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THE SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF

JAMES CLERK MAXWELL


Edited by W. D.

NIVEN, M.A., F.R.S,

Two Volumes Bound As One

DOVER PUBLICATIONS,

INC.,

NEW YORK

THE SCIENTIFIC PAPERS OF

JAMES CLERK MAXWELL


Edited by W. D.

NIVEN,

Volume Two

M.A., F.R.S.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE

XXVII.

On

XXVIII.

On
On

Viscosity

the

InternaZ

or

Friction

of Air

and

(The

Gases

other

Bakerian Lecture)

XXIX.

the

-6

Dynamical Theory of Gases

the

Theory of

tJie

Maintenance

of Electric

by Mechanical

Currents

Work

XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.

On
On

without the use of Permanent Magnets


the Equilibrium of a Spherical Envelope

7,9

86

Arrangement for producing a Pure Spectrum on a

the best

The Construction of Stereograms of Surfaces


On Reciprocal Diagrams in Space and their relation

Sci'een

to Aii-y's

Function of

102

Stress

XXXIV.

On

XXXV.

"Experiment

105

Governors
in

Magneto- Electric Induction"

(in

letter to

W. R. Grove,
121

F.RS.)

XXXVI.

On a Method of Making a

Direct Comparison of Electrostatic wiHi Electrowith a Note on the Electromagnetic Theory of Light

magnetic Force;

XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.

On

On a Bow seen on the Surface of Ice


On Reciprocal Figures, Frames, and Diagrams of
On the Displacement in a Case of Fluid Motion
Address

to

tJie

XLIII.

160
Forces

.161
208

Mathematical and Physical Sections of

the British Associa-

215

On Colour-Vision at
On Hills and Dales

different points

230

of the Retina

233

XLIV.
XLV.

Introductory Lecture on Experimeivtal Physics

On

the Solution

XLVI.
XLVII.

On

the

XLVIII.

On
On

241

of Electrical Problems by the Transformation of Conjugate

Functions

XLIX.

Mathematical Classification of Physical Quantities


On Colour Vision
tlie

Geometrical

Mean

Distance of

Induction of Electric
uniform Conductivity

Uie

125

144

the Cyclide

tion (1870)

XLII.

96
101

....

in

an

Infinite

257
267

Two Figures on a Plane

Currents

256

Plane Sheet

280

of

286

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

On

Conditim that, in the Traiisf&rmation of any Figure by Curvilinear


Co-ordinates in Three Dimensions, every angle in the new Figure shall
be equal to the corresponding angle in the original Figure

the

LII.

LIII.

LI.

Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism. By Sir W. Thomson.


(Review)
On the Proof of the Equations of Motion of a Connected System
On a Problem in the Calcidus of Variations in which the solution is dis.

LVI.

On

the

LVII.

On

the

LVIIL

An

Focal Lines of a Refracted Pencil


Essay on the Mathematical Principles of Physics.
(Review)
Challis, M.A., dx.

LIX.

On

Loschmidt's Experiments on DiffvMon. in relation

LX.

On

the Final State

By

Professors Sir

Thomson and

W.

.324

(Revieuj)

....

Theory of a System of Electrified Conductors, and other Physical


Theories involving Homogeneoxis Quadratic Functions

LXIV.
LXV.

By

the Rev.

James
338

to the

Kinetic Theory

343
of a System of Molecules in motion subject

to

forces of

351

any kind
Faraday
Molecules (A Lecture)

On Double Refraction in a Viscous Fluid in Motion


On Hamilton's Characteristic Function for a narrow Beam of Light
On the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other parts of Mathematics and
.

4JLyiL
LXVIII.

Plateau on Soap-Bubbles (Review)


"
Groves Correlation of Physical Forces

On

the

"

the Solu-

to

406

a Geometrical Problem

Van der Waals on the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States
On the Centre of Motion of the Eye
On the Dynamical Evidence of the Molecular Constitution of Bodies (A

LXXII.

On

LXXIIL

Atom

I^QCIV.

Attraction

LXXV.

On

Bern's

LXXVI.
LXXVII.

On

the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances

407
416

Lec-

418

ture)

LXXVIII.

381

400

(Review)

LXIX.
LXX.
LXXI.

of Hamilton's Characteristic Function


an Optical Instrument symmetrical about its aods

the Application

tions

379

391
393

application of Kirchhoff's Rules for Electric Circuits

tion of

355
361

Physics

LXVI.

329

332

of Gases

LXI.
LXII.
LXIII.

308

311

LV?-

a Distance
Elements of Natural Philosophy.
at

P. G. Tait.

'"^01

3^0

continuous

On Action

297

to the

Theory of

method of drauring diagrams in Graphical Statics with


from Peaucelliers Linkage

Diffusion of Gases through Absorbing Substances


General considerations concerning Scientific Apparatus

439
445

485

illustra-

492
498
501

505

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Vll

PAGE

LXXIX.

Itistruments connected vnth Fluids

523

LXXX.
LXXXI.

Wheiuells Writings and Correspondence {Review)

528

On Ohm's Law
On the protection of

538

LXXXII.
LXXXIII.

LXXXIV.
^

' LXil^ X A^.

LXXXVI.

LXXX VII.
LXXXVIII.

LXXXIX.
XC.
XCI.
XCII.

533
buildings

XCIV.

XCV.
XCVI.
XCVII.
- XCVIII.
XCIX.

lightning

Capillary Action

541

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Hehnholtz


On a Paradox in the Theory of Attraction

592
599

On Approximate Multiple Integration between Limits by Summation


On the Unpublished Electrical Papers of the Hon. Henry Cavendish

Diffusion

Diagrams
Tait's Thermodynamics (Review)

On

the

Electrical

On
On

660

Capacity of a long
.

604
612
616
625
647

Constitution of Bodies

of sensible thickness

XCIII.

from

Stresses in Rarified Gases arising

narrow Cylinder and of a Disk

from

Inequalities of Temperature

.672
.

681

Boltzniann's Theorem on the average distribution of energy in a system

713
742

of material points
{Rede Lecture)

The. Telephone

Paradoxical Philosophy {A Review)

756

Ether

763

Thomson and
Faraday

Tait's

Natural Philosophy {A Revieio)

C.

Reports on Special Branches of Science

CI.

Harmonic Analysis

....

776
786
.

794
797

ERRATA.

3,

73,

line

5,

read

^^~~^
10, insert

is

the

the

value

radius
of

of

the

each

of

diameter

values of the quantity

in

(PF

"

^dxdy'

after the diflferential operator in equation (18).

the
as

p. (189).

,.

dPF
dydz

In the Bakerian Lecture at page


r

76.

(181)

p.

II.

instead of xxxi. p. 30.

60

14,

25

p.

i.

VOL,

18,

movable

given at

the

line

discs

page

21,

the

used
4,

in

line

value of

r*

is

given

the experiments on
14,

this

as

1112-8,

Viscosity.

number should be

where

But with
The

1220-8.

fourth line of the Table given at page 19 should therefore

all

be

The values of Q, the quantity in the fifth line, increase in the same proportion
Hence according to equations (23) and (24) the values of /x, the coefficient
as the values of A.
wiU approximate to those obtained
of Viscosity, will be smaller than they appear in the text and
reductions was pointed out by
by more recent experiments. The above inaccuracy in the numerical
Mr Leahy, Pembroke College, Cambridge.

increased by 108.

[From the Philosophical

The Bakerian Lecture.

XXVII.

Transactions, Vol. CLVI.]

On

the

Viscosity or Internal Friction

of Air and other Gases.

Received November 23, 1865, Read February

The

gaseous form

matter

of

distinguislied

is

8,

1866.

by the great

Bunplification

which occurs in the expression of the properties of matter when


that state from the solid or liquid form.

when

of molecules, seems to indicate that the molecules of bodies,


are less

state,

into
is

passes into

simplicity of the relations between

and temperature, and between the volume and the number

pressure,

density,

The

it

in the gaseous

impeded by any complicated mechanism than when they subside

The investigation of other properties of matter


more simple if we begin our research with matter

the liquid or soUd states.


likely

therefore

be

to

in the form of a gas.

The

viscosity

of a body

is

the resistance which

it

offers

change of form, depending on the rate at which that change


All bodies are capable
ficient

forces

is

to

a continuous

effected.

altered by the action


M. Kohlrausch* has shewn that

of having their form

during a sufficient time.

of suftorsion

applied to glass fibres produces a permanent set which increases with the time

and that when the

of action of the force,

slowly
Softer

untwists,

so

soHds exhibit

difficult,

its

removed the

do

as in most cases the state of the

actually impressed on

during

to

of the relations between the

investigation

force of torsion is

away with part of the set it had


the phenomena of plasticity in a greater degree
as

it,

but on

all

forces
solid

and their

effects

is

fibre

acquired.
;

but the

extremely

depends not only on the forces

the strains to which

it

has been subjected

previous existence.
*'

VOL. n.

TJeber die elastische

Nachwerktmg

bei der Toraion," Pogg. Ann. cxix. 1863.


1

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

2
Professor

W. Thomson*
the

takes place in

friction

has shewn that something corresponding to internal


vibrations of wires, but that it is much

torsional

has been previously subjected to large vibrations. I have


after heating a steel wire to a temperature below 120", its

increased if the wire

found

also

elasticity

that,

was permanently diminished and

its internal friction increased.

by passing them through


of
by swinging pendulums in themj, and by the torsional vibrafluid
tions of an immersed disk, and of a sphere filled with the
The method of transpiration through tubes is very convenient, especially
Graham and Poiseuille it
for comparative measurements, and in the hands of
The

viscosity

fluids

been

has

investigated

capillary tubes t,

\\.

is
has given good results, but the measurement of the diameter of the tube
that
certain
be
cannot
we
bore
the
of
smallness
the
of
account
on
difficult, and
of the
the action between the molecules of the gas and those of the substance

not

does

tubes

accuracy,

and

afiect

the

The pendulum method

result.

that experiments are

believe

in

is

capable

by which

progress

of great

its

merits

tested.
as a means of determining the properties of the resisting medium will be
chief
direct.
The
and
sunple
is
fluid
the
in
disk
a
swinging
of
The method
difficulty is the determination of the motion of the fluid near the edge of the

which introduces very serious mathematical difficulties into the calculation


The method with the sphere is free from the mathematical
of the result.
makes it undifficulty, but the weight of a properly constructed spherical shell

disk,

suitable for experiments

on gases.

In the experiments on the viscosity of air and other gases which I propose
to describe, I have employed the method of the torsional vibrations of disks,
but instead of placing them in an open space, I have placed them each between
two parallel fixed disks at a small but easily measurable distance, in which

when the

case,

period of vibration

is

long, the mathematical difficulties of deter-

mining the motion of the fluid are greatly reduced.


Proceedings of the Royal Society, May 18, 1865.
Poiseuille, Mem. de Savants Strangers, 1846.

+ Liquids

1846 and

+ Baily, Phil. Trans. 1832

Bessel, Berlin Acad.

Motion of Pendulums," Cambridge Phil Trans,


Crelle's
II

Graham, Philosophical Transactions,

1849.'

these are discussed in Professor Stokes's paper

Gases

have also used three

Coulomb, Mem. de VInstUut national,

"On

1826

Dubuat, Principes d^Eydravligue, 1786.

All

the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the

vol. ix. pt. 2 (1850).

iii. p.

246; 0. E. Meyer, Pogg.

Ann

Journal, Bd, 59.

Helmholtz and Pietrowski, Sitzungsberichte der

k. k.

Akad, April, 1860.

cxiii.

(1861)

p. 55,

and

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.


instead

disks

of one,

that there are six surfaces exposed to friction,

so

which

may

be reduced to two by placing the three disks in contact, without altering

the

weight

of

structed by

Mr

The apparatus was

the whole or the time of vibration.

con-

Becker, of Messrs Elliott Brothers, Strand.

Description of the Apparatus.

XXI.

Plate
actual

(MM)
MM. The
top

by

is

in the

represents the

vacuum apparatus one-eighth

of the

The

a strong three-legged stool supporting the whole.

form of a
is

EE, and

EE

ring.

is

a brass plate supported by the ring

ground truly plane, the upper surface

the same piece

in

the plate

into

fig.

is

under surface

cast

ribs

30,

p.

MQRS

size.

with

4 feet

is

in

is

strengthened

The suspension-tube ^C
height.
The glass receiver
it.

is

screwed

on a

rests

wooden ring PP with three projecting pieces which rest on the three brackets
QQ, of which two only are seen. The upper surfaces of the brackets and the
under surfaces of the projections are so bevilled

wooden ring

in

its

own plane

off,

that by slightly turning the

the receiver can be pressed up against the plate

EE.

F, G, H,

are

circular

of glass

plates

form represented in

of the

fig.

2.

Each has a hole in the centre 2 inches in diameter, and three holes near the
circumference, by which it is supported on the screws LL.
Fig.

LL

represents

upper part
is

the

mode

supporting and adjusting the glass plates.

of

one of the screws fixed under the plate

is

EE.

in

the hole in the glass plate F,

of larger diameter,

so

as to support the glass plate

turning

the

nut easily by hand.

a nut, of which the

>S is

easily

fits

These nuts occupy

while the under part

and

afford the
space,

little

means of

and enable

the glass disks to be brought very accurately to their proper position.

ACB,

fig.

1,

is

a siphon barometer, closed at

the interior of the suspension-tube at B.

The

scale

and communicating with


is

divided on both

sides,

so

that the difference of the readings gives the pressure within the apparatus.

is

a thermometer, lying on the upper glass plate.

pumice-stone soaked in sulphuric acid, to dry the


caustic potash, is not shewn.

pump

or the gas generator.

Z)

is

is

air.

is

a vessel containing

Another

vessel,

a tube with a stopcock, leading

containing
to the

air-

a glass window, giving a view of the suspended

mirror d.

For high and low temperatures the


the receiver was exhausted, the ring

tin vessel (fig. 10) was used.


When
was removed, and the tin vessel raised

12

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

SO as

The

itself rested,

outside of the tin vessel

of

wooden support YY.


QQ. The
was then well wrapped up in blankets, and the top
covered with a feather cushion; and cold water, hot

to envelope the receiver, which then rested on the

tin vessel

the

brass

plate

EE

by means

of projections on the brackets

made to flow through the tin


seen through the window W, became stationary.
water, or steam was

The moveable parts

vessel

till

the thermometer T,

of the apparatus consist of

The suspension -piece a, fitting air-tight into the top of the tube and holding
the suspension- wire by a clip, represented in fig. 5.
The axis cdek, suspended to the wire by another cHp at C.
The wire was a hard-drawn steel wire, one foot of which weighed 2"6 grains.
The axis carries the plane mirror d, by which its angular position is observed
through the window C, and the three vibrating glass disks /, g, h, represented
Each disk is 10*56 inches diameter and about '076 thick, and has
in fig. 3.

75 diameter. They are kept in position on the axis by


means of short tubes of accurately known length, which support them on the
axis and separate them from each other.
The whole suspended system weighs three pounds avoirdupoise.
a hole in the centre

In erecting the

apparatus,

lower part of the axis ek

the

is

screwed

off".

The fixed disks are then screwed on, with a vibrating disk lying between each.
Tubes of the proper lengths are then placed on the lower part of the axia
The axis is then passed up from below through the
and between the disks.
The vibrating
disks and tubes, and is screwed to the upper part at e.
disks are now hanging by the wire and in their proper places, and the fixed
disks are brought to their proper distances from them by means of the adjusting
nuts.
715

is

a small piece of magnetized steel wire attached to the axis.

When

it

is

desired

N, and

placed under

so

disks in motion,

to set the

moved

as

to

bring the

initial

a battery of magnets

is

arc of vibration to the

proper value.
Fig.

centrically
it

exactly in
Fig.

it,

It is placed
is a brass ring whose moment
of inertia is known.
on the vibrating disk by means of three radial wires, which keep

its place.
is

a tube

containing two nearly equal

and whose position can be read

off

by

verniers.

weights,

which

slide

inside

OF AIR AND OTHER OASES.

The ring and the tube are used

in finding

the

moment

of inertia

of the

vibrating apparatus.

The extent and


way by means of a
The

mirror d.
axis

of the

on a

scale is

vibrations

are

shews the

which

observed in the ordinaryof

reflexion

scale

in

the

with the

circular arc of six feet radius, concentric

The extremities of the scale correspond to an arc of


and the divisions on the scale to 17. The readings are

instrument.

of 19 36',

vibration

duration of the
telescope,

usually taken to tenths of a division.

Method of Observation.

When

instrument

the

below

placed on a board
vibration

was properly adjusted, a battery of magnets was


and reversed at proper intervals till the arc of

iV",

extended slightly beyond the limits of the

then removed, and any accidental

scale.

were checked by applying the hand to the suspension-tube.

thermometer were then read

off,

and wrote down the extreme


on the

At

scale.

intervals

The magnets were

pendulous oscillations of the suspended disks

and the observer took

The barometer and

his seat at the telescope

limits of each vibration as

shewn by the numbers

of five complete vibrations, the time of the

of the middle point of the scale was observed (see Table

I.).

When

transits

the ampli-

tude decreased rapidly, the observations were continued throughout the experi-

ment
for

but when the decrement was small, the observer generally

an hour, or

till

the amplitude was

so

far

left

the room

reduced as to furnish the most

accurate results.

In
times,

observing

comparison of the
of e to

In

a quantity which

decreases

a geometrical

in

ratio

in

equal

the most accurate value of the rate of decrement will be deduced from a

1,

practice,

where
so

new

values

= 271828,

however,

vibrations are

beginning a

initial

it

much

is

with

values

which

are

the base of the Napierian

best to

stop

the

to

these in the ratio

system

of

logarithms.

experiment somewhat before the

reduced, as the time required would be better

spent in

experiment.

the observations, the sum of every five maxima and of the


minima was taken, and the differences of these were written as
the terms of the series the decrement of which was to be found.
In experiments where the law of decrement is uncertain, this rough method
is inapplicable, and Gauss's method must be applied
but the series of amplitudes

In

reducing

consecutive five

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

in these

experiments

is

geometrical,

so accurately

that no appreciable difference

between the results of the two methods would occur.


series was then taken, and the mean
by taking the difference of the first and last,
of the second and last but one, and so on, multiplying each difference by the
interval of the terms, and dividing the sum of the products by the sum of

The logarithm

of each term

of the

logarithmic decrement ascertained

the squares of these intervals.

Thus,

if

extreme limits of vibration, these were


terms of a decreasing

five

observations were

combined by

tens,

taken of the
so

to form

as

The logarithms of these terms were then


of the first and fifth of these logarithms was then
the second and third, and the result divided by
series.

Twice the difference

taken.

fifty

first

added to the difference of

mean logarithmic decrement in five complete vibrations.


The times were then treated in the same way to get the mean time of
The numbers representing the logarithmic decrement, and the
vibrations.

ten for the

five

time for

five vibrations,

The

series

were entered as the result of each experiment*.

found from ten different experiments were examined to discover

any departure from uniformity in the logarithmic decrement depending on the


The logarithmic decrement was found to be constant
amplitude of vibration.
in

each experiment to within the limits of probable error; the deviations from

and sometimes in the opposite, and


of any law of increase
The
or diminution of the logarithmic decrement as the amplitudes decrease.
forces which retard the disks are therefore as the first power of the velocity,
uniformity were sometimes in one

the ten experiments

and there
such

as

no evidence of any force varying with the square of the velocity,

is

is

direction

when combined gave no evidence

produced

experiments the

when

maximum

move

bodies

was about -^ inch per second.

rapidly

through the

the circumference

of

velocity

In

air.

these

moving disks
the air between the

of

the

The changes of form in


and eddies were not produced t.

disks were therefore effected very slowly,

The retardation
to the action of the

of the motion
air,

since

of the

which must be estimated separately.


changes in the viscosity of
tudinal strain.

vrires

The wire used

disks

is,

however, not due entirely

the suspension wire has a viscosity of

in

Professor

after

W. Thomson

being subjected

to

its

own,

has observed great


torsion

and

these experiments had been hanging

longi-

up

for

See Table II.


t

The

total

of the disks.

moment

of the resistances never exceeded that of the weight of

-^ grain acting at the edge

OF AIR AND OTHER OASES.

some months

before,

weights attached to

and

torsion

and had been


to

it,

steam was employed to heat the lower


then increased, and

its

torsional

moment

its

of

vibrations

with

various

moment

Its

torsion.

of

seem to have remained afterwards nearly constant,

viscosity

its

into

set

determine

moment

of

part

the

of

apparatus.

diminished

torsion

Its

till

viscosity

permanently, but when

the apparatus was again heated, no further change seems to have taken place.

During each course of experiments, care was taken not to set the disks vibrating
beyond

the

of

limits

the

scale,

so

that

the

viscosity

of

the

may

wire

be

supposed constant in each set of experiments.


In order to determine how much of the total retardation of the motion is
due to the viscosity of the wire, the moving disks were placed in contact with
each other, and fixed disks were placed at a measured distance above and
below them.
The weight and moment of inertia of the system remained as
before,

but the part of the retardation of the motion due to the viscosity of
less, as there were only two surfaces exposed to the action of the

the air was

instead of

air

as

before,

Supposing the

six.

the difference of

additional strata of

air,

and

is

of the viscosity of the wire to remain

effect

retardation

is

that due to the action of the four

independent of the value of the viscosity of the

wire.

In the experiments which were used in determining the viscosity of


five different

Arrangement

1.

2.

,,

Three

disks, each

inch above and below.

0"5 inch.

,,

between two fixed disks at distance 0'683.

4.

0-425.

5.

0-18475.

By comparing
viscosity

Three disks in contact, fixed disks at

3.

,,

of

air,

arrangements were adopted.

the

results

of

these

different

was obtained, and the theory at the

arrangements,

same time

the

coeflScient

subjected

to

rigorous test.

Definition of the Coefficient of Viscosity.

The

final

result

of each set of experiments

was to determine the value of

the coefficient of viscosity of the gas in the apparatus.


best

defined by

considering a stratum

of

air

This coefficient

between two

parallel

may

be

horizontal

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

planes of

indefinite

extent,

at a distance

a from one another.

Suppose the

upper plane to be set in motion in a horizontal direction with a velocity of


V feet per second, and to continue in motion till the air in the different parts
the stratum has taken up

of

increase

will

contact with the

in

air

uniformly as

we

its

velocity,

final

then the velocity of the

pass from the lower plane to the upper.

planes has the same velocity as the planes themselves,

then the velocity will increase - feet per second for every foot

The

between any two contiguous strata of

friction

between either surface and the

to that

this friction is equal to a tangential force

where

fi

is

air

If the

air

/ on

in

we

then be equal

will

air

contact with

every square

ascend.

Suppose that

it.

foot,

then

the coefficient of viscosity, v the velocity of the upper plane, and

a the distance between them.


If the experiment could be

we

should find

/it

made with the two

infinite planes as described,

at once, for

In the actual case the motion of the planes


linear,

oscillatory instead of

constant,

is

rotatory instead of recti-

and the planes are bounded instead of

infinite.

It will be

shewn that the rotatory motion may be

principles as rectilinear

calculated on the

introduces the consideration of the inertia of the air in motion,

the middle portions of the stratum to lag behind, as

is

shewn

in

which causes
fig.

the curves represent the successive positions of a line of particles of


if

same

motion; but that the oscillatory character of the motion

8,

air,

where
which,

there were no motion, would be a straight line perpendicular to the planes.

The

fact that the

moving planes are bounded by a

depending on the

another

difficulty,

different

from that of the rest of the

into

motion of the

air

circular

near

edge introduces
the

edge

being

air.

The lines of equal motion of the air are shewn in fig. 9.


The consideration of these two circumstances introduces
the calculations, as wiU be shewn hereafter.

certain corrections

In expressing the viscosity of the gas in absolute measure, the measures

OF AIR AND OTBER OASES.


of

forces,

velocities,

all

must be taken according to some consistent system

&c.

of measurement.

of/

sions
is

if

represent the units of length, mass, and time, then the dimen-

pressure

(a

/x

are

per unit of surface)

whose dimensions are

velocity

Thus
and

M,

If L,

LT~\

L~'MT~'; a
that

so

the

is

a length, and

dimensions

of

fi

are

be the viscosity of a gas expressed in inch-grain-second measure,

the same expressed in foot-pound-minute measure, then

fi'

/Lt
'

fi

According
of

velocity

to

the

inch

foot

pound

1
'

experiments

grain

second

minute

MM.

of

Helmholtz and

a fluid in contact with a surface

is

Pietrowski*,

not always equal to

that

the
of

but a certain amount of actual slipping takes place in certain


In the
cases between the surface and the fluid in immediate contact with it.
in
fluid
the
velocity
of
is
the
considering,
if
v^
case which we have been

the surface

itself,

contact with the fixed plane, and

where

o-

is

/ the

tangential force per unit of surface, then

the coefficient of superficial friction between the fluid and the par-

ticular surface over

which

and depends on the nature of the surface as


The coefficient cr is of the dimensions L~*MT~\
the fluid in contact with the plane which is moving
it

flows,

well as on that of the fluid.


If

be the velocity of

Vi

with velocity

v,

and

if o-'

be the coefficient of superficial friction for that plane,

f=<T\v-v,).

The

internal friction of the fluid itself

^=/(- + - +

Hence

If

is

we make - = S, and
cr

= ^,

then

cr

=/f-^
* SitzungabericlUe der k,

VOL.

II.

Akad. April 1860.

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

10
or the fiiction

and

slipping,

equal to what

is

if

By changing the interval between


^ + ^ remains constant, and thus
the case of
ciable effect

on

rately as to give this value of

probability

and

air

)8

glass,

had

been

so small

no

^ + ^.

be made to vary while

+ yS' may
that

it

be determined.

In

produces no appre-

In the case of glass surfaces rubbing

surfaces

/8

= "0027

cannot be measured so accu-

The

the character of an ascertained quantity.

rather in favour of the theory that there

is

there

if

deduced from the experiments, was

The distance between the moving

inch.

is

on the results of experiments.


)8,

may

the planes, a
the value of

the amount of slipping

air,

the probable value of

air,

would have been

it

the interval between the planes had been increased by

is

no slipping between

and that the value of ^ given above results from accidental


observations.
I have therefore preferred to calculate the

discrepancy in the
value of.

yx

on the supposition that there

the glass in contact with

The value
condition.

that
at

/x

of

is

depends on the nature

fi

By making

no slipping between the

air

and

it.

experiments in gas

remains constant, so that

its

value

the

of
of

is

and on

gas

different

densities,

its
it

shewn

the same for air at 0"5 inch and

30 inches pressure, provided the temperature remains the same.

be seen by examining Table

physical
is

This will

decrement of arc in

where the value of L, the logarithm of the


ten single vibrations, is the same for the same temperature,

though the density

is

fact

IV.,

sixty times greater

in

some

cases

than

in

others.

the numbers in the column headed L' were calculated on the

that the viscosity

is

In

hypothesis

independent of the density, and they agree very well with

the observed values.


It

win be

seen,

however, that the value of

rises

temperature, as given in the second column of Table lY.

and

falls

with

range from 51" to 74" Fahr., and were the natural temperatures of the

on different days in
the viscosity
zero

of the

is

May

1865.

The

results

the

These temperatures

agree with the

hypothesis

room
that

proportional to (461" -H^), the temperature measured from absolute

air-thermometer.

In order to test this proportionality, the tempe-

by a current of steam sent round the space


vessel.
The temperature was kept up
for several hours, till the thermometer in the receiver became stationary, before
The ratio of the upper temperature (185" F.)
the disks were set in motion.
to the lower (51"), measured from 461"F., was
rature

was

raised

to

185"

Fahr.

between the glass receiver and the tin

1-2605.

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.

The

11

upper temperature to that at the lower was

ratio of the viscosity at the

1-2624,

which shews that the viscosity

The

nearly.

simplicity

us in concluding that

proportional to the absolute temperature very

is

the other

of

the viscosity

is

known laws
really

relating

proportional

to

to

gases

the

warrants

temperature,

measured from the absolute zero of the air-thermometer.


These relations between the viscosity of

air

and

pressure and temperature

its

the results deduced


by Mr. Graham from experiments on the transpiration of gases through tubes

more to be depended

the

are

on,

since

they agree with

diameter.
The constancy of the viscosity for all changes of density
when the temperature is constant is a result of the Dynamical Theory of
Gases*, whatever hypothesis we adopt as to the mode of action between the
The relation between viscosity
molecules when they come near one another.
and temperature, however, requires us to make a particular assumption with
of small

respect to the force acting between the molecules.

If the molecules act on one

another only at a determinate distance by a kind of impact, the viscosity will


be as the square root of the absolute temperature.
not the actual law.
shew, the viscosity

as the experiments of

If,

is

as

the

the dynamical theory, which


that

the force

first

between two molecules

to give any explanation

is

certainly

those of this paper

power of the absolute temperature, then

framed to explain the

is

power of the distance between them.


profess

This, however,

Graham and

of the

is

proportional

The present

facts,

inversely

paper,

in

we must assume
to

the

fifth

however, does

cause of the viscosity of

air,

not

but only

to determine its value in different cases.

Experiments were made on a few other gases besides dry air.


Damp air, over water at 70" F. and 4 inches pressure, was found by the

mean

of three

air at

the same temperature..

experiments to be about one-sixtieth part

Dry hydrogen was found


its viscosity

A
large

small

proportion of

increase

of viscosity,

ratio

of the

'5

less

viscous

than

viscous than dry

air,

the

ratio

viscosity

-J^

of that of

air.

of dry carbonic acid to that of air was found

to be -859.
" Illustrations of the

of

15 6.

air mixed with hydrogen was found to produce a


and a mijxture of equal parts of air and hydrogen

has a viscosity nearly equal to

The

be much

to

to that of air being

less

Dynamical Theory of Gases," Philosophical Magazine, Jan. 1860.

22

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

12

from the experiments

It appears

transpiration time

acid to air
I

of

air

the

that

*4855,

is

of

ratio

and that

the

carbonic

of

These numbers are both smaller than those of this paper.

"807.

think that

Mr. Graham

of

hydrogen to that of

the

from

discrepancy arises

the

being

gases

less

pure

in

experiments than in those of Graham, owing to the difficulty of preventing

my
air

from leaking into the receiver during the preparation, desiccation, and admission
the gas,

of

which always occupied at

an

least

hour

and

half

before

the

experiment on the moving disks could be begun.


It

appears to

transpiration

of

me

that for comparative estimates of viscosity, the method

the

is

best,

although

method here

the

adapted to determine the absolute value of the


the objection that in fine capillary tubes the

described

viscosity,

and

influence

of

is

molecular

between the gas and the surface of the tube may possibly have some

The actual value of the coefficient of


as determined by these experiments, is

62" F.

/u,

better
to

action

effect.

viscosity in inch-grain-second measure,

00001492(461' +

At

is

less liable

^).

= -007802.

Professor Stokes has deduced from the experiments of Baily on pendulums


^^ = 116,

Vp

which at ordinary pressures and temperatures gives


/A

or not

much more than

any means of explaining

half the

= -00417,

value as here determined.

have not found

this difference.

In metrical units and Centigrade degrees

^ = 01878(1 + -00365^).
M. 0. E. Meyer gives

as

the

value

of

/x

in

centimetres,

seconds, at 18' C.,

000360.
This,

when reduced

to metre-gramme-second measure, is
/x

make

/x,

at 18'

C,

= -0360.

=-0200.

grammes, and

OF AIR AND OTHER OASES.

Hence the value given by Meyer

1*8

is

13

than

times greater

adopted

that

in

this paper.

M. Meyer, however, has a

different

method of taking account of the

dis-

turbance of the air near the edge of the disk from that given in this paper.

He
of

when the

supposes that

proportional

supposition.

this

of the

disk

oscillating

be shewn that there will be a


disk due

a large extent of

in

even

if

the

think therefore that the difference between M.

be accounted

for,

at

least

the edge of the disk.


in

so

air,

in

The

part,

effect

disk

solution

can easily

it

by

his

disk were

infinitely

thin.

having under-estimated the

much

less in

is

to

effect of

water than

which are given

in

M. Meyer's very valuable

oscillates

disks,

the

in

its

own

amplitude

the

paper.

Experiment.

plane about a vertical axis between two fixed


of

oscillation

diminishing

in

geometrical

pro-

what part of the retardation is due to the viscosity of the


between it and the fixed disks.
That part of the surface of the disk which is not near the edge may be

gression,
air

but

fluid,

Meyer's result and mine

of the edge will be

Mathematical Theory of

is

that any deficiency in the correction will have less influence on the

results for liquids

horizontal

edge

Journal a vindication

increase of friction near the edge of the

finite

the want of continuity,

to

in Crelle's

have not been able to obtain a mathematical

of a disk

case

very thin the effect due to the

is

and he has given

to the thickness,

to

find

treated as part of an

infinite

disk,

and we may assume that

stratum of the fluid oscillates as a whole.

In

fact,

if

the

each

motion

horizontal

of

every

part of each stratum can be accounted for by the actions of the strata above

and below

it, there will be no mutual action between the parts of the stratum,
and therefore no relative motion between its parts.
Let 6 be the angle which defines the angular position of the stratum which

is

at

the distance y from the fixed disk, and let r be the distance of a point

of that stratum from the axis, then its velocity will be r


force

on

its

-i-

and the tangential

lower surfex^e arising from viscosity will be on unit of surface

-^'d^t=^

(')

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

14

The tangential

on the upper surface

force

be

will

and the mass of the stratum per unit of surface


of motion of each stratum

is

pdy, so that the equation

is

d'O

d'd

Pde^-^mi
which

is

The
y=

independent of

r,

shewing that the stratum moves as a whole.

be satisfied are, that

conditions to

(2)'

when y = 0, ^ =

and that when

e=Ce-''co3{nt + a)

h,

(3).

The disk is suspended by a wire whose elasticity of torsion is such that


the moment of torsion due to a torsion 6 is Icj'^O, where / is the moment
The viscosity of the wire is such that an angular
of inertia of the disks.
velocity

disks

-j-

is

resisted

by a moment 2lk

-r-.

The equation of motion

then

is

w-

^(f-^^f-'f^-^Swhere

of the

A = j27rr'dr = ^7rr*,

number of

the

moment

of inertia of each surface,

surfaces exposed to friction of

The equation

for the

motion of the

air

$ = e"" {e^ cos {nt + qy)

may be

by the

is

the

and

q^-f =
the conditions (3) and

solution
(5),

2pq =

fulfil

satisfied

- e~^ cos {nt - qy)}

provided

and in order to

and iV

air.

(6),

P-

(7);

(4),

2ln{l-k)(e^ + e-'^-2cos2qh) = NAfi{{pn-lq)(^-e-'^) + (qn + lp)2Bm2qb}...{8).

Expanding the exponential and


2lh(l

circular functions,

we

find

-k)= NAii{l -icl + ic\n^ - 3?) + ^^^{nH - 1^) + ^\^n* + ^'nH^ - ^l')} (9),

where
Z

= 46>-

= observed

Napierian logarithmic

decrement

of

the

amplitude in unit of

time,
A;

= the

part of the decrement due t^ the viscosity of the wire.

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.

When
are

the

slow as in these experiments,

are

oscillations

near one another, and

when the

density

small

is

the series on the right-hand side of the equation

When

15

is

and the

when the

disks

viscosity

large,

rapidly convergent.

the time from rest to rest was thirty-six seconds, and the interval

between the disks


terms of the series

then

inch,

for

29*9

of pressure

air

inches, the successive

were

+0-24866

l-0-0'00508

+0-00072

+0-00386 = 1-24816;

but when the pressure was reduced to 1*44 inch, the series became

- 0-0002448

1-0

the

made convergent by diminishing the

The

series

disks.

When the distance was -1847 inch, the first


When the pressure was 29*29, the series was
1- -000858 +-000278 = 1- -00058.

sensible.

is

also

The

motion

of

the

where the upper disk

air

is

disks,

will

3,

5,

small,

when

6.

or

if

disks

is

two disks

the

is

between

represented in
oscillates.

fig.

8,

row

at rest form a straight line perpendicular to the

motion assume in succession the forms of the curves

the ratio of the density to the viscosity of the air

If

the time of oscillation

very great, or

is

if

is

1,

2,

very

the interval between

very small, these curves approach more and more nearly to the

form of straight

The

in

between

supposed fixed and the lower one

when

of particles of air which

4,

distance

two terms only were

smaller pressures the series became sensibly =1.

At

the

+ -00000008 + '00000002 = 1-0003321.

-0005768

lines.

chief mathematical difficulty

in

treating the

case of the

moving disks

from the necessity of determining the motion of the air in the neighbourhood of the edge of the disk. If the disk were accompanied in its motion

arises

by an

indefinite

indefinite

ring surrounding

plane

the motion

surface,

the

of

extent; but

if

air

would

it

be

and forming a continuation of


the same as if the disk were

actual

on

effect

the

parts

of the air

of

the ring were removed, the motion of the air in the

neighbourhood of the edge would be diminished, and therefore the


viscosity

its

of

the

near the edge would

disk

on the disk

may

effect of its

be increased.

The

be considered equal to that on a disk

of greater radius forming part of an infinite plane.

Since the correction


diately

we have

to

consider

surrounding the edge of the disk,

is

we may

confined to

the space imme-

treat the edge as

if it

were

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

16

the straight edge of an infinite plane parallel to


of

between two planes

in

infinite

the velocity of the fluid in the direction of

dw

xz,

oscillating in the direction

every direction at distance

Id^w

d^w\

i'lt=i'[T^ + df)

y=h

w;=(rwhen

and

w = Ccos nt when = 0,

and x

is

positive.

is

...

have not succeeded in finding the solution of the equation as

but in the actual experiments the time of oscillation


the

disks

that

we may

d?w

d^w

small,

so

is

(11),

3/

between

be

is*

(!)'

with the conditions

Let

h.

then the equation of motion

z,

so long,

is

neglect

(1 2).

it

stands,

and the space

and the equation

reduced to
^

,,^.

o
5S + d7- =

For the method of treating these conditions I

with the same conditions.


indebted
these

conditions

set

when y = 0, and x is greater than +1, and w= I


In this case we know that the lines of equal values

w=l
1

having their

hyperbolas,

are

the solution of the equation

loci

at the points y

= 0, x= 1, and

If

then

r^

are the distances fi:om the

we put

the

lines

</

for

which

that

is

w^-sin-'"^'
where r

am

who has shewn me how to transform


with which we are more familiar, namely,

Thomson,

another

into

w = when x = 0, and
when X is less than
of

W.

Professor

to

(13)

<f>

(14)

foci.

= - log y(r, + r,Y - 4 + r, + r,}


is

constant

will

be

ellipses

(15),

orthogonal to the

hyperbolas, and

^Mh-'
and the resultant of the
* Professor Stokes "
Phil.

Tram. VoL

viii.

On

friction

^''^'

on any arc of a curve will be proportional

the Theories of the Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion,

(fee,"

Cambridge

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.


to

where

(f>,-<f)^,

value

the

is

(/>

of

at

(ft

17

beginning, and

the

the end

at

<^,

of the given arc.

In the plane y =

fk

18

= -\og

whole

that the

so

2,

when x

0,

very

is

great,

between

friction

= -log4a:, and when

<^

x=l

x='[,

and a very distant point

2,

-log2x.
TT

Now

let

and

be expressed

<^

When 0=-, w = 0.
= 11 and

r greater than

Now

x\ y

let

w=

and r greater than

let

and

and

(13)

y=0

and

= -hQ and

x'

x'

is

friction

will

be

still

true;

(17).

x' and y
and when y

the differential equa-

w = 0,

h,

great,

= j-+-logi, and when

<f)

x'

= 0,

(f>

= -\og2,

on the surface

the same aa

to the surface at

The

curves

+ ^g2

(18),

a portion whose breadth

if

its

edge.

of

equal

velocity

are

represented

They
totes

/,

W, X, Y, arranged

The curves of equal

so that the

is

pass round the edge of the moving disk


F,

and when

TT

2h
is

When

w = l.

|'

which

iv=l.

TT

TT

whole

1,

= -61ogr

be expressed in terms of

(16)

positive,

x'

When

(j)

be stated thus

I.

IT

tions

may

be rectangular co-ordinates, and let


y'

and

the polar co-ordinates

6,

then the conditions

^=

When

1,

terms of r and

in

with respect to the origin as the pole

friction

is

in

log, 2

fig.

AB, and have

had been added

at

u, v, w, x, y.

a set of asymp-

at equal distances parallel to the disks.

are

of these curves approximates to that

represented at

o,

of straight lines

p, q,
as

r,

we

s,

t.

pass

The form
to

the

of the edge of the disk.


VOL.

II.

left

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

18

The dotted
of the

0, P, Q, R, S,

straight lines

vertical

corresponding lines of equal friction

panied by an extension of

its

the disk

if

represent the position

AB

had been accom-

The

surface in the direction of B.

or on any of the curves u,

w,

total friction

that on a surface

equal to

on AB,
extending to the point C, on the supposition that the moving surface has an
accompanying surface which completes the infinite plane.

In

the

the moving disk

case

actual

v,

of a certain thickness terminated

by a

&c.,

is

is

not a mere surface, but a plate

rounded edge.

slightly

therefore be compared to the curve uu" rather than to the axis

The

on the curve

friction

total

is

still

AB.

thickness of

the

If

disks

the

= 26,

disk

is

2/3,

AB.

equal to that on a straight line

extending to C, but the velocity corresponding to the curve


corresponding to the line

may

Its section

is

less

than that

and the distance between the fixed

so that the distance of the surfaces

is

6- A

the breadth of the strip

which must be supposed to be added to the surface at the edge will be


,

= 5log.lo{log2+log..sm^^i|=^}*

In calculating the moment of Section on this

strip,

(19).

we must suppose

be at the same distance from the axis as the actual edge of the disk.
of

^ = -r* m

of h

equation

we must put

It

of

therefore

put A=^'r^ + 2'irr*a, and instead

of z

r* for

in inches

each surface in inches = 1112*8.

and grains was 175337.

was determined by comparing the times of

disks without the


of the

we must

6-/8.

The actual value


The value

(9),

it to

Instead

little

tube and weights

oscillation of

the axis and

magnet, with the times of the brass ring


(fig.

7).

Four

difierent suspension wires

(fig.

4)

and

were used in

these experiments.

The

following Table gives the numbers required for the calculation of each

of the five arrangements of the disks.


This result
disk between

two

is

applicable to the calculation of the electrical capacity of a condenser in the form of a

larger disks at equal distance

from

it.

OF AIR AND OTHER GABES.

Arrangement

19

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

20

6,

The values

of

for the five

that

it

is

easy to eliminate

12, so

that the value of

believe

when steam was


duced two values

cases are roughly in the proportions of

and

and K^,

of K, K^

/x^.

had

1,

2,

4,

reason, however, to

was altered at a certain stage of the experiments

used to heat the

first

find

air

in the receiver.

therefore intro-

the experiments before and after this

into

The values of K^ and K^ deduced from these experiments

change respectively.
were

In ten single vibrations.

