fogett
9 Shaw Street
Todthope
TD3 3HG
Mr Smith
12 Fields Road
Todthope
TD3 7HJ
DESIGN-INPUTS:
To work out the inputs required for a system several questions need to be addressed:
What data needs to be entered into the computer system?
How much data needs to be input, and how often?
Where does the data come from?
How will the data be entered into the system?
DESIGN - FILE DESIGN:
How many files are needed and what will their structure be? A nursery membership file might
have the following structure:
Field
Type
Length
Example
Membership
Numeric
No.
352600
Surname
Text
20
McSweeney
First Name
Text
15
Jane
Address line
1
Text
25
3 Longlane
Address line
2
Text
25
London
Post Code
Alpha
numeric
10
N1 1TH
Telephone
No.
Alpha
numeric
10
0181-3661234
Fees Paid
Text
Fee Date
Date
22/04/97
DESIGN HARDWARE:
This section covers the types of computers and printers thought suitable for the system
being analysed.
If the system needs to be on a network, details would be specified here.
DESIGN SOFTWARE:
A decision will have to be made as to what software to use.
The most common software packages are databases, spreadsheets and word processing
packages.
TESTING:
Any new system needs to be thoroughly tested before being introduced.
First of all the system should be tested with normal data to see if it works
correctly.
Secondly, the system is tested with data containing known errors to try
and
make
it
fail
('crash').
Thirdly, the system is tested with very large amounts of data to see how
it can cope.
It is important that processing time and response rates remain
acceptable with varying amounts of data.
A test plan should be designed before testing commences.
Part of
system
tested
Purpose
Expected result
Members File
Add new
member
Members File
Remove a
member
Member not on
membership list
Actual result
IMPLEMENTATION:
Implementing or introducing a new system can be done in two
ways:
Direct Implementation
Parallel Running
DIRECT IMPLEMENTATION
With this method of implementation the users stop using the manual
system and start using the computer system from a given date.
The advantage of this method is that it is less costly in effort and time
than any other method of implementation. The disadvantage of this
method is that if problems occur the users do not have any alternative
apart from returning to a manual system which may prove difficult if it
has been discontinued.
PARALLEL RUNNING
With parallel running, the new system is introduced alongside the
existing system. With parallel running both systems (manual and
computer, or old computer and new computer system) will be in
operation at the same time. This has the advantage that the results from
the new system can be compared with those of the old system.
However, it has the major disadvantage that each job is done twice and
therefore it means a lot of extra work for the users.
DOCUMENTATION:
A number of documents are produced during the development of a new
computer application.
Essentially there are two types:
User Guides
Technical Documentation
USER GUIDES:
User guides are written in plain English rather than technical language.
The guide should cover how to run the system, how to enter data, how to
modify data and how to save and print reports.
The guide should include a list of error messages and advice on what to do if
something goes wrong.
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION:
Technical documentation is used to explain a system to a specialist i.e. an
analyst/programmer.
This document will be used if any changes have to be made to the system.
It is a very important document which needs to be fully up-to-date.
a. Growth and Update - Facilities, equipment, and software design shall allow reconfiguration
and growth during the mission.
b. Independence - Systems and subsystems shall be as functionally, mechanically, electrically,
and electronically independent as practical to facilitate maintenance.
c. Maintenance Support Services - Maintenance support services ( e.g., electrical outlets) shall
be accessible at potential problem locations or at a designated maintenance location.
d. Reliability - Equipment design shall reduce to a minimum the incidence of preventive and
corrective maintenance.
e. Simplicity - Equipment design shall minimize maintenance complexity.
f. Time Requirements - Equipment design shall minimize the time requirements for
maintenance.
g. Equipment - Maintenance equipment and tools shall be kept to a minimum.
h. Hazardous Conditions - System design shall preclude the introduction of hazardous
conditions during maintenance procedures.
USER ROLE IN SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:
FUNCTIONAL ANALYST
A functional analyst career is one of the most critical ones. The job duties prove crucial among
the overall organizational operations due to their dependency roles.
The common job responsibilities include
The functional analyst role is involved not only during the early stage of the system, but
throughout the whole development process.
Example:
Objective: To join a highly reputed and dynamic organization as a functional analyst and to take
my career to better heights through extra ordinary performances with a great consistency.
Summary of Qualifications:
Professional Experience:
ABC Co Ltd., Los Angeles, CA (2007-Present)
Senior analyst
SOLUTIONS ARCHITECT
A Solutions Architect in Information Technology Enterprise Architecture is a practitioner in the
field of Solution Architecture
The role title has a wider meaning in relation to solving problems, but is more often used in the
narrower domain of Technical architecture - the context for the remainder of this definition. In
this context, the Solutions Architect is a very experienced architect with cross-domain, crossfunctional and cross-industry expertise. He/she outlines solution architecture descriptions, then
monitors and governs their implementation.
Overview
The role of "Solutions Architect" requires knowledge and skills that are both broad and deep. To
be effective the Solutions Architect must have experience on multiple Hardware and Software
Environments and be comfortable with complex heterogeneous systems environments. The
Solutions Architect is often a highly seasoned senior technocrat who has led multiple projects
through the Software development process or Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), and has
usually performed in a variety of different roles in that life cycle. The person needs an ability to
share and communicate ideas verbally, both orally and in writing, to executive staff, business
sponsors, and technical resources in clear concise language that is the parlance of each group.