^1 = -01568

Z,= -01901.
The value of
is

in

/x

inch-grain-second measure at temperature

Fahrenheit

6P

for air
fi

The value

of

was then calculated

way

(461"+^).

for

each experiment and compared with

mean square of a single experiThe probable error of fi, as determined from the equations,
from this and found to be 0-36 per cent, of its value.
In this

the observed value.

ment was

= -00001492

the error of

found.

was calculated

In order to estimate the value of the evidence in favour of there being a


finite

amount of

the value of

slipping between

for

the disks and the air in contact with them,

each of the forty experiments was found on the

supposition

that

^ = 0027
The

error

of

inch and

mean square

for

/x

= (-000015419)

(461-!-^).

each observation was found to

greater than in the former case; the probable error of

that of
I

fi

= l*6

be

40 per

slightly

cent.,

and

per cent.

have no doubt that the true value of

slipping,

^ was

and that the

original value of

yx

is

/8

is

zero,

that

is,

there

is

no

the best.

As the actual observations were very numerous, and the reduction of them
would occupy a considerable space in this paper, I have given a specimen of
the actual working of one experiment.
Table
observation,

I.

shews the readings of the scale as taken down at the time of


with the times of transit of the middle point of the scale after

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.


the

21

and sixth readings, with the sum of ten successive ampHtudes deduced

fifth

therefrom.

Table

shews the results of this operation as extended to the rest of

II.

experiment 62, and gives the logarithmic decrement


of ten semivibrations, with the

for

each successive period

mean time and corresponding mean

logarithmic

decrement.

shews the method of combining forty experiments of


The observed decrement depends on two unknown quantities, the

Table III.
kinds.

different

viscosity

of air and that of the wire.

The experiments

and

are grouped

together

according

when the

that enter into them, and

the decrements are calculated and

The

calculated

the

to

results

final

compared with the


sums of the decrements are given in the

coefficients

results
last

ment.
it

as

They

LU

fifth

the value of x in the

column.

fifth

arrange-

and

air,

are as independent of the pressure

the calculated values, in which the pressure

calculating

observation.

of

arranged in groups according to the pressure of the

will be seen that the observed values of

fi

column.

Table IV. shews the results of the twelve experiments with the
are

of

have been obtained,

taken into account only in

is

By

arranging

the

values

of

was found that within the range of atmospheric temperature during the course of the experiments the relation between
the viscosity of air and its temperature does not perceptibly differ from that
in

assumed

order of temperature,

in

the calculation.

it

Finally, the experiments were arranged in order of

time, to determine whether the viscosity of the wire increased during the experi-

ments, as

it

did

when steam was

first

used to heat the apparatus.

There did

not appear any decided indication of any alteration in the wire.


Table V. gives the resultant value of

which are employed

Note,

in scientific

added February

experiments, I

made use

6,

fi

in

terms of the different

unit

measurements.

1866.

In

the calculation

of an erroneous value of the

of the results

moment

of

the

of inertia of the

and axi8 = l"012 of the true value, as determined by six series of experiThe
ments with four suspension wires and two kinds of auxiliary weights.

disks

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

22

numbers

the coefficients of

in

the value of

/x

is

in

Table IV.

also too large in the

are

therefore all too large, and

same proportion, and should be

^ = 00001492(461' + ^).
The same

error

ran through

all

the absolute values in other parts of the

paper as sent in to the Royal Society, but to save trouble to the

reader

have corrected them where they occur.

Table

I.

Experiment

62.

Arrangement

Temperature 68" F.

Greater
scale reading

5.

May

Dry
9,

air at pressure 0*55 inch.

1865.

OF AIR

AND OTHER

Table
Equations from which

Number

of

experiments

/x

for air

23

GASES.

III.

was determined

'A6V + e

ON THE VISCOSITY OR INTERNAL FRICTION

24

Table V.
Coefficient

of viscosity in dry

air.

Results.
Units the

and second, and

inch, grain,

Fahrenheit temperature,
/I

At

60" F.

the

= -00001492 (461 + 0) = "006876 + "0000149^.


mean temperature

the foot as unit instead of


(metre,

/x

experiments,

= '000179

(461

^ = -007763.

+ ^).

Taking

In metrical units

gramme, second, and Centigrade temperature),


/x

The

coefficient

= -01878(1 + -00365^).

of viscosity of other gases

to be found from that of air

is

by the ratio of the transpiration time of the gas to that of


determined by Graham*.

by multiplying
air as

of the

the inch,

/x

Postscript.

Received December

7,

1865.

Since the above paper was communicated to the Royal

my

Stokes has directed

Society, Professor

attention to a more recent memoir of M. 0. E. Meyer,

"Ueber die innere Reibung der Case," in Poggendorff's Annalen, cxxv. (1865).
M. Meyer has compared the values of the coefficient of viscosity deduced from
the experiments of Baily by Stokes, with those deduced from the experiments
These values are -000104, -000275, and -000384
of Bessel and of Girault.
respectively, the units being the centimetre, the gramme, and the second.
M. Meyer's own experiments were made by swinging three disks on a vertical
The disks were sometimes placed in contact, and
axis in an air-tight vessel.
sometimes separate, so as to expose either two or six surfaces to the action

The diflference of the logarithmic decrement of oscillation


air.
two arrangements was employed to determine the viscosity of the air.

of the

The

effects

of

the resistance of the air on the axis, mirror,

&c.,

in these

and of

the viscosity of the suspending wires are thus eliminated.

The
so

far

calculations

are

made on the

supposition that the

from each other and from the surface

them, that the

effect

of

the air upon each

of
is

the

moving disks are


which contains
if it were in an

receiver

the same as

infinite space.

At the

distance of 30 millims.,

seconds, the mutual effect of the

and with a period of oscillation of fourteen


would be very small in air at the

disks

* Philosophical Transactions, 1849.

\'i)L.

//

riATi: IX

F^-^lffil

VOL.

Kg.

9.

II.

PLATE

IX.

OF AIR AND OTHER GASES.


In November 1863

ordinary pressure.

arrangement

M.

of

three

disks

brass

except that

Meyer's experiments,

made a

placed
I

on

25
of experiments with an

series

axis

vertical

had then

no

air-tight

exactly

as

in

and

apparatus,

the disks were protected from currents of air by a wooden box only.
I attempted to determine the viscosity of air by means of the observed
I obtained the values
mutual action between the disks at various distances.
of this mutual action for distances under 2 inches, but I found that the results

were so much involved with the unknown motion of the air near the edge of
no dependence on the results unless I had a

the disks, that I could place

complete mathematical theory of the motion near the edge.

In M. Meyer's experiments the time of vibration

effect,

but in rarefied

much

are

of the

disks

is

This,

both the mutual action and the

air

In his calcidations, however, the

increased.

rated.
for

shorter than in most

is

This will diminish the effect of the edge in comparison with the total

of mine.

effect

of the

edge

of the three edges

effect

supposed to be the same, whether they are in contact or sepathink,

account for the large value which he has obtained

will

the viscosity, and for the fact that with the brass disks which vibrate in

14 seconds, he finds the apparent viscosity diminish as the pressure diminishes,


while with the

disks which vibrate in 8 seconds

gla.ss

it

first

increases

and then

diminishes.

M. Meyer concludes that the viscosity varies much less than the pressure,
and that it increases sHghtly with increase of temperature. He finds the value
of

fi

in metrical units (centimetre-gramme-second) at various temperatures,


Temperatare.

my

Viscosity.

8'-3 C.

-000333

2r-5 C.

-000323

34'-4 C.

-000366

experiments,

in

which fixed disks are

ones, the calculation

is

not involved in so great

In

is

interposed
difficulties

between
;

the

moving

and the value of

/x

deduced directly from the observations, whereas the experiments of ML Meyer

give only the value of


reasons

prefer the

-Jfjip,

results

from which

must be determined.

For

these

deduced from experiments with fixed disks

inter-

/x

posed between the moving ones.

M. Meyer has
gases, founded

also

given a mathematical theory of the internal friction of

on the dynamical theory of gases.

this part of his paper, as I

VOL.

II.

shall

not say anything of

wish to confine myself to the results of experiment.


4

[From the Philosophical Transactions, Vol.

XXVIII.

Chi

(Received

the

clvii.]

Dynamical Theory of Gases.

May 16, Read May

31, 1866.)

Theories of the constitution of bodies suppose them either to be continuous


and homogeneous, or to be composed of a finite number of distinct particles or
molecules.

In certain applications of mathematics to physical questions,


to suppose bodies
differential

homogeneous

in order to

make the quantity

element a function of the co-ordinates, but I

theory of this kind has been proposed to account


of bodies.

may

for

am

it is

convenient

of matter in each

not aware that any

the different properties

Indeed the properties of a body supposed to be a uniform plenum

be affirmed dogmatically, but cannot be explained mathematically.


Molecular theories suppose that all bodies, even when they appear to our

senses

homogeneous, consist

of

multitude

of

particles,

or

small

parts

mechanical relations of which constitute the properties of the bodies.

which suppose that the molecules are at rest

theories

be called

statical

even while

motion,

and

theories,

the

body

which

those

is

relative to the

the

suppose

apparently at

rest,

may

the

Those

body may

molecules to be in

be

called

dynamical

theories.

If
rest

in

we adopt a

statical theory,

their positions

of the lines joining their


of a
is

body

and suppose the molecules of a body kept at

of equilibrium
centres,

by the action of

forces in

the directions

we may determine the mechanical

properties

so constructed, if distorted so that the displacement of each molecule

a function of

matical theory
small change

its

co-ordinates

of

bodies

of form

of

when

this

in equilibrium.

kind,

It appears from the mathe-

that the forces called

must always bear a fixed proportion

a small chanofe of volume.

into

play by a

to those excited

by

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

Now we know
that of volume

that in

the

fluids

elasticity

Hence such

considerable.

is

form

of

theories

while

evanescent,

is

not apply to

will

many

In solid bodies the elasticity of form appears in

27

cases

fluids.

be smaller in

to

volume than the theory gives*, so that we are forced


to give up the theory of molecules whose displacements are functions of their
proportion to

that of

when

co-ordinates

at rest, even in the case of solid bodies.

The theory of moving molecules, on the other hand, is not open to these
objections.
The mathematical difficulties in applying the theory are considerable,
and till they are surmounted we cannot fully decide on the appHcability of the

We

theory.

are able, however, to explain a great variety of

phenomena by the

dynamical theory which have not been hitherto explained otherwise.

The dynamical theory supposes that the molecules of


about their positions of equilibrium, but do not travel
another in the body.

moving

into

new

be always under the

action

to

constantly

In liquids the molecules are supposed

the

of

position

be

same molecule may travel from

relative positions, so that the

throughout their course, but in gases


molecule

bodies oscillate

one

In fluids the molecules are supposed to

one part of the fluid to any other part.


to

solid

from

forces

the

due

greater

neighbouring

to

part

molecules

path

the

of

of

each

supposed to be sensibly rectilinear and beyond the sphere of sensible

is

action of the neighbouring molecules.

propose in this paper to apply this theory to the explanation of various

of

properties
pressure,

gases,

density,

explanation of the
its

and to shew

and

that,

temperature

known chemical

equivalent weight,

commonly

in

accounting for the relations of

besides

single

relation

called the

gas,

it

affords

mechanical

between the density of a gas and

Law

of Equivalent Volumes.

It also

explains the diff'usion of one gas through another, the internal friction of a gas,

and the conduction of heat through

The opinion that the observed


are

due to the action of

Lucretius.

gases.

properties of visible bodies apparently at rest

invisible molecules in rapid

motion

modified by Epicurus, he describes the invisible atoms as

with

is

to be found in

In the exposition which he gives of the theories of Democritus as

equal

imperceptible

velocities,

which,

at

quite

uncertain

times

change, just enough to allow of occasional

all

moving downwards

and

places,

collisions

suffer

an

taking place

* In glass, according to Dr Everett's second series of experiments (1866), the i-atio of the elasticity of
form to that of volume is greater than that given by the theory.
In brass and steel it is less.

March

7,

1867.

42

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

28

between the atoms.

These atoms he supposes to set small bodies in motion by

may form some

an action of which we

The language

a sunbeam.

conception by looking at the motes in


must of course be interpreted according
but we need not wonder that it suggested

of Lucretius

to

the physical ideas of his age,

to

Le Sage the fundamental conception

of his theory

as well

of gases,

as

his

doctrine of ultramundane corpuscles.

Professor

Clausius,

whom we owe

to

the most extensive

the dynamical theory of gases, has given* a


or

list

of authors

given countenance to any theory of invisible particles in

developments of

who have adopted


motion.
Of these,

Daniel Bernoulli, in the tenth section of his Hydrodynamics, distinctly explains


the pressure of air by the impact of
containing

Clausius also mentions a book entitled


publics par Pierre Prevost,

du

Geneve

second,

explains gravity
corpuscles

which

in

also

their

et

is

comme

Paris,

Deux

Traites de Physique MScanique,

comme Auteur
by G. Le Sage, who

simple Editeur du premier et

The

1818.

first

memoir

is

by the impact of "ultramundane corpuscles" on bodies. These


in motion the particles of light and various ethereal media,
turn act on the molecules of gases and keep up their motions.

set

His theory of impact


gases

on the sides of the vessel

particles

its

it.

essentially

is

but his explanation of the expansive force of

faulty,

the same as

in

the

theory as

dynamical

it

now

stands.

The second memoir, by Prevost, contains new applications of the principles of


Le Sage to gases and to light. A more extensive application of the theory of
His theory of the collisions of
moving molecules was made by Herapathf.
perfectly

hard

inasmuch as

it

bodies,

such

makes the

he

as

result

supposes

the

molecules

the bodies, so that by experiments on such hard bodies

we might determine the


earth
of

direction

be,

is

faulty,

we

(if

could get them)

and velocity of the motion of the

This author, however, has applied his theory to the numerical results

experiment

often

of

J.

absolute

to

depend on the absolute motion of

of impact

in

throw much

many

cases,

real light

and

his

speculations are

on the questions treated.

always ingenious, and

In particular, the theory

temperature and pressure in gases and the theory of diffusion are

clearly

pointed out.
Poggendorffs Anncdm, Jan. 1862.

Translated hj G. C. Foster, B.A,, Phil. Mag. June, 1862,

t MatheTnatical Physics, kc., by John Herapath, Esq.


Herapath's Railway Journal Office, 1847.
% Mathematical Physics,

(fee, p.

134.

2 vols.

London

Whittaker and

Co.,

and

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

Dr Joule*
molecules,

29

has also explained the pressure of gases by the impact of their

the velocity which they must have in order to

and has calculated

produce the pressure observed in particular gases.


It

Professor

to

is

Clauslus,

of heat are well known,

of

we owe

that

Zurich,

most

the

complete

His other researches on the general dynamical theory

dynamical theory of gases.

and

his

memoirs On

the hind

of Motion which we

call

Heat, are a complete exposition of the molecular theory adopted in this paper.
After

reading

his

between successive

of

the

described

distance

by each molecule

some propositions J on the motions and

I published

of perfectly elastic spheres,

collisions

especially the
also

investigation -fcollisions,

and deduced

several

of

properties

law of equivalent volumes, and the nature of gaseous

gases,

friction.

gave a theory of diffusion of gases, which I now know to be erroneous,

and there were several

errors in

my

theory of the conduction of heat in gases

which M. Clausius has pointed out in an elaborate memoir on that subject

M. 0. E. Meyer" has

also

investigated

the

theory of internal friction on

the hypothesis of hard elastic molecules.

In the present paper I


as

elastic

propose

spheres of definite radius,

to

consider the molecules

of

a gas, not

but as small bodies or groups of smaller

molecules repelling one another with a force whose direction always passes very
nearly through the centres of gravity of the molecules,
is

and whose magnitude

represented very nearly by some function of the distance of the centres of

gravity.
results

of

have made this modification of the theory in consequence of the

my

experiments on the viscosity of

I have deduced from these


fifth

air at different temperatures,

experiments that the repulsion

is

and

inversely as the

power of the distance.


If

number

we suppose an imaginary plane drawn through a vessel containing a


of such molecules in motion, then a great many molecules will

the plane in either direction.

cross

The excess of the mass of those which traverse

the plane in the positive direction over that of those which traverse
negative direction, gives a measure of

the flow of gas through

it

* Some Remarks on Heat and

the Constitution of Elastic Fluids, Oct. 3, 1848.


t Phil. Mag. Feb. 1859.
" Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases," Phil. Mag. 1860, January and July.
X

Poggendorff, Jan. 1862; Phil. Mag. June, 1862.

II

"Ueber

Reibung der Gase"

(Poggendorflf, Vol. cxxv. 1865).

in the

the plane in

the positive direction.

die innere

great

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

30
If the plane be

made

move with such a

to

of flow of molecules in one direction through


is

the

mean

There

velocity that there

it,

is

no excess

then the velocity of the plane

velocity of the gas resolved normal to the plane.

will

still

be molecules moving in both directions through the plane,

and carrying with them a certain amount of momentum into the portion of
gas which

lies

on the other side of the plane.

The quantity of momentum thus communicated


of the plane during a unit of time

side

by the

this gas

If the

This force

rest.

is

the

other

called the pressure of the gas.

of the molecules

velocities

the gas on

to

a measure of the force exerted on

is

moving

in different directions

were inde-

pendent of one another, then the pressure at any point of the gas need not
be the same in

all

and the pressure between two portions

directions,

need

separated by a plane

not

be

perpendicular

account for the observed equality of pressure in

that

to

gas

we must suppose

directions,

all

of

Hence, to

plane.

some cause equalizing the motion in all directions. This we find in the deflection
of the path of one particle by another when they come near one another.
Since,

however, this equalization of motion

in

directions

all

when the gas


pressures

rise

to

phenomena

the
in

all

strain

of

viscosity

thesis, as follows

A
F

distortion or

be written

kind of

F=ES,

strain.

may

of

equality in

perfect

or

viscosity

internal

friction.

the

The

be described, independently of hypo-

where

some kind, which we may

The

thus excited.

is

bodies

of

the body by displacement.


call

not instantaneous, the pressures

a state of motion, the want

in

is

gives

phenomena of

is

are perfectly equalized only in the case of a gas at rest, but

state
relation

is

of

stress

or

call

elastic

between the

stress

produced in

S, is

force

which we

and the

strain

may
may

the coefficient of elasticity for that particular

In a solid body free from viscosity,

will

remain

= ^>S, and

dF^-p^dS
'

dt
If,

however, the body

is

viscous,

dt

wUl not remain constant, but will tend to


of F, and on the nature of the

disappear at a rate depending on the value

body.

If

we suppose

this rate proportional to F, the equation

dF_j^dS_F
dt

dt

T'

may

be written

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF OASES.


which

indicate

will

the actual

phenomena

81

an empirical

in

For

manner.

if

*S'

be constant,

F=ESe'K
shewing that

gradually disappears,

gradually loses any internal stress,

that

so

if

the body

and the pressures are

is

to

left

finally

itself

it

distributed as

in a fluid at rest.

If

is

-J
at

constant, that

is,

if

there

a steady motion of the body which

is

continually increases the displacement,

shewing that

The quantity FT,

ment.

to get the force,

of a

tends to a constant value depending on the rate of

may

T may

F, and a time

of the elastic force.

of a second, and

is

In mobile

T may

the product

is

which may be called the ''time

T,

fluids

is

a very small fraction

not easily determined experimentally.

be several hours or days, and then

that in some bodies

It

be called the coeflScient of viscosity.

coefficient of elasticity,

of relaxation"

displax^e-

by which the rate of displacement must be multipUed

is

In viscous

easily measured.

It

be a function of F, and this would

is

solids

possible

account

for

the gradual untwisting of wires after being twisted beyond the limit of perfect
increases, the parts of the wire furthest
For if T diminishes as
elasticity.

from the axis will yield more rapidly than the parts near the axis during the
twisting process, and when the twisting force is removed, the wire will at first
there is equilibrium between the stresses in the inner and outer
These stresses will then undergo a gradual relaxation; but since the
actual value of the stress is greater in the outer layers, it will have a more
rapid rate of relaxation, so that the wire will go on gradually untwisting for

untwist

till

portions.

some houra or days, owing to the


itself

stress

longer than that of the outer parts.

on the interior

portions

maintaining

This phenomenon was observed by

in silk fibres, by Kohlrausch in glass fibres, and by myself in steel wires.


In the case of a collection of moving molecules such as we suppose a gas
be
to be, there is also a resistance to change of form, constituting what may
gives
resistance
this
called 'the linear elasticity, or "rigidity" of the gas, but

Weber

way and

diminishes at a rate depending on the amount of the force and on

the nature of the gas.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

32

Suppose the molecules to be confined in a rectangular vessel with


elastic

and that they have no action on one another,

sides,

strike one another, or cause

Then

perfectly-

so that they never

each other to deviate from their rectilinear paths.

can easily be shewn that the pressures on the sides of the vessel due

it

to the impacts of the molecules are perfectly independent of each other, so that

the mass of moving molecules will behave, not like a

Now

soHd.

Then

first

fluid,

but like an

elastic

equal in the three directions perpen-

the sides, and let the dimensions a,

dicular to

by small

suppose the pressures at

h,

of the

be altered

vessel

quantities, 8a, 86, Be.

the original pressure in the direction of a was p,

if

or if there

is

8a

86

it will

become

Be

no change of volume,

pa'

^=-2
shewing that in this case there
the coefficient

is

2p.

The

This rigidity, however,


continually deflect each

pressure in
great,

all

but not

a "longitudinal" elasticity of form of which

"Rigidity"

is

therefore =J9.

cannot be directly observed, because the

molecules

other from their rectilinear courses, and so equalize the

directions.
infinite;

is

coefficient of

The rate at which this equalization takes place is


and therefore there remains a certain inequahty of

phenomenon of viscosity.
by experiment that the coefficient of viscosity in a given gas
the density, and proportional to the absolute temperature, so

pressure which constitutes the


I have found
is

independent of

that

if

ET

be the viscosity,

But E=p,
and

is

ETa:^

therefore T, the time of relaxation, varies inversely as the density

independent of the temperature.

Hence the number of

ducing a given deflection which take place in unit of time

is

collisions pro-

independent of

is,
of the velocity of the molecules, and is proportional
If we suppose the molecules
number of molecules in unit of volume.
hard elastic bodies, the number of collisions of a given kind will be proportional
to the velocity, but if we suppose them centres of force, the angle of deflection
will be smaller when the velocity is greater; and if the force is inversely as
the fifth power of the distance, the number of deflections of a given kind will

the temperature, that


to

the

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF


be independent of the velocity.

Hence

GASES.

33

have adopted this law

in

making

my

calculations.

The
to

mutual action of the molecules

of the

effect

the pressure in

all

directions, but,

when molecules

communicate motion from the one kind

the

to

other.

that the final result in the case of hard elastic bodies


ins

viva of a molecule

Now

to be the

due

pressure

the

same

for all the

each molecule

to

is

not only to equalize

is

of different kinds are present,

formerly shewed

to cause the averaore


o

is

kinds of molecules.

different

proportional to

its

vis

hence

viva,

the whole pressure due to a given number of molecules in a given volume will

be the same whatever the mass of

the

different kinds are permitted freely to

When
is

the flow of vis viva from

the temperature

zero,

gases

different

is

said

to

molecules,

the

the

molecules

of

other.

kind of molecules to the other

one

the

be

Hence equal volumes


equal numbers

same.

equal pressures and temperatures

at

provided

communicate motion to each

contain

of
of

molecules.

This result of the dynamical theory affords the explanation of the "law of
equivalent volumes" in gases.

We

that this result

see

shall

of force.

centres

is

true in

the case of

law of the same general character

is

molecules acting as

probably to be found

connecting the temperatures of liquid and solid bodies with the energy possessed

by

although our ignorance

molecules,

their

between the molecules renders

The molecules
of force

by their

the

of

nature

of

the

connexions

to enunciate the precise form of the law.

gas in this theory are those portions of

of a

about as a single body.

velocity.

it difficult

These molecules

may

it

which move

be mere points, or pure centres

endowed with inertia, or the capacity of performing work whOe losing


They may be systems of several such centres of force, bound together
mutual actions, and in this case the different centres may either be

separated, so

form a group of points, or they

to

as

may

be actually coincident,

so as to form one point.


Finally,

if

necessary,

determinate form
the parts
of the

of these

small

second order.

two portions

we may suppose them

to

be

small

solid bodies of a

but in this case we must assume a new set of forces binding


bodies together,

The doctrines that

of matter

and
all

so

introduce a molecular theory

matter

is

extended, and that no

can coincide in the same place,

being deductions from


our experiments with bodies sensible to us, have no application to the theory
of molecules.

VOL. n.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

34

The actual energy of a moving body consists of two parts, one due to the
its centre of gravity, and the other due to the motions of its parts
If the body is of invariable form, the motions
relative to the centre of gravity.
motion of

parts

of its
if

relative

the centre of

to

gravity consist entirely of rotation,

may

the parts of the body are not rigidly connected, their motions

but

consist

of oscillations of various kinds, as well as rotation of the whole body.

The mutual interference of the molecules

courses will cause their

their

in

energy of motion to be distributed in a certain ratio between that due to the

motion of the centre of gravity and that due to the rotation, or other internal
motion.
If the molecules are pure centres of force, there can be no energy of
rotation,

and the whole energy

other cases

where
ratio

^ is
^ will

molecule

the whole

is

may be

for

dijBferent

with

another

molecule,

but

it

The value

specific heats of

is

can be determined

investigation which

determine the mean

to

if

we know

the

mean

(^) the

mean

velocities

The

shall

adopt in the following

paper,

velocity resolved parallel to each of the coordinate axes

values of

functions

of

two dimensions of these component

mean

values of functions of three dimensions of these velocities.

rate of translation of the gas, whether

another gas,

is

given by

(a),

of heat through the gas

is

by

itself,

the pressure of the

normal or tangential to the plane,

the

the

(y)

of

either

values of the following functions of the velocity of

the molecules of a given kind within, an element of volume


(a)

an

been shown

the gas, or the ratio between them.

The method of
all

of

have

will

average value depending on the nature of the molecules, as has

by Clausius.

The

translation.

every molecule, and will be different for the same

every encounter

after

all

represented by ^Mif^,

the ratio of the total energy to the energy of

be

but in

reduced to that of translation;

energy of the molecule

is

given by

given by

(/8),

or

gas on

by

diffusion

through

any plane, whether

and the rate of conduction

(y).

propose to determine the variations of these quantities, due,

1st,

to the

encounters of the molecules with others of the same system or of a different


and 3rd, to the
2nd, to the action of external forces such as gravity
system
;

passage of molecules through the boundary of the element of volume.


I shall then apply these calculations to the determination of the statical
caaes

of

the final

distribution

of

two gases under the action of

gravity,

the

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


equilibrium

35

temperature between two gases, and the distribution of tempecolumn. These results are independent of the law of force

of

rature in a vertical

between the molecules.

shall

also

consider the

dynamical cases of

and conduction of heat, which involve the law of

viscosity,

diffusion,

between the

force

molecules.

On
Let

ry,,

of

Mutual Action of Two Molecules.


molecules

these

The components of the

4.

be

three directions at right angles

resolved in
^,,

masses

the

the

if,,

Jf,,

each

to

and

let

be

other

their
^,,

velocities

17,,

{,

velocity of the centre of gravity of the

and
two

molecules will be

+ ^A
M, + M,

rnMr+vM.
M, + M,

^,if,

'

The motion of the centre of gravity


action

of

therefore

moving

the molecules,

of

LM. + LM.
M,-^M,

'

not be altered by the

will

whatever nature

that

action

may

mutual

"We

be.

may

take the centre of gravity as the origin of a system of coordinates


parallel

to

itself

with uniform velocity, and consider the alteration of

the motion of each particle with reference to this point as origin.


If

we regard

the molecules as simple centres of force, then each molecule

curve about this centre of gravity,

and the two curves

will

describe a plane

will

be similar to each other and synmietrioal with respect to the line of apses.

If the molecules

move with

sufficient velocity to

carry

them out

of the sphere

of their mutual action, their orbits wiU each have a pair of asymptotes inclined
at an angle

7^

to the line

wlQ be at a distance
distance 6 where

b^

of apses.

from the

The asymptotes of the

centre

of

gravity,

and

those

of 3/,

orbit

of

M^

at

MA = M,b,.
The

distance between

two

parallel asymptotes,

one in each

orbit, will

be

b = b, + h,.
If,

while the two molecules are stiU beyond each other's action,

we draw

a straight line through J/, in the direction of the relative velocity of 3/, to

Mj, and draw from M, a perpendicular to this

line,

the length of this perpen-

52

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

36
dicular will be

and the plane including

6,

When,

mutual action and

their

after

and the direction of

motion

relative

about the centre of gravity.

will be the plane of the orbits

reached a distance such that there

is

the molecules have

deflection,

no sensible action

between

again

them, each

be moving with the same velocity relative to the centre of gravity that
had before the mutual action, but the direction of this relative velocity will
be turned through an angle 2^ in the plane of the orbit.
The angle ^ is a function of the relative velocity of the molecules and of
b,
the form of the function depending on the nature of the action between
will
it

the molecules.

we suppose the

If

molecules to be bodies, or systems of bodies, capable of

internal vibration,

rotation,

any form of energy other than simple motion of

or

The value of 6 and the final velocities


amount of internal energy in each molecule

translation, these results will be modified.

of the molecules will depend on the


before the encounter,

and on the particular form of that energy at every instant


We have no means of determining such intricate

during the mutual action.

our knowledge of molecules,

the present state of

actions in

content ourselves with the assumption that the value of

so that
is,

we must

on an average,

the same as for pure centres of force, and that the final velocities differ from
the

only by quantities which

initial velocities

although in a great

many

energy of the molecules

which we

We

may now

in each collision be neglected,

by repeated small exchanges,

arrive,

suppose to be that of

shall

may

encounters the energy of translation and the internal

determine the

to

/3

at

a final

ratio,

1.

final velocity of

M^

beyond

after it has passed

the sphere of mutual action between itself and M^.

Let

be the velocity of

31^

relative to M^, then

#i^l^2,

The plane
inclined

the

<^

direction

while

of

is

is

turned

Calling

= ^^ +

it

that containing

find

the value of

^^

after the

^'i,

M!fw, ^^

- ^^)

are

V and b. Let this plane be


and parallel to the axis of x then, since
round an angle 2^ in the plane of the orbit,

plane containing

L-L-

magnitude remains the same, we may

its

encounter.

^'^

the orbit

of

to a

Vi-V2,

the components of

^ '"'^^ "^

Av.-V.Y + {L-LY sin

20cos<l>}

(1).

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


There

be similar expressions for the components of the

will

of if, in the other coordinate

we know

If

37

the

positions

initial

final

velocity

3/,

we can

directions.

and

of

velocities

and

3f,

determine F, the velocity of M, relative to M^; h the shortest distance between


if, and il/j if they had continued to move with uniform velocity in straight
lines

and

From

<f)

and

problem

angle which

the
h

determines

we can determine

6,

if

plane

the

which

in

we know the law

and

lie.

of force, so that the

solved in the case of two molecules.

is

pass from this case to that of two systems of moving molecules,


suppose that the time during which a molecule is beyond the action
of other molecules is so great compared with the time during which it ia
deflected by that action, that we may neglect both the time and the distance

When we

we

shall

described

by the molecules during the encounter,

compared with the time

as

and the distance described while the molecules are free from disturbing force.
may also neglect those cases in which three or more molecules are within

We

each other's spheres of action at the same instant.

On

the

Mutual Action of Two Systems of Moving

Let the number of molecules of the


the

be

first

kind

in

Molecv.les.

unit of volume

mass of each being J/,. The velocities of these molecules will


Let us select those
different both in magnitude and direction.

the components of whose velocities

f and
,

^1

+ cZ^i

let

will

be very nearly equal and

On

account of

and

77,

+ d-q,

so

molecules

L and
The

^^

+ dt

velocities of these molecules

instant

have

molecules, the

velocities

within

nimiber of mole-

given 'limits

shall consider the

Let

the

y^, and let


C,

and

it

\\aLl

be

that

dN,=f{i,'n,Qdi4^Mr

We

^V,,

parallel.

the mutual actions of the

which at a given

definite,

-q^

be

general

between

the number of these molecules be dN^.

and

cules

lie

in

(^)-

form of this function aftei wards.

number of molecules of the second kind


dN^ of these have velocities between ^; and

+ d^, where
dX,=f(i,r).Z.)deM4L.

in
^,

unit of

+ c?^3,

i^;

volume be

and

t;,

c/t;.^


THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

38

The

dN^ molecules

of any of the

velocity

system

the dNt molecules of the second


the time

describe a relative

St

is

of the

path Vdt among

Conceive a space bounded by the following surfaces.

surfaces

have the common axis

be drawn
let

and

Vht and radii b

Let two

+ dh.

Let

Vht perpendicular to

vsdll

in

the second

molecules of

the

system.

through the extremities of the line

system relative to

first

and each molecule M^

V,

cylindrical

two

planes
Finally,

it.

and
+ d({> with a plane
two planes be drawn through Vht making angles
V parallel to the axis of x. Then the volume included between the
(f)

(f>

through

will be Vbdbd<f>ht.
one of the molecules M,, then during the time

and the two cylindric surfaces

four planes

If this volume includes

there will be an encounter between


h

M^ and M^,

which b

in

ht

between b and

is

and
+ d(f>.
dN^ molecules similar to M^ and dN^ similar to M, in unit
volume, the whole number of encounters of the given kind between the two

+ db, and

between

(f)

<f)

<f)

Since there are

of

systems will be
Vbdbd<f>BtdN,dN,.

Now

be any property of the molecule M^, such as

let

its velocity in

any other property of the


a known manner by an encounter of the given

given direction, the square or cube of that velocity or

molecule which
kind,
certain

is

so that

number

in

altered

becomes Q' after

the

the time

during

then

encounter,

of the molecules of the first kind have

changed to

Q',

Bt

while

the remainder retain the original value of Q, so that

BQdN, = W-Q) Vbdbd<j>BtdN,dN

^-^^ = {Qf-Q)VbdU^dN,dN,

or

Here

29^^ refers

to the alteration in the

sum

(3).

of the values of

for the

ot

dNi molecules, due to


of the second sort.
alteration

of

dN^ molecules

their encounters of the given kind with the

order to determine the value of

In

Q among

'

all

the molecules of the

first

g^

kind,

the

rate

of

we must perform

the following integrations:


1st,

with respect to

2nd, with

respect

<j>

to

from
b

<;^

to

from 6 =

<^

= 2ir.

to

6=oo.

These

operations will give

39

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


the results of the

encounters of every kind

between the dN^ and dN, mole-

cules.

3rd,

with respect to

4th,

with respect to

dN
dN

action between the

we

(a)

Let

molecules

shall first determine

making Q some function

Q = ^, and

of
Q'

knowledge of the forms of/i and/,.

Integration with respect to

1st.

Since the

(^^t?,^) c^^/Zr^.c?^,.

ov /^{^,rj^Qd^4vi<iLin general a

These operations require

takes place,

or /

^,

77,

= i\,

is

the

the value of

and

<f).

same
{Q'

in

whatever plane

Q)d<j>'m

several cases,

^.

then

jy.-Qd<f> = j^^{i.-l)^nsin'0
{^)

Let

Q = l' and

Q'

(4).

= e',

^'

+(^-LY-2{i,-^,y}7rsm^2d-]

By

transformation of coordinates

r V.V, - iv,)

'"

d<i>

we may

T^m' H^^'f* -

-'^'f''

(f-''"

+ f'''')} ^" ^">' ^

-3M.($,-l){v,-V,)]
with similar expressions

(5).

derive from this

+ i (^' - ^^=)

for the other quadratic

functions of

i,

t),

(6),

C-

Q = id^,' + + L% and Q' = ei{i7 + v' + i\'); then putting


^.'
1.' + L' = v,\
+ a, = u, a + + ^' = v^\
LL +
and (^,-^,)' + (^.-^0' + (^.-W=^^ ^e find
(y)

Let

'n,'

-n.'

ri.-n.,

^yj\^-Ly^)d<i>=^^^^.sm^e{(L-L)v,^^2UU-v,')]
+

[^^){^^ sin' e -

Stt sin'

29) 2 (f,

- Q ( U-

V^)
(7).

M,

(87rsin'^ + 27rsin'2^)f,F'

+ (^;^J(8^sin'^-2^sin' 2d) 2 {^.-QV^

it

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

40

These are the principal functions of

we

consider;

function of the velocity

is

We

In

the

Integration with respect

to 6

oo

V,

which we

expressions

and

B,=

have

sin' 20.

We

to

shall

have to

or y, according as the

/8,

to b.

B^ and B^

be functions of

find the

known.

two values of
(8),

b.

only, the form of

we have found

a function
is

nbdbsm'^e

integrate all the expressions with respect to


will

is

under two forms

$ occurs

we can

and B,=

mind that ^

in

the law of force

deal with,

therefore,

If,

iTrhdhsm'd,

only in particular cases, after

which we can determine

^ as a function of b and V.

for certain laws of Force.

Determination of

sive

must bear

determined when

and can only be

only, namely, sin' 6

we can

a,

have next to multiply these expressions by hdb, and to integrate with


to b from h

and

of h

whose changes we

of one, two, or three dimensions.

2nd.

respect

rj,

^,

them by the symbols

indicate

shall

Let us assume that the force between the molecules M^ and M^ is repuland vanes inversely as the nth power of the distance between them, the

value of

the

moving

force

distance unity being K,

at

then

we

find

by the

equation of central orbits,


TT

1-'<

'\
n

J,
where x = -, or the ratio of
time
is

is

therefore

to

the

''''

/.v1 \a,

distance

a numerical quantity

is

of

the

molecules at a given

also a numerical quantity

and

given by the equation

-J. T^^a^^
The

limits of integration are

x Q and x = x', where

(10)

x' is

the least positive

root of the equation

i-^-4:(r=

(")

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


It

may

evident that 6

is

and A,

will

given, and

which

will

is

known

^''^'

will

7rac?a sin'

be definite numerical quantities which


jBj

and

-B,

2^

(13),

may be

ascertained

may

be found by multiplying A^ and A, by

M,M,

when

to multiply by V, so that the form in


have to be integrated with respect
which
enter into the expressions

dN^ and dN,

It

A,=

47rac?a sin' ^,

Before integrating further

to

and when n

we put
^, =

is

of a and n,

function

'''={^m^r^^

30 that if

a,

be expressed as a function of a only.

^-

Ay^

la

41

will

we have

be

be shewn that

we have

reason from experiments

on the viscosity

In this case V will disappear from the expresof gases to believe that n = 5.
sions of the form (3), and they will be capable of immediate integration with
respect to dN^ and dN,.

If

we assume n = 5 and put

a*

f
= 2 cot' 2(f> and x = Jl- tan' <^ cos

y\iy

|-^ = ^"^'2'^jo7l-sin'<^8in'l,

(14),

Jcoa24F^i^4

where

-Fg^^

is

the complete elliptic function of the

Legendre's Tables.

asymptotes, the distance of the apse, the value of

summation leads to A^ and


VOL.

II.

first

kind and

is

given in

I have computed the following Table of the distance of the


6,

and of the quantities whose

A^.

42

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF

t),
&c., already determined, and f, is the
is some function of ^,
{,
which indicates the distribution of velocity among the molecules of the

where

43

GASES.

function

second kind.

In the case

which n =

in

5,

and

mean value of Q for all the molecules


the number of those molecules.

is

A^, is

not equal to

is

know the form

to

of

so that

5,

the

of

the

however, n

If,

require

result

Q^v

of integration

where

and we may write the

disappears,

second kind,

does not disappear,

the function f, before

we

we should

could proceed further

with the integration.

The

only

case

in

that of one or more

which I have determined the form of

this

function

is

kinds of molecules which have by their continual encoun-

brought about a distribution of velocity such that the number of molecules

ters

whose velocity

lies

In the Philosophical

within given limits remains constant.

I have given an investigation of this case, founded

Magazine

for January 1860,


on the assumption that the probability of a molecule having a velocity resolved

to

parallel

x lying between given

limits

is

way

not in any

knowledge that the molecule has a given velocity resolved


assumption

this

may

appear precarious, I shall

affected

parallel

now determine

to

by the
As

y.

the form of the

function in a different manner.

On

Final Distribution of Velocity among the Molecules of Two Systems acting


on one another according to any Law of Force.

the

From a
direction
either
will

given point

be drawn representing in

velocities

kind in unit of volume.

of

every

The extremities

molecule

of these

be distributed over space in such a way that

ment of volume
lines

let lines

and magnitude the

which

will

dV

OA = a

be

that of a molecule

dV

if

an

ele-

anywhere, the number of such

terminate within

r is the distance o{

Let

be taken

of

lines

dV

will

be f{r)dV,

where

from O.

the velocity of a molecule of the

first

kind,

and

OB = b

of the second kind before they encounter one another, then

62

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

44

BA

he

will

the

velocity

of

relative

to

B; and

inversely as the masses of the molecules, and join

of the centre of gravity of the

Now

let

OG,

if

we

OG

divide

will

AB

in.

be the velocity

two molecules.

OA' = a' and OR = b' be the velocities of the two molecules after
GA = GA' and GB = GR, and A'GE is a straight Hne not

encounter,

the

the plane of

necessarily in

the relative velocity


molecules

of the

is

is

OAB.

AGA' = 20

Also

is

the angle through which

turned in the encounter in question.

completely defined

we know

if

The

relative

motion

BA the relative velocity


BA is turned during the

2$ the angle through which


and ^ the angle which defines the direction of the plane in which
BA and RA' lie. All encounters in which the magnitude and direction of BA,
and also 9 and <^, lie within certain almost contiguous limits, we shall class
The number of such encounters in unit of
as encounters of the given kind.
the

before

encounter,

encounter,

time will be

n^n^de
where

n,

and

Wj are

(17),

the numbers of molecules of each kind under consideration,


and of the angle 6, and de depends

i^ is a fiinction of the relative velocity

and

on the Umits of variation within which we class encounters as of the same kind.

and

Now let A
A'R move

describe

the boundary of an element of volume

parallel to themselves, then B,

A\ and

will

dV

while

also

AB

describe

equal and similar elements of volume.

The number of molecules


cities of

of the

first

which terminate in the element

kind, the

dV

n,=f,{a)dV
The number
to

OB

will

lines representing the

velo-

at A, will be
(18).

of molecules of the second kind which have velocities corresponding

be

n,=f._{h)dV

and the number of encounters of the

(19);

given kind between these two sets of

molecules will be

f,(a)Mb){dVYFdc

(20).

lines representing the velocities of these molecules after encounters of the


given kind will terminate within elements of volume at A' and R, each equal

The
to

dV.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


In

we should

manner

like

the number of

for

find

45

encounters

between

dV

described

molecules whose original velocities corresponded to elements equal to

about A' and B', and whose subsequent velocities correspond to elements equal
to c^F described

where F'

is

about

and B,

MaU(V)(dV)'Fde
RA' and A'GA

the same function of

is

of

is

BA

OB

OAy
OA,

to

the number of pairs of molecules which change their velocities from

OR

OA',

to

OB,

equal

is

then the

to

velocity

of

will

be

the only relation between

whence we obtain

a,

and

This will be the case

when

(23),

= Cy^

(24),

= C,e~^\

f,(b)

M,a' = MJ3"-

where

By

integrating

molecules

is

*'

jjjC^e'
C^.

and equating

didrj dC,

the

therefore,

If,

rf

and

rj

+ drj, and

dN,= ^\e~

This
also

of

distribution

this

velocities

among the molecules by


is

distribution

and
"'

aV

velocities

(25).

the

result

of velocities

to

xV

among

we
.V,

such that the number of molecules whose component velocities are

between i and ^+dC,

is

(22).

h' is

a',

M,a' + M,lf = M,a' + M.p,


f,{a)

obtain the value of

which

obtained,

fMMi)=fM)MV)
Now

OB

number which change from OA',

the

distribution

final

not be altered by subsequent exchanges.

then

AGA'.

and

therefore equal to F'.

When

will

(21),

that

therefore

only

the

+ dC

is

did-qdC

not

will

their

mutual

be

(26),

altered

by the exchange

a possible form of the final distribution of velocities.

form

for

if

there

of

action.

were any

other,

It

the exchange between

Suppose that the


represented by OA and OA' would not be equal.
number of molecules having velocity OA' increases at the expense of OA.
Then since the total number of molecules corresponding to OA' remains constant,
OA' must communicate as many to OA", and so on till they return to OA.

velocities

Hence

if

OA,

OA',

OA",

&c.

be a

series

of

velocities,

there will

be a

tendency of each molecule to assume the velocities OA, OA', OA", &c. in order,
returning to OA.

Now

it

is

impossible

to

assign a

reason

why

the successive

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

46

of a molecule

velocities

reverse

order.

If,

the direct exchange between

equal,

the equality cannot be

direct

exchange between

determined

OA

velocity

and OA'

and OA'

equal,

is

not

is

Hence the

preserved by exchange in a cycle.

This final distribution of velocity

number of

had a great

each

succeed

encounters,

and the distribution we have

other

is

attained only

but the great


such

is

that

system except the most violent,

the gaseous

OA

the only one possible.

is

encounters

rather than in the

should be arranged in this cycle,

therefore,

in

the

all

when the

molecules have

with

rapidity

which the

motions and changes of

form

of the

distribution of

only slightly changed.

is

When the gas moves in mass, the velocities now determined are
pounded with the motion of translation of the gas.
When

com-

the differential elements of the gas are changing their figure, being

compressed or extended along certain axes, the values of the mean square of
the velocity will be different in different

directions.

It

is

probable

that the

form of the function will then be

Am)=-^ie-i^'''^^

(27),

apyrr

where

a,

$,

I have not, however, attempted to investi-

are slightly different.

gate the exact distribution of velocities in this case, as the theory of motion
of gases does not require

When
through

one gas
gas,

and negative

is

it.

diffusing through another, or

the distribution of velocities will

directions,

when heat

instead of being symmetrical,

as in

considered.

The want of symmetry, however, may be treated

most actual

cases.

The

principal

as follows.

conclusions which

being conducted

is

be different in the positive

we may draw from

this

the case
as

we have

very small in

investigation

Calling a the modulus of velocity,

1st.

The mean

2nd.

The mean square of the

3rd.

The mean value of

velocity

is

f* is

velocity

is

2
v -j=a

(28).

v'

= xa'

(29).

?*

= o**

(3^)-

are

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


4th.

The mean value

5th.

The mean value of

6th.

When

of i*

^'

is

fV

is

is

mean

(31).

(32)-

f^' =

=MJ3'

M,v,' =

whence
the

= |a*

there are two systems of molecules

M,a'

or

vis

viva of

(33),

M,iw

(34),

be the same

a molecule will

in the theory of gases,

a very important result

nature of the action between the molecules, as are


the final distribution of velocities.

to

known

of gases

We

all

each system.

in
it

This

independent of the

is

the other results relating


that

it

leads

to

the law

as that of Equivalent Volumes.

may now

We

cases.

and

shall find

Valuation of Functions of the Velocity due

We

47

proceed

to

down

mean value

indicate the

shall

write

to

encounters between the Molecules.

SO
the

of -g-

values

the

in

diflferent

of any quantity for all the molecules

by placing a bar over the symbol which represents that quantity


to
for any particular molecule, but in expressions where all such quantities are
W"e
bar.
the
omit
convenience,
for
shall,
we
values,
mean
their
be taken at
shall use the symbols h, and S,- to indicate the eSect produced by molecules of

of one kind

the

since
is

kind

first

external
it

and

is

second

We

forces.

shall

kind respectively, and


also

confine

not only free from mathematical

83

ourselves to
difficulty,

the effect of

indicate

to

the case in which n

but

is

5,

the only case which

consistent with the laws of viscosity of gases.

In this case

on the

disappears,

and we have

for the

the second system

effect of

first,

<"'

'^-M^^^}''!:^''-''"'
where the functions of
values

for

all

the

^,

77,

C in

molecules,

sin'^ or sin* 2^ occurs

in

the

j{Q'-Q)d(f> must be put equal to their mean

and A, or A, must be put


expressions

in

equations

(4),

for
(5),

according as

(6),

(7).

thus obtain

^''^''

t^lEOT^F^-^-^-^^--^'*

We

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

48

(37);

.(38);

(r)

8t

W(l4-i/J ^-^- [^.{S^r,+


Jf,

M^,

(2^^

2.

- ^^ J 2 (^. - ^0 ( C^^

t.- r)}

F,0
(39),

M,

using the symbol

S^

to

indicate variations arising

from

tlie

action of molecules

of the second system.

These
ii,

^i,

are

^{qi,

the values

and ^iFi^

for

of

the

rate

of

variation

the molecules of the

first

the

of

mean

values

of

kind due to their encounters

In all of them we must multiply up all


and take the mean values of the products so found. As
has to be done for all such functions, I have omitted the bar over each

with molecules of the second kind.


functions
this

of

^,

-q,

C,

function in these expressions.

To

find

the rate of variation due to the encounters

the same system,

change K, the
force

we have only

coefficient

to

of the force

between two molecules of the

W
<'^)

alter

first

the suffix

,j)

between M^ and
system.

We

among the

into

^j,

if, into K^, that of the

thus find

f =0
^=(m!f^'^^M%'+L'-2S,'-{v,-v.+iA.-2i,-m

-^ = {m})'^'^^^MZ.v,-(J:}

particles of

throughout, and to

,(40);

(41);

(42);

'

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

49

^''>-

W^'=(2i?)^'^'^'-''("^-'^'-^''
These quantities must be added to those
to

get the rate of

variation

equations (30) to (39) in order

in

the

the molecules of

in

When

encounters with molecules of both systems.

first

there

kind due to their

is

only one

kind of

molecules, the latter equations give the rates of variation at once.

On
"We

the Action of

shall

External Forces on a System of Moving Molecules.

suppose the external force to be like the force of gravity, pro-

ducing equal acceleration on


in

the molecules.

all

Let the components of the

the variations of

^,

and

",

due to

^F"*

Tt =

(^)

On

8, refers

(")

%^-=2fX

(45);

^-^ = nX + ^Y

(16);

the

to variations

due to the action of external

<*)
forces.

Total rate of change of the different functions of the velocity of the mole-

cules of the first system

systems

To

for

this cause,

(r)^'=2f(fx+,,r+2)+;fp
where

force

Then we have by dynamics

the three coordinate directions be X, Y, Z.

and from

arising

from

their encounters with

find the total rate of change arising from these causes,

^=^

h9.
ht

the quantities

molecules of both

the action of external forces.

already found.

'

Bt

We

.r.A

'

^"""^

^3^

find

shall

we must add

it,

however, most convenient in

the remainder of this investigation to introduce a change in the notation, and


to substitute for
^,

VOL.

II.

7},

and

C,

u+

i,

r),

and

u'

+C

(^8),

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

50

where

and

u, v,

are

so

ponents of the velocity of

chosen that they are the


all

neighbourhood of a given point.

We

and

p,

pj are

mass

We

Pj>

is,

the

shall also write

''-

^-^ (2?)' = ^

<^):

K> h> and k are quantities the absolute values of which can be deduced
have not as yet experimental data for determining
experiment*

We

from

M, N,

or

We

K.

thus find for the tate of bhange of the various ftlnctions of the velocity,

-^ = kA^,{u,-u,) + X

(a)

(51);

(52);

kp.

+
also

com-

(49),

two systems of molecules, that

{2|-)'=*" m,M,{M, + M,) )' =


{
Pi>

of the

M^, = p,

the densities of the

in unit of volume.

values

shall also write

M,N, = p,,
where

mean

molecules of the same system in the immediate

AM

(-n,^

+ C.' - 2^/ + r?/ + C: - 2^:)}

-^ = - ^KA,pJ^Vi + h^ W+M ^^^^ " ^^"^

'"'

^'^ ^^'

^
'^'^

.(53).

kp.

(y)

in

mixed

them,

As the

I shall

expressions for the

variation

and as we
give the case of a single medium,

media

are

complicated,

= - ^k,p,A, (^,' +
+
I (/ + U' U')

^,r},^

of functions
shall

of three

dimensions

not have occasion to

+ X (3^,^ + ^/ + L^)

+ 2Y^,'n, + 2Za.

(54).

use

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

Medium composed

Theory of a

We

shall

51

of Moving Molecules.

suppose the position of every moving molecule referred to three

rectangular axes, and that the component velocities of any one of them, resolved
in the directions of x, y,

z,

are

W+
where

w,

v,

which are at a given instant


the components
to the

mean

The

of the

^,

w-\-t

mean

velocity

and

^,

are

t,

17,

u,

v,

w may
will

be treated as functions of

be expressed by the symbol

x,

and

z,

y,

The

d.

t,

Their variation with respect to

will

in

quantities
t

be indicated by the

8.
t,

17,

as

the molecules

for all

functions

of x, y,

2,

t.

If
V,

the molecules

all

molecules with respect

velocity of one of these

The mean values of ^* and other functions of ^,


the element of volume may, however, be treated

in

of

velocity.

quantities

each molecule.

symbol

u,

Tf,

being different for every molecule, must be regarded as functions of

4,

7),

a given element of volume, and

in

relative

which case differentiation

for

^,

the components of the

are

we consider an element of volume which always moves with the velocities


we shall find that it does not always consist of the same molecules,

w,

because

molecules

therefore

treat

it

are
as

hydrodynamics, but

passing

continually

through

its

a mass moving with the velocity

we must

consider

We

boundary.
u,

v,

w,

as

cannot

done

is

separately the motion of each

in

molecule.

When we

have occasion to consider the variation of the properties of this element

during

motion as a function of the time we shall use the symbol

its

We
and

^,

-q,

shall call the velocities u, v,


t,

the velocities of translation of the medium,

the velocities of agitation of the molecules.

N dx dy

Let the number of molecules

we may

call

d.

in the element dx dy dz be
number of molecules in unit of volume.
If
and p the density of the element, then

N the

of each molecule,

MN = p

is

dz,

then

the mass

(55).

Transference of Quantities across a Plane Area.

We

must next consider the molecules which pass through a given plane
of unit area in unit of time, and determine the quantity of matter, of momentum,

72

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

52
of heat, &c. which

negative to the positive side of this

transferred from the

is

plane in unit of time.

We

shall

the

divide

first

molecules

unit

in

of

volume

into

classes

and ^ for each, and we shall suppose that the


number of molecules in unit of volume whose velocity in the direction of x lies
and i + dt, is dN, dN will then be a
between ^ and i+d^, -q and -q + d-q,
function of the component velocities, the sum of which being taken for all the

according to the value of

tj,

^,

t,

molecules will give

of this function for a

dN=,e~
aV
the

investigation

present

equiHbrium

in its state of
AT

In

The most probable form

the total number of molecules.

medium

is

PW+C
d^d-qdi

'

we do not

(56).

require

know

to

the

form

of

this

function.

Now

us consider a plane of unit area perpendicular to x moving with

let

a velocity of which the part resolved parallel to x is u\


plane relative to the molecules we have been considering is
there are

dN

of these molecules in unit of volume

it

The

velocity of the

u-{u + ^),

and

since

will overtake

{u'-{u^-^)]dN
such

molecules

unit

in

of

and

time,

number

the

of

such molecules passing

from the negative to the positive side of the plane, will be

{u-\-^-u)dN.

Now

let

momentum,

any

be
vis

viva,

belonging

property
&c.,

which

it

to

molecule,

the

with

carries

it

across

such as

the plane,

its

mass,

being

supposed a function of f or of ^, -q, and ^, or to vary in any way from one


molecule to another, provided it be the same for the selected molecules whose

number

is

dN,

then

the

quantity of

transferred

across

the plane in the

positive direction in unit of time is

l(u-u'+^)QdN,

{u-u)jQdN+jiQdN

or
If

we put

mean value

QN

of Q,

for

jQdN, and

JQ^

for

and ^Q the mean value of $Q,

element of volume, and

we may

write the

(57).

jiQdN, then we may


for

expression

all

for

call

the quantity of

which crosses the plane in unit of time

{u-u')QN + lQN

the

the particles in the

(58).

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

Transference of Matter across a Plane

(a)

To determine the quantity


to

same kind,

sion

reduced to

is

M=M;

Velocity

of the Fluid.

make Q

of matter which crosses the plane,

the mass of each molecule

of the

53

then,

since

the same for

is

and since the mean value of f

the expres-

zero,

is

{u-u)MN={u-u)p
If

u = u, or

if

the plane moves with velocity

across the plane

transferred

is

zero

defined as the velocity whose components are u,

Transference of

(yS)

Momentum

across

The momentum of any


this

for

Q,

v,

may

get

for

therefore be

iv.

System

of Pressures at any

Fluid.

molecule in the direction of

one

we

the whole excess of matter

u,

a Plane

point of the

Substituting

(59).

the velocity of the fluid

equal

molecules

all

M{u + ^).

is

momentum

the quantity of

transferred

across the plane in the positive direction

(u-u)up + f'p
If the plane moves with

where

f' represents the

This

from

is

the whole
negative

the

the velocity

mean value

momentum

to

the

of

consists

partly

of

in the direction of

positive

the

this expression

u,

is

reduced to

^'p,

^'.

side

momentum

x of the molecules projected


The

the plane in unit of time.

of

mechanical action between the parts of the


plane

(60).

medium on

thus

sides

opposite

of the

and partly of the

transferred,

direct attractions or repulsions

between molecules on opposite sides of the plane.

The

must be very small

latter

part of the action

consider the pressure between the parts of the

plane

as

There

will

across the

and
where

^-q

entirely
also

same

due to the

in

constant bombardment

be a transference of

gases,

medium on

momentum

in

kept
the

so

that

we may

opposite sides of the

up between

directions

of y

them.

and

plane,

{u-u)vp-{-$r)p

(61),

(u-u)2vp +

(62),

Ep

and ^{ represent the mean values of these products.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

54
If the

it

mean

plane moves with the

exerted on the

medium on the

u of the fluid, the total


by the projection of molecules

force

velocity

positive side

into

from the negative side will be

a normal pressure

^p

in the direction of x,

a tangential pressure

^p

in the direction of y,

and a tangential pressure

^Cp in the direction of

z.

If X, Y, Z are the components of the pressure on unit of area of a plane


whose direction cosines are I, m, n,

X=U^p +m^p + 7i^^


Y^l^p+mrfp +n7)Cp
Z^liCp

When

a gas

is

-hTmilp

and ~Cp wiU

difier

+ nCp

not in a state of violent motion the pressures in

tions are nearly equal, in which case,

the quantity

,,,.(63),

all

direc-

we put

ep + ^p-^Cp = Sp
the mean pressure

will represent

from

if

(64),

at a given point, and

only by small quantities

rji^p,

C^p,

and

_
rj^p,

^'p,

^rjp will

then

be also small quantities with respect to p.

Energy in

the

Medium

Actual Heat.

energy of any molecule depends

The actual
centre of gravity,

and partly on

to the centre of gravity.

It

its

may

partly

on the velocity of

be written

^M{{u-\-iy + {v + rjY + {w + ^y} + ^EM


where

^EM

which

is

is

the internal

at present

the energy

unknown.

its

rotation or other internal motion with respect

part of the

Summing

(65),

energy of the molecule, the form of


for all the molecules in unit of volume,

is

^{u' + v' + yf)p + ^ie + v' + C)p + iEp

The first term gives the energy due to the motion of


medium in mass, the second that due to the agitation of the
of the molecules,

each molecule.

(66).

translation of the

centres of gravity

and the third that due to the internal motion of the parts of

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


If

we assume with

motion to that of agitation tends

we may conclude

of the

Clausius that the ratio


continually

55

mean energy

except in very violent disturbances, this ratio

that,

of internal

towards a definite value (/3-1),


is

always

preserved, so that

E = {fi-l){^' + l' + C)
The

energy of the invisible agitation in unit of volume will then be

total

or

energy* being in

This

(67).

the

i^(f + ^' +

(68),

WP

(69).

form of invisible agitation, may be called the

total heat in the unit of volume of the medium.

(y)

Transference of Energy across

Putting

we

<?

= iy8(f +

7y'

+ r)^,

a Plane

Conduction

of Heat.

and u = u

(70),

for the quantity of heat carried over the unit of area by conduction

find

in unit of time

i^ii'+ff+mp
where

indicate

&c.

^,

mean

the

of

values

^,

(71)'

&c.

They

are

always small

quantities.

On

the

Rate of Variation of

in

an Element of Volume,

being

any property

of the Molecules in that Element.

Let
the

be the value of the quantity

mean value
The

element

of

quantity

may by

for all

their

may

any particular molecule, and

The molecules within the


two causes.
of external forces produce
action
or by the

vary from

mutual action

an alteration of Q, or molecules
so cause

for

the molecules of the same kind within the element.

may

pass into the element and

out of

it,

and

an increase or diminution of the value of ^ wathin it. If we employ


denote the variation of Q due to actions of the first kind on

the symbol S to

the individual molecules, and the symbol


in

an element moving with the mean

to denote the actual variation of

velocity of the system of molecules under

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

56

then by the ordinary investigation of the increase or diminution

consideration,

of matter in an element of volume as contained in treatises on Hydrodynamics,

dQN = hQ

d
^N
g^-^---')^^+^^^

dt

.r

(72),

-^{(^-0 QN+y^QN}-^^ {(w-w) QN+iQN]


where

last three terms are derived from equation (59) and two similar
and denote the quantity of Q which flows out of an element of volume,
that element moving with the velocities u, v\ w'.
If we perform the differentiations and then make u=u, v=v, and w' = w, then the variation will be that

the

equations,

in

an element which moves with the actual

molecules,

mean

velocity

of

system of

the

and the equation becomes

Equation of Continuity.

Q-M

Put

the

mass of a

molecule;

unalterable,

is

and we have,

MN=p,

putting

dp

(du

dv

dw\

,^

which

is

the

ordinary

equation

of

continuity

in

being supposed to move with the velocity of the


tion with that from which

was obtained, we

it

,.

(^'^'

i+p[r.+Ty+dz)=''

hydrodynamics, the element


fluid.

Combining

this equa-

find

^f+|(?^^+|(^^)+rf4(^e^)=^f

(").

a more convenient form of the general equation.

Eqtiations of Motion (a).

To obtain the Equation


the

momentum

We

of Motion in the direction of x, put

^ = -M, (wj -f ^,),

of a molecule in the direction of x.

obtain the value of

SO
g--

firom equation

(51),

and the equation may be

written

P'lt'^dz

(^^^)

+ d^ ^P^^) + dz ^f"^^ = *^^^' (""' " ""'^ + ^/>i-

(5'6).

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF OASES.

57

In this equation the first term denotes the efficient force per unit of volume,
second the variation of normal pressure, the third and fourth the variations

the

of tangential pressure, the fifth the resistance due to the molecules of a different

system, and the sixth the external force acting on the system.

The investigation of the values of the second, third, and fourth terms
must be deferred till we consider the variations of the second degree.

Condition of Equilibrium of a Mixture of Gases.

In a state of equilibrium

u^

and

w,

vanish,

pi^,'

becomes

and the tan-

p^,

gential pressures vanish, so that the equation becomes


(^^>'

S=^''
which

the equation of equilibrium in ordinary hydrostatics.

is

This equation, being true of the system of molecules forming the first medium
of the presence of the molecules of the second system, shews

independently
that

if

several kinds

of molecules are

mixed together, placed

be the same as

mode

of

if

none of the other kinds had been present.

distribution

atmosphere in

that

as

Dalton

vessel

and

considered

to

This

is

the same
a

in

exist

mixed

equilibrium, the law of diminution of density of each constituent

gas being the same as

if

no other gases were present.

This result, however,


for

which

in

molecules of each kind will

acted on by gravity, the final distribution of the

can only

take

place

a considerable time perfectly undisturbed.

the gases have been


arise

so

as

to

left

mix

made more uniform throughout.

the strata, the composition of the gas will be

The result at which we have arrived


when left to themselves, is independent

after

If currents

as

of

to the final distribution of gases,

the

law

of

still

neglect the tangential

force

between

the

molecules.

Diffusion of Gases.
If

the

pressures.

motion of the

gases

is

slow,

The equation then becomes

we may

for the first

system of molecules

h^ + ^ = tA^M,-u,) + Xp
VOL. n.

(78),

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

58

and

for the second.


du^
P^

In

If

quiet

of

cases

all

equation.

we then put

dp.^

+ '^ = kA,p,p,{u,-u,) + Xp,

(79).

dt

diffusion

p^ i-p^

we may

=p, and

/d,

neglect

+ pj = p, we

first term of each


by adding,

the

find

1=^"
If

we

(^)-

put p,u^+p.,u^=pu, then the volumes transferred in opposite direc-

also

moving with velocity u

tions across a plane

will be equal, so that

Mu.-u)=M'^-u,)=^^;^.(x^^
Here Pi(u,-u)
across

the volume of the

is

temperature; and p^{u u^)

same area

The external
in

vessels

in the opposite direction.

force

has very

We

of the coefficient of diffusion of

a vessel at

and at the actual

the equal volume of the second gas transferred

is

of moderate size^

When two

gas transferred in unit of time

plane reduced to pressure unity,

unit of area of the

across the

first

(81).

little

may

two

effect

on the quiet diffusion of gases

therefore leave it

out in our definition

gases.

by gravity are placed in different parts of


and temperatures, there will be mechanical equi-

gases not acted on

equal

librium from the

pressures
first,

and u

will

always be

This will also be approxi-

zero.

mately true of heavy gases, provided the denser gas is placed below the lighter.
Mr Graham has described in his paper on the Mobility of Gases*, experiments

which were made under these conditions. A vertical tube had its lower tenth
part filled with a heavy gas, and the remaining nine-tenths with a lighter gas.
After the lapse of a
off,

and the gas

known time the upper tenth

in it analyzed, so

part

of the tube

was shut

as to determine the quantity of the heavier

gas which had ascended into the upper tenth of the tube during the given time.

In this case

u=

we have
p,,=
^^
'

_J^l^.
p^pJcA^p dx

* Philosophical Transactions, 1863.

(82),

(83),
^
'

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF 6ASBB.

59

and by the equation of continuity,

W^i^r',u,) =

^. =

whence

or

D=

we put

if

^',

^Py

(84).

^.

(85);

^^^^-

dt-^d:^
The

solution of this equation

is

^, = C,+
If the length of the tube

in

the

which the

case in

which after a time


p,
^'

x=

la

ir'c

where

closed at both ends,

cos2 + &C

-^

(88),

-^<
*

gas originally extends from x =

first

the gas from x

to x

=c

is

''

first

gas

to

to x

= b, and

collected, is

^nb
irb
TTC
-4^^
sm
+e
sm
sm
sm
2'
a
a
a

Graham's experiments,

first

at the other

We

if it is

(87).

a +&c.

27rc

^
'^

,__.
(89),

the whole in the portion

from

tube was

filled

= c.

Mr

with the

the proportion of the

is

to x

In

= -+-7--e

where

and

+ a) + &c

C C, are to be determined by the condition that when t = 0, Pi=p,


from x = -^ to x = a. The general expression
to x = -^, and p^ =

C^,

from x =
for

a,

Q + C,e""^ cos^+C^

i?.=

where

is

C>-'"'^'cos(r2j;

find

gas,

end ascertained

for

in

which

and the proportion of the

series

after a time

of values

of

t,

-^^

one-tenth
first

of

the

gas in the tenth of the tube

this proportion will be

taken at equal intervals of time

tJ-^^^^
82

T.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

60

El

Time

P'

-01193
-02305

2T
ZT
4r
Sr
67
87

-03376
-04366

-05267

-06072
-07321

-08227

lOT
\2T

-08845

'10000

00

Mr

Graham's experiments on carbonic


give

Table,

T=500

acid

and

air,

when compared with

seconds nearly for a tube 0-57 metre long.

log^^
X)

whence
for carbonic acid

and

air,

this

Now
(91),

= -0235

in inch-grain-second measure.

Definition of the Coefficient of Diffusion,

is

the volume of gas reduced to unit of pressure which passes in unit


when the total pressure is uniform and equal to p,
pressure of either gas increases or diminishes by unity in unit of

of time through unit of area

and

the

distance.

may be

square of the

called the coefiBcient of diffusion.

It varies directly as

the

absolute temperature, and inversely as the total pressure p.

The dimensions
and time.

of

In

this

are evidently

DT~\ where L and T

are the standards

of length

air,

considering

we have assumed

experiment of the interdiffusion of carbonic acid and

that air

is

a simple gas.

Now

it

is

well

known

that

the constituents of air can be separated by mechanical means, such as passing


them through a porous diaphragm, as in Mr Graham's experiments on Atmolysis.


THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

61

The discussion of the interdiffusion of three or more gases leads


more complicated equation than that which we have found for two

much

to

and

gases,

it

is

not easy to deduce the coefl&cients of interdiifusion of the separate gases.

It

is

therefore

diffusion

desired that

be

to

every

of

pair

chemically on each other,

experiments

should be made

on the

pure gases which

the more important

of

the temperature and pressure of the

inter-

do not act

mixture being

noted at the time of experiment.

Mr Graham
the

of

results

has also published in Brando's Journal for 1829,

pt.

2,

p.

74,

experiments on the diffusion of various gases out of a vessel

through a tube into

air.

The

coefl&cients

of diffusion

deduced from these ex-

periments are

Air and Hydrogen

-026216

Air and Marsh-gas

Air and

The

value

experiment

mixed gas

'00962

Air and defiant gas

'00771

Air and Carbonic acid

'00682

Air and Sulphurous acid

'00582

Air and Chlorine

'00486

for

carbonic

with the vertical


in

'010240

Ammonia

different

parts

acid

is

only one third of that deduced from

column.

The

of the vessel

of

inequality

is,

meter of the tube at the middle part, where

and the
was bent, was probably

however, neglected
it

the

composition of the
;

dialess

than that given.

Those experiments on
values

of

diflFusion

which lasted

ten

hours,

all

give

than those which lasted four hours, and this would

smaller

also

result

from the mixture of the gases in the vessel being imperfect.

Interdiffusion through

When

two

mixture

the

of

a small

hole.

vessels containing different gases are connected

gases

in

by a small

each vessel will be nearly uniform except

hole.

near the

and the inequality of the pressure of each gas will extend to a distance
from the hole depending on the diameter of the hole, and nearly proportional

hole

to that diameter.

THE DYNAMICAX THEORY OF GASBS.

62

Hence

in tlie equation

,^+^'=i^p^,K-.)+xp,
dx

^^

-, will vary inversely as the diameter of the hole, while u^ and u^

the term
will

.(92)

dt

dx

not vary considerably with the diameter.

Hence when the hole is very small the right-hand side of the equation
may be neglected, and the flow of either gas through the hole will be independent of the flow of the other gas, as the term kAp^^{u^-u^) becomes comparatively insignificant.

One gas
as

fast

as

therefore will escape through a very fine hole into another nearly

into

vacuum; and

if

the pressures are equal on both sides,

the

volumes difiused will be as the square roots of the specific gravities inversely,

which

is

the law of diffusion of gases established

by Graham*.

Variation of the invisible agitation

By

putting for

(y3).

in equation (75)

and eliminating by means of equations (76) and

(52),

we

find

...(94).

lu this equation the

first

term represents the variation of

or heat; the second, third, and fourth represent the cooling


* Trans.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol.

xii. p. 222.

invisible agitation

by expansion; the

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


sixth,

fifth,

and seventh the heating

of fluid

effect

The

by conduction.

of heat

the last the loss

the equation represent the thermal effects

63

friction

quantities

of diffusion,

or

viscosity

and

on the other side of

and the communication

of heat from one gas to the other.

The equation may be

simplified

various

in

cases,

which we

shall

take

in

order.

Ist.

Equilibrium of Temperature between two Gases.

We

shall

suppose that there

Volumes.

no motion of translation, and no transfer

is

by conduction through either

of heat

Law of Equivalent

The equation

gas.

(94)

is

then reduced

to the following form,

ip.

If

|-A(f,' +

= ;^^W(f^ +

V+

v:-

+ C;-) = Q

Q.-Q. = Ce--,

or

If,

and

^^^

(f,=

+ ,. + C,=) = ft

-{Q,-Q,)=-^^^(Mj>.A + M,p^,){Q,-Q,)

find

rapidly

+ -3/,(f,' + V + }....(95).

we put

j^^_ ii: +
we

'/='

therefore,

become

of invisible

the

gases

Now

equal.

agitation

where ^ =

is

Hence when two gases

are

in

(97),

^:f^j^M + ^-^.M) jg^^


contact and undisturbed,

(96),

Q^

(98).

and Q.

will

the state into which two bodies come by exchange

called

equilibrium

are at the

of heat

or

equality of

temperature-

same temperature,
Q.

Q.

1_2,_3/.(^,1+^,MJ^

Pt

(99),

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

54

Hence

if

two
the pressures as well aa the temperatures be the same in

^^ = ^'
or

masses of the

the

(100),

Pi

individual molecules are proportional to the density of

the gas.
can be deduced
This result, by which the relative masses of the molecules
at by Gay-Lussac
the relative densities of the gases, was first arrived
necessary result of the
from chemical considerations. It is here shewn to be a
we adopt as to
theory
whatever
so,
it
is
Theory of Gases; and

from

Dynamical

molecules, as may be seen by


the nature of the action between the individual
assumptions as to the
general
perfectly
from
deduced
is
which
equation (34),

nature of the law of force.

We

therefore henceforth put

may

~,

for

where

Sj,

s,

are the

specific

gravities of the gases referred to a standard gas.

6 to denote the temperature reckoned from absolute zero of a


hydrogen, F,' its mean square
gas thermometer, M, the mass of a molecule of
of any other gas referred
gravity
specific
the
s
unity,
temperature
at
of velocity
If

we

use

of the other gas


to hydrogen, then the mass of a molecule

is

M=M,s
Its

mean square

of velocity,

^'~s

Pressure of the gas,

We

l>

may next determine

(101).

^^^

(102).

= ^7^^o'

(103).

the amoimt of cooling by expansion.

Cooling hy Expansion.

Let the expansion be equal in aU directions, then

dx~dy~dz~

dy

du
and

and

all

''

3p

dt

terms of unsymmetrical form will be

zero.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


If the

mass of gas

is

65

same temperature throughout there

of the

will

be

no conduction of heat, and the equation (94) will become

<^^).

*''^f-*^'l=

(lOG),

^'f-^fi^f^-Sfif
2 dp

3^

,,,,

T = 30J
which

gives

the

relation

C"^)'

the density and the temperature

between

expanding without exchange of heat with other bodies.


dp

dp

We

in

gas

also find

dO

-'-^'j

(-).

which gives the relation between the pressure and the density.

Specific

The

Heat of Unit of Mass

total energy of agitation of unit of

at Constant

mass

is

^)3F'

Volume^

= ^',

or

(m-

^=^f
If,

now, additional energy in the form of heat be communicated to

changing

its

^^=f? = ff|
Hence the

it

without

density,

specific

heat of unit

of

mass of constant volume

(no).

is

in

dynamical

measure

'^^^-^P-

VOL. u.

(111)

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

66

Specific

By

Heat of Unit of Mass

the addition of the heat

pressure 9p.

Now,

sinks

pressure

to

let
its

Constant Pressure.

the temperature was raised

dp

3^

d'B

"r==
specific

+ 3)8

'

dd

^'

heat of unit of mass at constant pressure

is

(-)

fe-'-^fe
The
is

ratio of the

known

specific

heat at constant pressure to that of constant volume

in several cases from experiment.

We

(114),
^

3/8

whence

)8

specific

=f

(115).

heat of unit of volume in ordinary measure

is

at constant volume

(").

at constant pressure

^f.
where

is

From
and

'

y-i

,4t^
and

by

shall denote this ratio

y'^ = 2|^

The

the

+ d'0.

a^

e~ ~ 2 + 3y8 "^ ~ 2 + 3)8


^^^^^^^

till

by a quantity dd-d'0, such that

^S-d'B

and the

dd and the

the gas expand without communication of heat


former value, and let the final temperature be

will thus sink

The temperature

dE

at

has

("^)>

the mechanical equivalent of unit of heat.


these expressions

Dr Rankine* has

calculated the specific heat

of

air,

found the result to agree with the value afterwards determined ex-

perimentally by M. Regnaultt.
* Transactions of the Royal Sodtty of Edinburgh, Vol. xx. (1850).
t Comptes Rendus, 1853.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

67

Tfiermal Effects of Diffusion.

two gases are

If

ting

to

diffusing into one another, then, omitting the terras relaheat generated by friction and to conduction of heat, the equation (94)

gives

.(118).

By

comparison with equations

(78),

and

(79),

the right-hand side

of this equa-

tion becomes

(pi^i

+ p.u,) + Y {piVi + p,v,) + Z (p,u\ + p,w,)


dp,

/dp,

- ip. ^

{^x

\_(dp,

dp,

+ V,' + W,') - ip,

dp

dp,

- (U/ +

V,'

+ W',').

The equation (118) may now be written

d.pu

The whole
external
If

the

forces

d.pv

^
+ Y {p,v, -f p,v.) -f Z (p,u\ + pjv,) - (-^ +
-^

X{p,u, + p,u,)

increase

minus

of energy

the

cooling

is

therefore

,.(119).

d.pw
dz

that due to the action of the

due to the expansion of the mixed

the diffusion takes place without alteration of the volume of the

heat due

to

the mutual action of the gases

neutralized

by

where

dense to places where

it is

the

cooling

of

each gas as

it

in

diffusion

will

gases.

mixture,

be

exactly

expands in passing from places

it is rare.

92

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF

68

GASES.

Determination of the Inequality of Pressure in different directions due


Motion of the Medium.

Let us put

Pifi*=i'i

Then by equation

p^i'=p2 + q,

+ 5i and

to

the

(120).

(52),

...(121),

the kst term depending on diffusion; and

if

we omit

in equation

(75) terms

neglect
of three dimensions in i, -q, I, which relate to conduction of heat, and
coeffilarge
the
by
multiplied
not
when
and
p^-p,
quantities of the form ^p
cients

ky,

and

k^,

we get
du

dw\ _hq

dv

+ 2i>^-f/>(x;
j;^.+
dx + dy
If

except

the
that

motion
of

the

is

not subject

propagation

St

any very rapid changes,

to

of

(122).

dzl

we may

sound,

neglect

as

in

cases

all

In a single

system of molecules

-3kA^

=
2p

(du

/du

.(12a),

dv

dwW

whence

If

/Lt

will

we make

p
t^1

we

be the coefficient of viscosity, and

(dv

(dv)

=/a

(125),

shall

(du

(du

hare by equation (120),

dv
dv

dwW
dw\\

(125),;

69

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF OASES.


and by transformation of co-ordinates we obtain
^

(dv
dz

dvr'

fdw

du\

fdu

dv

dy
(127).

These are the values of the norittal and tangential stresses in a simple gas
variation of motion is not very rapid, and when /x, the coefficient

when the

of viscosity,

may

so small that its square

is

be neglected.

Equations cf Motion corrected for Viscosity.


Substituting these values in the equation of motion (76),

dp

du

w ith

two

from the theory of


a rate

ct'u

is

to

may

identical

elasticity,

proportional

d\]

equations wbich

other

of these equations

form

at

(d'u

its

d fdu

be

written

with,

that of

dv

we

dw\

find

down with symmetry. The


deduced by Poisson*

those

by supposing the strain to be continually relaxed


The ratio of the third and fourth terms

amount.

agrees with that given by Professor Stokes f.


If

we suppose the inequality of pressure which we have denoted by q to


the medium at any instant, and not to be maintained by the motion
medium, we find, from equation (123),

in

exist

of the

q^

= Ce-"''''^

= Ce~^
the stress q

is-

if

(129)

T=-j\- =

f^

therefore relaxed at a rate proportional to

1=1
We

may

call

Phil.

"

On

itself,

so that

(131).

the niodulus of the time of relaxation.

Journal de I'Ecole Poly technique, 1829, Tom.


t

(130);

xiii.

Cah. xx.

p.

139.

the Friction of Fluids in Motion and the Equilibrium and Motion of Elastic Solids^" Camhr'uhje

Tram. Vol.

viil.

(1845), p. 297, equation

(2).

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF

70

we next make

If

medium

will be

an

= 3,

that the stress q does not become relaxed, the

so

elastic solid,

GASES.

and the equation

(-)

^^^^-^^s-t^(i:4,-w)=

^ {(p-^) + 2^ ^-Jp (| + | + |)} =

n.ay be written

where
is

a,

/8,

y are the displacements of an element

the normal pressure in the direction of

of

quantity zero, and j>

this

originally

the medium, and

of

we suppose

If

x.

(133),

then,

equal to p,

the

initial

jt)

value

a small dis-

after

placement,

(-^)^

i'-i'-^(l+|+S)-i's
and bj transformation of co-ordinates the tangential pressure

(>-)

^^=-^(|4f)
The medium
which

rigidity of

if

now the mechanical

has
is

properties of

p, while the cubical elasticity

is

an

elastic

solid,

the

fp*.

The same result and the same ratio of the elasticities would be obtained
we supposed the molecules to be at rest, and to act on one another with

forces

depending on the distance, as in the

statical

theory of elas-

molecidar

The coincidence of the properties of a medium in which the molecules


held in equilibrium by attractions and repulsions, and those of a medium

ticity.

are
in

which

at

all,

the

molecules

move

deserve notice from those

The

fluidity

molecules, causing

The

medium

of our

them

in

straight

who
is

lines

therefore

due to the mutual action of the

to be deflected from their paths.

coefficient of instantaneous rigidity of

The modulus of the time of relaxation


The coefficient of viscosity is /x =pT

Now p

varies

without acting on each other

speculate on theories of physics.

a gas

is

therefore

is 2"

>....(136).
J

the density and temperature conjointly,

as

while

varies

inversely as the density.

Hence

ft

varies

as

the

absolute

temperature,

and

is

independent

density.
Camh.

Phil.

Trans. Vol.

viil.

(1845),

p.

311, equation (29).

of

the

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


This result

confirmed by the experiments

is

my own

and by

of Gases*,

spiration

71

Mr Graham

of

on the Tran-

experiments on the Viscosity or Internal

Friction of Air and other Gases f.

The

that the viscosity

result

Theory

Dynamical

the

molecules.

was

It

by myself J

deduced

and M.

molecules,

0.

Meyer

E.

independent of the density, follows from

is

whatever be the law of force between the

Gases,

of

from the hypothesis of hard

elastic

has given a more complete investigation on

the same hypothesis.

The experimental
temperature,
as

of a

repulsive

force

molecules, which

Using the
for

is

proportional

to the absolute

make

it

vary

and to adopt the hypothesis


power of the distance between the

absolute temperature,

of the

square root

the

that the viscosity

result,

us to abandon this hypothesis, which would

requires

inversely as the

fifth

the only law of force which gives the observed result.

is

the grain,

foot,

and the second as

the temperature of 62* Fahrenheit, and in dry


ft

If the pressure

is

units,

my

experiments give

air,

= 0-0936.

30 inches of mercury,

we

using the same units,

find,

_p = 477360000.

pT=fi,

Since
rigidity

in

we

that

find

air of this pressure

time

This

of

sound we

is

the

may

of

exceedingly

small,

audible sounds

we have

time

even when compared with the period

of

of

is

of a second.

most acute

consider the

use the equations

the

of

5oa9Ao600

vibration

modulus

relaxation

the

and temperature

so

that

even in the theory of

motion as steady during this very short time, and

already found, as has been done by Professor Stokes

||.

Philosophical Transactions, 1846 and 1849.

t Proceedings of the Royal Society, February 8, 1866; Philosophical Transactions, 1866,


Magazine, January 1860.
[Vol. i. xx.]
X Philosophical

249.

Poggendorflf's AnruUen, 1865.

"
II

p.

On

the effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the motion of Pendulums," Cambridge Transac-

tions, Vol. IX. (1850), art. 79.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

72

Viscosity of

a Mixture of Gases,

In a complete mixture of gases, in which there


the velocity at any point

the same for

is

Putting

no diffusion going on,

is

the gases.

all

t(^rM-J)=^

(-^).

equation (122) becomes


p,

U= - 3M.Mi - m^^Tm, (^^'^^ + 3iM.)Mi - ^{3^, - 2^,) ^^^Mr- >(! 38),


Similarly,

pJI^ - 3M.M.{2MA.^mA.)p.q.-K^A,-^A,)
^;:p^^
Since

q = qi + q

p=Pi+Pi and

where

and q

j^^m

refer

to

(139).

the mixture,

we

have

shall

tiU=-q=-{q, + q,),
where

fx

and

the coefficient of viscosity of the mixture.

we put

If
to

is

Sj

and

for

5^

the specific gravities of the two gases,

a standard gas, in which the values of

and p at temperature

referred
0^

and

p,

pa,

'^

where

p,

is

pA

SAAs,Ep,' + IIp,p,+

'

ZAMGp.'

^'

the coefficient of viscosity of the mixture, and


! =

Jcs,

--^(25A + 3M,)

F= 3A,

{k,s,

+ k^s,) - {3A, - 2A,) k

25,,

Si

+ S,

(141),

11= ZA^,s, (Zk,k^, + 2}c'A,)


This expression

is

reduced to p^ when ^, =

other values of p^ and p^

we

require

to

know

0,

and

to p,

the value of

when Pi=0.
k,

For

the coefficient

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


of

mutual

deduced
by

interference

of

molecules

the

from the observed values of

making experiments on the

of

two

the

interdiffusion

two

of the

This might

gases.

air,

give as values of

k^

Air

k,=

Hydrogen

^,

Carbonic

The

gases.

ments of Graham on the transpiration of gases, combined with


on the viscosity of

be

but a better method

mixtures,

for

/x

73

my

is

experi-

experiments

hydrogen, and carbonic acid,

for air,

4-81 xlO",
1

42'8

1 0'",

3-9

10".

acid... /:,=

The experiments of Graham in 1863, referred to at page 58, on the interof air and carbonic acid, give the coefficient of mutual interference

diffiision

of these gases,

Air and carbonic acid

and by taking

this

as

^=52xl0"';

the absolute value of

k,

and assuming that the

of the coefficients of interdiffusion given at page 76 are correct,

Air and hydrogen

we

^ = 29-8x10"'.