Business Development
Help marketing departments develop marketing materials and position strategies for
product area, in conjunction with overall marketing message framework
Help business development life cycle by serving as a product SME to help identify and
qualify business development opportunities
Manages sales and marketing activities for the service offering
With Channel Development team, develop and maintain vendor relationships within the
product
Manages a team of direct reports who drive service lines in the solution area
Assists staffing coordinators who define project team requirements for projects in
solution area
Work with Delivery Services Director to define overall recruiting needs and expertise in
solution area
Work with Director of Delivery Services to establish professional development needs for
practitioners in solution area
Mentor and guide more junior technical resources
DEVELOPMENT LEAD
A lead programmer or development lead is a software engineer in charge of one or more
software projects. Alternative titles include Development Lead, Technical Lead, Senior Software
Engineer, Software Design Engineer Lead (SDE Lead), Software Manager, or Senior
Applications Developer. When primarily contributing in a high-level enterprise software design
role, the title Software Architect (or similar) is often used. All of these titles can have different
meanings depending on the context.
Responsibilities
A lead programmer's exact responsibilities vary from company to company, but in general he or
she is responsible for the underlying architecture for the software program, as well as for
overseeing the work being done by any other software engineers working on the project. A lead
programmer will typically also act as a mentor for new or lower-level software developers or
programmers, as well as for all the members on the development team.
Although the responsibilities are primarily technical, lead programmers also generally serve as
an interface between the programmers and management and have supervisorial responsibilities in
delegating work and ensuring that software projects come in on time and under budget. Lead
programmers also serve as technical advisers to management and provide programming
perspective on requirements. Typically a lead programmer will oversee a development team of
between two and ten programmers, with three to five often considered the ideal size. Teams
larger than ten programmers tend to become unmanageable without additional structure. A lead
programmer normally reports to a manager with overall project or section responsibility, such as
a director or product unit manager (PUM).
Responsibilities
Design system developments to e5 in conjunction with the e5 Change Team, Projects and
users. Agree viable system solutions to solve business problems.
Accountable for appropriate and consistent use e5 QEDs, Softpaint and other tools.
Ensure that e5 changes are documented using agreed standards, methods and tools.
Apply risk management techniques to system change and controls to satisfy internal and
external audit and financial control requirements.
Actively co-ordinate sign-off by all parties of clear requirements in a timely manner to
avoid waste.
Help to resolve live (production) technical problems, liaising with internal partners and
third party suppliers as necessary. Advise on preventative maintenance as it affects e5.
Build and maintain relationships with other teams in Finance Systems, internal
customers, internal and third party suppliers.
Ensure due preparation to support e5 fixes, changes and implementations prior to go live.
Provide leadership and engagement of staff, deliver effective performance management
in line with Friends Life policy and processes. Ensure that all staff are effectively
allocated to satisfy current and planned demand.
Deliver accountabilities within the allocated cost base
Systems developer:
Systems developers work on the internal operations of computers. They work within
organizations to solve computer problems using existing systems or incorporating new
technologies to meet particular needs. They test both hard and software systems, and diagnose
and resolve system faults.
The role also covers writing diagnostic programs and designing and writing code for operating
systems and software to ensure that they function more efficiently. When required, they make
recommendations for future developments to software or operating systems.
Systems developers may also create systems in response to technical specifications supplied by
an IT analyst. This may require integrating off-the-shelf software packages into the existing
systems.
Test scripts fit into the test cases by validating that case. Test scripts are step-by-step
instructions on what to do, what to look for, and what should happen. While the test cases
can be created with nearly no input from the architecture or design, the test scripts are
specific to how the problem was solved by the software development team and therefore
they require an understanding of not only the requirements, but also the architecture,
design, and detailed design.
FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT
Quality function deployment (QFD) is a method to transform user demands into design
quality, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design
quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the
manufacturing process.as described by Dr. Yoji Akao, who originally developed QFD in Japan
in 1966, when the author combined his work in quality assurance and quality control points with
function deployment used in value engineering.
QFD is designed to help planners focus on characteristics of a new or existing product or service
from the viewpoints of market segments, company, or technology-development needs. The
technique yields graphs and matrices.
QFD helps transform customer needs (the voice of the customer [VOC]) into engineering
characteristics (and appropriate test methods) for a product or service, prioritizing each product
or service characteristic while simultaneously setting development targets for product or service.
While many books and articles on "how to do QFD" are available, there is a relative paucity of
example matrices available. QFD matrices become highly proprietary due to the high density of
product or service information found therein.
ROLE OF TRAINER
Project managers
A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers can
have the responsibility of the planning, execution, and closing of any project, typically relating to
construction industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many
other fields in the production engineering and design engineering and heavy industrial have
project managers.
A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key
project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives,
building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects, which is cost,
time, and scope.
A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact
needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to
the various internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the
nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and
above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.
International standards
There have been several attempts to develop project management standards, such as:
HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in
Luxembourg and international organizations.
The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems, and
the ISO 10006:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for quality
management in projects.
PRINCE2, PRojects IN Controlled Environments.
Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge[29]
Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute.
Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated
Portfolio, Program and Project Management.
V-Model, an original systems development method.
The Logical framework approach, which is popular in international development
organizations.
IAPPM, The International Association of Project & Program Management, guide to
project auditing and rescuing troubled projects.