These numbers are to be regarded as doubtful, as we have supposed

we do not know the value


doubtful whether our method

be a simple gas in our calculations, and

oxygen

and

nitrogen.

It

is

also

applies to experiments such as the earlier observations of

have

also

examined the

hydrogen

mixtures

of

value of

k roughly,

the

scale.

bonic

acid

to

and

transpiration-times

carbonic

satisfy

the

both

determined

results

to

of calculation

Mr Graham.

and hydrogen and

experimental

air

of k between

by Graham
air,

about

assuming

the

for

middle of

It will

be seen that the calculated numbers for hydrogen and car-

exhibit

the

peculiarity

addition of hydrogen increases the


in

acid,

ratios

find

series

observed

in

the

experiments,

that

a small

transpiration-time of carbonic acid, and that

the times of mixtures depend more on the slower than on the

quicker gas.

The assumed values

of A in these calculations were

For hydrogen and carbonic acid ^=12-5x10"


For hydrogen and

and the

results of observation

air

and calculation

/:= 18'8 x 10";


are, for

the times of transpiration

of mixtures of

VOL. IL

10

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

Hydrogen and Carbonic acid

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OP OASES.


sions in

rj,

^,

whose values

{,

will

depend on the distribution of velocity among


is that which we have proved to

If the distribution of velocity

the molecules.

when the system has no external


state, we shall have by equations

exist

75

its final

force

acting on

(29),

(31), (32),

and haa arrived

it

j^=3r.r=3^-

at

(144),

r?= ??=

^^

(145).

fP= e-C=

K
p

(146);

and the equation of conduction may be written

5^^^=-3V^^{^^ + ^^ +

(^^^)'

[Addition made December 17, 1866.]

[Final EquilihriiXm of Temperature.']

[The left-hand side of equation


tained a term
of

air,

when

2(/8

to

left

1)--/-,
itself,

(147),

as

sent to the Royal

Society,

con-

the result of which was to indicate that a column

would assume a temperature varying with the height,

and greater above than below.

The mistake arose from an error*

in

equation

Equation (147), as now corrected, shews that the flow of heat depends
on the variation of temperature only, and not on the direction of the variation
(143).

of pressure.

column would therefore, when

vertical

in

thermal equilibrium,

have the same temperature throughout.

When
not

the

I first

same

attempted this investigation

as

^% and so

diminishes as the height

when

air

is

carried

up

* The

as

overlooked the fact that


result

increases at a greater rate

in mass.

last

obtained

them

the

that
it

^*

is

temperature

does by expansion

This leads at once to a condition of instability,

term on the left-hand side was not multiplied by

/3.

102

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

76

which
but

with the

inconsistent

Is

W. Thomson

Professor Sir

presently

second

about this

discovered

one of

law

my

thermodynamics.

of

and the

result,

and arrived

mistakes,

that the temperature would increase with

difficulty

the height.

But

it.

it

at

wrote to

had met with,


the

conclusion

This does not lead to

mechanical instability, or to any self-acting currents of


degree satisfied with

air,

and I was

some

in

equally inconsistent with the second law of

is

thermodynamics.

In fact, if the temperature of any substance, when in thermic


a function of the height, that of any other substance must be
the same function of the height.
For if not, let equal columns of the two
equiUbrium,

is

be

substances

enclosed in

communication
the

two

at

the

columns

are

by taking heat
refuse

from

heat would

at

the

when

round
in

thermal equilibrium,

in

temperatures, an

and

hotter

is

impermeable to heat, and put in thermal

If,

different

circulate

energy, which

mechanical

cylinders

bottom.

giving

the

up

it

system

contradiction

till

to

the tops of

engine might be worked


the cooler, and the
was aU converted into

to
it

the

law

of

thermo-

when

in

thermal

second

dynamics.

The

result

equilibrium,

is

as

that temperature

we

velocities

fore

is,

that temperature in gases,

is

follows from

it

independent of height in

all

what has been

we

result.

to

shall

find

that unless

Now

this

equation

is

f* = 3^.

and examine our

we should have

obtained a
f,
derived from the law of distribution of

which we were led by independent considerations.

regard this law of temperature,

said

other substances.

accept this law of temperature as the actual one,

assumptions,
different

now given

independent of height, and

if true,

as in

We

may

there-

some measure a confirmation

of the law of distribution of velocities.]

Coefficient

If

is

of Conductivity.

the coefficient of conductivity of the gas for heat, then the quantity

of heat which passes through unit


chanical energy,

of

area in

de_^ ^

^dx-'k^A,^
by equation

unit

of

time measured as me-

is

(147).

do
dx

^^^^^

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.


Substituting for
value in terms of

its

taneous pressure,

/3

by equation

density,

(125),

and temperature of the standard

we

gravity of the gas in question,

cific

of y by equation (115), and for A;,


and calling ^ p and Q^ the simul-

value in terms

its

\l

77

and

gas,

^=3(^.tJ
For

air

above

274'6C.

^ = 0"0936

have

y= 1*409,

absolute

zero,

we

in foot-grain-second

and

the spe-

<'^^)-

temperature

the

at

/^ = 918*6
measure.

find

per

feet

Hence

for

of

second,

air

at

melting

and at

ice,

or

16''6

C,

166C. the conduc-

tivity for heat is

(7=1172
That

surface

(150).

a horizontal stratum of air one foot thick, of which the upper

to say,

is

kept at 17" C, and the lower at 16" C, would

is

in

one second transmit

through every square foot of horizontal surface a quantity of heat the mechanical
energy of which

is

equal to that of 2344 grains moving at the rate of one foot

per second.
Principal

heat

in

surfaces
is

25"

bars,

Forbes* has deduced from his experiments on the conduction of


that a plate of wrought iron one foot thick, with its opposite

kept 1"C. different in temperature, would, when the mean temperature

C, transmit

in

one minute through every square foot of surface as

much

heat as would raise one cubic foot of water 0""0127 C.

Now

the

dynamical

equivalent

in

foot-^grain-second

required to raise a cubic foot of water 1"C.

appears from this that iron at

It

than

air at

M.
of

iron
far

is

25" C.

1 '91

57 x

conducts heat 3525 times better

Clausius, from a different form of the theory,

heat

and from a

different value

1400 times better than

M. Clausius

its

is

not

in actual value.

In reducing the value of the conductivity from one

we must remember that

Now

air.

twice as good a conductor of heat as lead, so that this estimate

different from that of

another,

measure of the heat

10'".

16"' 6 C.

found that lead should conduct

/x,

is

kind

of

measure to

dimensions are MLT"', when expressed in

absolute dynamical measure.


* " Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Conduction of Heat in Bars," Edinburgh Transactions,

186162.

THE DYNAMICAL THEORY OF GASES.

78
Since

except
it

/x,

the quantities which enter into the expression for


is

subject to the

same laws as the

are constant

viscosity,

that

is,

independent of the pressure, and varies directly as the absolute tempera-

is

The conductivity

ture.

Also,
oxide,
to

all

the conductivity

since

is

of iron diminishes as the temperature increases.

nearly

the same

the conductivity of these

the specific gravity.

for

gases will

Oxygen,

nitrogen,

air,

oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic

vary as the ratio of the viscosity


carbonic

oxide,

and

air

will

have

equal conductivity, while that of hydrogen will be about seven times as great.

The

value

oxygen, and

its

acid for heat

is

of

for

viscosity

carbonic

acid

of that

is

1'27,

of oxygen.

therefore about ^ of that of

its

specific

gravity

is

of

The conductivity of carbonic

oxygen or of

air.

[From the Proceedings of

XXIX.

On

the

Society, No. 91, 1867.]

Royal

the

Theory of the Maintenance of Electric Currents by Mechanical


Work ivithout the use of Permanent Magnets.

The machines lately brought before the Royal Society by Mr Siemens


and Professor Wheatstone consist essentially of a fixed and a moveable electromagnet, the coils of which are put in connexion by means of a commutator.
The electromagnets
greatly

in

much

the expression of the theory as


the

coils

the

form

to

no

have

of

cores,

the

rings,

which

the actual machines have cores of soft iron,

the magnetic effects due to the

increase

and,

smaller

as

to fix

coils

possible,

begin by supposing

shall

we may suppose them in


the larger on a common

our ideas,

revolving

but, in order to simplify

within

diameter.

The

my

paper

equations of

"On

the

currents

two neighbouring

in

are

circuits

given in

the Electromagnetic Field*/' and are there numbered (4) and

(5),

^=Rx + ^^{Lx + My),


r)

= Sy + ^^{Mx + Ny\

where x and y are the currents, ^ and


the
of

resistances

self-induction

of

when the current


which

depends

the
is

on

circuit,

L may

be

two

unity,

their

measurement, X, M,
velocities.

rj

the electromotive forces, and

the two circuits respectively.

in

and

circuits,

and

relative

are

that
is

the

are

potentials

and

the coefficients

on themselves

of mutual

induction,

In the electromagnetic system of

position.

of

their

coefficient

their

metaphorically called

that of the second, and

is,

and

nature
the

L -f 2M-\- N

of

lines,

"electric

and

inertia"

and
of

the

that of the combined circuit.

Philosophical Transactions, 1865,

p.

469.

are
first

MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

80

Let us

take the case of the two circuits thrown into one, and the

first

so that

coils relatively at rest,

two

constant.

is

Then

(R^S)x + ^^(L + 2M+N)x =


x = x,e~^^^^'

whence
where

(1),

x^

the

is

value of the

initial

(2).

This expression shews that the

current.

current, if left to itself in a closed circuit, will gradually decay.

If

i + 2if+iV ^'''

we put

R-\-S

._.

'V'^^

_t

x = x,e

then

The value
as

inversely

sum

of the time

outward form,

similar

(4).

depends on the nature of the coils. In coils of


as the square of the linear dimension, and

varies

whose

the resistance of unit of length of a wire

section

is

the

of the sections of the wires passing through unit of section of the coil.

In the

much

large

greater,

experimental

coil

used in determining the B.A. unit

of re-

was about '01 second. In the coils of electromagnets


and when an iron core is inserted there is a still greater

1864,

in

sistance

is

in-

crease.

Let
secondary

us

next ascertain the

coil,

which

alters

effect

a sudden change

of

the value of

during which the current changes from


respect to t, we get

x^ to

from

x_.

M^

to

of position

M^

in a

we

suppose the time so short that


we find, as the

parison with the others,

we may
effect

may

the

t^,

neglect the

(5).

first

term in com-

of a sudden change of position,

{L-\-2M, + N)x,=={L+2M, + N)x,


This equation

t^

Integrating equation (1) with

{R + S) \l\dt + (L + 2M,-\-N)x,-{L + 2M, + N)x, =


If

in

time

(6).

be interpreted in the language of the dynamical theory,

by saying that the electromagnetic momentum of the circuit remains the same
To ascertain the effect of the commutator,
after a sudden change of position.
currents x and y exist in the two
instant,
given
a
at
that,
let us suppose
into
one circuit, and that x' is the
then
made
are
coils
two
the
that
coils,


MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

81

current in the circuit the instant after completion; then the same equation

(1)

gives

{L + 2M-\-N)x'

= (L^-M)x^-{N-\-M)y

(7).

The equation shews that the electromagnetic momentum of the completed


is equal to the sum of the electromagnetic momenta of the separate coils

circuit

just before completion.

The commutator may belong

to one of four different varieties, according to

the order in which the contacts are


of the

first

the parts

coil,

in

and

electric

following Table
(1)

C,

made and

connexion,

If A,

broken.

those of the second, and

we may express the

if

we

four

be the ends

enclose in brackets
varieties

as

in

the

MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

82

During the whole motion the current has also been decaying at a rate
which varies according to the value of L + 2M+N; but since
varies from
+ if to J/, we may, in a rough theory, suppose that in the expression for
the decay of the current M=0.

If the

secondary

the current
will

x^,

makes a semlrevolation

coil

in

time T, then the ratio of

after a semirevolution, to the current x^ before the semire volution,

be
^T
X,

=e

' r,

^^^^^

and r

'=R^

W'

''

a ratio depending on the kind of commutator.

is

For the

kind,

first

""-i-mTN
By

increasing

the

T may

speed,

(!")

be indefinitely diminished, so that the

question of the maintenance of the current depends ultimately on whether r

When

greater or less than unity.

may

current

is

be maintained by giving a

be always in one direction in the


in

greater than

and

or less

than

speed to the machine

sufficient

first case,

it will

is

1,

the

it

will

be a reciprocating current

the second

When

lies

between

Let there be
second, then

we may

+1 and -1,

no current can be maintained.

windings of wire in the

the

coil

and q windings

N = nq^

L = lp\ M=mpq,
where

first

in the

write
(11),

m, n are quantities depending on the shape and relative position of


coils.
Since L-^2M+N must always be a positive quantity, being the
Z,

coefficient

must be

of self-induction
positive.

When

of the

greater than unity, provided

whole

circuit,

commutator

the

pm

is

is

ln

m\ and

of the

greater than qn

first

therefore

kind,

LNM*

the ratio r

and when

f=('V-3-(i-^r
In
which

is

the

maximum

value of

r.

(12).

is

MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

When
r

lies

the ratio of

between

and

4- 1

p to q lies between that of n to m and that


1 and the current must decay but when

than qm, a reciprocating current

may be kept

up,

and

will

increase

of

pi

83

is

to

I,

less

most rapidly

when

p="
q

/l_"''
In

'-=-(1-3"'

-1
When

the commutator
as

so

circuits,
is

1_

m\
V
U^-J

is

of the second kind, the

first

step

it

is

thus stopped.

is

to close both

The second

render the currents in them independent.

to

then broken, and the current in

on the

<>3).

by induction determined by the equation

first circuit

Lx + My = Lx' -r My'
In this case

M=

M^, y = x, and y=0,

(14).

so that

(L-M)x^Lx
where x

is

the original, and x' the

The next

circuit

This produces an effect

step

is

new

to throw the

(15);

value of the current.

circuits

into one,

being

now

positive.

If x" be the current after this operation,

{L + M) X

The whole

of this

effect

=(L-\-2M+N)

commutator

is

therefore

x"
to

(16).

multiply the current by

the ratio

D-M'
L{L + 2M+N)'
The whole

effect of

the semirotation

is

to multiply the current

by the

ratio

L + 2M+N

L-2M+N'
The

total

effect

of a

semirevolution supposed

instantaneous

is

to

multiply

current by the ratio

V-M*
^''L{L-2M-^N)'
112

the


MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

84

and q be the number of windings


becomes

If

in the first

and second

coils

respec-

tively, the ratio r

'^~l{lp'-2mpq + nq')'
which

greater than

is

1,

provided 2lmp

we have

for the

maximum

\m

value of

is

greater than (ln + m^)q.

SJ

When

r,

I- + 2-experiment of Professor Wheatstone, in which the ends of the


were put in permanent connexion by a short wire, the equations
more complicated, as we have three currents instead of two to consider.

In

the

primary
are

coil

The equations

are

Rx + j^(Lx + My) = Sy + ^^{Mx + Ny) = Qz-^j^Kz


x+y+z=
where Q, K, and

The

wire.

true

(18),

the resistance, self-induction, and current in the short

are

resultant equations are

when the magnetism

of the

of the cores

is

second degree; but as they are only


considered rigidly connected with the

an elaborate discussion of them would be out of place


what professes to be only a rough explanation of the theory of the experi-

currents
in

(17),

the

in

coils,

ments.

Such a rough explanation appears to me to be as follows:

Without the shunt, the current


the

in

primary

the secondary

except

coil

is

always in rigid

when the commutator

connexion

with

that

changing.

With

the shunt, the two currents are in some degree independent;

and the secondary


the

primary,

in

coil,

can have

by the sluggish primary

whose
its

electric

current

coil.

coil,

inertia

is

small compared with that

is

of

reversed and varied without being clogged

MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS BY MECHANICAL WORK.

On

the other hand, the primary

coil

loses

that part of the total current

which passes through the shunt; hut we know that an iron


magnetized,

whereas

much

requires

great

increase

of

85

current

to

when highly

core,

increase

its

magnetism,

magnetism can be maintained at a considerable value by a current


powerful.
In this way the diminution in resistance and self-induction

its

less

due to the shunt may more than counterbalance the diminution of strength

in

the primary magnet.


Also, since

the self-induction of the shunt

currents will run through


therefore

it

will

receive

it

is

very small,

all

instantaneous

rather than through the electromagnetic

more of the heating

effect

of variable

a comparison of the resistances alone would lead us to expect.

coils,

and

currents than

[Extracted from The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, No. 32, 1867.]

On

XXX.
I PROPOSE

to

and inextensible
to it at

the

Equilibrium of a Spherical Envelope.

determine the distribution of stress in an indefinitely thin

spherical sheet, arising from the action of external forces applied

any number of points on

its surface.

Let two systems of lines, cutting each other at right angles, be


drawn upon any surface, and let their equations be
Notation.

<^ {xyz)

where each curve


bining

is

=G

and

found by putting

with the equation of the surface

it

^^ (xyz)

or

itself,

= H,
equal to a constant, and com-

which we may denote by

yl,{xyz)^S.

Now
of

let

length

which

of

be made constant, and

the curve

varies

((x

= constant)

by dH, then -j^

let

H vary,

and

let

dS^ be the element

intercepted between the two curves for

will be a function of

H and

G.

In the same way, making dS^ an element of the curve (1^= constant) we

may

determine -v^ as a function of

H and

G.

in
the element dS^ experience a stress, consisting of a force
inwhich
in
direction
the
in
and
increases,
G
which
the direction in
equal and
creases, acting on the positive side of the linear element dS^, and

Now

let

opposite

forces acting

on the negative

tension normal to dS^, which

we

shall

side.

These

denote by

_X_
^""'dS,'

will constitute

a longitudinal

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

and a shearing

on the element, which we shall

force

87

call

Y
In like manner,
will

experience on

the

if

element dS^

positive

its

is

acted on by

Y' and

forces

a tension and a shearing

side

X'

it

the values

force,

of which will be

That the moments of these

forces

on the elements of area dS^, dS^ may-

vanish,

or the shearing force on dS^

When

at the

stresses

and

there

is

point,

(-ff= constant),

must be equal

no shearing

and

are

force,

if p^^

called

to that on

then

p,^

dS^

and p^ are

of principal stress.

lines

principal

called the

vanishes everywhere, the curves,

((?

= constant)

In this case the con-

ditions of equilibrium of the element dSidS^ are

^^

dp,,

dS,

d'S,

+ (i^n-i^.)5^^=0^
.

dp^dS,

d%

dHdG^^^'' ^'''UGdH'^

^'+P^ = N,-N,
The

first

(1),

^2^'

(3).

and second of these equations are the conditions of equilibrium


and second lines of principal tension respectively.

in the directions of the first

The
r,

and

third equation

r^

are

second lines of principal


curvature.

on which

r,

is

the condition of equilibrium normal to the surface

the radii of curvature of normal sections touching the


stress.

They

first

and

are not necessarily the principal radii of

N, is the normal pressure of any fluid on the surface from the side
and r, are reckoned positive, and N, is the normal pressure on the

other side.
If the systems of curves G and H, instead of being lines of principal stress,
had been lines of curvature, we should still have had the same equation (3),
but r, and r, would have been the principal radii of curvature, and p,, and p^.

A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

EQUILIBRIUM OF

88

the tensions in the principal planes of curvature,

been

have

would

and not

necessarily principal tensions.

the

In
r,

= i\, and

= iV, = 0,

surface

spherical

of

case

iV,

not acted on by any fluid pressure,

so that the third equation

becomes

Pn+P =
whence we obtain from the

(4),

and second equations

first

(^)-

-=--(sy=---'=-where C^

(IZ"= constant)

where {dhf

is

square of

lines,

equation

the

is,

will

principal

we may assume

of Hues,

so that they not only indicate lines

stress at

stresses

be inversely as the

will

of

stress.

Since this

the form of the functions

of stress,

is

and

but give the value of the

any point by the equations

[dG\

fdHy
where

tha,t

the distance between the consecutive lines

true of both sets

Hy

that

we draw two lines of


p^(dS^y = (dhy at any point
continue true through the whole
If then

of G.

(7,

such a distance

at

this

constant,

of these

length

H, and

a function of

is

the system

(^= constant)

is

line

of principal tension,

,.x

and

((t

= constant)

a line of

principal pressure.

spherical surface lines corresponding to values of

we now draw on the

differing

by

unity,

and

also

lines corresponding to values of

differing

by
and

these two systems of lines will intersect everywhere at right angles,


the distance between two consecutive lines of one system wiU be equal to the
distance between two consecutive Imes of the other, and the principal stresses
unity,

will

be

intervals

Now

in

the

directions

of

the

lines,

and inversely

as

the square of the

between them.
if

two systems

these conditions,

of

can be drawn on a siuface so as to fulfil


the theory of electrical conduction in a sheet

lines

we know from

equipotential
of uniform conductivity, that if one set of the curves are taken as
of lines
systems
the
two
that
and
flow,
lines
of
will
be
set
other
the
lines,
will give

a solution of some problem relating to the flow of electricity through


But we know that unless electricity be brought to some

a conducting sheet.
point of the

sheet,

and carried

off at

another point, there can be no flow of

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

be some
-y^-

Hence,

sheet.

singular

points,

systems

such

if

which

at

the

all

of

lines

of

be

no

lines

there

exist,

meet,

flow

must

and at which

infinite.

is

and

the

in

electricity

89

If -j^

is

-j-^

is

if

nowhere

infinite,

any

at

infinite

there

point,

can

there

is

an

systems

of

stress

infinite

at

lines

at

all,

that point.

which can only be maintained by the action of an external force applied at that
point.

Hence

be free fi"om

This
equation

(3)

true

to

which no external

case

of

plane

and we have only two

the stresses at any point,

which are not

surface.

In a plane surface,

sufficient to

determine the distribution

we have some other conditions, such as the


by which the question may be rendered determinate.

The simplest
in

case of a

spherical surface acted on

which two equal and opposite forces


There

diameter.

evidently

will

must

differential equations connecting

equations of elas-

of stress, unless
ticity,

applied,

be only one system of stresses in the surface.


the

in

disappears,

are

forces

can easily be shewn from this that, when the external

it

there can

not

is

surface,

and

given,

are

forces

spherical

stress,

be

are

tension

by external

forces

is

that

applied at the extremities of a

along the meridian

lines,

com-

bined with an equal and opposite pressure along the parallels of latitude, and
the magnitude

of either of these stresses will be

P
(7),

2na sin^ 6
a

where

is

the

radius

of the

sphere,

the

force

at

angular distance of a point of the surface from the pole.

and

if

r^

respectively,

and
and

and

are

if

we make

will give

II.

poles,
is

and

the

the longitude,

(8),

the lines of principal stress, and

^~27ra\dsj ~27ra\dsj
VOL.

<f)

the rectilineal distances of a point from the two poles

G = log/^^ndH=<i>
then

the
If

*^''

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

90

To

from

pass

I shall

any points,

the two forces are applied at

to that in which

case

this

use of the following property of inverse

make

surfaxies.

If a surface of any form is in equilibrium under any system of stresses,


and if lines of principal stress be drawn on it, then if a second surface be the
inverse of the first with respect to a given point, and if lines be drawn on
it
if

which are inverse to the lines of principal stress in the first surface, and
along these lines stresses are applied which are to those in the corresponding

point of the

from the point of


be

in

inversely

surface

first

invei-sion,

or

equilibrium,

the

as

squares of their respective distances

then every part of the second surface will either


be acted on by a resultant force in the direction

will

of the point of inversion.

For,

we compare

if

we

surfaces,

shall

find

in the two
them are in the same plane
and make equal angles with it.

corresponding elements of lines of stress


acting on

that the forces

with the line through the point of inversion,


The moment of the force on either element about the point
as

therefore

the

product

the

of

length

of

the

of

into

element,

inversion
its

is

distance

But the length


from the point of inversion into the intensity of the stress.
of the element is as its distance, and the stress is inversely as the square of
the distance, therefore the 'moments of the stresses about the point of inversion
If now any portion of the first surface is
are equal, and in the same plane.
in equilibrium as regards moments about the point
it will be
The corresponding portion of the second siirface will also be in
It is therefore
equilibrium as regards moments about the point of inversion.

equilibrium,

in

of inversion.

either

in

resultant

the

or

equilibrium,

force

acting on

it

passes through the

point of inversion.

Now
is

also

the

let

the

a sphere.

surface

is

surface

first

In the

^11+^^22

= 0.

be a sphere

first

In

surface

the

we know

that the second surface

the condition of equilibrium normal to

second

surface

the stresses are to those

Hence in
the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances.
the
direction
of
in
equilibrium
=
is
there
or
the second surface also, Pu-^P^ ^>
in
the
radius
is
any,
if
resultant,
the
that
have
seen
we
But
the normal.
Therefore, if we except the limiting case in which the radius vector
vector.

in

is

the

first

perpendicular to the normal, the equilibrium

We
a

in

sphere

may now, by
acted

on

inverting the

by a

pair

of

is

spherical

tensions

complete in
surface,

all directions.

pass from the case of

applied at the

extremities of a

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.


diameter

that

to

the forces are applied at the extremities of any

which

in

= 2a.

chord of the sphere, subtending at the centre an angle

be

will

which one of these


be

<f).

makes with the great

circles

The angle

lines of tension

Let the angle

through

circle

same as the corresponding angle

the

is

<f>

The

through the extremities of the chord.

passing

circles

91

points

these

in

the inverse

surface.

The
planes

distances

of

lines

orthogonal

being

polar

each of these

for

Hence,

the inverse surface.

and

if

and

give the lines of principal

will

any point

we draw tangent

if

qi,

r,

q.

are

on these planes,

H=

(10),

4>

and the absolute value of the

stress,

P sin a /c^ffy
2na

[dsj

If

any point of the spherical surface

easy to shew that at that point

any number of
points

of

forces,

acting

along

forces

chords

of

,._,

<''>

forming a system

spherical

decompose the system of


forces

planes to the sphere at the extremities of the chord,

perpendiculars from

the

it is

has in

it

Pa sin'
p=-2.^q:

different

be the

be

will

_Psin a fdGy _
27ra
[dsj ~

If

r,,

we make

P~

and

be circles whose

Let

chord.

the

and has the same value as

circles,

G = log/-^

stress at

will

these,

to

of

any point on the sphere from the extremities of the chord, then

of

constant

is

pressure,

produced pass through the

if

envelope,
into

the

we

in

may

a system of
sphere.

equilibrium,

be applied at

proceed

follows.

pairs

To do

this,

as

of equal
if

First

and opposite

there are

forces

must be at least 3(n 2),


Then determine the tension

applied at n points, draw a number of chords, which


so

as

to render

all

the points rigidly connected.

along each chord due to the external

forces.

If too

many

chords have

been

The ji forces
drawn, some of these tensions vnll involve unknown quantities.
will now be transformed into as many pairs of equal and opposite forces as
chords have been drawn.

122

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

92

Next
of these

stress in the spherical surface due to each


and combine them at every point by the rules for the
The result will be the actual distribution of stress, and

the distribution of

find

of forces,

pairs

composition of stress*.
if

any unknown

from the

The

resultant

calculation of the

given in

are

these

have been introduced in the process, they will disappear

forces

result.

terms

stress

by a method derived from Mr

shew how

of difierent

same

to effect the

"On

paper,

Airy's valuable

when

stresses,

co-ordinates

spherical

I shall therefore

systems, would be very difficult;


object

from the component

unsymmetrical

of

the strains

in the interior of beamsf."

we

If

place the

surface

verse

is

on the surface of the sphere, the inp^, and pyy represent the components of

point of inversion

a plane, and

if jp^,

stress in the plane referred to rectangular axes,

we have

for equilibrium

^ ^=0
^ ^
+ ay

dx

dx

dy

(13),

(14).

These equations are equivalent to the following

where

is

the

from
ternal

equations of

forces.

strains,

variable

To

but the law of


from

point

to

strains

as

question

we

elasticity of the

point,

y.

cannot, in the case of a plane, be determined

equilibrium,

solve the

,_.
^^^^'

P^=-d^y^ Pyy=d^-

any function whatever of x and

The form of the function

d'F

d'F

d'F

P^ = df'

and

When, however, we have found two


cases, we can combine the results by

in

may

require to

exist

independently of ex-

know not

only the original

plane sheet, whether


different

solutions

of

dii'ections

it

is

at the

uniform, or

same

point.

corresponding to different

simple addition, as the expressions (equa-

tion 15) are linear in form.

In the case of two forces acting on a sphere, let A,

points corresponding to the points of application in the inverse


* Rankin's Applied Mechanics, p. 82.

t Philosophical Transactions, 1863, Part

I.

p. 49.

(fig.

29)

plane;

be the

AP =

r^,

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

BP =
to
<f>

1\,

AB.
is

angle

APB = XAT=<f).

Then

the line of tension at

and the

constant,

ratio

of

r,

to

of

to

r,

differ

r,

stants.

We

is

r,

may

constant,

C,

in.

is

pressure

of

line

AB

Bisect

circle

and the angle

<f>

PD

and draw

through

an orthogonal

is

98
perpendicular

and B,

circle

for

for

which

which the

and the logarithms of the

ratio

from the corresponding quantities in the sphere only by contherefore put

Psina (day _ Psing fdHV _ _


P''-~2^^\dSj ~ 27ra \dSj ~ ^=="
where the values of

and

H are

the same as in equations (8) and (10).

Transforming these principal stresses into their components, we get

^"'~

2na

Psina

dG dG

27ra

dx dy

From

/,yv

_ Psina /dG

dG

\dy

dx

^^~

the relations between

27ra

and

''

dy\)

\dx\

H we

.(18).

have

dG^_dH ^^dG^dH
dx

d^Gd^G

^+^ =

whence

The values

of the

component

dy

dy
,
^
^ ^^^

stresses,

,^g.

dx

^ dm
^

d^H

,v

=^

(2^)'

being expressed as functions of the

second degree in G, cannot be compounded by adding together the corresponding


values of G,

we must,

therefore,

in

order to express

them

as linear functions,

find a value of F, such that

d'F

We

shall

with respect to

P sin a

\(dG\

(dGV\

then have, by differentiation with respect to

,_,

x,

and integration

y,

-^y-'-^^Ti^f^^^

(-)-

A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

EQTJILIBEIUM OF

94

Since

-,

I-

dy?

we have
The

-r =

this

in

case,

and

the arbitrary functions must be zero,

ay''

to find the value of

from that of

by ordinary integration of

(21).

result is

AP PD

Psma {AD-AC,

or if the co-ordinates of

and

are

h^ and

(a^,

AT>n\V

(a^,

(oa\

h),

(y-h>)'
Psina f. {2x-a,-a:)(a,-a,) + {2y-\-\){\-hy
( x-a,Y +
^ '^^ (x ^ = ^^:^ \*
(a,-a0^ + (6,-6,)^
a^f + (y - 6,)^

(2y -

6,

- 6,) (3^a,)^(2x -g

we

If

obtain the values of

on the sphere, and add

them

coeflScients

diSerential

second

-^^

for

^^. .^a^-. t^Al

the

all

we

together,

pairs

different

shall

find

new

...(25).

of forces

acting

value of F,

the

with respect to x and y will give a

which,

of

.,

system of components of stress in the plane, which, being transferred to the


sphere by the process of inversion, will give the complete solution of the

problem in the case of the sphere.

We

have

now

to this, but it is

If
sphere,

two

spherical

and opposite

we can determine

twists

all

other cases

special cases.

applied at any two points

be

For

if

still

hold,

of

the

we put

= log^+<^ and iI=log-^-<^


will

forces

may be reduced

(26),

and the principal

stresses

at

any

be inclined 45" to those in the case already considered.

will

If

and

the distribution of stress.

equations of equilibrium

point

surface,

worth while to notice certain

equal

G?

the

the problem in the case of any number of

solved

of the

applied to points

be the

moment

of the couple in a plane perpendicular to the chord,

the absolute value of the principal stresses at any point

p=

is

vm

Jf sina

IdG''

(-)

4i7-a='

In figure
lines

of

stress

30 are represented the stereographic


in

the

applied along the chord

cases

AB,

which

we have

projections

considered.

of the

When

principal

a tension

the lines of tension are the circles through

is

AB,

VOL. J I.

PLATE

X.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A SPHERICAL ENVELOPE.

and the
so

lines

drawn

The
the

of pressure

are

the circles orthogonal to them.

in the figure that the differences of the values of


lines

spiral

principal

lines

stress

the case of

in

the

distance

that point with the

from a given

centre

equal fluid pressure will be


of

6,

the

angular distance from

pressure balanced

by a

single

and the
at

If

2Bm'ep,,

and

if

spherical

the pressure

we may take the

will

we suppose the

the opposite pole,


is

= aj Nam2dd0

line

and then the

fluid pressure

the pole.

force

are

circles

the

applied to

pressure,

fluid

point,

the equilibrium of the segment, whose radius

for

to

by

sphere as an axis,

the

of

circles,

twists

circles are

AB.

In the case of a sphere acted on


of

These

and // are -^n.

which pass through the intersections of these


of

surface at the extremities of the chord

fiinction

95

is

joining
lines

of

be a function
total

efiect

of

then we shall have

6,

(28),

p = Na-p,i,

determine p the tension in the meridian, and p^ that in the parallels of

latitude.

[From the Proceedings of

XXXI.

In
which

Oil the best

is

Arrangement for producing a Pure Spectrum on a Screen.

on

experiments
the light

Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1867-68.]

the

spectrum,

the

it

usual to employ

is

slit

and one

a prism to analyse the hght,

admitted,

through

more

or

lenses to bring the rays of each distinct kind to a distinct focus on the screen.

The most

perfect

arrangement

that adopted by M. Kirchhoff,

that every

through the prism, so

light

is

which two

in

one before and the other after the passage of the

achromatic lenses are used,

pencil

consists

of

while

rays

parallel

passing through the prism.

But when the observer has not achromatic


as

in

in

the

use

lenses

and

prism in

stricted

the

materials,

of

such a

their foci at approximately the

We

shaU

first

so

may

it

way

as

or

still

to

command,

the rays of

heat,

or when,

he

is

re-

be useful to be able to place

bring the

rays

of

all

colours to

same distance from the prism.


the effect of the prism in changing the conver-

examine

gency or divergency of the


lens,

lenses at his

the case of the highly refrangible rays,

pencils

through

passing

that by combining the prism and the lens

it,

and then that of the

we may

cause their defects

to disappear.

When
or

a pencil of light

divergency

and

is

change

this

is

When

the

pencil

diminished as

be

the

emergent

pencil

is

convergency

refracted through a plane surface, its

medium which has the

greater as the

the index of refraction

will

is

that

in

less

greatest refractive index

angle of incidence

is

greater,

and

also

as

greater.

passes
it

will

be

a prism

through

enters,

and

more

will

or

its

convergency

be increased when

less

it

or

divergency

emerges,

and

convergent or divergent than the

incident one, according as the angle of emergence

is

greater or less than that of

THE BEST ARRANGEMENT FOR PRODUCING A PURE SPECTRUM ON A SCREEN.

97

This effect will increase with the difference of these angles and with

incidence.

the refractive index.

When

the angle of incidence

of the pencil

is

equal to that of emergence the convergence

is

unaltered, but since the

angle of emergence,

more refrangible rays have the greatest

convergency or divergency will be greater than that

their

of the less refrangible rays.

This

effect

will

be

of incidence,

that

is,

and

may

the pencils

will

it

is

and

less,

be diminished by increasing the angle

by turning the prism round

of the prism

angle

the

by making the angle of incidence

increased

that of emergence greater;

its

edge towards the

If

slit.

not too great, the convergency or divergency of

all

be made the same (a,pproximately) by turning the prism in this

way.
This correction, however, diminishes
to a prism of large angle,

inapplicable

By

aberration of the lens.

The

correct the prism.

to

the

and

convex lens

towards the

slit,

The

rays.

except

prism,

makes the

the colours.

separation of

It

is

takes no account of the chromatic

altering the arrangement,

effect of a

diminish the divergency, of eveiy pencil

most refrangible

it

is

but the change

when

highly refrangible

may

the lens

be

made

to increase the convergency,

its

rays

base

is

is

greatest on

very

to

and
the

much turned

more convergent or more

divergent than the less refrangible rays, according as they were convergent or
divergent originally.

If the rays pass through the prism before they reach the
the pencils will be divergent at incidence, and the more refrangible will

lens,

be most divergent at emergence.

more

converged

brought to their

come

than
foci

to their focus

light,

and

We

To

the

rest

If they
so

at approximately

first,

then

fall

on the

lens,

they will be

that by a proper arrangement

the

we must turn the

same

distance.

If the

all

may be

violet

rays

base of the prism more towards the

vice versa.

proceed to the numerical calculation of the proper arrangement.

find the variation of position of the focus of light passed

dependent on the nature of the


VOL.

II.

through a prism

light.

13

THE BEST ARRANGEMENT FOR PRODUCING

98

be the index of refraction of the prism, a its angle, <^i and (f), the
angles of incidence and emergence, 0, and 6^ the angles of the ray within the
prism with the normals to the first and second surfaces, S the difference of these

Let

angles

/x

then

by geometry

and by the law of

refraction,
sin

(f),

= ft sin 6,,

</>i

sin

constant, being the angle of incidence for

is

angles vary with

djl

The

shews that

sin 6^

dd^

cos

dfj.

/x.

Oj^'

d^ _

sin^i
cos

fJL

'

0^

slit

is

6^,

sin a

cos

o?ft

the

is

cos

when we wish

<^2

spectmm, and

of the

turned from the

the edge of the prism,

parallel to

the primary foci of the pencils

0^

dispersion, or breadth

increases as the base of the prism

it

As the

_
~

expression gives

last

sin

kinds of light, but the other

so that

ft,

dd^

= /t

<^,

all

we have

light.

only to consider

to render the image distmct.

be the distance of the focus of incident light from the prism, v,


measured to the
that of the emergent light, and u that within the prism, all

Let

right,

i\

then by the ordinary formula,

"

cos' ^1

ft

i\ cos' 0^ cos'

Taking the

differential coefficient of
1 dv,
Vi

2 sin

ft

^2

cos'

COS'^o

(f).j,

= i\ cos' 0, cos'

<^i.

the logarithms of these quantities,

2 sin

<^,

d(f),

_]_dv,_

2 sin

v dfi

cos

0,

0^

1 dv^

cos

dfjL

2 sin

v^dfi~ v.,dii~ cos

<f),

^fx

<f)^

sin

0^ cos'

(j)^

2 sin'
ft

cos' ^,

0,

di\

4 sin a

dv,

v,djx~v,djl~

{cos

a + coa

( ft'

By

0,

sin 0,

cos

0,

cos 0o.

and

we

find

- l) sin a - s in 8 {1 + co s (a - 8) }
1 - ^ft' (l - cos (a - 8)}

The quantity on the right of this equation


value of 8 exceeds that given by the equation
(ft'

dfi

2 sin
ft

Substituting for these angles their values in terms of a


1

d0,
'

cos

dfji.

1 dv,

d0,

0,

'

cos' ^1

fi'

is

always positive, unless the

- 1) sin a = sin 8 {1 + ft' cos (a - 8)}.

A PUKE SPECTRUM ON A SCREEN.


If /x=l-5

makes

an

and a =

angle

then S

60,

11*26'

of

= 22''52',

If

is,

the

ray

within the prism

with the base, which corresponds to an angle of

incidence 82' 50', or the incident ray

correct

that

99

inclined 7* 10' to the face of the prism.

is

two lenses* are used, of the same material with the prism, we may
the defects of the prism without turning

it

so

far

from

its

position of

least deviation.

Let a be the distance of the

slit

from the prism, and b that of the screen

Let

/i be the focal length of the lens between the prism


and slit, and J] that of the lens between the prism and the screen, then the
condition of a flat image is

from the

prism.

Let us

first find

di\

dfj,^ r.dfj,'' [x-l

fi~A

from which yj and f^

flat

/ 1\

i\

\/

/,

spectrum 8

obtain the conditions

1_J^_1_1_/11\

di\

the conditions of a

i\ = v^ and we

When 8 = 0,

1
i\

(1

g)' {l-iiM' (1 -cos g)} _ A


V
4(/x-l)'(/x+l)sin^g
~[a'^b)'^'

+C03

b~\a'^b)
may be found

in terms of

known

i = i(l+c)
b^

+ ic.
'a

f,

When

g,

the angle of the prism,

._

is

60",

then

3(4-;.')

quantities.

100 THE BEST ARRANGEMENT FOR PRODUCING

K
of

the

is

greater in proportion to

prism.

b,

A PURE SPECTRUM ON A SCREEN.

a concave lens must be placed in front


will be that in which the

The most convenient arrangement

is placed in the position of least deviation, and the lens placed between
and the screen, while the distance from the slit to the prism is to
prism
the
that between the prism and the screen as 1-c is to c. For quartz, in which

prism

/I

= 1-584

a=

1*5 3 6,

distance

for

the

or the

from

the

ordinary
lens
slit

ray,

- = 2-53,

so

that

the

best

arrangement

is

should be placed on the side next the screen, and the

which admits the light to the prism should be about

one and a half times the distance from the prism to the screen.

[From the Proceedings

XXXII.
To make a
nature of

the

London Mathematical

of the

Society, Vol.

Ii.]

The Construction of Stereograms of Surfaces.

surface

visible,

must be drawn upon

lines

it

contour lines

cording to some principle, as for instance the

and to exhibit

on the surface

the surface, these lines ought to be traced

and

ac-

lines of greatest

Monge represents surfaces to the eye by


on a surface may be drawn.
two systems of lines of curvature, which have the advantage of being
independent of the direction assumed for the co-ordinate axes. For stereoscopic
representation it is necessary to choose curves which are easily followed by the

slope
their

which

and

eye,

are

sufficiently

dijfferent

form to prevent a curve of the

in

being visually united with any other than the corresponding


I have found the best way in practice to be as
curve in the other figure.
how
many curves, are to be drawn on the surface,
determine
First
follows:

one

figure

and

at

from

what

Cartesian co-ordinates

to

find the numerical values of the co-ordinates of


convenient method of drawing the figures according

is

to

and

intervals,

on these curves.

points

draw an

gravity,

and take a point about

zontally

from

triangle,

equilateral

of the

side

and the

the centre of gravity as the origin,

For the other

point with the angles as unit axes.

figure,

taken on the opposite side of the centre of gravity.


rule gives a convenient

of a
I

point are

easily

draw the two

of a
in

sector

in

point

figure,

relief to

in

(x = 0,

y = 0) and

first

and divide
the

line

in

(z

= 0,

ty

= 0)

figure.

PQ

the co-ordinates

By drawing

iv,

In

this

way

z,

w,

PQ

(without

z-f-w, in order to find

ratios in each

y,

By means

and the second

the two lines once for

each point without making any marks on the paper,

troublesome in complicated figures.

x,

in both figures.

in the ratio of a:-fy to

this

have found that this

in the ratio of z to

and performing the same process of finding

cyclides, &c.

joining

expressed in terms of tetrahedral co-ordinates

divide the

line)

distant hori-

lines

When

the figures.

centre of

its

the point must be

the ratio oi x to y; I then lay a rule along the line

drawing the
the

lines

amount of

find

of the triangle

all

figure,

in each

we

get

which come to be very

have drawn the figures of

[Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Vol.

XXXIII.

On

and

Reciprocal Diagrams in Space,

ii.]

their relation to

Airy's Function of Stress.

Let
let
tov

i,

be any function of the co-ordinates

x,

axes parallel to the axes of

x,

y,

oi a point in space, and

y,

be another system of co-ordinates which

7},

we may

suppose referred

but at such a distance

z,

(in

thought)

that figures referred to x, y, z do not interfere with the figures referred to

We

shall

the figure or figures referred to

call

and those referred to

^,

t),

^,

rj,

^.

the First Diagram,

x, y, z

the Second Diagram.

Let the connection between the two diagrams be expressed thus

_dF

dF
^~dx'

When
of x, y,

z,

the form of

"^

known,

is

dF

dy'
^,

7/

and

and the form of the second diagram

To complete the second diagram,

let

dz'

^
t,

may

be found for every value

fixed.

a function

<^

of

f,

tj,

t,

be found from

the equation
<j>

then

it is easily

Hence the
that the

first

second

= x^+yyi + zl-F\

shewn that

diagram
is

_d^

_d<f>

"^"dr

y~'dri'

is

_d<f)

^"^'

determined from the

determined from the

first.

second

They

are

by the same process


therefore Reciprocal

Diagrams both as regards their form and their functions.

But

reciprocal

diagrams

have

a mechanical significance which

is

capable

of extensive applications, from the most elementary graphic methods for calculating

the stresses of a roof to the most intricate questions about the internal

103

RECIPROCAL DIAGRAMS IN SPACE.


molecular forces in solid bodies.

two independent methods of

indicate

shall

representing internal stress by means of reciprocal diagrams.

Let

First Method.

and

a,

/8

a,

be any two contiguous points in the

described about ab perpendicular to


this

surface

is

compounded

Then

it.

of a tension

introduced for the sake of homogeneity,

way

in this

will

keep every point of the

The components

a^ and equal

to

^{j^'^'^

a pressure parallel to ab and equal to

diagram,

the stress per unit of area on

if

parallel

first

Let an element of area be

the corresponding points in the second.

"^

TT*

'

to

F-y

^^^^

being a constant

then a state of internal stress defined


first

figure in equiUbrium.

of stress, as thus defined, will be

.=p(f--). ..-(f--). .=-(f--).


and these are

easily

shewn

to

fulfil

the conditions of equilibrium.

If any number of states of stress can be represented in this way, they


can be combined by adding the values of their functions (F), since the quanThis method, however, is applicable only to certain states of
tities are linear.
stress

but

if

we

write

_d'B d'C
P^~i:^^'dy^'

^^'
we

get

d'A
dydz'

_d'C

d'A

^^~d^^dz''

__.^
dzdx'

^"'~

a general method at the expense of

and of giving up the diagram of

_<IAa.^
'^

P""' dif

^^

djf

'

=__^^
dxdy'

using three functions A,

B, C,

stress.

Second Method. Let a be any element of area in the first diagram, and
a the corresponding area in the second. Let a uniform normal pressure equal
to F per unit of area act on the area a, and let a force equal and parallel
to

the resultant of this pressure act on the area

stress

in

the

equilibrium.

first

figure

defined

in

this

way

will

a,

then a state of internal

keep every point of

it

in

RECIPROCAL DIAGRAMS IN SPACE.

104

stress as thus defined will be

The components of

^""^Uy*"^

U^

This

dzdx\,

dxdyj'

dy-

_pfd'F d^
^^~ \dz dx dxdy
^^ ~

^Ufdaf

d'F\

Id'F d'F

^"

^^

dydz\)'

d^F d^F\
dx' dy dzj

(d'F d'F _

d^

d'F\

[dy dz dz dx

dz'

dx dy)

^pld'F
-^^

'

d'F

\dx dy dy dz

d'F d^F \
df dz dx)

'

'

is

a more complete,

a state of stress

though not a perfectly general, representation of

but as the functions are not

linear, it is difficult of

appHcation.

If however we confine ourselves to problems in two dimensions, either


method leads to the expression of the three components of stress in terms of
the function introduced by the Astronomer-Royal*.

_pd'F

^'^'^

and
is

if

ah and

a/S

dy^'

__p_dLl_

^^~

be corresponding

dxdy'

lines,

-pdil
^^~ daf'

the whole stress across the line ab

perpendicular to ayS and equal to Pa^.


*

"On

Strains in the Interior of Beams."

Phil Tram. 1863.

[From the Proceedings of

XXXIV.

GovEKNOR

is

On

power or the

resistance.

Most governors depend on the


a shaft of the machine.

In one

No. 100, 1868.]

Governors.

wMch

When

centrifugal

force

the velocity of
in the

driving-

of a piece connected with

the velocity increases, this force increases, and

the pressure of the piece against a surface or moves the piece,

increases

so acts

Society,

a part of a machine by means of

is

either

Royal

kept nearly uniform, notwithstanding variations

the machine

and

the

on a break or a valve.
of

class

regulators

of

machinery, which

we may

call

moderators*,

Thus in
pendulum revolving
within a circular case. When the velocity increases, the ball of the pendulum
presses against the inside of the case, and the Motion checks the increase of
the resistance

increased

is

by a quantity depending on the

some pieces of clockwork the moderator

velocity.

consists of a conical

velocity.

In

governor

Watt's

for

the

steam-engines

arms

open outwards, and so

contract the aperture of the steam-valve.


J. Thomson, when the velocity is
and overflows with a great velocity,

In a water-break invented by Professor

pumped

increased, water

is

and the work

spent in lifting and conmiimicating this velocity to the water.

is

centrifugally

up,

In aU these contrivances an increase of driving-power produces an increase


of velocity, though a

much

smaller

increase

than would be produced without

the moderator.

But
on

the

if

the

machine,
See

VOL.

II.

Mr

part acted on by centrifugal force,

instead of acting directly

motion a contrivance which continually increases the

sets

in

C. "W.

Siemens "

On Unifonn

Rotation," Fhil. Trans. 1866, p. 657.

14


GOVERNORS.

106
long as the

as

resistance

when

action

velocity

is

of the machine) be
I propose

its

normal value, and reverses

made

its

the governor will bring the

velocity is below
same normal value whatever variation (within the working

the

velocity to the

above
that

value,

limits

in the driving-power or the resistance.

without entering into any details of mechanism, to

at present,

the attention of engineers and mathematicians to the dynamical theory

direct

of such governors.

in

be seen that the motion of a machine with

will

It

of a uniform motion, combined with a

general

expressed as the

sum

of four different kinds

2.

It

3.

It

It

The

increase.

may continually diminish.


may be an oscillation of continually
may be an oscillation of continually

increasing amplitude.

decreasing amplitude.

and third cases are evidently inconsistent with the stability of


and the second and fourth alone are admissible in a good governor.

first
;

This condition

and

roots,

may be
may be

The disturbance may continually

4.

governor consists

These components

component motions.

1.

the motion

is

mathematically equivalent to the condition that

the possible

all

the possible parts of the impossible roots, of a certain equation

all

be negative.

shall

for equations

have not been able completely to determine these conditions

of

of several

its

disturbance which

a higher degree than the third

but I hope that the subject

will

obtain

the attention of mathematicians.

The

actual

motions corresponding to these impossible roots are not generally

taken notice of by the inventors of such machines, who naturally confine their
attention

to

the

way

in

which

it

the machine,

its

at which

limit

oscillating

action

governing power

by

altering

continually increased,

and jerking motion, increasing

of the

If,

this

governor.

in violence

till

it

is

generally

the adjustments of
there

is

the disturbance, instead of subsiding more rapidly,

generally a

becomes an

reaches the limit of

This takes place M'hen the possible part of one of the

impossible roots becomes positive.

may

is

and

designed to act;

is

expressed by the real root of the equation.

The mathematical investigation of the motion

be rendered practically useful by pointing out the remedy for these distur-

bances.

This has been actually done in the case of a governor constructed by

Fleeming

Jenkin,

with

adjustments,

by

which

the

regulating

Mr

power of the

GOVERNORS.

By

governor could be altered.


be

made more and more

107

altering these adjustments

rapid,

at

till

last

the regulation

a dancing motion

accompanied with a jerking motion of the main

shewed that an

shaft,

could

of the governor,
alteration

had taken place among the impossible roots of the equation.


I

consider three kinds of governors, corresponding to the three kinds

shall

of moderators already referred to.

In the

the

kind,

first

piece

centrifugal

has a constant distance from

the

when

the

the retarding force.

In

pressure on a surface on which

axis of motion,

but

velocity varies.

In the moderator this friction

the

governor this

tends to move

machine.

it

its

surface
;

and

is

this

is

it

itself

rubs varies

made moveable about the axis, and the friction


motion is made to act on a break to retard the

constant force acts on the moveable wheel in the opposite direction

which takes

to that of the friction,

when

the break

off

the friction

is

less

than

a given quantity.

Mr

Jenkin's governor

centrifugal

the same

piece

function

is

on

of the

position,

its

velocity.

It has the advantage that the

principle.

this

not change

does

and that

velocity depends in some degree on the


two surfaces which cannot be kept always

coefficient

in the

the

position

rotation

but

axis,

of

the

by a

restrained

is

pressure

is

always

of sliding friction between

same

condition.

In the second kind of governor, the centrifugal piece


from the

its

has the disadvantage that the normal

It

force

centrifugal piece in

is free

to

move

further

the intensity of which varies with

such a

way

that,

if

the velocity of

has the normal value, the centrifugal piece will be in equilibrium in


If the

every position.
centrifugal

piece

motion of the

will

piece.

velocity

fly

out or

is

greater or less than the normal velocity, the

fall

But a break

is

in

without any limit except the limits of

arranged so that

it

is

made more

or less

powerful according to the distance of the centrifugal piece from the axis, and

thus the oscillations of the centrifugal piece are restrained within narrow

Governors have been constructed on this principle by Sir

by M. Foucault.

In the

first,

limits.

W. Thomson

the force restraining the centrifugal piece

is

and

that of

a spring acting between a point of the centrifugal piece and a fixed point at
a considerable distance, and the break

is

a friction-break worked by the reaction

of the spring on the fixed point.

the

In M. Foucault's arrangement, the force acting on the centrifugal piece is


weight of the balls acting downward, and an upward force produced by

142

GOVERNORS.

108

weights acting on a combination of levers and tending to raise the

on the balls

resultant vertical force

the

first

place,

The break

is

the variable friction between the combination of levers and

the ring on the shaft on which the force


place,

The

balls.

depth below the

their

constant normal velocity.

centre of motion, which ensures a


in

proportional to

is

is

made

a centrifugal air-fan through which more or

air

and, in the second


is

allowed to pass,

Both these causes tend to regulate the

according to the position of the levers.


velocity according to the

to act
less

same law.

The governors designed by the Astronomer-Royal on Mr Siemens's

principle

the chronograph and equatorial of Greenwich Observatory depend on nearly

for

The

similar conditions.

removed from the

far

centrifugal

piece

and

vertical,

it

is

here a long conical pendulum,

is

prevented from deviating

not

much from a

fixed angle

by the

driving-force

being rendered nearly constant by means of a

differential

system.

The break

of the pendulimi consists of a fan which dips

into

a liquid more or

less,

The break of the

vertical.

according to the angle of the pendulum with the

principal shaft

is

worked by the

and the smoothness of motion of the principal shaft

is

apparatus

differential

ensured by connecting

it

with a fly-wheel.
In the third kind of governor a liquid

Mr

C.

W.

Siemens, the cup

way that if the


more liquid is pumped up*
in

such a

of

velocity

the

cup will

is

is

pumped up and thrown out

over

In the governor on this principle, described by

the sides of a revolving cup.

connected with

its axis

by a screw and a

axis gets ahead of the cup the cup

If this adjustment can be

remain

the

same

through

made

spring,

lowered and

is

perfect, the

a considerable

normal

range

of

driving-power.
It

appears from the investigations that the oscillations in the motion must

be checked by some force resisting the motion of


in

some cases by connecting the

viscous liquid, so that the oscillations

To check the
viscous liquid
rotation,

oscillation.

This

may

variations of motion in a revolving shaft, a vessel filled with

may be

attached to the shaft.

It

wiU have no

effect

on uniform

but will check periodic alterations of speed.

Similar effects are produced

by the

viscosity

of the lubricating matter in

the sliding parts of the machine, and by other unavoidable resistances


it is

be done

body with a body hanging in a


cause the body to rise and fall in the liquid.

oscillating

so that

not always necessary to introduce special contrivances to check oscillations.

GOVERNORS.

109

I shall call all such resistances, if approximately proportional to the velocity,

by the name of
In

several

" viscosity,"

whatever be their true

origin.

system of wheel-work

contrivances a differential

introduced

is

between the machine and the governor, so that the driving-power acting on the
governor
I

nearly constant.

is

have pointed out that, under certain conditions, the sudden disturbances

of the machine do not act

When

vice versa.

through the

these conditions are

motion

only simple, but the

itself

differential

fulfilled,

system on the governor, or

the equations of motion are not


disturbances depending on

not liable to

is

the mutual action of the machine and the governor.

Distinction between Moderators

In regulators of the

kind,

first

both estimated as

resistance,

if

let

be

let

be

the

moment

and

driving-power

the

Let

applied to a given axis of the machine.

be the normal velocity, estimated for the same

and

and Governors.

of inertia

axis,

and

dx
-7-

the

the actual velocity,

of the whole machine

reduced to the

given axis.

Let the governor be so arranged as to increase the resistance or diminish

(dx
-tt

T^

then the equation of motion will be

^.K)=^-^-^(t-^)
When

the machine has obtained

its final

(^)-

rate the first term vanishes,

^=V
+ ?^
^^
dt
F
Hence,

if

increased.

is

increased

Regulators

of

called moderators rather

'

or

this

diminished,

kind,

as

Mr

(2)
^'^^

the velocity will

be

permanently

Siemens* has observed, should be

than governors.

On Uniform

and

Rotation," Phil. Trans. 1866,

p.

657.

GOVERNORS.

110

In the second kind of

regulator,

applied directly to the machine,

the force

^\-^-^)>

instead of

being

applied to an independent moving piece, B,

is

which continually increases the resistance, or diminishes the driving-power, by


a quantity depending on the whole motion of B.
If y represents the whole motion of B, the equation of motion of

^(3fg=P-ie-i.(|-F) + (.,
where

is

We

the resistance applied by

can integrate the

first

when

(4).

moves through one unit of

of these equations at once, and

we

is

the same

as

used in

principal axis,

and

is

the velocity

but the position of the machine

no disturbance of the driving-power or resistance had taken

if

Jenkin's Governor.

Jenkin, and

(5);

has come to rest x = Vt, and not only

of the machine equal to the normal velocity,

space.

find

B^ = F{x-Vt)
so that if the governor

is

(=)

K^D^^d-'^)

and that of

In

a governor of this kind, invented by .Mr Fleeming

electrical

is

experiments,

a centrifugal piece revolves on the

kept always at a constant angle by an appendage which

on the edge of a loose wheel, B, which works on the same axis. The
edge of this wheel would be proportional to the square of the
but a constant portion of this pressure is taken off by a spring which
velocity
slides

pressure on the
;

acts

on the centrifugal

piece.

The

force acting

on

to turn

it

round

is

therefore

-C";
and

if

we remember

that the velocity varies within very narrow limits,

we may

write the expression

where i^

is

a new constant, and F^

the governor will

act.

is

the lowest limit of velocity within which

GOVERNORS.
Since this force necessarily
it

on

ax;ts

-B

Ill

applied

la

reason

tending to turn

to B,

be afterwards

to

explained,

it

this

oflf

weight

made

is

since

as well as put on, a weight

the negative direction

in

and

the positive direction,

in

necessary that the break should be taken

is

to

hang

and,

in

for

a viscous

liquid, so as to bring it to rest quickly.

The equation

of motion of

may then

be written
<)>

^t=^(t-'^-)-^^?-^
Y

where

is

a coefficient depending on the viscosity of the liquid and on other

is

the constant weight.

Integrating this equation with respect to

t,

we

and

resistances varying with the velocity,

find

B^ = F{x-V,t)-Yy-Wt
If

has come to

rest,

we have
x = (r. + -^)<

or

the

position

of

the machine

final velocity is constant,

is

is

+ ^3,

afiected

(8),

by that of the governor, but the

and
V.

where

(7).

+ ^=V.

(9),

the normal velocity.

The equation

of motion of the machine itself

is

M<^, = P-n-F[^^-v)-Gy
This

must

be

whole apparatus.

combined with

The

solution

equation
is

(7)

to

(10).

determine the motion of the

of the form

x = ^ie-'' + ^,e"'' + yl,e^+ Vt

where n^ n

n, are

(11),

the roots of the cubic equation

MBn'-i-{MY+FB)7i' + FYn + FG=0


If

n be a

pair

of roots

of this

equation of the form

part of X corresponding to these roots will be of the form

(12).

aJ-lh,

then the

GOVERNORS.

112

If

a negative quantity, this will indicate an oscillation the amplitude


If a is zero, the amplitude will remain constant,

is

of which continually decreases.

and

if

amplitude will continually increase.

positive, the

is

of the equation (12) is evidently a real negative quantity.


real part of the other roots should be negative is
the
condition that

One

root

Y\YG

[F

...

\^-^b)b~B^^

The

...

positive quantity.

If it is not fulfilled there


is the condition of stability of the motion.
be a dancing motion of the governor, which will increase tiU it is as great
To ensure this stability, the value of
as the limits of motion of the governor.
Y must be made sufficiently great, as compared with G, by placing the weight

This
will

W
is

a viscous liquid

in

not

if

sufficient.

To

determine

value

the

moveable wheel; then,


is

the viscosity of the lubricating materials at the axle

if

of

and

F, put the break out of gear, and

the velocities

be

fix

the

when the driving-power

P\

and

F= P-F
V-V
To determine G, let the governor act, and let y and y
when the driving-power is P and P', then

be the positions

of the break

P P'
y-y

General Theory of Chronometric Centrifugal Pieces.

W.

Sir
inertia

ThoTuson's

and M. FoucauWs

of a revolving apparatus,

of motion

Let

be the moment of

revolution.

The equation

is

dt\^
where

Governors.

and 6 the angle of

is

the

moment

dtj

of the applied force round the axis.

(1),

IIH

GOVERNORS.

Now,

let

centrifugal piece),

where

may

we

If

of

function

<f>

4>,

the centrifugal piece

if

is

con^plex.

assume that P, the potential energy of the apparatus,

then the force tending to diminish

gravity, spnngs, &c., will be -jr

kinetic

The whole energy,

<f>,

\^dj

rdBd^l

"^^

d4. di\

di\

and

potential,

t,

we

dP\^.
^
f/</>r

dO

Differentiating with respect to

dt

is

arising from the action of

is

E = iA'^' + i_B'^^' + P = jLd0

d4>/,dAde'

of the

diverLjence

(the

the kinetic energy of the whole be

also be a fiinction of

also
<^,

let

another variable

of

function

be a

and

(2).

find

j.d^d^

dScVe
dt

de^""

dt

dt^
(3),

.^

_dd (dAddd^

^dt~di\dcfdtdt.dt'
whence we have, by eliminating L,

d {T>H\_xdATd\^(lBd^'' _dP
d<f>
dt[^'dt)-^dfdti^d<t>dv
The
increase

of the

first
<^,

two

terms on the

right-hand

side

depending on the squares of the

centrifugal piece.

The

M)

indicate

velocities

a force

of the

by these terms may be

force indicated

tending

main shaft

called the

centrifugal force.

If the apparatus

is

so arranged that

P = ^^o)' + conat
where

cj

is

(^)'

a constant velocity, the equation becomes

/^d<}>\
^d<f>\

.dAjae^
.dAldSf

A\

dBd4>
,dBdT

/gx

dt

VOL.

II.

t..

anil

^*

GOVERNORS.

114

In
velocity

case

this

value of

the

cannot remain constant unless the

angular

with a centrifugal piece arranged on this principle has only one

shaft

of rotation without

velocity

(f)

equal to w.

is

be a small disturbance, the

If there

disturbance.

equations for the disturbance 6 and

^ may be written

^1^3^t=^

^-S4!The period of such small disturbances

They

neither

will

increase

nor diminish

dA
is

-r-r

if

()

{AB)~^ revolutions of the

there are

shaft.

no other terms in the

equations.

To

convert

and

in

resistance

this

G(f)

apparatus

motions

the

of

into

governor,

let

us assume viscosities

main shaft and the centrifugal

the

applied to the main shaft.

dA

Putting -rj

cj

= K,

piece,

and a

the equations be-

come

^S+^f+^f+^^=^

^f+4t-^f
The condition of
that

all

stability

of

w-<^)-

the motion indicated by these equations

ABn'-{-{AY+BX)n' + (XY+K')n + GK=0


shall

be negative

and

(12).

Combination of Governors. If the break of Thomson's governor


moveable wheel, as in Jenkins governor, and if this wheel

steam-valve,
three pieces.

or

'

(11)

this condition is

{^ + ^(^y+l^')>GK

to

is

the possible roots, or parts of roots, of the cubic equation

more powerful

Without entering

break,

into the

we have

is

applied

works

to consider the motion

of

calculation of the general equations of

115

GOVERNORS.
motion of these
bances,

pieces,

we may

ourselves

confine

to the

case

of small

distur-

and write the equations


d^e
(10
j^d(f)
= P-R,
A-^X-^^K^^^T4>^J^
de
dt

dd

d<f>

d^<f>

^de^^ dt'^di
dSft

dxjji

de

dt

.(13).

xp are
the angles of disturbance of the main shaft, the centrifugal
where 6,
wheel respectively, A, B, C their moments of inertia,
moveable
the
arm, and
is what was formerly denoted by
their connexions,
of
viscosity
the
F,
Z
X,
<f),

(u,

and

and

J are

the powers of Thomson's and Jenkin's breaks respectively.

d({)

The

resulting equation in

n'

+ it

is

of the form

Aif + X)i

Kn + T

-K

Bn+Y
-T

Civ + Zn

(14).

K'-]

Z fB\
A^-B^Cj^'^lABCyX^Y^'^^^
KTZ KTJ
/XYZ+KTC+K'Z\
+ ^M
ABC
J-^'^A-B^-^ ABC'

(13).

have not succeeded in determining completely the conditions of stability


of the motion from this equation; but I have found two necessary conditions,
which are in fact the conditions of stability of the two governors taken
I

separately.

If

we

write the equation


if

then,

in

+pn* + qif + rn- + 5?i 4- 1 =

order that the possible parts of

all

(16),

the roots shall be negative,

it

is

necessary that

pq>r
I

am

and ps>t

not able to shew that these conditions are

(l'')-

sufl&cient.

This compound

governor has been constnacted and used.

152

GOVEENOBS.

116

On

Mr

Motion of a Liquid in a Tube revolving about a Vertical Axis.

the

W.

C.

Siemens's Liquid Governor.

the section of the tube


along the tube

with respect
section

is

r,

at

B,

of time.

p be

tlie

density of the

fluid,

whose distance from the origin measured

a point
the co-ordinates of this point referred to axes fixed

the tube,

to

unit

in

s,

Let

the

Also

let

volume of liquid which passes through any


the following integrals, taken over the whole

tube, be

= A, jprW = B, jp^ds = C

]plcr'ds

(l),

the lower end of the tube being in the axis of motion.

Let
the

<f)

moment

be the angle of position of the tube about the vertical


of momentum of the liquid in the tube is

H=A^^^BQ
The moment
time

of

momentum

then

axis,

(2).

of the liquid thrown out of the tube in unit of

is

()

f^='>'^<2f+''J<?'-where r

is

the radius at the

direction of the tube there

The energy

orifice,

and a the angle between the

its section,

and the direction of motion.

of motion of the fluid in the tube

is

W-

^'^=*^f[+^<2S+4^<2"
The energy of the

fluid

which escapes in unit of time

^' = P.<2(A +

.)

*p.-'f

The work done by the prime mover

+ .icosag>f + i|(?

The

dt \dt

dt

dt I

dW dW
'^

,.
''

"^

w'ork spent on the liquid in unit of time

dt

(5).

in turning the shaft in unit of time

di_d^/dH dH\
dt~

is

'

is

is

QOTERNOBfl.

Equating

117

work done, we obtain the equations of motion

this to the

4^4?+'"^^3^''^--^'=^

in

B^+o'+i^<?+,,i,+^-ip^^;=o

(8).

These equations apply to a tube of given section throughout.


is

in

open

the

channels,

which the channels are

values

of

at each

filled

and

will

and that of k

point,

If the fluid

depend on the depth to


will

depend on the

depth at the overflow.


governor

the

In
referred

described

discharge

the

to,

is

by Mr

W.

C.

practically limited

Siemens

in

the paper already

by the depth

of the

fluid

at

the brim of the cup.

The

resultant force at the brim

brim

If the

(where x
to the

is

is

perfectly

is

/= -Jg' +

horizontal,

the overflow will be proportional to x^

the depth at the brim), and the

brim will be proportional to

(0*1^.

x, or to

mean square

If the breadth of overflow at the surface

is

height above the lowest point of overflow^ then

proportional to

will

If

n= ^,

From

a;",

where x

a;

or as

^.

then the overflow and the mean square of the velocity are both
x.

the second equation

If the velocity of rotation

we

find for the

and of overflow

Q_^d4>
~=r'
dt

From the
and

the

mean square

of velocity

^-K4^^^-''t-^(^-^

cos a =

is

vary as af "^*, and the mean

square of the velocity of overflow relative to tke cup a^

proportional to

of the velocity relative

Q^.

first

B = 0,

equation,

we

supposing,

is

constant, this becomes

2g{h + z)
as

in

<^)-

Mr

(10).

Siemens's construction, that

find

^=p<t

(")

GOVERNORS.

118

Mr

In
tion

Siemens's governor there

If the

the

established between

is

conditions

an arrangement by which a

is

fixed rela-

z,

L=-Sz

(12).

f = 4f|'-..* + ^f.<?f

(13).

be so arranged that the mean square of

of overflow can

by

represented

velocity,

and

the spring which determines

is

p-

is

also

proportional to

Q,

and

if

the strength of

arranged so that
i^')-

f=f'^-<?
the equation will become,

if 2gli

= o}^r^,

-f<i-^

o-^f

(-)

which shews that the velocity of rotation and of overflow cannot be constant
unless the velocity of rotation

is

w.

The condition about the overflow


in practice

probably

is

of driving-power

by a proper adjustment of the

there will be a

maximum

The
in

p.

spring.

If the rim

667 of

Mr

is

difierential

Siemens's paper.

minimum

maximum.
equation which determines the nature of small disturbances

the

general of

uniform,

This seems to

the flow of the fluid were limited by a hole, there would be a

velocity instead of a

is

obtain accurately

a certain driving-power.

velocity for

be verified by the results given at

difficult to

but very good results have been obtained within a considerable range

fourth order,

proper choice of the value of the

but

mean

may

be

reduced to the

third

by

overflow.

Theory of Differential Gearing.


In some contrivances the main shaft

is

connected with the governor by a

wheel or system of wheels which are capable of rotation round an


is

itself

axes

also capable

may

be

wheels; or they

at

of rotation about the axis of the main shaft.

right angles,

may be

as

in the

axis,

which

These two

ordinary system of differential bevel

parallel, as in several contrivances

adapted to clockwork.

119

GOVERNORS.

Let i and

rj

represent the angular position about each of these axes respec-

that of the governor; then 6 and


and
and the motion of any point of the system can
terms either of f and 17 or of ^ and

that of the

tively,

main

are linear functions of i

be expressed in

shaft,

and

<f)

<f>

r),

<f}.

Let the velocity of a particle whose mass

is

resolved in the direction of

X be
d^

dx

dr)

with

similar

expressions

putting suffixes

other co-ordinate directions,

the

for

2 and 3 to denote the values of

and q

<'''

drP'di+1-di
for these

Then Lagrange's

directions.

equation of motion becomes

a Sf+H8,-Sm(Sx+Sy + g8z) =
where

H and H

are

the

tending to increase

forces

force being supposed to be applied at

Now

hx

putting

d^x

^d
,

any other

^ and

(2).

respectively,

rj

=pM + 9i^,
d'^

(3),

,.

d'-q

no

point.

W'

dt^=P^de^^^di^

the equation becomes

(B-2,ny
and

since 8^

and

f -Stp?)

tmp<i

^-tnut'll)

are independent, the coefficient of each

8, = 0...(5);

must be

zero.

we now put
X(mp')=L,

where

Sf + (h

p*=Pi+P,'-\-p,\

t(mpq) = M,

t{mq')=N

P? = Mi + M + Ps^^

and

q'

(6),

q'

q,'

+ q\

the equations of motion will be

If

the

apparatus

is

(^).

=^f+^^.

w-

arranged

so

independent of each other

H=^f-^

that

^"=0, then the two motions

and the motions indicated by ^ and

17

will

will

be

be about

GOVERNORS.

120
conjugate

axesthat

about axes such that the rotation round one of them

is,

does not tend to produce a force about the other.

be the driving-power of the shaft on the differential system,


differential system on the governor; then the equation of

Now let
^ that of

and

the

motion becomes

eBe^^<P^(B-L-^M^^^^(n-M-N^S,^0
^^d

hri

+A^ir- ]
X' =.Lr + 2MPR
M' = LPQ + M{PS+QR) + NRS^^

we put

if

^'''^'

= RBe+sm

'^

and

(9);

the equations of motion in 6 and

</>

will

(11),

be

(12).

If
If

M' = 0, then

and

motions in

the

will

<^

independent of each other.

be

then we have the relation

also 0,

is

LPQ + 3IRS=0
and
on

if this

main

is

the disturbances of the motion in

fulfilled,

motion in

the

The teeth

(ft.

of the

and the governor respectively

shaft

differential

In such
in

differential

proper

motion of this axis


of

the

If the

machine.

moments

is

systems a
state

made
in

this

of
to

force,
is

work a valve

case

is

will

have no

effect

this relation will be mutual.

constant

efficiency,

system in gear with the

then correspond to the centres of

will

percussion and rotation of a simple body, and

governor

(13);

H,

sufficient

or

merely the

keep

to

applied to the axis

tj,

a break on the main


friction

the

and the
shaft

about the axis of

^.

of inertia of the different parts of the system are so arranged

that

M' = 0,

will

act instantaneously on the valve, but will not communicate any impulse to

the governor.

then the disturbance produced by a blow or a jerk on the machine

[From the Philosophical Magazine,

XXXV.

for

May, 1868.]

" ExperimeTit in Magneto-Electric Induction"

IN

A LETTER TO

W.

GROVE,

R.

8,

F.R.S.*

Palace Gardens Terrace, W.

March

Dear

Since

our

electric inductionf,
result.

27,

1868.

Sir,

have

left

yesterday

conversation

have considered

it

on your experiment on magneto-

mathematically, and

out of the question the secondary

you observed depends

essentially

coil,

now send you

the

as the peculiar effect

on the strength of the current in the primary

and the secondary sparks merely indicate a strong alternating primary


The phenomenon depends on the magneto-electric machine, the electrocurrent.
the condenser.
and
magnet,
coil,

The machine produces


force,

which

in

we may compare

the primary wire an alternating electromagnetic

a mechanical force

to

alternately

pushing and

pulling at a body.

The

resistance

of

the primary

viscous fluid in which the

body

is

wire

made

we may compare
to

to

move backwards and

the effect of a
forwards.

The electromagnetic coil, on account of its self-induction, resists the starting


and stopping of the current, just as the mass of a large boat resists the efforts
of a man trying to move it backwards and forwards.
The condenser
a

resists

railway-buffer resists

the accumulation of electricity on

Communicated by
t See Phil. Mag.

VOL.

II.

its

surface, just

the motion of a carriage towards a fixed obstacle.

S.

Mr W.
4.

R. Grove, F.R.S.

March 1868,

p.

184.

IS

as

EXPEKIMENT IN MAGNETO-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

122

Now

us

let

suppose

a boat floating in a viscous

and

by

ropes

attached to fixed moorings before and behind.

fore

buffers

and kept

fluid,

in

its

abutting against fixed obstacles, or by elastic

place

aft

If the

were away,

buffers

would not prevent a man from pulling the boat along


with a long-continued pull; but if the man were to push and pull in alternate seconds of time, he would produce very little motion of the boat. The
buffers will effectually prevent the man from mo\ang the boat far from its

the mass of the boat

by a steady pull; but

position

he pushes and pulls alternately, the period

if

being not very different from that in which the buffers would
cause the boat to vibrate about its position of equilibrium, then the force which
acts in each vibration is due, partly to the efforts of the man, but chiefly to
of

alternation

man

the resilience of the buffers, and the


further from its

mean

position

the same rate at the same boat perfectly

Thus,

of

position

the body

The
body

is

may

be

much

electricity

in

only

condenser,

on

the

in this case the

rapidity

towards a

perfectly free.

the primary

account

electricity

coil

of
is

its

when

When

small

is

it

motion;

resisted

closed corresponds to a free

is

and

this

in

the primary

is

case the
coil is

restrained

may be much

the

by a spring

motion produced by a force which alternates with


greater than in the former case.

current

interrupted

proportional to

with a force

accumulation, and corresponds to a body whose motion

and

extent of the

attracted

is

depending on the displacement than when

equilibrium by a force

resisted

he had pushed and pulled at

free.

when the body

greater

produced by an alternating force

by

if

alternating force acts on a massive body, the

when an

displacements

be able to move the boat much

will

than he would

sufficient

enclose the mathe-

matical theory of the experiment, and remain,

Yours
J.

Mathematical Theory of

Let

be the revolving

the

truly,

CLERK MAXWELL.

Experiment.

armature of the magneto -electric machine, N,

the poles of the magnets, x the current led through the coil of the electromagnet R, and interrupted by the condenser C. Let the plates of the condenser

be connected by the additional conductor

y.

123

EXPERIMENT IN MAGNETO-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

MsinO

Let

be the

armature; then

the

if

value

of the

electromotive force due to the machine

Let

M and

is

two

be

coil

of the armature

be the coefficient of self-induction, or the " electromagnetic mass

coils

its

Let

" electromagnetic

is

"

in this

wire

at

any

instant,

then

We
We

be the capacity of the condenser, ar

the excess of potential of

then the quar aty of electricity on the upper

CP.
shall neglect the self induction of this current.

have then

for this conductor,

P = P'J

(!)

For the charge of the condenser,


.(2).

For the current

x,

Mn cos nt + Ex + L dx
P=
dt
If

we assume
x = Acos

we

find

Lx

momentum."

Let p be the resistance of the additional conductor, and y the current


it.

of

taken together.

the upper plate at any instant,


plate

the

n,

nt.

be the resistance of the wire which forms the

Let X be the value of the current


will

2Li cos

of

coil

that of the fixed electromagnet.

Let
these

of the magnets on the

potential

the armature revolves with the angular velocity

A' =
p= {( 1

{nt

+ a),

3Pn' (1 + CpV)
- LC?i'Y + H'Cjf} + 2Bp + I^ + Liv

,1

C0t~^7^

Lpn

,R + p-LCpn'
p-LCpn
'
RCpn + Ln
*

cot

(3).

in

EXPERIMENT IN MAGNETO-ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

124

The quantity of the

alternating current

epoch of the

of a only affects the

that of closing the circuit of

effect is

determined by

is

maximum current.
x, and we find

^' =

If

and the value

R + Un'

This expression shews that the condenser has no effect


is

we make p = 0, the

when the

current

closed.

If

we make

/a

thus breaking the

oo

the

effect

is

that of

removing the conductor

y,

and

In this case

circuit.

A' =

^ + (^-^J'
This expression

gives

provided 2CLn^

is

a greater

value of

greater than unity, which

capacity of the condenser,

than when the

may

circuit

is

closed,

be ensured by increasing the

the self-induction of the electromagnetic

coil,

or

the

velocity of rotation.

This
is

CDn = l,

is

the expression

the greatest

the same as

if

effect

is

reduced to

velocity, and
had no "electromagnetic momentum."

which can be produced with a given

the current in the

coil

If the electromagnet has a secondary coil outside the primary coil

depend
the

essentially

of

reaction

described

by

on that of the primary which has just been found. Although


current on the primary coil will introduce a

Mr Grove

secondary

as
will

the secondary

greater compUcation in the mathematical expressions, the remarkable

the

so

an ordinary induction-coil, the intensity of the secondary current

to form

sparks

place in the primary

does not require us to enter

observed

coil.

into

this

phenomenon

calculation,

as

by him are a mere indication of what takes

[From the Philosophical Transactions,

XXXVI.

On a Method

Electromagnetic Force

Vol. CLViii.]

of Making a Direct Comparison of Electrostatic with


with a Note on tlie Electromagnetic Theory of Light.

Received June 10, Read June 18, 1868.

There

two

are

and independent

distinct

methods of measuring

electrical

quantities with reference to received standards of length, time, and mass.


The electrostatic method is founded on the attractions and repulsions be-

tween electrified bodies separated by a fluid dielectric medium, such as air;


and the electrical units are determined so that the repulsion between two small
electrified bodies at a considerable distance may be represented numerically by
the product of the quantities of electricity, divided by the square of the distance.
The electromagnetic method is founded on the attractions and repulsions

and separated by air;


two equal straight conductors
are placed parallel to each other, and at a very small distance compared with
their length, the attraction between them may be represented numerically by
observed between

and the

the

conductors

electrical units are

product

of

the

carrying

electric

determined so that

currents

multiplied

currents,
if

by the

sum

of

the lengths of the

conductors, and divided by the distance between them.

These two methods lead to two different units by which the quantity of
The ratio of the two units is an important
is
to be measured.

electricity

which we propose to measure. Let us consider the relation


function
of these units to those of space, time, and force (that of force being a
of space, time, and mass).
In the electrostatic system we have a force equal to the product of two
physical quantity,

quantities

of

electricity

will

electricity

divided by the square of the

therefore vary

root of the unit of force.

distance.

directly as the unit of length,

The unit of

and as the square

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC

126

In the electromagnetic system we have a force equal to the product of two

by

two

The unit of current in this


and the unit
of electrical quantity, which is that which is transmitted by the unit current
in unit of time, varies as the unit of time and as the square root of the unit
multiplied

currents

the

of

ratio

lines.

system therefore varies as the square root of the unit of force

of force.

The

ratio of the

electromagnetic unit to the electrostatic unit

that of a certain distance to a certain time,


velocity

and

this

velocity will be

we

in

other words,

is

this

therefore

ratio

is

same absolute magnitude, whatever

the

of

standards of length, time, and mass

or,

adopt.

The electromagnetic value of the resistance of a conductor is also a quantity


of the nature of a velocity, and therefore we may express the ratio of the two
electrical units in terms of the resistance of a known standard coil; and this
expression will be independent of the magnitude of our standards of length,
time and mass.
In

the experiments

either

of

time,

length,

here

described

or mass, the

no absolute measurements were made,


only of these quantities being in-

ratios

and the velocity determined is expressed in terms of the British Association Unit of Resistance, so that whatever corrections may be discovered to
be applicable to the absolute value of that unit must be also applied to the
volved

velocity here determined.

resistance-coil

whose resistance

is

equal to about 28 "8 B. A' units would

r^resent the velocity derived from the present experiments in a manner independent of aU particular standards of measure.

The importance of the determination of this ratio in all cases in which


and electromagnetic actions are combined is obvious. Such cases
occur in the ordinary working of aU submarine telegraph-cables, in inductionBut a knowledge of this ratio
coils, and in many other artificial arrangements.

electrostatic

is,

think,

of

still

greater

scientific

importance

when we

consider that

velocity of propagation of electromagnetic disturbances through a dielectric

depends on this

ratio,

and,

according to

my

calculations*, is

the

medium

expressed by the

very same number.

The

first

Kohlrauscht,

numerical

determination of this quantity

who measured

the

capacity

* "A Dynamical Theory of the Electroma^etic


t Pogg, Ann. Aug. 1856, Bd. xcix. p. 10.

of

is

that of

Weber and

a condenser electrostatically by

Field," Philosophical Transactions, 1865.

WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.


comparison

with

the

capacity

of

sphere of

by passing the discharge from

netically

The

127

known

the- condenser

and electromag-

radius,

through a galvanometer.

Committee of the British Association have turned their


means of obtaining an accurate measurement of this velocity,

Electrical

attention to the

for this purpose have devised new forms of condensers and contact-breakers
and Sir William Thomuson has obtained numerical values of continually increasing

and

accuracy by the constant improvement of his

which

velocity

and time

and

construction

but as

should

seemed probable that the time occupied

it

improvement

employ

to

electromagnetic
I

own methods.

compared with our ordinary units of space

probably most easily measured by steps, and by the use of several

is

different instruments

determined

so great

is

of

more direct method of comparing

the

in

instruments would be considerable,

these

electrostatic

effects.

not,

with his usual

however, have been able to do


placed at

liberality,

my

Mr

had not

this,

Gassiot,

disposal his magnificent battery of 2600

charged with corrosive sublimate, with the use of his laboratory to work

cells

Mr Willoughby Smith

To

giving a

coils,

with

am

indebted

for

Forde and Fleeming Jenkin

units,

and

of a galvanometer

the use

for

in.

the use of his resistance-

more than a million B. A.

of

resistance

and to Messrs
resistance-coils,

a bridge and a key for double contacts.

Mr

Hockin,

C.

devised

the

currents

by

which

librium,

The
The
which

means

and

resistances,

done

suggestions since I

first

He

has also tested the

except the actual observation of equi-

everything

undertook myself.

electrostatic

six

me with

the whole work of the comparison of the

the galvanometer and shunts.

of

in fact

greatly assisted

undertook

electrical balance itself

one,

potential,

who has

experiment,

inches

was made for me by Mr Becker.


was that between, two parallel

observed

force

was

diameter,

while the other,

four

and

insulated

inches diameter,

maintained

was at the same

at

disks,

of

high

potential

as

the case of the instrument.

In order to insure a known quantity of


disk,

so

it

that the surface of the disk

were in
space.

electricity

on the surface of

was surrounded by the "guard-ring" introduced by


one

plane,

In this

at

way the

the

when

same

electrical

due to a uniform distribution over

in

its

W.

this

Thomson,

and that of the guard-ring


and separated by a very narrow

position

potential,

action

Sir

on the small disk was equal to that

front surface,

while no electrical action

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC

228
could exist at

its

sides or back, as these were at the

same potential with the

surrounding surfaces.

was mounted on a slide worked by a micrometer-screw.


The small disk was suspended on one arm of a torsion-balance so that in its
were in one plane.
position of equilibrium its surface and that of the guard-ring

The

If

disk

large

is

the difference of potential between the two disks in electromag-

netic measure, the attraction

between them

is

R^l
where a

and V

(1),

the radius of the small disk, h its distance from the large one,
the velocity representing the ratio of the electromagnetic to the elec-

is

is

trostatic unit of electricity.

The electromagnetic force observed wa3 the repulsion between two circular
of the suspended disk, and the
coils, of which one was attached to the back
separated from it by a plate of
being
disk,
large
the
other was placed behind
was made to pass through
current
A
compound.
Hooper's
of
glass and a layer
these coils in opposite directions, so as to produce a repulsion

=.2nnn'^y^

(2),

where n and n are the number of windings of each

coil,

is

the current, and

'i=i^ ^(^-^wfS
c=>siny=

where

a,

and

a,

are the

When V
If
area,

of the

and

coils,

2A

is

we take

this

radii

-^

l^;,

the

mean

distance of their

E, and F, are the complete elUptic functions for modulus c = siny.

and

planes,

mean

''''

small compared with a\ -g

2a'

becomes very nearly -p-.

into account the fact that the section of each coil

formula would require correction;

made equal

to

but in these

the breadth of the section, whence

it

coils

is

of sensible

the depth was

foUows, by the differential

WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.


of the

equation

potential

of

two

given

coils,

at

508

p.

129
^^

my

of

paper on the

Electromagnetic Field,

d'M
da'

that the

correction

of the coil

is

Fixed disk and

is

^^''

[1-^'.], where a

in this case

about

coil.

coil.

X.

coil of

Secondary coiL

galvanometer.

y.

Great resistance.

glass scale.

x-x.

Current through the three

Shunt

S.

the depth

Current through R.

x. Current through G,.

Primary

is

'000926.

K. Double key. g. Graduated


C. Electrode of fixed disk.

coil.

Counoerpoise disk and

dM ~"

a da

db'

a factor of the form

correction which

Suspended disk and

d'M
"^

M. Mercury

Cun-ent through

coils

and

S.

G,.

cup.

Torsion head and tangent screw.

One quarter
instrument

is

and coils is cut away to shew the interior. The case


The galvanometer and shunts were 10 feet from the Electric Balance.

of the micrometer-box, disks,

not shewn.

[Vol.

VOL.

II.

I.

p.

591.]

17

of the

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC

130

The suspended

besides the repulsion due to the fixed

coil,

a couple due to the action


a

exactly

coil

and the current

similar

was

attached

the second

in

When

to

that in the

no

efiect of terrestrial

first.

the other arm of the

was made to flow

coil

the

to

made

current was

magnetism could be

experiences

coil,

To balance

magnetism.

of terrestrial

couple,

this

torsion-balance,

the opposite direction

in

to flow through both

coils,

obsei-ved.

The torsion-balance consisted of a light brass frame, to which the suspended


coils and disks were attached so that the centre of each coil was about eight
This firame was suspended by a
inches from the vertical axis of suspension.
(No. 20), the upper end of which was attached to the centre of
a torsion head, graduated, and provided with a tangent screw for small angular
The torsion head was supported by a hollow pillar, the base of
adjustments.

copper wire

which was clamped to the


adjustments

The

and

fixed disk

and

screw,

lid

the

of

instrument

to

as

so

admit

small

of

in every direction.

were

were mounted on a

coil

by a

protected

worked by a micrometer-

slide

brass box,

cylindrical

the

front

of which,

forming the guard-ring, 7 inches in diameter, had a circular aperture 4-26 inches
diameter, within which the suspended disk, 4*13 inches diameter, was free to
move, leaving an interval of "065 of an inch between the disk and the aper-

ture.

glass

scale

with

divisions

of

^^

^^

xio

suspended disk on the side which was not

'^^^^

electrified,

"^^^

and

attached to the

this

was viewed by

a microscope attached to the side of the instrument and provided with cross
wires at the focus.

The disk worked by the micrometer was


so

to

as

be parallel to the inner surface

micrometer-box.

the

This front

face

of

carefully adjusted

the

guard-ring,

the micrometer-box,

of

by the maker,

or front

when

in

face

of

position

was made vertical by means of three adjusting screws.


The suspended disk was then pressed against the fixed disk by means of a
slight spring, and the fixed disk was gradually moved forward by the micrometer-screw, while at the same time the graduated scale was observed through
In this way the graduations on the scale were compared with
the microscope.

in

the

instrument,

the readings of the micrometer.


into

contact with the guard-ring

motion was interrupted.


whole

circumference

of

motion ceased altogether.


of an inch.

A
the

This was continued


at

one

point,

till

when

the large
the

disk

regularity

of

came
the

very small motion was then sufficient to bring the


disk

into

when the
much more than one-thousandth

contact with the guard-ring,

This motion was not

131

WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.


disk

This

bisected

adjusted

by the

brought

then

w<a8

microscope was

so

that

wires.

cross

the

to

small

of

position

division

kno\\Ti

of

piece

silvered

and the

contact,

first

the

of

was

scale

glass

was fastened

glass

to

the outside of the guard-ring, and another to the back of the suspended disk
and these were adjusted so as to be in one plane, and to give a continuous

image of reflected objects when the disks were in contact and the surface of
the

was therefore

suspended disk

The

ring.

adjusted

disk

fixed

division

of

the

of

the

glass

scale

reflections

moved

be

could

balance

in

pillar;

it

the

plane

screwed

of the

guard-

the

of

surface

and the torsion-balance was


equilibrium was in precisely the

back,

when

in

This was tested by observing the coincidence of the

before.

by examining the
base

then

that the suspended disk

so

same position as
zero

was

bodily

could

in

and

the microscope,

with the cross wires of

from the two pieces of silvered

The

glass.

torsion-

any horizontal direction by adjusting the

be raised or lowered by a winch, and

could

it

be turned about any horizontal axis by sliding weights, and round the vertical
In this way the position of
axis by a tangent screw of the torsion head.
equilibrium

of

the suspended disk could be

of the guard-ring to the thousandth of

made continued very good from day

made

an inch;

to

coincide

and

the

with the plane

when

adjustment

to day, soft copper wire, stretched straight,

not having the tendency to untwist gradually which I have observed in steel
The weight of the torsion piece was about 1 lb. 3 oz., and the time of
wire.

a double

oscillation

about fourteen seconds.

The

oscillations

of the

suspended

were found to subside very rapidly, the


in pumping the air through the narrow
expended
being
energy of the motion
suspended disk.
and
the
guard-plate
the
between
aperture

when near

disk,

The

One

When

its

electrical

sighted position,

arrangements were as follows


of

electrode

the key was

Mr

pressed

Gassiot's

great

with a key.

battery was connected

connexion was made

to the fixed disk,

and thence,

through Mr Willoughby Smith's resistance-coils, to a point where the current


was divided between the principal coil of the galvanometer and a shunt, S,
These partial currents reunited at a
consisting of Mr Jenkin's resistance-coils.
point

where they were put

in

connexion with the other electrode of the battery,

with the case of the instrument, and with the earth.


Another battery was employed to send a current through the
electrode

of

this

battery was connected with a second

contact

coils.

piece

of

172

One
the

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC

132
key,

when the key was

that,

so

secondary

coil

then through

the current went

first

through

the

the brass frame of the torsion-balance and the suspended


from the centre of the
stout copper wire, weU amalgamated, hanging
to the case,
communication
metallic
made
mercury,
into a cup of

two suspended

disk.

pressed,

of thick wire,
of the galvanometer, consisting of thirty windings
through the
so
and
the fixed coil, then to the suspension wire,
coils

to

torsion-balance

and to the other electrode of the battery.


When these arrangements had been made, the observer at the microscope,

to earth,

when

disk was

suspended

the

made simultaneous contact

zero,

stationary at

disk waa attracted, the


with both batteries by means of the key.
was worked so as
micrometer
the
and
powerful,
great battery was the more
the fixed disk
repelled,
was
disk
the
If
disk.
the
of
to increase the distance
till a distance was found at
disk,
suspended
the
to
nearer
had to be moved
by
the scale was at rest and at zero, no eflPect was produced
If

the

when

which,

the simultaneous

of

action

the forces actuaUy employed

With

the batteries.

so that when the adjustthe equihbrium of the scale at zero was unstable;
from zero, and contacts
directed
always
was
ment was nearly perfect the force
such a way as to
in
zero,
approaching
was
scale
be made as the

had to
bring

to

it

In

the

rest,

if

possible,

the

meantime

at

zero.

other

observer

the

at

was taking

galvanometer

of the two
advantage of these contacts to alter the shunt S, till the effects
other.
each
currents on the galvanometer-needle balanced
When a satisfactory case of equilibrium had been observed simultaneously

micrometer-reading and the


the galvanometer and at the torsion-balance, the
results of the experiment.
the
as
down
set
were
shunt
the
of
resistance
the
difficulties experienced arose from the want of constancy in

at

The

chief

batteries,

the

ratio

the

of

currents

varying

very rapidly after

resistance
I think that by increasing considerably the
contact.
uniform.
more
made
could
be
battery-circuit, the current

When

a sufficient

a current was

made

number

to

of experiments

with a

needle was in equilibrium.

resistance

In

this

of 31

units

S' added.

making

the great

equilibrium had been made,

pass through the secondary coil of

and was then divided between a shunt


of the galvanometer

on

first

of

S'

BA

the galvanometer,

and the primary

was then varied

way the magnetic

effects

of the

till

two

coil

the
coils

were compared.

The

resistance

of

the galvanometer and of

all

the

coils

were tested by

133

WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.

Mr

who

Hockin,

also

made

the observations with the galvanometer and

all

its

adjusting shunts.

To determine
is

from these experiments, we have

8^^,
If

since the attraction

first,

equal to the repulsion,

2^n^y

(6).

the current of the great battery passing through the great resistance

is

R, and

x'

if

of this

the galvanometer whose resistance

passes through

and x x' through the shunt

E = Rx+Gx
Also

and

(7),

Gx=S{x-x)

and
if

is

Qi

the magnetic effect

that of the secondary

gr,

coil,

currents through each,

then when the needle

coils

But

ometer
of 31

y,

in equilibrium

is

(9)-

galvanometer,

and

x,

if

y^

divided into two


S',

= 9^i

and the

(1<^)-

of which x^ passes through the galvan-

parts,

y,-x\

other,

passes through

the

these equations

we

obtain as the value of

B (RG

(11).
v,

31

^\

an equation containing only known quantities on the right-hand


n and n are the numbers of windings on the two coils, a
the radii of the suspended disk and the aperture,
the fixed disk and the suspended disk,
radii of the coils,

is

shunt

Hence
x,{G + S')=(y,-x,)31

From

the

are

we have

and the shunt

Ohms.

the galvanometer,

of

= 9^

of the

9i^i
is

(8).

coU

the principal

of

9i^'

In the comparison of the

G,

is

to earth, then

and

h'

their

the great resistance,

in the principal experiment,

parison of galvanometer-coils.

mean

and

-^

is

found from

Of

these,

mean

of

a^

and

a,,

the

mean

(3).

that of the galvanometer,


S' that

the

the distance between

is

distance by equation

side.
is

that

of the shunt

of the additional resistance in the com-

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC

134
In

expression

this

measured are the


fixed

of

ratios

and the

disk,

them.

the

only

the radius

of the

ratio

The

radius

These ratios and the number

of

must

which

quantities

measure are the resistances.

absolute

other

be

of

the disk to

of

the

its

to

coils

determined

which

quantities

must

in

be

distance from the

the distance between

windings in the

of

are

coils

course

abstract numbers.

In the experiments,

= 144

?i

a = 2-0977

inches.

To determine a\ the circumference

n'

= 121

a'

=1-934

inch.

of every layer of the coils

was measured

with watch-spring, the thickness of which was '008 inch.

One turn
to '0202 inch.

of the micrometer-screw
If

m
&

= m-12-70,

In terms of the micrometer measure

a= 103-85
The

Mr Hockin

was found by

to

be equal

the micrometer-reading in terms of the screw,

is

5'

we have

turns,

resistances were determined

for

R=\
(t=

a and

= 95-75

a'

by Mr Hockin

= m + 26-31.
a',

turns.

as follows

102 000 Ohms.


46 220

The experiments were made for two days, using a small battery charged
bichromate of potash.
The current due to this battery was found to
diminish so rapidly that a set of Grove's cells was used on the third day,
which was found to be more constant than the great battery. A proper combination of the two batteries would perhaps produce a current which would
with

diminish according to the same law as that


difficulty

arose

the key was pressed,

the

great

battery.

if

oi

electricity

from the great battery through the

micrometer was not touched,

kept

my

the disk remained at

its

for,

floor.

proper zero.

except by

When

the

In certain

hand always on the micrometer in order to be able

experiments

to adjust

more accurately.

it

Another

the micrometer was touched by the hand the disk was

This I have not been able satisfactorily to account

attracted.

leakage

of

from the fact that when the connexions were made, but before

These experiments gave a value of v much too

small, on account of the additional attraction.

When

I discovered the attraction,

WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.


I

took care to

took advantage

make the

without touching

observations

the attraction to check the

of

135
the

oscillations

micrometer,

and

The

of the disk.

experiments in which these precautions were taken agree together as well


I

me

could expect, and lead

to think that, with the experience

as

have acquired,

It must be borne
better results might be obtained by the same method.
mind that none of the results were calculated till after the conclusion of all
the experiments, and that the rejected experiments were condemned on account
still

in

observed while they were being made.

of errors

Any

leakage

want

of

the difference

of

arising

introduce

no

error,

measured

by

the

as

current

from

in

the

insulation
potentials

galvanometer,

of

the

fixed

disk

would

between the two disks

through a known

is

resistance,

independently of any leakage.


All

that

is

essential

to

accuracy

is

that the position of equilibrium before

making contact should be at true zero, the same as when there is no electrical
action, and that this equilibrium should not be disturbed when simultaneous
contact

is

made with both

batteries.

Experiments on
Number

of

May

8.

*S'=1710 Ohms.

A DIRECT COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC WITH ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE.

136

Experiments

3,

6,

5,

4,

were

rejected

on account of the micrometer

These experiments gave

being touched during the observation of equilibrium.

an average value of v =

27'39.

The value of v derived from these experiments is considerably smaller than


31-074
that which was obtained by MM. Weber and Kohlrausch, which was
Ohms, or 310,740,000 metres per second.
Their method involved the determination of the
condenser,

the

determination of

electrostatic

its

electrostatic capacity of a

potential

when

charged,

and

the electromagnetic determination of the quantity of electricity discharged through

a galvanometer.

The capacity

of the condenser

edly with a sphere of

exhibit the

dielectrics

solid

known

was measured by dividing

Now,

radius.

phenomena

would give too large a value

for

of

since

"electric

all

charge repeat-

its

condensers

absorption,"

made with
method

this

the capacity, as the condenser would become

recharged to a certain extent after each discharge, so that the repeated division
potential.
The capacity
of the charge would have too small an effect on the
overestimated, the number of electrostatic units in the discharge would

being

be overestimated, and the value of v would be too great.


In pointing out this as a probable source of error in the experiments of
MM. Weber and Kohlrausch, I mean to indicate that I have such confidence
the ability and fidelity with which their investigation was conducted, that
obliged to attribute the difference of their result from mine to a phenomenon the nature of which is now much better understood than when their
in

am

experiments were made.


On the other hand,
accuracy
Electric

of

the

The

Eesistance.

determined by

Weber

by Dr

from

Joule

the result of

experiments of

in

his

comparing the heating

B.

A.

present

experiments

depends on the

the Committee of the British Association on


unit

is

about 8-8 per cent, larger than that

and about 1'2 per cent, less than that derived


experiments on the dynamical equivalent of heat by
1862,

effects of direct

mechanical agitation with those of electric

currents.

believe that Sir

William Thomson's experiments, not yet published, give


His method, I believe, also depends

a value of v not very different from mine.


on the value of the B. A. unit.

The lowest estimate

of the velocity of light, that of the late

298,000,000 metres per second.

M. Foucault,

is

A COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRIC UNITS, &C.

Note on

on the Electromagnetic Field* some years ago,

In a paper

phenomenon,

laws

the

me

which

of

Two

one and the same medium.

believe

to

and magnetism, on the theory that

electricity

of

Theory of Light.

the Electromagnetic

the Royal Society the reasons which led

tromagnetic

137

can

before

laid

an

is

elec-

be deduced from those of

phenomena

these

all

that light

are affections

papers appeared in Poggendorff's Aniut-

for
1867, bearing on the same subject.
The first, by the late eminent
mathematician Bernhardt Riemann, was presented in 1858 to the Royal Society
len,

was withdrawn

of

Gottingen,

but

till

last year.

Riemann shews that

before
for

if

and remained unknown

publication,

Laplace's equation

we

substitute

^-a"A'F+a'47r/3 =

being

the

electrostatic

with known phenomena in

and a a

potential,
all

certain

mention

The

velocity.

shews that

seems

however,

author,

This equation

is

equi-

propagated through space with

is

making

avoid

to

medium through which the propagation

any

of

the results will agree

velocity,

parts of electrical science.

valent to a statement that the potential

(13),

takes place,

explicit

but he

this velocity is nearly, if not absolutely, equal to the knowTi velocity

of light.

The second
electric

paper,

by M. Lorenz, shews

that,

on Weber's theory, periodic

disturbances would be propagated with a velocity equal to that of light.

The propagation of

attraction through space forms part

though the medium

is

From
first,

of this hypothesis

the assumptions of both these papers

we may draw

the conclusions,

that action and reaction are not always equal and opposite,

that apparatus

may

also,

not explicitly recognised.

and second,

be constructed to generate any amount of work from

its

resources.

For
joining
potential
position
will

two

let

them
or

at

attract

oppositely

with

equal

electrified

velocities

in

and

the direction

travel

AB,

the attraction of the bodies at a given time

some former time

(as

then
is

along the line


if

either

the

that due to their

these authors suppose), B, the foremost body,

forwards more than

attracts

* Philosophical Transactions, 1865,

VOL. U.

bodies

p.

backwards.

459. [Vol.

i.

p.

527.]

18

A COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRIC UNITS

138

let A and B be kept asunder bj a


The combined system, if set in motion

Now

may

that direction with a force which


or

rigid rod.
in

the direction

either continually

AB,

will

augment the

pull

in

velocity,

may

be used as an inexhaustible source of energy.


I think that these remarkable deductions from the latest developments of
only be avoided by recognizing the action of

Weber and Neumann's theory can


a medium in electrical phenomena.

The statement of the electromagnetic theory of light in my former paper


was connected with several other electromagnetic investigations, and was thereI propose, therefore, to state
fore not easily understood when taken by itself
it in what I think the simplest form, deducing it from admitted facts, and
shewing the connexion between the experiments already described and those
which determine the velocity of

The connexion

light.

phenomena may be stated

of electromagnetic

in the following

manner.

Theorem A.
then the

If

integral

of

a closed curve be drawn embracing an electric current,


the magnetic intensity taken round the closed curve is

equal to the current multiplied by

Att.

The integral of the magnetic


work done on a unit magnetic pole
This

well-known theorem gives us

and magnitude of

electric

magnetic force in the

field.

currents,

and

force,

diminished,

if,

may

be otherwise defined as the

the means

when we can

of discovering the. position


ascertain the

distribution

of

It follows directly from the discovery of (Ersted.

Theorem B. If a conducting
netic

intensity

carried completely round the closed curve.

any

from

circuit

embraces a number of lines of mag-

cause whatever,

the number of these lines

an electromotive force will act round the

of which will be equal to the decrement of the

circuit,

number

is

the total amount

of lines

of magnetic

force in unit of time.

The number
integral

by

the

of

lines

magnetic force

of

element of

surface,

and by the

integration being extended over

This theorem
of this

may

be otherwise defined as the

of the magnetic intensity resolved perpendicular to a surface, multiplied

mode

prehensive.

is

coefficient

of magnetic induction,

any surface bounded by the conducting

the

circuit.

due to Faraday, as the discoverer both of the facts and


them, which I think the simplest and most com-

of expressing

AND ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF

Theorem

C.

When

tromotive force

we admit

polarized

conductor

of the

If

is

of the elec-

we suppose the

dielectric

bounded by

and

positively

on the positive

electrified,

we must

of this displacement
also

side,

and that of

also

admit

that

then the
negatively.

within the dielectric there

displacement of electricity in the direction of the electromotive

and depending

ex-

it

direction

energy of the system so electrified resides in the

that the

dielectric,

if

negative,

the

force

If the

polarization.

and

positive,

on

acted on by electromotive

is

electric

call

called

is

two conductors,
surface

a dielectric

what we may

periences

139

LIGHT.

force,

is

the amount

being proportional to the electromotive force at each point,

on the nature of the

dielectric.

The energy stored up in any portion of the dielectric is half the product
of the electromotive force and the electric displacement, multiplied by the volume
of that portion.

may

It

pressure

also

be

in

shewn that at every point of the

along the lines of

tension

mechanical

directions

all

at

electric

angles to

right

force,

there

dielectric

combined with

these lines,

is

an equal

the amount of this

tension on unit of area being equal to the amount of energy in unit of volume.
I think that these statements are an accurate rendering of the ideas of
Faraday, as developed in various parts of his " Experimental Researches."

Theorem D.
effect

is

When

equivalent

to

the electric displacement increases or diminishes, the

that

of an

current

electric

in

the positive or negative

direction.

Thus,

the

if

two conductors

in

the last case are

there will be a current in the wire from

At

the

diminishing,

same

time,

since

the

now

joined

by a

wire,

to B.

electric

displacement

in

the dielectric

is

there will be an action electromagnetically equivalent to that of an

electric current

According

from
to

to

this

through the

dielectric.

view, the current produced

in

discharging a condenser

and might be traced within the dielectric itself by a


I am not aware that this has been done,
galvanometer properly constructed.
so that this part of the theory, though apparently a natural consequence of
the former, has not been verified by direct experiment. The experiment would
is

complete

circuit,

certainly be a very delicate

Let
light,

us

now apply

and

difiicult one.

these four

principles

to

the electromagnetic theory of

considered as a disturbance propagated in plane waves.

182

A COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRIC UNITS

140

of propagation be taken as the axis of z, and let all


of z and of t the time; that is, let every portion
functions
be
the quantities
instant.
of any plane perpendicular to z be in the same condition at the same
Let us also suppose that the magnetic force is in the direction of the

Let

the

direction

of y, and let

axis

Let

the

be the magnetic intensity in that direction at any point.


curve of Theorem A consist of a parallelogram in the

two of whose

plane

yz,

of

The

z.

)8

closed

sides

h along the axis of y,

are

integral of the magnetic

and

along the axis

intensity taken round this parallelogram

is

is the value of /8 at the origin.


be the quantity of electric current in the direction of x per
parallelounit of area taken at any pomt, then the whole current through the

^(y8o-)8),

where

Now

let _p

gram

will

fi,

be
hpdz,

i:

and we have by

(A),

h{^,-^) = 4.7rj'hpdz.
If

we

divide

by

and

differentiate

with respect to

z,

we

find
(^^)'

f.=-'^
Let us next consider a parallelogram in the plane of
sides are a along the axis of x, and z along the axis of
If

is

If

/u,

is

round

of

this parallelogram is

whose

of x,

a(P-Po).

the coefficient of magnetic induction, then the number of lines of

embraced by this parallelogram will be


I

and

two

the electromotive force per unit of length in the direction

then the total electromotive force

force

xz,
z.

since

by (B) the

total

afi^dz,

electromotive force

is

equal to

the rate

of

dimi-

nution of the number of lines in unit of time,

a{P-P,)=-^^j\t.^dz.
Dividing by a and differentiating with respect to

^=-^f

z,

we

find
(15).

AND ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF


Let the nature of the
is

LIGHT.

14]

be such that an electric displacement

dielectric

produced by an electromotive force P,

P=where k

is

a quantity depending on the

(10).

particular

dielectric,

which

may

be

called its "electric elasticity."


Finally,

let

the

current

already considered,

p,

be supposed entirely due

to the variation ofy, the electric displacement, then

.(17).

We

have

quantities

/S,

now

four

p, P, and

equations,

we

If

(14),

(15),

eliminate p,

df ~

(16),

P, and

(17),

we

between the four


find

(18).

Anfidz'

we put

If

(19).
Awfji

the well-known solution of this equation

is

^ = cf>,{z-Vt) + <f>Az+Vt)
shewing that the disturbance

The other
Thus,

is

quantities p, P, and

if

/3

(20),

propagated with the velocity V.

= ccos

can be deduced from

/3.

-7-(z- Vt)
A.

277,

T-.X

(21).

P = c^Fcos^(z-F()
A

have in the next

place

to

shew

that

the

velocity

the

same

quantity as that found from the experiments on electricity.

For

this

purpose

let

us consider a stratum of air of thickness h bounded

by two parallel plane conducting surfaces of


of whose potentials is E.

indefinite

extent,

the

difference

A COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRIC UNITS

142

The electromotive
The

displacement

electric

The energy
per unit of area

The

force per unit of length

unit

in

is

volume and the tension along the

of

as

area
in

of the

radius

lines

of

force

^ Pf.

is

attraction

If this

PyE.

is

/= t -P.

on an area no' of either surface

X = i7ra^Pf

surface,

between the surfaces

smaU

separated by a

is

the experiment, and

of the plane

from the rest

interval
interval

this

if

is

is

small compared with the

the lines of force belonging to the disk will be separated

disk,

from those belonging to the rest of the surface

by

of

surface

revolution,

the section of which, at any sensible distance from the surface, will be a circle

whose radius

is

mean between those

radius must be taken

Let

us

next

y.

circle.

round the

If
circle

the

is

is

h,

distance

be 2nhfi =

carrying
let

by

4tTry

will

will

current

y'

be

placed parallel to the

us consider a portion of this wire of length


force,

I.

first

at

This portion

and the electromagnetic

force

be equal to the product of the length of the portion, multiplied by

more approximate expression

C.

the integral

(23).

* [Note added Dec. 28, 1868. I have since found that

-J.

fi,

= 2|

if Oj is

the radius of the disk, and a, that of

we must

substitute for

a quantity which cannot exceed

(a^-a^).

the aperture of the guard-ring, and b the distance from the large fixed disk, then
Tj the

be uniform round

{A).

be urged across the lines of magnetic

will

6,

wire

This

be in the direction of a tangent

and the intensity

and the magnetic intensity

y8

and

force will

the current

Hence
Let

disk and the aperture.

the magnetic force near a long straight conductor

radius

will

the

of

in the equation (22)*

The magnetic

a circle whose axis

this

consider

carrying a current
to

for

M.1

-j-^

+9T/T

\i 'w^here

is

AND ON THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF


the current and

by the number of

through which

moves,

it

or,

in

lines

If the

it

crosses per unit of distance

symbols,

_o

if

which

143

LIGHT.

MJOT

two wires instead of being straight are circular, of radius a, and


is very small compared with the radius, the

the distance between them

h'

wUl be the same

attraction

T^
5

When

h'

is

not very small

(3) to calculate the value of

Making A^=

were straight, and

as if they

2A

27ra

=2/x

will

be
,,

compared with a, we must use the equation

by

elliptic integrals.

and comparing with equation

(6),

we

find

^-^
but,

by

Hence

i'

But
to

is

(-)

P = ^.

(19),

where v

{2d).

j^.-yi/

= /xF

the electromagnetic ratio and

since all the experiments are

unity, as the standard

(27),

made

is

the velocity of light.

in air, for wliich

medium with which

all

/x

is

assauied ecjual

others are compared,

we have

finaUy

v=V
or the

number of

electrostatic units in

(28),

one electromagnetic unit of electricity

numerically equal to the velocity of light.

is

[Extracted from The Quarterly Journal of Pure

On

XXXVII.

and Applied Mathematics, No.

34, 1867.]

the Cyclide.

In optical treatises, the primary and secondary foci of a small pencil are
sometimes represented by two straight lines cutting the axis of the pencil at
Every ray of the pencil
right angles in planes at right angles to each other.
is

supposed to pass through these two

has called a congruence of the

The
tion

of

no

for

system

be

thus forming what M.

Pliiker'""

drawn which

shall

cut

all

the essential condi-

fulfil

that the rays shall have a

pencils,

can

surface

lines,

order.

thus defined, does not

as

of rays,

optical

all

first

common

wave-surface,

the rays of such a pencil

at right angles.

E. Hamilton has shewn, that the primary and secondary foci are
points of contact of the ray with the surface of centres of

W.

Sir
in

the

general

the wave-surface, which forms a double caustic surface.

of

contact

will

The

surface.

appear,

If

we

select a pencil

corresponding to a given small area on the wave-surface,

of rays

when

lie

two

on

sections

of

the pencil

is

small

on

areas

the

the pencil by planes perpendicular to


small enough, as two

points

their

two sheets of the


its

caustic

axis

wiU

short straight lines in planes

perpendicular to each other.


I

of

propose to determine the form

the so-called focal lines

is

really

of

the wave-surface,

line,

when one

or both

and not merely the projection of

a small area of a curved surface.

Let

may

Let
fixed

us

first

determine the condition that

all

the

normals

of

a surface

pass through one fixed curve.


i2

be a point on the surface, and

curve at P.

a plane through

Let

PT

RP

a normal at P, meeting the

be a tangent to the fixed curve at P, and

and PT.
* Philosophical Transactions, 1864.

EPT

145

THE CYCLIDE.

Of the two

RPT, and

lines

of

the second

is

the

about

passes through

and

equally

or

curve,

it

of curvature

Unes

The

surface

all

of

whose

sphere

PT

and

circle,

curvature

may

they

that

cone whose axis

right

therefore

is

plane.

its

so

turn

equal

of

are

be considered either

is

centre

the tangent to the


is

at

P,

and which

of

along the line of curvature.

may

therefore

whose centres

spheres,

of

PT,

to

inclined

the radii

as

touches the surface

to

axis,

line

RPT

the plane

if

plane

the

touches

first

always be normal to the second

will

centre perpendicular to

its

generating

the

fixed

an

as

The second

the

Hence,

it.

the normals belonging to the second line of

All
length,
as

PT

tangent

of curvature.

line

R,

through

curvature

perpendicular to

be

as

defined

envelope

the

on the fixed curve, and whose

lie

series

of

radii vary according

any law.
If the

of

the envelope
curve,

fixed

If

we

through two fixed curves, the surface must also be


second series of spheres whose centres He on the second

normal passes
a

and each of which touches


take any three spheres of

defined as the envelope

200),

(p.

is

the

first

series,

series.

first

the surface

may

be

the spheres which touch the three given spheres

all

given

definition

the

of

the spheres of the

the

manner.

in a continuous

This

of

all

of

surface

by Dupin,

in

his

Applications de

the fourth order called the

Cyclide,

Geometne

because

both

series of its lines of curvature are circles.

If the
(inside

side

three fixed spheres be given, they


outside)

or

touching sphere,

of the

may
or

either be all on the same


any one of the three may

There
be on the opposite side from the other two.
described touching
series of spheres which may be
but
to

we cannot

pass

are

thus

the

same three spheres,

continuously from one series to another,

the four corresponding cyclides pass

four

difierent

and the normals

through difierent fixed curves.

Since all the


Let us next consider the nature of the two fixed curves.
pass through both curves, and since all those which pass through a
point P are equally inclined to the tangent at P, the second curve must

normals

lie

on a right cone.

point

to

PT, and the

a plane conic.

now

the point

be taken so that

PQ

its

distance from

be perpendicular

is a minimum, then
cone will become a plane, therefore the second curve is
In the same way we may shew, that the first curv^e is a plane

the second curve

in

If

will

right

conic,

VOL.

11.

19

THE CYCLIDE.

146

The two curves

therefore

are

one of the conies, and

is

The

in

therefore

are

conies

such that the cone whose base

plane conies,

vertex any point of the other,

its

a right cone.

is

planes at right angles to each other, and the foci

of one are the vertices of the transverse axis

"We

of the other.

these

shall call

curves the focal conies of the cyclide.

Let the equations to a point on an

= ccosa,

iK

where a

be

= (c' - Z)')* sin

and

angle,

the eccentric

is

2/

ellipse

the

let

a,

(1),

equations

to

point

on

the

hyperbola be

x = bsecB,
where

B is

uniformity,

we

0,

= (c' - 6^ tan J5

suppose

shall

y8

= i(e^ + e-^), and

and

cos A/8
sec Ay8

sin/?;8

= sec -B, whence


= cos B,

x = hcoskl3,

= |(e^-c-^)

sin ^)8

(3),

= 0,

= tan 5

be a point on the

ellipse,

,.

tan AyS = smB f

may then

= (c^ -

1'')*

Construction of the Cyclide by Points.

Let

be written

sin A/3

(5).

First MetJiod.

a point on the hyperbola, then

FQ = c sec B h cos a
Now

FQ

take on

is

a constant,

on the cyclide

For
fixed

ight

if

while

F
F

angles,

(6).

a point R, so that

or

where r

For

so related, that

to a point in the hyperbola

The equations

(2),

the required conditions.

fulfil

sometimes make use of the hyperbolic functions

shall

cosAy8

and we

y=

an angle, then these two conies

then

if

FE = r-h cos a
QR = r -c sec B
a and B vary, R

(7),

(8),

will give a

system of points

(bcr).

be fixed while

varies,

will

describe

circle,

and

if

another

circle,

and these

and are both at right angles to

FQR

at their intersection,

varies,

will

describe

circles

be

cut at

and

THE CYCLIDE.
since

and

are any points

147

whole system

the

on the conies,

of circles

will

form a cyclide.

The

corresponding to

circle

which cuts that of xz along the

on the

point

fixed

ellipse,

is

in a plane

line

^=7. y=o
and makes with

The

it

an angle

corresponding

circle

(9),

to

fixed

point

the hyperbola,

in

in

is

plane which cuts that of xy along the line


a:

and makes with

it

f.

(10).

an angle
tan

Hence the planes

of all

\ Y-,

fTu sin

B\

the circles of either

The

will

line

of intersection

therefore

pass

the co-ordinates of

of the planes

y-y = i^_:iltana,

is

easily

2/

circles

at

z=-^^^^^smB

= 0,

c
it

one

of

points

and

T,

where

(11),

(12),

shewn that

1-5^^^-

SR

(13).

cos iJ

Hence,

we deduce

the following

two

through the point

T,

xJ-,
and

two

(c"-.6n*

cr

through

and at a minimum distance

lines

are

^ = ^,
T'
and those of

of the

through both the fixed

pass

series

fixed lines, which are at right angles to each other,

192

THE CYCLIDE.

148

Second Constimction by Points.

Draw
and

(12),

the two fixed

lines,

that given by equation (13).

This

and the
and "

construction

as the

cyclide,

and

then draw ST, and cut

ST

sector,"

and

convenient

for

given by equations (11)

segments

is

drawing any projection of the

are measured along the

distances

line

E, so that the ratio of the

be a point on the cyclide.

It will

very

is

find points

it in

projections of the fixed lines,

be divided in the required ratio by means of a ruler

can

without making any marks on the paper, except the position of

the required point H.

In this

way

drawn

have

stereoscopic

viewed from a position nearly

cyclide,

diagrams of four varieties

of the

in the line

x = y = z,
shewing the

corresponding to various values of a and B"\

circles

On

We

suppose

shall

different values to r.

iV^'o^e

and

Forms of
c

to

the Cyclide.

be given, and trace the

eifect

of giving

Since the cyclides corresponding to negative values of

corresponding to equal positive values merely by having the

from those

differ

the

on a Reai-Image Stereoscope.

In ordinary stereoscopes the virtual images of two pictures are

superposed, and the observer, looking through two lenses, or prisms, or at two mirrors, sees the figure

apparently behind the optical apparatus.

In a stereoscope, which I have had made by

Elliott Brothers,

the observer looks at a real image of the pictures, which appears in front of the instrument, and he

is

not

conscious of using any optical apparatus.

This stereoscope consists of a frame to support the double picture, which


slide inveited.

foot focal length,

these

is

One

foot

from

this a

frame

is

may be

placed, containing side by side

common

two convex

and having their centres distant one and a quarter inches horizontally.

stereoscopic

lenses of half a

One

foot

beyond

placed a convex lens of two-thirds of a foot focal length and three inches diameter.

The observer stands about two

feet

from the large

lens, so that

with the right eye he sees an image of

the left-hand picture, and with the left eye an image of the right>-hand picture.

These images are formed by pencils which pass centrically through the two small lenses respectively,
so that they are free

from

and they appear to be nearly at the same distance as the large lens,
on the frame of the large lens sees the combined figures at once.
though constructed for this stereoscope, may be used with an ordinary

distortion,

so that the observer fixing his eyes

The

figures of the

stereoscope, or they

may

cyclide,

be united by squinting, which

is

a very effective method.

THE CYCLTDE.

149

and negative ends of the axis of x reversed, we need study the

positive

positive

values only.

When

lies

consists of

two

(1)

ellipse

a point of the

two

circles

The

cyclide

one

negative

the

is

largest,

the tangent to the

ellipse,

The

w^hole

in

foci,

in

the

plane

and which

of

the

intersect at

the plane of the hyperbola consists of

two

in

vertices of the ellipse.

where

conical points,

these singular points

at

is

it

meets the other

a right cone, whose axis

and whose semi-vertical angle

is

^-

resembles two pairs of horns,

figure

and the two

their bases,

section

whose centres are the

cos

by

the

two lobes exterior to each other, of which the


and increases with r, while the positive lobe

of

consists

The cone of contact

lobe.

section

Each lobe terminates

decreases.

is

The

ellipse.

h,

whose centres are the

exterior to each other,


itself

and

between zero
circles,

each pair joined together

pairs touching at the tips of the horns.

Figure I.*

The continuous curves represent the lines


of curvature of both series.
The dotted curves represent the ellipse and hyperbola through which the normals pass, and the dotted straight lines represent the axis of x, and the two straight lines through which the planes of
represents a

cyclide

of

this

kind.

the circles pass.


(2)
in

Figure
(3)

the

When

lies

between

and

II.

c,

the cyclide consists of a single sheet

of which

the form of a ring, the section

is

on the negative

greatest

side.

represents a cyclide of this kind.

When

is

greater than

c,

the

cyclide

again consists of two sheets,

one within the other, meeting each other in two conical points which are

situated

on the

these points,

positive

branch of the hyperbola.

There
touches

is

the

The

semi-vertical

angle at

is

also

in

all

/^-cV

forms of the cyclide,

a singular tangent plane

cyclide along a circle corresponding to


[Page 159].

-.
2

Figure

III.

which
repre

THE CYCLIDE.

150

The outer sheet with its circles of contact and re-entering


and the inner spindle with its conical points meeting those of
the outer sheet, have a certain resemblance to the outer and inner sheets
sents such a cyclide.
conical

points,

Wave-Surface

of Fresnel's

has

such

four

Figure

III, useful

we

If

forms

give

(3),

(2),

traversed

is

point

spindle

At

the

and when r = c

in

the

(3),

oo

to

oo

-1-

3)

we may

find

and every point of space


when r is infinite, any given

For

inner sheet

vanishes

it

assumes the

the cyclide

succession,

surface.

spindle or

instant the

At

through R.
sheet of

2),

As

of (3).

the

diminishes,

that for a certain value,

so

outer sheet of the cyclide

surface

and

contracts,

r^,

of one

ring cyclide

beyond R, but as

when r= b,

which the

for

rj,

may have

this instant the surface

or of the

stiU

is

vanishes

finally

must have passed through a value

it

mind that the wave-surface

in

the surface of the spindle passes through the point R.

c,

this

bear

an idea of the singular points of the wave-surface.

by

times

we

if

while the cycUde has only two,

values from

all

1),
(

(1),

four

diminishes,

which

to

contracts,

and,

points

in forming

within the

is

greater than

singular

before

passes

surface

the form either of the outer

sheet

or

(2),

of the negative lobe

of (1).

The

positive lobe of (1) begins to appear

as r diminishes,

increases
it

till

when r= b

becomes the outer sheet of the cyclide

it

necessarily less than

r^ is

When r=c
definitely
i\,

as

the point 72

cyclide
real

at

The

may

interior

is

less

than

and when

and

h,

r= c

r^,

of

r,

passes through the point R.

r,.

sheet of

3)

is

some value,

so that for

developed,

and

of

which

r^

r,

We

on the surface of this interior sheet.

be said to have four sheets,

increases
is

less

in-

than

thus see that the

though not more than two can be

These four sheets touch at three conical points.

once.
first

-the

r diminishes,

ring,

3).

This surface, therefore, for some value,

This value

when r becomes
becomes a

sheet,

corresponding to

is

r^,

and always touches the second sheet at a

the interior lobe of the cyclide


conical point

(3),

on the positive branch

of the hyperbola.

The second

sheet, corresponding to

the outer sheet of


of

(l).

positive

When

the

(3),

first

hyperbola, and

point on the ellipse.

r^,

has three different forms, being either

the ring cyclide of one sheet


sheet exists,

when the

third

it

meets

it

(2),

or the negative lobe

at a conical

sheet exists,

it

meets

it

point on the
at

a conical

THE CYCLIDE.
The

third

may be

either

sheet of

it

3).

in

the

third

In the

it

lobe

positive

second

meets the

corresponding

sheet,

the

case

first

has also

7'

different
(

2),

forms.

It

the outer

or

has a conical point on the ellipse Nvhere

it

the fourth

three

the ring cydide

(l),

In the second case

sheet.

meets

to

of

151

sheet

has no conical

it

a conical

in

point,

on the

point

and

negative

hyperbola.

The fourth sheet

is

the

spindle

interior

the

of

cyclide

3), and

always

meets the third sheet at a conical point on the negative hyperbola.

Parabolic Cyclides.

When
and

tity,

the values of
if

h,

and x are each increased by the same quanincreased, the two conies become in

r,

c,

quantity

this

indefinitely

is

the limit two parabolas in perpendicular planes, the focus of one being the vertex
of the other,

When

and the cyclide becomes what we may


between h

lies

and

lying entirely between the planes

call

the parabolic cycHde.

the cyclide consists of one infinite sheet,

c,

x = 2h

and x = 2c r.

The portions of space

on the positive and negative side of the sheet are linked together as the earth
and the air are linked together by a bridge, the earth, of which the bridge
forms

embracing

part,

much

air

from below, and the

embracing the

air

bridge
is

larger than the other.

parabolic ring cyclide in which 2r

When
two

the

In fact the earth and bridge form a ring of which one side

from above.

r does not

conical points,

lie

between

and an

and

infinite sheet

= h-\-c,

is

represented in Figure IV.

the cyclide consists of a lobe with

c,

with two conical points meeting those

of the lobe.

Surfaces of Revolution.

When
of radius
less

than

= 0,

c,

the form

surface consists of

When

the cyclide

is

r about a line in its

= c,

is

the surface formed by the revolution of a

own

plane distant c from the centre.

that of an anchor

ring.

If

an outer and an inner sheet, meeting

the cyclide resolves

itself into

if r ifl less than 6, .and internally


two spheres become one.

if

is

is

in

greater than

two

circle

If

conical

c,

is

the

points.

two spheres, which touch externally


greater than

h.

When

=c=

0,

tlie

THE CYCLIDE.

152

be transferred to a conical point, and if the dimensions of


the figure be then indefinitely increased, the cyclide becomes ultimately a right
cone, having the same conical angle as the original cyclide. If b = c, the cone
If the

origin

becomes a plane.
If h remains

while

finite,

r,

c,

and x are each increased by the same

indefinitely great quantity, the cyclide ultimately becomes a right cylinder, whose

radius

is

r c.

Inversion of the Cyclide.

Since every sphere,

when

inverted by means of the reciprocals of the radii

becomes another sphere, every cydide similarly inverted


There is, however, a certain relation between the
becomes another cyclide.
parameters of the one cyclide and those of the other, namely

drawn to a

fixed point,

^^Z^^

= 7^37^

(^^)'

73^-7^^F
If the point of inversion

af

or

be taken oh

+ f-2

a;^

h'

either of the circles

+ r'-c' = 0,

+ 2^2^-6='-r^ + r = 0,

y=

(16),

a...

the cyclide will become a surface of revolution in which 5

the point of inversion be on the

first circle,

(18)

or

r'-h'

C
if it

'(19)

C'-O'

be on the second.

"When
than

(17),

= 0, and

r:^^^
if

6,

and the

is

less

the second

than

circle

is

c,

the

real.

first

circle

is

real;

and when r
is between

In the ring-cycUde r

cyclide can be transformed into

is

greater

and

an anchor ring in two difierent ways.

c,

THE CYCLIDE.
and

the cyclide has conical points,

If

of

inversion,

COS

'

the

I-j

if

becomes a

cyclide

than

less

is

7'

If the point of inversion

becomes a parabolic

'

one of them be made the point

whose

cone,

j-A

if

is

angle

semi-vertical

greater than

is

h.

be at any other point of the surface, the cychde

cyclide.

point of inversion

If the

or cos

b,

if

right

153

be x =

he

= 0, z=

0,

the cyclide

is

inverse

to

itself.

On

the

Definition.
individual

and

if

Conjugate Isothermal Functions on the Cyclide.

If

any

on

two

surface

systems of curves

the two systems of curves

everywhere at right angles, and

intersect

the intercept of a curve of the second system between two


of the

be drawn, each

curve being defined by the value of a parameter corresponding to

first

system has the same

system between two consecutive

ratio to the

curves of the

parameters of the two curves of the

parameters of the two


curves are

called

isothermal

functions.

first

If

isothermal

the surface

second,

as

first

the difference of the

system has to the difference of the

lines,

be

if

curves

intercept of a curve of the

second system, then the

curves of the

conjugate

consecutive

it,

two systems of

and the two parameters conjugate

now supposed

to

be a uniform

con-

ducting lamina placed between non-conducting media, one set of these lines will
be

isothermal

for

be lines of flow.

heat or equipotential for electricity, and the other set

Lame on

(See

This property of lines on a surface

is

In the cyclide, we find the intercept


system

not changed by inversion.


tls

of a

line

of curvature of the

is

c/^,

=
c cos

and the intercept

ds^ of

JO J
np

{c'-h-yda

(o'-l'N^
*.= -cos'IpT"
hp bcosa^
VOL.

II.

(20),

cos a

a line of curvature of the second system

will

Isothinvnal Functio7is.)

'

is

(21).
^

'

20

first

'

THE CYCLIDE.

154
If

now ^ be a

function of

a,

and

<f)

<f>

will

be conjugate isothermal functions.

=k

If

(r

the condition will be

is

and ^

6p^cos a

satisfied.

If r

{r^

It

sucK that

(3,

~ d<j>

dSi

then d and

of

<i>

=k

^^-r^

greater than

is

hy

r cos

7-

is

less

than

6,

we have

we

find

thus

6,

'

V ^^)

co8a=

If

6,

a.

more useful to have a expressed in terms of

sm a =

(22),

jr ccoshp

(24).

only to write the hyperbolic functions of

^^^* [b'-rY for


7-^^,.^ instead of the circular functions of T^^ZT^i' ^^ *

(r'-by.
Similarly,

than

we

^ and

obtain for the relation between

<^,

when

is

greater

c,

(^-c?8in;^P^j
tan

B = siD.h^=

is

less

than

we must

jri

(r*

c-y

^1

A-

'

r + c cos h
r

j-j

+ r cos y^

secB = coshlB=

When

r + ccosh

substitute

the hyperbolic functions into circular functions.

(25).

^-

(c' -?-")*

for

(?^-c*)*

and turn

THE CYCUDE.
Having found
them any number

these

isothermal

conjugate

of other

as

pairs,

155

^,

and

functions

<^

we may deduce

^-^-^^iand^'^-'--^^'^'

On

Confocal

system of cyclides in which the

same, while r has various values,

and

of cyclides

the

two

may

from

where
(26)

Cy elides.
focal

ellipse

and hyperbola remain the

be called a confocal system.

This system

systems of right cones which have their vertices

in

one conic and pass through the other, form three systems of orthogonal surfaces,

and therefore

By

intersect along their lines of curvature.

inversion

we may

get

three systems of cyclides intersecting orthogonally.

system of confocal cyclides

may

also be considered as a

system of wave

surfaces in an isotropic medium, corresponding to a pencil of rays, each ray of


Each cyclide corresponds to a certain
which intersects the two focal conies.

value of

r,

Now

which we may

let

call

the length of the ray of that cyclide.

us consider the system of confocal conicoids, whose equation

is

of

the form

^+^.^-^.=1
By

putting p

= c, we

get the ellipse

By

putting p

= h, we

get the hyperbola

(^n

t-^=''y='
These
conies.

two
If,

hyperbola,

conies

therefore

with any point


these

will

be

(2^)-

belong to the system and

for vertex,

confocal

cones,

we draw

may

be

called its

focal

cones through the ellipse and

whose three axes are normal to the


The two cones will inter-

three conicoids of the system which pass through R.


sect

at right angles

along four generating lines

i\,

7\,

i\,

which are normal

to four cyclides passing through the point R.

202

THE CYCLIDE.

156

The normal

to

and
in

also that

the

between

direction

r,

and

ellipse,

and

i\-\-r^

the angle between

reflected

the direction of

in

cut by the axis of

it is

r^

and

r,

reversed;

At the

constant for the ellipsoid.

is

= constant) where

be the real axis of the cone

will

bisect

will

r,,

If the ellipsoid were reflective, a ray incident

r^.

would be

r,

by the wave theory,


ellipsoid (p

the ellipsoid through

which passes through the

hence,

point of the

x,

x = p,

r^^x + c,
r^

So that the equation of the


of

r,

and

= constant) may

(r

ellipsoid

be expressed in terms

thus

r,

r,

The normal

= x c.

+ n = 2/3

(30).

between

to the ellipsoid also bisects the angle

deduce another form of the equation of the same


r,

Hence, the general relation

and

r^,

+ r,= -2p

among the
r,

r,

whence we

ellipsoid
(31).

values of

r,

+ r, + r, + r, =

(32).

The normal to the hyperboloid of one sheet (/u, = constant) bisects the angle
between r^ and r^, and also that between r, and r, whence we obtain the
equations
ri

The normal
between

i\

to the

and

hyperboloid of two

and between

r,,

+ r3 = 2ft= -(n + r,)

r,

r^

and

sheets
r^,

+ r, = 1v=

(i/

= constant)

(33).

bisects

the

-(r^-^r^

(34).

These are the equations to the conicoids in terms of the four rays of the

The equations

to

the

four

cyclides

in

angles

whence

tei-ms

of elliptic co-ordinates are

pencil.

easily

deduced from them

r,=

p + ^i-v'

n=

p-fi + v

r,=

p + fi + v
-p-fi-v

r,=

(35).

THE CYCLTDE.
Since the quantities

c,

fi,

are in descending order of magnitude,

it

p,

p, r^,

''.,

h,

is

157

v,

evident that

-p,

r,

are also in descending order of magnitude.

The general equation


{r

- p - p. + v)

which may be expressed

rj -2{x-+

{x' +if-\-z''-

When

=c

to the cyclide in elliptic co-ordinates


{r

- p + p.-v)

{r

+ p- p.-v)

r)

{b' -he')

there are

two

-2

(if

focal

- z')

points

-\-

p + p.-^v)

=Q

(36),

+ Sbcrx + (c' - bj =

h')

(c'

{r

thus

in Cartesian co-ordinates

is

and F' and

the

...

(37).

values

of the

four rays are

RF+c]

r,=

r,=

RF-c
-RF +c

r,=

-RF-c.

r,=

The equation

.(38).

of the ellipsoid

2p

= r, + r, = RF+RF'

in this case

expresses the property of the prolate spheroid, that the

distances of

any point from the two

foci is

(39)

sum

of the

constant.

In like manner, the equation


r,

expresses the property of the


difference of the focal

+ r, = 2v = RF'-RF

(40)

hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets, that the

distances

is

constant.

In order to extend a property analogous to this to the other conicoids,


us conceive the following mechanical construction

let

and hyperbola represented by thin smooth wires,


always rest against the two curves, and
Let a string
let r be measured along the rod from a point fixed in the rod.
whose length is b + c be fastened at one end to the negative focus of the ellipse
and at the other to the point (-\-h) of the rod, and let the string slide on the
To keep the string always
ellipse at the same point as the rod rests on it.
focus of the ellipse round
positive
the
from
pass
string
equal
another
tight let
Suppose the

and

let

an

focal

ellipse

indefinite thin straight rod

THE CYCLIDE.

158

These strings

the curve to the point (-6) of the rod.

will

determine the point

of the rod which rests on any given point of the ellipse.

Let the rod

on the hyperbola, so that either the positive portion

also rest

of the rod rests on the positive branch of the hyperbola, or the negative portion
of the rod rests on the negative branch.

Then the point r of the rod lies


is r, and as the rod is made

meter

whose paraand hyperbola, the

in the surface of the cyclide

to shde on the ellipse

point r will explore the whole surface of the cyclide.


If

we

vertex

consider any point of space

positions

different
is

The

position,

first

its

to

If

the rod will pass through

corresponds to the

r^,

we denote

it

cones

in four

whose

H,

intersections

is

sheet of the cyclide which

and negative branches of the hyperbola

then the order of the intersections will be in this case

E,

The second

first

the intersection of the rod with the eUipse by

intersection with the positive

by -\-H and

position,

r^,

+H,

R.

corresponds to the second sheet, and the order of

either

E, R,

The

i2,

the four intersections of the

passing through the ellipse and hyperbola.

passes through R.

Ey and

corresponding

third

+H or

-H,

E, R.

position, r corresponds to the third sheet,

and the order of the

intersections is either

R, E,

The fourth
intersections

position,

r^,

+H,

or

-H,

R, E.

corresponds to the fourth sheet, and the order of the

is

R,

-H,

E,

the letters being always arranged in the order in which r increases.

The complete system

of rays

is

an exa,mple of a linear congruence

of the

fourth order.

Now

if

two

rods, each fulfilling the

above conditions, intersect at i? in any

a string of sufficient length be fastened to a


sufficiently distant negative point of the first rod, be passed round the point R,
and be fastened to a sufficiently distant negative point of the second rod, and if

two of these

four positions,

and

if

VOL.

HQRNED

cycl:::-

11

II.

PLATE XI

PARABOLIC CYCLIDE

VOL. U.

111

RING

CYCLIDE

IV

SPINDLE

PLATE XL

CYCLIDE

THE CYCLLDE.
the two rods be then
intersection R, then

159

moved always keeping the

If the rods are in the first

string

tight

at

the

point

of

out a conicoid.

will trace

and second

positions, or in the third

and

fourth,

positions, or in the second

and

fourth,

the conicoid will be an ellipsoid.


If the rods are in the first

and third

the conicoid will be an hyperboloid of one sheet.


If

the rods are in the

the conicoid

will

first

and fourth

positions, or in the second

In the parabolic confocal system, the fourth sheet of the cyclide

and

i\

is

parallel to the

axis

of x.

Hence

if

rays

paraboloid are reflected by the surface, they will

parabolas of the system, and the

and

if

and

third,

be an hyperboloid of two sheets.

wave

all

parallel

to

the

is

a plane,

axis

of

pass through the two focal

surface after reflexion will be a cyclide,

the rays are twice reflected, they will become again parallel to the axis.

[From the Edinburgh Royal Society Proceedings, Vol.

On a Bow

XXXVIII.

On

the

26th

bow

coloured

on

of

the

CoUege, Cambridge.
of an

January,
frozen

Its appearance

ordinary primary rainbow.

seen on the Surface of Ice.

about

surface

noon,
of

observed the appearance of a

the ditch which surrounds

Dr

Parkinson, President

was
of

the

angle

primary

violet

40 32'.

S.

bow,

for

bright

as

given

once

at

made a rough measurement

blue
in

flattened,

so

as

to

place nearer to the points

The angle

40" 30'.

Parkinson's

side.

Oi^tics,

crystals

ice
I

ice.

is

seen

are

suppose the

formed by small drops of water lying on the

were

with which

for

found

and that

it,

and losing

increased.

bow which

If the

and emergence, the

its

How

for

on the same side as


I

saw to be

lower part of each

bring the point at wliich the

of incidence

bow would be

without wetting

the extreme red

42 20',

reflexion

eflfect

the same kind as that of a diminution of the index of refraction


angle of the

of the

and then borrowed from

College, a sextant

John's

The bows formed by

the sun, and not on the opposite

drop

John's

between the bright red and the shadow of the large mirror

and that

41 50',

the

of

S.

and position seemed to correspond with those

angle on the board of a book which I had with me,

that

vii.]

that

a drop of water can

takes

would be of

lie

is,

upon

the
ice

shape altogether, I do not profess to explain.

Only a small part of the ice presented this appearance. It was best seen
the incident and emergent rays were nearly equally inclined to the
horizontal.
The ice was very thin, and I was not able to get near enough
to the place where the bow appeared to see if the supposed water drops really

when

existed.

[From the Transactions of

XXXIX.

On

the

Royal Society of Edinburgh,

Reciprocal Figures, Frames, and Diagrams of Forces.

(Received 17th Dec. 1869; read

Two

are

figures

Vol. xxvi.]

reciprocal

when the

7tli

Feb.

properties

1870.)

of the

second are the same as those of the second relative to the

first relative
first.

to the

Several kinds

of reciprocity are known to mathematicians, and the theories of Inverse Figures


and of Polar Reciprocals have been developed at great length, and have led to

remarkable

results.

reciprocity,

which

propose

also

is

to

capable

investigate

a difierent kind of

of considerable

development,

geometrical

nd can be ap-

plied to the solution of mechanical problems.

Frame may be defined geometrically as a system of straight lines connumber of points. In actual structures these lines are material pieces,
beams, rods, or wires, and may be straight or curved; but the force by which

necting a

each piece resists any alteration of the distance between the points which

of

a frame,

we may

consider

its

different

points as

When

together,
is

or

to

the

When

we

points

joining each

of

pair

tend to draw them

the forces tend to separate the points, or to keep

apart, the action along the joining line

If

the two

prevent them from separating, the action along the joining line

called a Tension.

them

acting between

forces

joins

mutually acting on each

other with forces whose directions are those of the lines


points.

it

Hence, in studying the equilibrium

acts in the straight line joining those points.

divide

is

called a Pressure.

the piece joining the points by any imaginary section,

the

resultant of the whole internal force acting between the parts thus divided will

be mechanically equivalent to the tension or pressure of the piece. Hence, in


to exhibit the mechanical action of the frame in the most elementary

order

manner, we
VOL.

II.

may draw

it

as a skeleton,

in

which the different points are joined


21

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

162

by straight

lines,

and we may indicate by numbers attached to these Hnes the

tensions or pressures in the corresponding pieces of the frame.

The diagram thus formed


is

geometrical

indicates the

state of the frame in

the position and

regards

as

way which

the forces, but arith-

of

direction

metical as regards their magnitude.

But, by assuming that a line of


a

of

This

we may

magnitude,

certain

done in Elementary

is

a certain length shall represent a force

every force completely by a

represent

Statics,

where we

are

told

draw a

to

line.

from

line

the point of application of the force in the direction in which the force acts,

and to cut

many

off as

force

in

the

head,

to

shew that

it

acts in that direction

By

units of length from the

and

force,

a force

is

on

the

line

there

as

of the

of

line

are

units

of

with an arrow-

the frame, and that

it

and not the opposite.

we should

proceeding in this way,

superposed

mark the end


and not a piece

to

finally

skeleton

of the

frame,

get a system of arrow-headed forces

two equal and

opposite

arrows for

every piece of the frame.

To

test

the

proceed

should

equilibrium

by the

of

these

construction

forces

of

at

any point of concourse, we

the parallelogram of forces, beginning

with two of the forces acting at the point, completing the parallelogram,

drawing the diagonal, and combining this with the third force

when

till,

the

all

in

and

the same way,

had been combined, the resultant disappeared. We


new hnes, one of which is an arrow, in taking

forces

should thus have to draw three


each force after the

in

lines,

first,

leaving at last not only a great

number

but a number of new arrows, not belonging to the system of

of useless
forces,

and

only confusing to any one wishing to verify the process.

To

simplify

by drawing

in

this

process,

succession

we

lines

are

told

parallel

to

construct the Polygon of Forces,

and proportional

each line beginning at the extremity of the

last.

point are in equilibrium, the polygon formed in this

Here we have
force

is

not

only

for

the

first

examine whether the

however,
for

We

way

forces

will

acting at

the

be a closed one.

time a true Diagram of Forces, in which every

represented in

but the equilibrium of the forces


to

to the difierent forces,

If the

polygon

magnitude and direction by a straight


is
is

manifest by inspection, for


closed

we have given up the attempt

to

or not.
indicate

To secure

line,

we have only
this

advantage,

the position of the force,

the sides of the polygon do not pass through one point as the forces do.

must, therefore, give up the plan of representing the frame and

its

forces

AND DIAGRAMS OF FORCES.


one diagram,

in

of the

simplify

greatly

the

draw one diagram of the frame and a sepamte diagram


method we shall not only avoid confusion, but we shall
mechanical calculations, by reducing them to operations with

and

By

forces.

this

which no useless

in

ruler,

parallel

163

lines are

drawn, but every

line

repre-

sents an actual force.

Diagram of Forces

is

a figure,

every line of which represents in mag-

nitude and direction the force acting along a piece of the frame.

To express the relation between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of forces, the lines of the frame should each be indicated by a symbol,
and the corresponding lines of the diagram of forces should be indicated by
the same symbol, accented

We
if

they

that

sary
all

necessary.

should be parallel

lines

to

be

when the frame

parallel,
is

a right angle,

and then every

and

it

is

neces-

not in one plane; but

the pieces of the frame are parallel to one plane,

diaorams round

the

if

have supposed the corresponding

line

we may turn one


will

of

be perpendicular

to the corresponding line.


If any number of lines meet at the same point in the frame, the corresponding lines in the diagram of forces form a closed polygon.
It is possible, in certain cases, to draw the diagram of forces so that if

any

number

of

lines

lines in the

sponding

meet

in

a point in

the

diagram

of

forces,

the corre-

frame form a closed polygon.

In such cases, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal in the sense in
If either diagram be taken as representing the
it in this paper.

which we use

frame, the lines


if

of the

other diagram will represent a system of forces which,

appHed along the corresponding pieces of the frame, wQl keep

it

in

equi-

librium.

properties of the " triangle " and " polygon " of forces have been long
a "diagram" of forces has been used in the case of the "funiand
known,
cular polygon," but I am not aware of any more general statement of the
method of drawing diagrams of forces before Professor Rankine applied it to
The "polyhedron of
frames, roofs, &c., in his Applied Mechanics, p. 137, &c.

The

forces,"

or the proposition

portional

to

that forces acting on a point perpendicular and pro-

the areas of the faces of a polyhedron are in equilibrium,

has,

beheve, been enunciated independently at various times, but the application of


this principle to the construction of a diagram of forces in three dimensions

was

first

made by

Professor Rankine in the Philosophical Magazine, Feb. 1864.

212

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

164

In the
of

Philosophical Magazine

reciprocal

any

plane

for April

stated some of the properties

1864, I

and the conditions of their

figures,

rectilinear

figure

which

polyhedron with plane faces has a reciprocal figure.


cated

the

to

British

a method of

Association

founded on the theory of reciprocal

force

reciprocal

figure,

polars'^".

Mr W.

since

foimd that the

construction

by one

represented

is

line,

mining the forces acting in frames

for

King's College, or even studied

myself.

a statement of the application


that

so

detail,

In Sept. 1867, I communi-

drawing the

of diagrams of forces in which


had been independently discovered by
P. Taylor, and had been used by him as a practical method of deter-

liave

each

and shewed that

existence,

a perspective representation of a closed

is

it

can be

it

several

yeai-s

before I

had taught

understand that he

is

it

in

preparing

method to various kinds of structures in


by any one who is able to draw one

of the

made use

of

line parallel to another.

Fleeming Jenkin,

Professor

in

a paper recently

has fully explained the application of the method to

published by the Society,

the most important cases

occurring in practice,

the present paper I propose,

111

first,

to

consider plane diagrams of frames

an elementaiy way, as a practical method of solving questions


about the stresses in actual frameworks, without the use of long calculations.

and of
I

forces

shall

method

of

in

then discuss the subject in a theoretical point of view, and give a


defining reciprocal diagrams analytically, which is applicable to

figures either of

Lastly,

two or of three dimensions.


extend

shall

a continuous

stress

in

stress

first

body,

the

method

and

shall

to

the

Investigation

of the

state

of

point out the nature of the function of

discovered by the Astronomer Royal

for stresses in

two dimensions,

extending the use of such functions to stresses in three dimensions.

On Reciprocal Plane
Definition.
of an
figures

equal
are

Two

number

PectiJincai' Figures.

plane rectilinear figures are reciprocal


of straight

at right angles,

lines,

so

and corresponding

lines

the one figure form a closed polygon in the other.


* [See pp.

when they

consist

that corresponding lines in the two

169 and 1S8].

which meet in a point

in

AND DIAGRAMS OF
2^ote.

It is

convenient to turn one of the figures round in

often

Corresponding

90*.

plane

165

FORCES.

then

are

lines

parallel

sometimes more convenient in comparing the diagrams by the eye.


Since every polygon in the one figure has three or more
in

every

line

the

in

the one figure has two,

it.

Since

and only two, extremities, every

line in

other figure must be a side of two, and only two, polygons.

these

fi'^ures

is

every

sides,

the other figure must have three or more lines meeting in

point

own

its

each other, and this

to

If either of

be taken to represent the pieces of a frame, the other will repre-

a system of forces such that, these forces being applied as tensions or


along the corresponding pieces of the frame, every point of the frame

sent

pressures
will

be in equilibrium.

The simplest example is that of a triangular frame without weight, ABC,


jointed at the angles, and acted on by three forces, P, Q, R, applied at the
The directions of these three forces must meet in a point, if the frame
angles.
We shall denote the lines of the figure by capital letters,
is in equilibrium.
and those of the reciprocal figure by the corresponding small letters we shall
denote points by the lines which meet in them, and polygons by the lines
which bound them.
Here, then, are three lines. A, B, C, forming a triangle, and three other
Py Q, R, drawn from the angles and meeting in a point. Of these
lines,
;

forces

let

that

along

be

Draw

given.

the

line

first

of the

reciprocal

diagram parallel to P, and of a length representing, on any convenient scale,


the force along P. The forces along P, Q, R are in equilibrium, therefore, if
one

from

extremity

of

p we draw

extremity r parallel to R,

so

as

to

parallel

represent on the same scale the forces along

To determine whether these


travel

along

in

the

direction

forces
in

to

and

Q,

form a triangle

pqr,

from

other
will

and R.

are tensions or pressures,

which the

the

then q and r

force

in

make

a point

acts on the point

of

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

166
concourse

polygon

PQR, and

of

the point travel in the same direction round the

let

Then, the direction in which the point travels along any side

pqr.

of the polygon

wiU be the

direction

which the

in

point of concourse, the force

The

other

a tension

is

extremity of

Hence,

one side and lines parallel to

meets

three pieces are in equiUbrium,

and

towards

if

it,

it

If
is

and C, and the

if

we draw a

along the corre-

acts

force

sponding piece of the frame on the point of concourse.

acts

it

from the

a pressure.
along these

forces

having

triangle,

for

for the others, the sides of this triangle

will represent the three forces.

Such a triangle may be

described

would form a parallelogram of

forces

on either side of p, the two together

but the theory of reciprocal figures

indi-

cates that only one of these triangles forms part of the diagram of forces.

The

rule for such

cases

Of

PRB, and

these being the polygons of which

We

follows

as

is

corresponds to the closed figure

is

the two extremities of p,

a side in the

must, therefore, draw b parallel to

first figure.

from the intersection of

and not from the other extremity, and we must draw


the intersection of p and q.

We
the

have now a second triangle,

point

of

course along
piece

P
If

we

is

B,

PBC

and

PQR

of these forces

must be represented by the

force

line

are
its

round pqr, because the

with equal and opposite

we have determined two

and that the third

r,

from

corresponding to the forces acting at

_2:>Z>c,

forces.

consider the equilibrium of the point of concourse of

shall find that

C.

in the opposite direction to its course

acts on the points

we now

and

to

parallel

To determine whether these forces


we must make a point travel round phc, so that

concourse of P,

pressures,

or

tensions

one

PQC,

the other to the closed figure

by the

QC

lines

and A,

q and

c,

a which completes the

triangle qca.

We

have

now

force is represented

meeting

at

constructed

by a

any point

complete

single line,

is

expressed

and

in

visibly

diagram of

in

forces,

which each

which the equilibrium of the

by the corresponding

lines

forces

in

the

other figure forming a closed polygon.


figure six lines, having four points of concourse, and
To determine the direction of the force along a given
any point of concourse, we must make a point travel round the cor-

There

are

in

this

forming four triangles.


line

at

responding
respect to

polygon

in

that polygon.

the other figure in a direction which

For

this purpose it is desirable

to

is

positive

with

name the polygons

AND DIAGRAMS OF

167

FORCES.

when we

a determinate order of their sides, so arranged that,

in

arrive at the

naming the two polygons which it divides, we travel along it in


For instance, if pqr be one of the polygons, the others are
opposite directions.
same side

in

pbc, qca, rah.

Xote.

may be

It

observed, that after drawing the lines p,

r and h, c; but, since it represents the


Hence the following geometrical theorem:

then

point,

and

a,

if

JW

if

6,

he a triangle with

meet

with

meet

lines

A, B, C; P, Q,

is

A.

to

parallel

ABC, meet

in

corresponding sides parallel to P, Q, R,

its

is

the

in

easHy obtained by finding the centres of the

ABC, AQR, BRP, CPQ, and

triangles

the four centres thus found by six

lines,

corresponding angles parallel to A, B, C, the

its

circumscribing the

These

h,

r,

in a point.

geometrical proof of this

circles

-4,

from the angles of the triangle

be drawn from

lines a, h, c will

four

PQR, drawn

lines

in

force

q,

If the

q,

the line a was drawn by joining the points of concourse of

the parallel ruler,

joining

lines.

four

R; but by

and are perpendicular to the

centres,

six

turning them round 90" they become parallel

to the corresponding lines in the original figure.

The diagram formed


similar

figure

explained

the

to

on,

way

in

this

reciprocal

of

construction

length, as I wish to
fixed

is

it

this,

is

definite

in

size

diagram to the
the

shew how, after the


is drawn in a

every other line

simplest
line

first

and

position,

original figure.

diagram of
is

forces,

drawn and

its

perfectly definite position

but any
I

have

more at

extremities

by means of

the parallel ruler.

in

In any complete diagram of forces, those forces which act at a given point
Hence, there will be as many closed
frame form a closed polygon.

the

polygons

the

in

diagram

as

there are points

piece

of the frame acts with equal

form

its

polygons.

other
is

to

extremities,

These
in

but,

If

polygon

it

the frame.

opposite forces

Also,

since

each

on the two points which

the force in the diagram will be a side of two difterent

polygons

might be drawn

in

any positions

relatively

to

each

the diagrams here considered, they are placed so that each force

represented by one

which

and

in

line,

which forms the boundary between the two polygons

belongs.

we regard
will

be

the

polygons as surfaces, rather than as mere outlines, every

bounded at every point of

its

outline

by other polygons,

so

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

168

whole

the

that

assemblage

polygons

of

form a continuous surface,

will

must either be an infinite surface or a closed


The diagram cannot be infinite, because

surface.

of finite lines representing finite forces.

must, therefore,

returning on

way

such a

in

itself,

it

is

made up

of a finite

number

be a closed surface

that every point in the plane of the diagram

diagram at

does not belong to the

either

It

which

belongs to an even number

or

all,

of sheets of the diagram.

Any system
may be regarded
same

of polygons, which

which

side of the line,

common boundary

two

of

is

common

sheets of

the boundary of which

positive,

contact with

are in

is

to

polygons are on the

them, that line forms part of the

diagram.

the

each other externally,

When two

a sheet of the diagram.

as

If

we reckon

traced in the direction

those areas

of positive rotation

the polygons in each sheet will be of the same sign as

round the

area,

the

but those sheets which have a common boundary will be of opposite

sheet,

sign.

At every

then

all

point in the diagram there will be the same

and the whole area of the

as of negative sheets,

number of

positive

positive sheets will be equal to

that of the negative sheets.

The diagram,
polyhedron,

polygons, which

Let
If

therefore,

us

may

next

any of the

additional hnes,

may

or

consider

be considered as a plane projection of a closed

faces.

not, as far as

bounded by

we yet know. He

rectilinear

each in one plane.

the plane projection of a given closed polyhedron.

of this

faces

polyhedron are not plane,

we may, by drawing

substitute for that face a system of triangles, each of which

necessarily in a plane.

by plane

may

the faces of the polyhedron being surfaces

We

is

may, therefore, consider the polyhedron as bounded

Every angular point of this polyhedron


and its height above it.

will be

defined

by

its

projection on the plane

Let us now take a fixed point, which we


from

it

a perpendicular to the plane.

We

shall

call

the

shall call

this

line the

origin,

and draw

axis.

If

we

then draw from the origin a line perpendicular to one of the faces of the polyhedron,

it will

cut the plane at a point which

projection of that

and take on

face.

this line

From

this point

may

draw a

be said to correspond to the

line perpendicular to

a point whose distance from the plane

is

the plane,

equal to that

of the intersection of the axis with the face of the polyhedron produced, but on

the other side of the plane.

the polyhedron.

By

This point in space will correspond to the face of

repeating this process for every face of the polyhedron,

shall find for every face a corresponding point

with

its

projection on the plane.

we

AND DIAGRAMS OF

169

FORCES.

To every edge of the polyhedron will correspond the line which joins the
Each of these
points corresponding to the two faces which meet in that edge.
perpendicular to the projection of the other; for the perpendiculars
is
from the origin to the two faces, lie in a plane perpendicular to the edge in
which they meet, and the projection of the line corresponding to the edge is
Hence, the edge is
the intersection of this plane with the plane of projection.
lines

perpendicular to the projection of the corresponding

edge

therefore

is

the corresponding line

therefore to

on

every line of which

plane of projection,

the

sponding line in the original


in the one figure
Ifi

figure,

and

so

projection of the

corresponding

line,

and

way we may draw a diagram


is

perpendicular to the corre-

that lines which meet in a point

form a closed polygon in the other.

system of rectangular co-ordinates, we make

in a

and x = 0, y = 0,

jectionj

In this

itself.

The

line.

perpendicular to the projection of the

z=c

the fixed point, then


z

if

the plane of pro-

the equation of a plane be

= Ax + Bi/+C,

the co-ordinates of the corresponding point will be

^=cA,

r)

= cB,

C=-C,

and we may write the equation

If
tion,

we suppose

considering x,

^,

rj,

y,

given as the co-ordinates of a point, then this equa-

variable,

aa

is

the equation of a plane corresponding

to the point.

If

we suppose

x, y, z

the co-ordinates of a point,

and

^,

rj,

{as

variable,

the equation will be that of a plane corresponding to that point.

Hence,

if

plane

passes

through the point xyz, the point corresponding

to this plane lies in the plane corresponding to the point xyz.

These points and planes are reciprocally polar in the ordinary sense with
respect to the paraboloid of revolution
2cz =zx^

We
sidering

have

thus arrived

at

'if.

a construction for reciprocal diagrams by con-

each as a plane projection of a plane-sided polyhedron, these polyhedra

being reciprocal to one another, in the geometrical sense, with respect to a certain paraboloid of revolution.

VOL.

II.

22

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

170

Each

must

of the diagrams

it

to

the conditions of being a plane projection

fulfil

any of the

of a plane-sided polyhedron, for if

sides of the polyhedron of

many

the projection are not plane, there will be as

is

which

points corresponding

that side as there are different planes passing through three points of the

and the other diagram wiU be

side,

Number

Relation between the


It

of Edges, Summits, and Faces of Polyhedra.

manifest that after a closed

is

by hnes drawn upon

faces

indefinite.

it,

new

every

surface

new

line

has been divided into separate

drawn from a point

in the system,

two
drawn to an isolated point, or to a point already
connected with the system.
Hence the sum of points and faces is increased
by one for every new line. K the closed surface is acycHc, or simply connected^^

either

introduces

parts,

according

as

we draw a

point

We

faces.

number of

it

point

into

the system, or divides a face into

is

a solid body without any passage through

that of

like

one

closed

curve on the surface,

have here one


lines,

line,

we

one point, and two

the number of points, and

it,

then,

divide the
faces.

if

from any

surface into

Hence,

if

two

be the

the number of faces, then in

general

es f=
* See Riemann,
sions;

also

Crelle's Journal, 1857, Lehrsdtze aits der ancdysis situs, for space of two dimenCayley on the Partitions of a Close, PhU. Mag. 1861; Helmholtz, CreUe's Journal, 1858,

Wirbelbewegung, for the application of the idea of multiple continuity to space of three dimensions;
Gottingen Trans., 1861, Der Census Rdumliclier Complexe, a complete treatise on the

J. B. Listing,

subject of Cyclosis

On

and Periphraxy.

the importance of this subject see Gauss,

mehr wie

v.

605,

"Von

der Geometria

Sittcs

die

die

nichts."

added March

iTo^e

14,

1870,

Since

this

was

the surface of an n-ly connected body

notation,
cyclic.

und in

Werke,

nur einem Paar Geometern (Euler nnd Vandermonde) einen schwachen


Blick zu thun vergonnt war, wissen und haben wir nach anderthalbhundert Jahren noch nicht viel

Leibnitz ahnte

If

2n

- Kg expresses the degree of

I have seen Listing's Census.


In his
body with n -I holes through it) is (2n - 2)

written,

(a

cyclosis,

then Listing's general equation

s-{e-K^) + {/-Kg + ^^)-{v-K^ +

7!:^-w)

is

= 0,

number of points, e the number of lines, K^ the number of endless curves, J" the number
Kg the number of degrees of cyclosis of the faces, Wj, the number of periphractic or closed
faces, V the number of regions of space, K^ the number of degrees of cyclosis, tT^ their number of
degrees of periphraxy or the number of regions which they completely surround, and w is to be put
= 1 or =0, according as the system does or does not extend to infinity.

where

s is the

of faces.

AND DIAGRAMS OF

when

remains constant, however

many

171

FORCES.

But

drawn.

lines be

in

the case of a

simple closed surface

w = - 2.
doubly connected, like that of a solid body with a
hole through it, then if we draw one closed curve round the hole, and another
closed curve through the hole, and round one side of the body, we shall have
If the closed surface

(^

= 2,

/=1,

.9=1,

m = 0.

so that

n-l

a solid with

is

If the surface

holes through

it,

is

connected,

?i-ly

may draw n

then we

n-l

the 71-1 holes and the outside of the body, and

that of

like

closed curves round

other closed curves each

through a hole and round the outside of the body.

We
and

then have 4(h-1) segments of curves terminating

shall

dividing the surface into two faces, so that

points and

/= 2,

= A{n l),

in
s

(n-l)

= 2(n l),

and

e-s-f=2n-A,
and

this

the general relation between the

is

polyhedron whose surface

The plane
hedra,

is

reciprocal diagrams,

It

is

considered as plane projections

= e

where the suffixes refer to the

points,

poly-

and

and/ = 5

s,=f
first

and second diagrams respectively


7Zi

n.;,,

two diagrams are connected to the same degree.

On

the

Degrees of Freedom and Constraint of Frames.

To determine the
and given axes,

origin

positions

of s points

35 data are required

in space,

position of s points is 3s
therefore,

and

if

-6

lines joining selected pairs of a

these lengths are

the distances between any other pair of


will

to determine the relative

G.

the lengths of 3s

of s points be given,

with reference to a given

but since the position of the origin

and axes involve 6 data, the number of data required

system

of such

lines,

manifest that since


ei

If,

summits, and faces of a

have the same relation between the numbers of their

polygons.

or the

edges,

n-\j connected.

all

points

system

independent of each other, then


will

be

determinate,

and the

be rigidly connected.

22

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

172
If,

however, the lines are so chosen that those which join pairs of points of
of the points are more than 3s' 6 in number, the lengths of
s'

a system of

these lines will not be independent of each other, and the lines of this partial
system will only give 3s' 6 independent data to determine the complete system.

In a system of

points joined

by

e lines, there will in general

be 3s- 6

-e

=p

degrees of freedom, provided that in every partial system of s' points joined
by e lines, and having in itself p' degrees of freedom, p' is not negative. If in

any such system

is

negative,

we may put g= p, and

degrees of constraint, and there will be q equations

the lines

and

if

the system

call q the number of


connecting the lengths of

a material one, the stress along each piece will

is

be a function of q independent variables. Such a system may be said to have


p' is negative in any partial system, then the deq degrees of constraint.
grees of freedom of the complete system are pp\ where p and p' are got

from the number of points and lines in the complete and partial systems. If s
points are connected by e lines, so as to form a polyhedron of / faces, enclosing
a space n times connected, and

if

each of the faces has

sides,

then

mf=2e.

We

e-s-/=2n-4,

have also

and

3s

e=p-\-6,

p = 6(l-n) + (2

whence

e.

If aU the faces of the polyhedron are triangles,

m = 3,

and we have

p = 6{l-n).
If
faces,

n=l,

p = o,

longer rigid

or in

that
if

is

the case of a simply connected polyhedron with triangular


to say, such a figure

any one of

its lines

material rods forming a closed

web

is

a rigid system, which would be no

were wanting.
of triangles,

In such a

figure,

if

made

of

the tensions and pressures in

the rods would be completely determined by the external forces appUed to the
figure,

and

if

there were no external force, there would be no stress in the rods.

In a closed surface of any kind,


of curves
*

On

which do not intersect each

if

we

other,

the Bending of Surfaces, by J. Clerk Maxwell.

cover the surface* with a system

and

if

we draw another system

Cambridge Tramactions, 1856.

[Vol.

i.

p. 80.]

AND DIAGRAMS OF

and a third system passing diagonally through the

intersecting these,

of the other two,

tions

and

triangles,

triangles

faces

substitute

same

diflfering

angular

infinitely

little

We

on the polyhedron.

line

we

rectilinear

have a polyhedron with

shall

from the surface, and such that the


little

substitute

from that of the correabout the

in all questions

may, therefore,

transformation of surfaces by bending,

a system of

surface

the

for

points,

length of any line on the surface differs infinitely

sponding

intersec-

the whole surface will be covered with small curvilinear

we now

if

having the

triangular

173

FORCES.

them such polyhedra with

for

triangular faces.

We

thus find with respect to a simply connected closed inextensible surface

That

1st,

it

is

of

force, there is

is

That the

form*; 2nd,

invariable

depend entirely on the external appUed

forces f

3rd,

if

the surface

in

stresses

That

there

is

no external

stress in the surface.

no

In the limiting case of the curved surface, however, a kind of deformation


which is not possible in the case of the polyhedron. Let us suppose

possible,

that in some

way a dimple has been formed on a convexo-convex

part of the

and the
the edge of the
surface.
the
of
form
original
plane
of
the
in
this
reflexion
the
dimpled part
Then the length of any line drawn on the surface will remain unchanged.

surface,

dimple

that

so

is

a plane

closed

curve,

is

Now

let

dimple

the

gradually enlarged, so that

be

Every

line

on the surface will

still

length during the whole process,

so that the process

is

changes

its

position.

its

edge continually

remain of the same

possible in the

case of

an inextensible surface. In this way such a surface may be gradually turned


outside in, and since the dimple may be formed from a mere point, a pressure
applied at a single point on the outside of an inextensible surface will not be
surface
resisted, but will form a dimple which will increase till one part of the
comes in contact with another.
In the case of closed surfaces doubly connected,
faces

not

are

external

forces,

only

rigid,

and the

but

are

expression

of

of

stress

this

p=

internal

capable

^6, that
stress,

depends on

is,

such sur-

independent of
six

independent

variables.

This has been shewn by Professor Jellett, Trans. R.I. A., Vol. xxii. p. 377.
On the Equilibrium of a Spherical Envelope, by J. C. Maxwell. Quarterly Journal of Mathe-

matics, 1867.

[Vol.

II.

p. 86.]

RECIFROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

174

In a polyliedron with triangular faces, if a number of the edges be taken


away so as to form a hole with e^ sides, the number of degrees of freedom is

Hence,

order

in

we may

stress,

to

cut out

The system

edges.

make an
will

n-\j

the edges

connected polyhedron simply rigid without


till

removed, the system will no longer be


Since

the

in

we have formed

then be free from

case

limiting

of

stress,

but

a hole having
if

6n-3

any more edges be

rigid.

the inextensible surface,

the smallest

hole

number of sides, the smallest hole made


may be regarded as having an
to any degree will destroy its rigidity.
connected
surface
inextensible
in a closed
infinite

Its

flexibility,

however,

may

be confined within very narrow

limits.

In the case of a plane frame of s points, we have 2s data required to


but since 3
determine the points with reference to a given origin and axes
number of
the
axis,
arbitrary data are involved in the choice of origin and
;

data required to determine the relative position of

we know the lengths


then in general the number of
If

of e lines

points in a plane

joining certain

pairs

of

is

25-3.

these points,

degrees of freedom of the frame will be

p = 2s-e-.S.
however, in any partial system of s points connected by e lines, the
quantity p' = 2s'-e-S be negative, or in other words, if a part of the frame
be self-strained, this partial system will contribute only 2s -S equations indeIf,

pendent of each other to the complete system, and the whole frame will have

pp'

degrees of freedom.

In a plane frame, consisting of a single sheet, every element of which is


triangular, and in which the pieces form three systems of continuous lines, as
at p. 173, if the frame contains e pieces connecting s points, s of which are

on the circumference of the frame and

s^

3s-s' =

Hence
a

_p

negative

points

are

quantity,
in

the

or

such

interior

of

in the interior, then


e

+ 3.

= - (s - s') = -

a frame

is

s^,

necessarily

stiff";

and

the frame, the frame has as

constraint as there are interior points that

is,

if

many

any of the
degrees of

the stresses in each piece will be

AND DIAGRAMS OF
functions of

s^

rendering

loose.

it

there

If

variables,

are

ference of the

and

holes

5,

pieces

in the

175

FORCES.

may be removed from

frame,

so

that

s'

frame or on those of the holes, and

5,

points

points

the frame without

on the circum-

lie
lie

the interior,

in

the degree of stiffness will be

p = s^ + 3n.
plane frame

If a

be a projection of a polyhedron of

faces,

each of

sides,

and enclosing a space n times connected, then

e-5-/=2n-4,
2s-e=p-{-3,

p = 5 -4)1 + 1

whence

je.

= 4 and p = 5-in, or a plane frame which


the faces are quadrilaterals
the projection of a closed polyhedron with quadrilateral faces, has one degree
of freedom if the polyhedron is simply connected, as in the case of the projection of the solid bounded by six quadrilaterals, but if the polyhedron be
If all

is

doubly

connected,

degrees of

stiffness.

the

frame

formed by

its

plane

projection

will

have three

(See Diagram II.)

Theorem. If every one of a system of points in a plane is in equiUbrium


under the action of tensions and pressures acting along the lines joining the
points, then if we substitute for each point a small smooth ring through which
smooth thin rods of indefinite length corresponding to the

lines

are compelled

moment
to pass, then, if to each rod be applied a couple in the plane, whose
multiplied
points
the
between
rod
the
is equal to the product of the length of
by the tension or pressure in the former case, and tends to turn the rod

positive

or

the negative

direction,

according as the force was a tension or

the
For
a pressure, then every one of the system of rings will be in equilibrium.
and preseach ring is acted on by a system of forces equal to the tensions
sures

in

the former case,

each to each, the whole system being turned round

a right angle, and therefore the equilibrium of each point

Theorem.
action

In

of repulsions

any system of points


and

attractions, the

in

sum

equilibrium

is

in

undisturbed.

a plane under the

of the products of each attraction

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

176

by

multiplied

the

sum

of the points between which it acts, is equal to


products of the repulsions multiplied each by the distance of

the distance

of the

the points between which

For

each

since

is

right

at

forces

and

distance,

negative

if it

systems

will

system of

remain in equilibrium

if

the

in

directions,

forming

the product of the force between the points and

is

whose direction
are

two points we have two equal

line joining

that line and acting in opposite

Now

be attractive.

couples

of

each

of

angles to

a couple whose magnitude


their

it

is

extremities

the

at

of a

equilibrium under the action

one plane,

in

turned through a right angle in the positive direction. If


performed on the systems of forces acting on all the points,

system of forces
this operation

in

is

and repulsions

attractions,

then

it acts.

point

is

positive

if

the force be repulsive, and

since every point

equilibrium,

or

the

in equilibrium

is

sum

of

these two

the positive couples

is

equal to that of the negative couples, which proves the theorem.

In a plane frame, loaded with weights in any manner, and supported by


weight must be regarded as attracted towards a horizontal

vertical thrusts, each

base Une,

and each support of the frame

as

repelled from that

Hne.

Hence

the following rule

Multiply each load by the height of the point at which it acts, and each
by the length of the piece on which it acts, and add all these

tension

products together.

Then multiply the


the height at which

which

it

acts,

it

pressures on the supports of the frame each by


and each pressure by the length of the piece on

vertical
acts,

and add the products together.

This

sum

will be

equal to the

former sum.
If

the

thrusts which support the frame are not vertical,

their horizontal

components must be treated as tensions or pressures borne by the foundations


of the structure, or

by the earth

The importance

of

this

itself.

theorem to the engineer

stance that the strength of a piece


that

if

the strength of each piece

arises

from the

circum-

is

in general proportional to its section, so

is

proportional to the

stress

which

it

has

the stress multipHed


to bear, its weight will be proportional to the product of
give an estimate of
products
of
sums
these
Hence
piece.
the
of
the length

by

the total quantity of material which must be used in


pressure respectively.

sustaining tension and


AND DIAGRAMS OF
The following method of demonstrating
consideration of couples, and

to

177

FORCES.

theorem does not require the

this

applicable to frames in three dimensions.

is

Let the system of points be caused to contract, always remaining similar


its original form, and with its pieces similarly situated, and let the same

continue to act upon it during this operation, so that every point is


always in equilibrium under the same system of forces, and therefore no work
forces

is

forces as a whole.

done by the system of

Let the contraction proceed

the system

till

is

Then

reduced to a point.

the work done by each tension is equal to the product of that tension by the
distance through which it has acted, namely, the original distance between the

Also

points.

the

work spent

overcoming each pressure

in

the

is

product of

that pressure by the original distance of the points between which it acts; and
since no work is gained or lost on the whole, the sum of the first set of

products must be equal to the

sum

second

of the

not necessary to suppose the points

all

In this demonstration

set.

in one plane.

it

is

is

mathematically equivalent to the following algebraical proof:

Let

the

co-ordinates

of

the

points

different

of

This demonstration

the

system be

any two points

x^.z^,

be P^,,

&c., and let the force between


p, q,
Xpi/pZp,
and their distance r^, and let it be reckoned positive when it is a pressure,
and negative when it is a tension, then the equation of equilibrium of any

x^^

point

with respect to forces parallel to

is

a:

{Xp-x:)^ + (Xp-x.:)^ + &c. + (Xp-x,)^ + &c.=0,


or generally, giving

all

values from

to n,

2;{(^p-x,)^j=o.
Multiply this equation by
multiplied

by

its

Xp.

There are n such equations, so that

proper co-ordinate and the

Ill

sum

in

y and

tptt(P^,r,,)

which

is

VOL.

if

each

we get

^Pt)

and adding the corresponding equations

taken,

z,

we get

'

the algebraic expression of the theorem.


II.

23

is

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

178

General Theory of Diagrams of Stress


Method of Representing

First

Definition.

body

under

the

closed curve,

be

drawn

of internal

in

Stress in

the body, and

the diagram of stress,

Three Dimensions.
a Body.

a figure having such a relation to a

is

forces,
if

that

a surface A, limited by a

if

the corresponding limited surface a

then the resultant of the actual internal

on the positive side of the surface

forces

to

drawn

is

in

diagram of stress

action

in

the body

in

the resultant of a uniform normal pressure

j>

is

equal and parallel

acting on the positive side of

the surface a in the diagram of stress.

Let

X,

y,

be the co-ordinates of any point in the body,

the corresponding point in the diagram of stress, then


X, y,

in

forces,

we have

the nature of which

2,

may

the body

ascertain,

so

ly,

f,

t],

those of

^ are ftmctions of

that the internal forces

For the present we suppose no external

be in equiUbrium.

such as gravity,

to

^,

to act on the particles of the body.

We

shall consider

such forces afterwards.

Theorem

1.

If any closed

surface

on any element of that surface

described in the body, and

is

if

the stress

equal and parallel to the pressure on the

is

corresponding element of surface in the diagram of stress, then the resultant stress

on the whole closed surface will vanish

diagram

pressure

stress

does

It

for

the corresponding surface in the

and the resultant of a uniform normal


on every element of a closed surface is zero by hydrostatics.

of

surface

sultant

moment.

is

2.

a closed

however,

not,

closed

Theorem

is

in

To

surface,

foUow

equilibrium,

that

the

portion

the stress on

for

its

of

the body within the

surface

may have

ensure equilibrium of every part of the body,

it

is

re-

neces-

sary and sufficient that

where

is

^_dF

_dF

^~dx'

'^~dy'

any function of

x, y,

and

dF
^~ dz*

z.

Let us consider the elementary area in the body dydz.

The

stress acting

on this area will be a force equal and parallel to the resultant of a pressure
acting on the corresponding element of area in the diagram of stress.

Eesolving

AND
pressure

this

in

equal

element

to

which we may

j^

projection on the plane yz,

we

p^dydz,

call

by the area of the

multiplied

the diagram of stress on

of

179

the directions of the co-ordinate axes,

ponents of stress on dydz,


each

OF FORCES.

DIAGR^\3IS

projection

the three

com-

find the three

and

p^ydijdz,

pxzdijdz,

of the corresponding

co-ordinate

Now, the

planes.

is

dr) dt,

dr) dt,

dz

dz dy^

dydz.
7ly

Hence we

find for the

component of

stress in the direction of

^''~^\dydz
which we may write

dr} dt,

drj dl,

dzdyj'

for brevity at present

Similarly,

I>xy=pJ(l ^;
In

the

same

dzdx and dxdy

find

= pJ{l

C;

Z,

^),

Pyy

Pzx=pJ{%

i'y

^.

y)'

Pzy=pJ{'^' t'

consider

moment

rf,

y,

z).

the components of stress on the areas

Py,=pJ{v,

Now,
to the

we may

way,

p=pJ{i,

y, z),

^;

^'

Pyz=pJ{l V

'>

Pzz=vJ{^' V'

^' y)>

the equilibrium of the parallelopiped dxdydz,

^>

^l

^' y)-

with respect

of the tangential stresses about its axes.

The moments of the

forces

tending to turn this elementary parallelopiped

about the axis of x are


dzdxpy^ dy dxdyp.y
.

dz.

To ensure equilibrium as respects rotation about the axis of

x,

we must have

Pyz = Pzr

Similarly,

for

the

moments about the axes

of y

and

z,

we

obtain

the

equa-

tions

Pzx=Pzz and

Now,

let

us assume

Pxy=iV

for the present

232

'

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

180

Then the equation

becomes

2'^y^^P^y

'{ dz dx
(A -

or

(B,

^ \dx dy

dxdz)

dy dxj

-Q-A, (B, + Q = (B, + Q (B, + Q - A, (B, - Q,


= AA + ^A + B,C^

Similarly, from the

two other equations of equilibrium we should

find

= AA + ^iC,-hB,C
= A,C, + B,C, + B,C,.
From

these three equations

it

foUows that

C,

= 0,

dT)_dC

^^^^

dz'dy'

and ^dx + rjdy-^-Cdz

whence

dF
be called the function of

may be

of stress
of

function

the

d^_dl
dx~dz'

= 0.

dl_dri^

dy'dx*
x,

y and

z,

follows that

it

may

(73

a complete differential of some function, F, of

is

^~dx'

a = 0,

is

stress,

dF
dz'

because

when

it

is

known, the diagram

of stress calculated.

and the components


only by the conditions to be

formed,

_dF
"^'dy'

limited

The form

fulfilled

at

the

bounding surface of the body.

The

six

components of

(d'Fd'F

P^'P

stress expressed in

U'Fd'F

fd'FV}

d'F d'F

d'F d'F\

[dzdx dxdy

daf dydz)

-^^
'

terms of

_ (d'F d'F
^ \dxdy dydz

(d'FdF^

df

dzdxj
/

-^-z,

dz

/^'-^M

d'F d'F\

^^ ~^
If

are

/d'FV\ ^

d'F d'F _ d'F d'F \


dz' dxdy)

'

[dydz dzdx

becomes Airy's function of stress in two dimensions, and we have


''

d'F

d'F

d'F

P^=P:^' Pyy=Pd^' P^=-Pd^y'


The system
function,

of stress

in

three dimensions deduced in this

way from any

F, satisfies the equations of equilibrium of internal stress.

It

is

not,

AND DIAGRAMS OF

may

however, a general solution of these equations, as

p and

the case in which

no tangential action

both zero at

are

p^,

is

p^

each stratum must separately

The complete

where

solution of these equations

every

function of x,

Again,

between
in

if

this

and

y,

we
to

parallel

lines

value

different

of

z,

"^^^~

so

we

we have

and

seen,

_df
^^

dj?'

may

of which

the form

y,

jj^

f^

we may regard

as

be different for

a perfectly general

a cylindrical portion of the body with

shall

see that there

cylinder and the

this cylinder

as

is,

dxdy'

that

y:>,

z.

consider
z,

dy

any function of x and

is

_d^
^'^'df

In this case, since

the conditions of equilibrium,

fulfil

be easily seen by taking

points.

all

planes parallel to xy, the stresses

in

there
in

181

FORCES.

rest of the body.

must be constant throughout

its

generating

no tangential action parallel to

is

its

Hence the
length,

longitudinal stress

and

independent of

is

the stress in any other part of the body.

P = <^(^,

Hence
where ^

is

a function of x and y only,


of

^ = 0,

-J
docdz

whence

dF
-7-

is

it

may

be any such function.

under the conditions Pzz =


a perfectly general function of x and y

expressing the stresses in terms


find that if -F is

!/).

but

follows

a function of

-j-

that

ax

z only.

and

-j-

ay

0, Py,

But

= 0, we

and -7j- = 0.
dydz

are

functions

of

x and y

only,

and that

Hence

F=G + Z,
when

(x

is

a function

components of

of

x and y

only,

and

a function of

UWd'G

only,

stress are

d'Gd^Z

d'Gd'Z

d'G X]

P-=Pdfdz^' P'^=Pd^d7' p--p\d^^ dj-\dxdnly


d'G d:Z

P^ = 0,

p^ = 0,

P^=-Pdxdydz^-

and the

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

182

Here the function

Now,

which determines the

function

this

function of x, y,

by a function of

and

z,

not

is

it

stress in the strata parallel to

sufficiently

only,

jL)

may be

of

being any

z.

it

function which

instead

for

is

the product of a function of x and y multiplied

is

Besides this, though the value of p^^

and

general,

xy

is

is,

as

it

ought to

most general form,

not of the

a function of x

be,

depends on G, the

for it

determines the stresses p^, p^, and 'Pyy, whereas the value of
In fact, the
of the values of these stresses.

entirely independent

equations give

dz'
iz'l'

This method, therefore, of representing


sions

stress

in

body of three dimen-

a restricted solution of the equations of equilibrium.

is

On

Reciprocal Diagrams in Three Dimensions.

Let us consider figures in two portions of space, which we shall call respecLet the co-ordinates of any point in
the first and the second diagrams.

tively

the

diagram be denoted by

first

second by

the

-q,

^,

continuous
values of

manner;

at

that

to

is

those points

say,

then,

\
if

A,

parallel

point in

the second diagram be determined

sponding point in the

first

to

x,

equivalent to the

are

first

two

points,

without

from

x, y,

z,

figure

and
limit,

Let the co-ordinates


those

(^,

of

in

any

F^ the

F^,

the value

-q,

the

of a
corre-

dF

dF
'^

= ^'

dF
^

statement, that the vector (p)

,,.

^^^'

of

any point

in

the

second diagram represents in direction and magnitude the rate of variation of


at

the

in

respectively.

y,

by the equations

^=^'
is

approaches

approaches that of F^ without limit.

F._

This

and those of the corresponding point

x, y, z,

measured in directions

be a quantity varying from point to point of the

Let i^

of

^,

corresponding point of the

first

diagram.

AND DIAGRAMS OF
Next,

let

us determine another function,


xi+7jr}

<f>,

thus determined,

as

known

terms of these quantities.

in

of

i,

V>

^-

of

i,

V,

Differentiate

+ zC=F+cf>
But,

for

with respect to

<f>

^dx

d(f>_

$,

dy

d~i~'^'^ ^ Ti'^'^ di"^ ^

Substituting the values of

dFdx

d^_

x,

(2).

and

y,

since

z,

the same reason,


considering x,

dF
di~ d^

y,

<^

^,

are

a function

is

and

77,

functions

dz

from (l)

t],

^,

from the equation

</>,

be a function of

will

183

FORCES.

dFdy

d^'^'^dxdi'^ dy

dFd^_dF

d^'^ dz d^

d^

dF_dF
'"^^d^
= x.
Differentiating

<f>

di

with respect to

and

rj

d^

d^

""-dr
or

the vector

(r)

C,

magnitude the rate of increase of

<f>

at

three equations

d^

^~dr)'

of any point in the

we get the

first

'-c/4

^'

diagram represents in direction and

the corresponding point of the second

diagram.

Hence the

first

diagram

may

be determined from the second by the same

process that the second was determined

each with

its

own

from the

first,

and the two diagrams,

function, are reciprocal to each other.

(2) between the functions expresses that the sum of the functwo corresponding points is equal to the product of the distances of
these points from the origin multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the

The

relation

for

tions

directions of these distances.

Both these functions must be of two dimensions in space. Let i*^ be a


function of xyz, which has the same value and rate of variation as F

linear

has at the point x^y^^

/-

The value

= F. + (x-x.)f + (y-,.)^ + (.-z.)f-

of F' at the origin

is

found by putting

x, y,

F = F,-x,^-y,r)-zX=-<f>

and

(4).

=
(5),

EECIPEOCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

184

of F* at the

or the value

the point

t?,

^,

If the

be

of variation of

rate

second diagram the

of the

and

impossible,

the

therefore

limits

of the

second diagram, the

every

point,

corresponding to an

which correspond to a single point

To

these points

find

the

in

which

is

curves,

curves

and

constant,

which the tangent plane

more

nowhere

is

at

correspond

the

to

p.

first

let

let

r),

{,

be drawn in the

surfaces

diagram

first

points be found in each of these surfaces at


p,

these points will form

infinite,

second

the

one or

and the points on these


which

diagram

in

the
first

in

on these curves at which -r- = p


since

^,

vice versa.

diagram, let p be the vector of a given

diagram on a plane through the origin perpendicular to

Now,

the co-ordinates

be the perpendicular from a point in the

points
If

and

in the second.

perpendicular to

is

infinite,

finite,

which must be either closed or

direction of the vector

diagram.

the value of

to

Beyond the
values of x, y, z, in terms of ^, iq, t must
value of <^ is also impossible. Within the
function ^ has an even number of values at
even number of points in the first diagram,

and

point in the second diagram,


for

equal and opposite

is

second diagram must be everywhere

of the
limits

origin

t,.

p,

then

lie

all

those points

correspond to the given point in the second

this point

within the second diagram, there are values

is

fJF
of p both greater

absolute

maximum

and

less

than the given one

nor an absolute

minimum

number of points on the curve


Some of these points may
given point.
must be different, unless the given point is

an

even

and therefore -r

value.

Hence there

or curves which
coincide,

is

neither an

are in general

correspond to the

but at least two of them

at the limit of the second diagram.

Let us now consider the two reciprocal diagrams with their functions, and

what the geometrical nature of

ascertain in
(1)

Let

F=Fi, then

the

first

diagram

a point in one diagram

function

<^

is

simply the point Pj,

(x^,

y^,

z^),

at which

in the other diagram

<f>

or

be

their reciprocity consists.

is

= ^r^+y^l+^X-F^

reciprocal

to

(6),

a space in the other, in which the

a linear function of the co-ordinates.

AND DIAGRAMS OF
Let the

(2)

diagram contain a second point Pj,

first

F=F, then we must combine

If

is

r,

and

at

z.),

which

(7),

<^,

+ {z,-zH = F.-F,.

the length of the line drawn from the

if li^m^.n^^

y^,

= x,^+y.j) + zX-F,

{x,-x:^^-\-{y,-y.)'n

P,;

(jc^,

equation (G) with


<i>

whence eliminating

185

FORCES.

first

point P, to the second

are its direction cosines, this equation becomes

F -F
'13

of the two points P, and P is a plane, perpendicular to the


them, and such that the perpendicular from the origin on the plane

or the reciprocal
line joining

multiplied by the length of the line P^P^

(3)

are

and

a;,,

equal to the excess of P. over P,.

is

Let there be a third point P, in the first diagram, whose co-ordinates


z, and for which
F=F^', then we must combine with equations (6)

(7)

4>=^.^+y.-n+^-Ji-F^

The
dicular
this

reciprocal

to

three

points Pj, P^, P^

is

perpen-

a straight line

the plane of the three points, and such that the perpendicular on

from

line

the

of

(8).

the origin represents,

most rapid increase of

in

direction

in the plane P^P^P^,

and magnitude, the rate of

being a linear function of the

co-ordinates whose values at the three points are those given.

Let there be a fourth point P^

(4)

The

reciprocal

the

of

four

points

for

which F=F^.

is

a single point,

and the

line

drawn

from the origin to this point represents, in direction and magnitude, the rate
of greatest increase

of F,

supposing

values

at

the four points are those

that of

at the origin.

such a linear function of xyz that

Let us next suppose that the value of


does not vary by a

finite

quantity

when

VOL.

II.

is

continuous,

at

this

that

is,

its

point

is

that

the co-ordinates vary by infinitesimal

quantities, but that the form of the function


linear function of xyz

The value of ^

given.

(f>

is

in different parts of space,

discontinuous, being a different

bounded by

definite surfaces.

24

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

186

The bounding
For

let

must be composed of

surfaces of these parts of space

planes.

the linear functions of xyz in contiguous portions of space be

then at the bounding surface, where F^ = F,

(a,-a,)aj+(A-A)r+(y.-r.)2=<^x-<A,
and

this

is

(9),

the equation of a plane.

Hence the portion of space in which any particular form of the value of F
must be a polyhedron or cell bounded by plane faces, and therefore
having straight edges meeting in a number of points or summits.
holds good

Every

more

cells,

face

the boimdary of two

is

and to two

cells,

Every summit belongs to at least four


and to two edges of each face.

cell,

The whole space occupied by the


different

ways,

has two values of

The

that every point in

so

and

diagram
it

radius

The value

of

of the

in

the same way,

different

cells,

and

and the

cell in

summit represents the

rate

the other.
of increase of the

both in direction and magnitude.

cell,

function

at

the summit

value which the function in the cell would have

same

two

diagram corresponds to a

in one

the

to

its derivatives.

vector

function within the

divided into cells in two

is

belongs

diagram is made up of cells


two diagrams may be thus stated

Every summit

The

to at least three faces of each

cells,

reciprocal

reciprocity of the

1.

every edge belongs to three or

faces of each cell.

is

equal and opposite

to

the

were continued under the

if it

algebraical form to the origin.


2.

other,

Every
which

edge

is

in

the

one

diagram corresponds

the face of contact of the two

cells

to a

plane

fexje

in

the

corresponding to the two

extremities of the edge.

The edge

in the one

diagram

is

perpendicular to the face in the other.

The distance of the plane from the


of the function along the edge.

origin

represents the rate

of increase

AND DIAGRAMS OF
Every

3.

many

meet as there are angles in the face, that is, at least three. Every
belong to two, and only two cells, because the edge to which it

cells

must

face

one diagram corresponds to an edge in which as

the

in

face

187

FORCES.

corresponds has two, and only two extremities.

Every

4.

Every

one diagram corresponds to a summit in the other.

the

in

cell

of the

face

corresponds and

cell

Since every

extremity in the summit.

summit must have

every

Every summit of the


Since every

faces,

every

which are the boundaries of

cell

cell

every summit must be the point of

edges,

six

least

concourse of at least six faces,

the summit.

more

four or

there.

corresponds to a face having an angle in the summit.

cell

has at

cell

must have

more edges meeting

four or

Every edge of the


Since

perpendicular to an edge having an

is

cell

corresponds

to

cells.

a ceU having a solid angle at

has at least four summits, every summit must be

the meeting place of at least four

cells.

Mechanical Reciprocity of the Diagrams.


If along

each of

portional to the

areas

the edges meeting


of the

a summit forces are applied pro-

in

corresponding faces of the

diagram, and in a direction which

is

cell

the reciprocal

in

always inward with respect to the

cell,

then these forces will be in equilibrium at the summit.


This

is

If the
sect

of

the

positive

by

positive

cell

cell

of the

cell.

its

cell

but

sides of the surface.

surface,

If

the

of

itself,

surface intersects

is

itself,

is

inside

better to

or portion of a
is

inward,

and outside

speak of the
cell,

may

bounded

be called a

and encloses another portion of

with their positive side inward, and by

In passing to a contiguous
cell

has

its

cell.

surrounded by n sheets of the surface of the same

inward, the space enclosed in this

first

cell,

which the positive side

it

negative side inward, that portion of space forms a negative

any portion of space

with the

meant by the

is

the surface intersects

if

be proved by hydrostatics.

form a single closed surface which does not inter-

easy to understand what

is

and negative
closed

space with
If

faces
it

itself,

may

the "Polyhedron of Forces," and

sheets with

their

way must be reckoned n m


cell,

positive

we must suppose
surface

that

negative side

times.
its

face

in contact

on the opposite side from that of


24

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

188
the

first

In this way, by making the positive side of the surface con-

cell.

throughout each

tinuous
cell,

we may

the

sign of

when we

pass to the next

cells

it

cell,

considered

is

to belong to.

we now suppose

If

it

every face depending on which of the two

moment

for the

and by changing

cell,

the positive and negative side of every face of every

settle

forces of tension or pressure applied along every

edge of

diagram, so that the force on each extremity of the edge


direction of the positive normal to the corresponding face of the

is

in the

cell

corre-

sponding to that extremity, and proportional to the area of the

then these

the

first

and tensions along the edges

pressures

will

face,

keep every point of the diagram

in equilibrium.

way

Another
the

first

diagram,

determining the nature of the force along any edge of

of

as follows

is

of the first diagram draw a closed curve, embracing it


However small the curve is, it will enter each of the
Hence the reciprocal of this closed curve will
the edge.

Round any edge


and

no

cells

which meet in

other

edge.

be a plane polygon whose angles are the points reciprocal to these


in

of this polygon represents, both in direction

The area

order.

the whole force acting through the closed curve, that

along

the

travel

in

edge.

in

therefore,

is,

taken

in this case the stress

going round the angles of the polygon, we

the same direction of rotation in space as in going round the closed

the

curve,

If,

cells

and magnitude,

stress

along

the

edge will be a pressure; but

if

the direction

is

opposite, the stress will be a tension.

This
in

cases
certain
is

method

If

expressing

which Rankine's

cases

easily seen

deduced

of

stresses

reciprocal

of continuous stress.

by the example

we make
for figures

of

in

three

figures are

That

it

is

dimensions comprehends

possible,

and

not applicable to

is

all

applicable to

all

such

cases

(189).

On

Reciprocal Diagrams in two Dimensions.

of x and y only, all the properties already


dimensions will be true in two; but we may form

function

in three

a more distinct geometrical conception of the theory by substituting cz for

AKD DIAGRAMS OF
and cC

for

(f>.

We

have then

for

FORCES.

the equations of

189
relation

Vjetween

the two

diagrams

i=
.(10).

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

190

correspond to several points,

it will

a finite portion of a surface; in the second,

that the lines, which correspond to the edges of such a polygon,


nate in several points, and not in one, as is necessary for reciprocity.

so

will termi-

Second Method of representing Stress in a Body.

Let

a,

be any two

points

consecutive

the

in

first

diagram,

and a, /8 the corresponding points in the second, distant cr, then


tion cosines of the line ah are I, m, n and those of a/3, X, ^, v

if

distant

dp

d_l

dx

dy

dz

di)

dr}

dr)
-j^

V" + sm -r-+sn
dz
dy
dx

a-fJi.-

, dl
av = si -J-

dx

-^

5,

the direc-

dC
dy

sm -y- -^ sn

(12).

dt,
^j-

dz

Hence
cr

^(a.,,..)=4^..|..|+..(|.|)..(i4f)
\dy

If we put
we take three

ZX

+ m/x-f

sets

7ij/

right angles to each other,

Hence

this

let

we

where

of

I,

n,

the angle between

corresponding to three

and

s^,

s^

or of x, y,

us take an element

parallel to

cr,

and

directions

if

at

find

pose that the stress on this element

and a tension

e is

m,

quantity depends only on the position of the point,

on the directions of s

Now,

= cos6,

of values

(13).

dx^

a and

z,

let

us

call

it

let us sups, and


compounded of a normal pressure =^A--F,

of area perpendicular to
is

and not

A'i^.

equal to

AND DIAGRAMS OF

By

the

rules

for

FORCES.

the composition of stress,

191

we have

for

the

components

of the force on this element, in terms of the six components of stress,

X = Zp + mp^ + np^ =p
^^

lA'F- X

= b^xy + mp^ + np^, =p Im^'F-fi

Z = lp-h mp^ + npa =p nAT

(15).

(T
-

Hence,
f..iP

di\

,^

d^F\

(d'F

d'F\^

[d'F

d'F\

Id'F

d'F\

Id'F

d'F\
.(16).

d'F

d'F

d'F

Pxy=-P dxdy
By

substituting these values in the equations of equilibrium

^ ^ ^
+

ax

it

is

ay

= 0, &c

dz

(17).

manifest that they are fulfilled for any value of F.

The most general solution of these equations of equilibrium

is

contained

in the values

^^~
P^~

d'B
dz"

d'C

^ df

d'C

'

d'A
dydz

"
^^~ da?
^-^ ^

^~

By making A = B = C=pF we

^1

d'A

d'A
'

dz'

d'B
dzdx'

dC
^'^~

get a case which,

(18).

dxdy
though restricted

in its

stress.

We

have seen that a distribution of stress according to the definition above

(16),

generahty,

is

remarkable properties with respect to diagrams of

has

consistent

with

itself,

and

will

stresses are linear functions of F,

keep

body

in

any two systems of

equilibrium.

stress

by adding their respective functions, a process not applicable to the


of representation

by

Since

the

can be compounded
first

method

areas.

Let us ascertain what kind

of

stress

case of the system of cells already considered.

is

represented in this

way

in

the

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

192

Since
at

each

in

any point within


then a and

cells,

are reciprocal,

are in the surface

and such that the

surface,

The kind

and

surface,

of

in a

of internal stress

two rectangular

fluid

paper "

vanishes.

a and

fi

coincide.

Hence

in the plane of the

drawn on the

surface

is

a tension or a pressure according

tension

of which

their tensions

fluid,

must be

On

believe, the first to point

this stress is

having

each

films,

composed of the same

Airy,

cells,

all directions

corresponding to this case

of equilibrium

liquid

of the reciprocal diagram

Mr

when ah

or oppositely situated to the

depending on the nature of the


are

infinite

bounding the

points in different

distance to which these cells

finite

stress across unit of length

two points are similarly

system

there can be no stress

z,

the distance between the points which are reciprocal to the two

bounded by the

as the

be the points at a

will

x, y,

two contiguous

a stress in this surface, uniform in

is

proportional to
cells

a linear function of

is

Let us take a and

and A'i^=-^, which becomes

a and

If

there

cell

it.

it

like
is

is

two

therefore

that of a

that of a soap

composed.

must be

cells.

equal,

bubble,

If all the films

and

all

the edges

equal.

Airy's Function of Stress.

On

the

Strains in the Interior of Beams*," was,

out that, in any body in equilibrium under the action

two dimensions, the three components of the

stress in

any

directions are the three second derivatives, with respect to these

directions, of a certain function of the position of a point in the body.

This important simplification of the theory of the equilibrium of stress in

two dimensions does not depend on any theory of


in

which

stress

arises

in

librium of an element of a body acted on only

^i'+|;P = 0,
whence

it

elasticity,

or

on the mode

the body, but solely on the two conditions of equi-

and

by

internal stress

|^^^+|-p =

(19),

follows that

d'F
Px.= ^.,

d'F

P^=-J^y^

^^^

* PhU. Trans. 1863.

d'F

^-=S

,^..
(^^^'

AND DIAGRAMS OF

where

is

and

of

function

concerned)

are

equations

perfectly

193

FORCES.

the form of which

y,

arbitrary,

is

far as

(as

these

and the value of which at any

independent of the choice of axes of co-ordinates. Since the stresses


on
the second derivatives of F, any linear function of x and y may be
depend
without affecting the value of the stresses deduced from F. Also,
added to
point

is

since the

stresses are linear functions

of F, any

two systems of

may

stress

be

mechanically compounded by adding the corresponding values of F.

The importance of Airy's function in the theory of stress becomes even


more manifest when we deduce from it the diagram of stress, the co-ordinates
of whose points are

f=f
For

if s

-^"-f

(^-

be the length of any curve in the original figure, and

corresponding curve in the diagram of stress,

and

that of the

<r

Yds

Xds,

if

are

the com-

ponents of the whole stress acting on the element ds towards the right hand
of the curve s

dx

d'F dx

dyidxj

hand

of the element cb of

dr)

J =
5*=-;pgjrf.= -3^.3j<i*
5^3j& = ^rf^J

and

Hence the
curve

is

stress

resultant

the right

both

represented,

da

element

on

of

stress

the

in

curve in

on any

finite

side

the

original

and magnitude, by the corresponding


the diagram of stress, and, by composition, the
direction

arc of the first curve s

and magnitude by the straight

line

is

represented in direction

drawn from the beginning

the

to

end of

the corresponding curve a.


If

P P,

are

the principal stresses at any point,

to the axis of x, then the

component

p^=(P,-P,)sinaco8a
Pj^
II.

if

P,

is

inclined a

stresses are

p = P, cos' a + P, sin' a

VOL.

and

(23).

= P, sin' a + P, cos'a
25

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

194

dxdy

Pry

tan 2a =

Hence

d^_d^

i>

dar'

df

d'F

d'F

/d'F\

,_^'-Pd'P
r,i-,-p^Pyy _ p^ -

PP-

^^ ^^

Consider the area bounded by a closed curve


face integral of the

The

integral

sum

(24).

P^+Pyy = :^+-^-

P. + P.-

s,

\dxdyl

and

let

us determine the sur-

of the principal stresses over the area within the curve.

is

\\(P. + P,)d.dy=^\\(^^ + ''^dxdy

By

(25).

a well-known theorem, corresponding in two dimensions to that of Green in

three dimensions, the latter expression becomes,

when once

integrated.

dFdx_dFdy\,
/( dy

ds

(26),

dx dsj

(27).

These

line integrals are to

a point in the curve

s as

be taken round the closed curve

origin

in

s.

we take

If

the original body, and the corresponding

<r as origin in the diagram of stress, then


^ and ly are the components of the whole stress on the right hand of the curve from the origin to

point in

a given point.

If p denote the line joining the origin with the point

will represent in direction

The

line

integral

and magnitude the whole

may now

represented

quantity

in

in

direction

on the arc

^, then
o-.

be interpreted as the work done on a point

which travels once round the closed curve


force

stress

and

s,

and

magnitude by

Is

p.

everywhere acted on by a

We

may

express

terms of the stress at every point of the curve, instead

resultant stress on the whole arc, as follows

For integrating (27) by parts

it

this

of the

becomes,
(28),

AND DIAGRAMS OF
or
if

Rds

if

the

is

actual

on

stress

makes with r an angle

we

c,

and r

ds,

195

FORCES.

the

is

radius

vector of

\\{P,^P,)dxdy= -IRr cos .ds


This line

stresses

therefore,

integral,

the closed curve

s,

no stress on the curve

is

integral vanishes.

This

theorem, given at

p.

by the

acting

on

of the principal

is

of

acting from without, then the surface

the algebraic

176, that

length

the extension to the case of continuous stress of the

the

in

piece

sum

which

it

of

all

acts

the tensions multiphed

is

zero

for
is

a system

in

longitudinal,

whole pressure or tension of the piece is equal to the longitudinal


multiphed by the section, so that the integral l\{P,-\-Pi)dxdy for each

the

stress

piece

tension multiplied by its length.

Jts

is

If the closed cui-ve s is

an

stress

sum

In the case of a frame, the stress in each piece

equilibrium.

and

which depends only on the

taken over the whole area witliin the curve.

If there

each

and

(29).

equal to the surface integral of the

is

ds,

obtain the result

and the

ellipse,

stress

a small

circle,

the corresponding curve

on any diameter of the

circle will

cr

will

be

be represented in

and magnitude by the corresponding diameter of the ellipse. Hence,


the principal axes of the ellipse represent in direction and magnitude the prindirection

cipal stresses at the centre of

the

circle.

Let us next consider the surface integral of the product of the principal
taken over the area within the closed curve s.

stresses at every point

//..P,...=//(-f-3)...,

(30),

_(((dldr}_didri\

-}]\dxdy
or

dydx)'^'''^^'

by transformation of variables

=mdr].
Hence the
the curve

is

surface

integral

of the product

equal to the area of the

of the principal stresses within

corresponding curve

in the

diagram of

depends entirely on the external stress on the curve s.


This is seen from the construction of the curve a- in the diagram of stress.
of
since each element d<r represents the stress on the corresponding element ds

stress,

and

therefore

the original curve.

252

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

196

represents in direction and magnitude the resultant of the stress on

If p

the curve s from the origin to a point which moves round the curve, then the
area traced out by p

equal to the surface- integral required.

is

are the components of the stress on the element ds,

the closed curve

then the surface integral

s,

Y {'Xds.ds,

or

In a frame the stress in each piece


product of the principal stresses

is

zero,

Xds and Yds

If

the whole length of

equal to either of the quantities

is

Tx

is

and

Yds.ds.

entirely

longitudinal,

and therefore nothing

is

so

that the

contributed to

the surface-integral except at the points where the pieces meet or cross each

To

other.

value of the

surrounding

meet

which

pieces

the

find

closed curve

that

in

any one of these

integral for

and no other

it

point,

The corresponding

point in order.

draw a
all

the

in

the

figure

be a polygon, whose sides represent in magnitude and

diagram

of

direction

the tensions in the several pieces taken in order.

will

stress

points,

and therefore cutting

The area

of this

polygon, therefore, represents the value of jjP^P^dxdy for the point of concourse,

and

be

to

is

round

travels

considered

it

positive

or negative,

according as the tracing point

the negative cyclical direction.

in the positive or

Hence the following theorem, which is


drawn or not.

applicable to all plane frames, whether

a diagram of forces can be

For

each

point

drawing in succession
point

in

cyclical

the

several

of

pieces

If,

all

lines

the

The area of

order round the point.

or negative, according as

polygon

or of intersection construct a polygon, by


and proportional to the forces acting on the
which meet in that point, taking the pieces in

concourse

lines parallel

then,

be

it

lies

on the

a closed curve be

drawn by drawing

external

of direction

to the algebraic

this polygon

left or

drawn surrounding
in succession

is

lines

frame, and a
and proportional to
the order in which their

the

of the

areas

entire

parallel

forces which act on the frame in


meet the closed curve, then the area of

sum

to be taken positive

the right of the tracing point.

this

polygon

is

equal

of the polygons corresponding to the various

points of the frame.

In
lines

this

theorem a polygon

is

to

be drawn for every point, whether the

of the frame meet or intersect, whether they are really jointed together.

AND DIAGRAMS OF
or

197

FORCES.

whether two pieces simply cross each other without mechanical connection.
is a parallelogram, whose sides are parallel and

In the latter case the polygon


proportional

to

the stresses in the two pieces, and

it

is

or

positive

negative

according as these stresses are of the same or of opposite signs.


If three

or

more pieces

intersect,

intersect at one point or not, so that

it

is

manifestly the same whether they

we have the

following theorem

The area of a polygon of an even number of sides, whose opposite sides


equal and parallel, is equal to the sum of the areas of all the different
parallelograms which can be formed with their sides parallel and equal to those

are

of the polygon.

This

is

easily

shewn by dividing the polygon

into

the

different

parallelo-

grams.

On
Let
stress,

PQR

be

the

the

Equilibrium of Stress in a Solid Body.

longitudinal,

and

STU

as indicated in the following table of

Thomson and

Tait's

Natural Philosophy,

Components

of the

p.

511,

the tangential components of

stresses

669:

and

strains,

taken from

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

198

of an element of the

Then the equations of equilibrium

body

are,

by

697

of that work,

dP

dU dT

dx

dy

dz

dx

dy

dz

dx

dy

dz

(!)

we assume

If

three functions A, B, C, such that

d'A

X dV
dx

and put

d'B
dzdx

rr,

r=

dydz'

^_dV
'

d'C

..

dxdy
(2).

z= dV
dz

dy'

then a sufficiently general solution of the equations of equilibrium

is

given by

putting

p_d^,d^ y
^

^~

dz'^ df

d^^d^_^
(3).

daf

dz^

^^^Jd^_y
dif

am

dctf

not aware of any method of finding other relations between the com-

ponents of stress without making further assumptions.


tion

make

to

a,

all
y8,

the

stress

arises

from

The most natural assump-

elasticity

the body.

in

myself to the case of an isotropic body, such that

confine

of

that

is

stress

are

and strain by a removal of the applied


the

Thomson and

forces.

components of displacement, and n the

the equations of tangential elasticity are,

by equation

it

In this

coefficient

(6),

case,

dz

dy^l^^
dy

670 and 694 of

d'A

n dydz

if

of rigidity,

Tait,

^^dfi

shall

can be deprived

(4).

'

AND DIAGRAMS OF
with

equations

similar

equations

is

and

for

c.

199

FORCES.
general

sufficiently

solution

of these

given by putting

(5).

The equations of longitudinal

form given

elasticity are of the

-p=(*+f");7^+(i-i) dy
where

and

and

(5),

the co-efficient of

is

Substitutmg

d'C

/d'B

P,

for

^,

,,

cubical

a,

[d'A

in equation

d'B

d'B

d^
this equation

Q
(3)

[dy^

dy'

dy"

"^

d^l

dz'

dz'

"We

d'C

d'

c^

d^^-d^'^P^ ^^^ 5^ + 5^ +

5^'

= ^'

becomes
()t-}--|n)

values from

their

we put
d'A

and

equations for

similar

(6)

d'CX

+ 1^-3^)
If

(6).

dz

with

elasticity,

and y

fi

in 693,

have

also

instead of

sions on the right

(L'A-^L'B-\-L'C)-{h + \n)1p-2nV = 2n^'A....

two other equations


on the right hand

hand

side

we

from this only in having

differing

find
say,

(8),

{3k + n)2p = (3k-^2n)dD'-6nV

P+Q+R=
These

equations

than the strain in a

are

useful

body.

Hence equating the three expres-

side.

A'A=A'B = A'C=D',

and

.(7).

(9),

9kD'-2V_^j^p-3V
6k

3it-l-n

when we wish

For instance,

if

(10).

dk + 2n
to determine

the

co-efficients

the
of

stress

rather

elasticity,

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

200

n, are increased in the same ratio to any extent, the displacements of


the body are proportionally diminished, but the stresses remain the same, and,
though their distribution depends essentially on the elasticity of the various

and

of the

parts

the values of the internal forces do not contain the

body,

co-

efficients of elasticity as factors.

There are two cases in which the functions

two

The
of

may

be treated as functions of

variables.
first

when

is

there

as in the case of a

z,

of

tion

z,

stress,

or a constant pressure in the direction

stratum originally of uniform thickness,

in the direc-

small compared with the other dimensions of

being

thickness

the

no

is

the body, and with the rate of variation of strain.

The second
the

of

direction

direction

and y

of

when

is

very

no

is

as in the

z,

is

there

the

or a uniform longitudinal strain in

prismatic body whose length in the

of a

case

great,

strain,

forces

on the

sides

being functions of x

only.

In both

of these cases

5=0

and T=0,

so that

we may

write

This method of expressing the stresses in two dimensions was

first

by the Astronomer Royal, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1863.


write

instead of C, and call

it

Let us assume two functions,

j^^

Airy's Function of Stress in

then by Thomson pnd Tait,

^^
*

694, if a

is

v=^^
dxdy

I.

If

72

this

becomes

Integrating with respect to

a;

we

(12)''
^

the displacement in the direction of x

2n(<T+l)^ = P-<r(Q + R)
Case

shall

Dimensions.

and H, such that

d'G

dxdy

Two

given

We

find the following equation for a

(13).

AND DIAGRAMS OF

where

of

function

Is

Similarly for the

only.

201

FORCES.

displacement

fi

in

the

direction of y,

where

a function of x only.

is

Now

the shearing stress

depends on the

shearing strain and the rigidity, or


(^)-

^="(|-S

Multiplying both sides of this equation by 2((r+l) and substituting from (11),
(14),

and

(15),

(|..-3'..g.f=(i-.)(|..|.)
an equation which must be

fulfilled

by

when the body

is

originally without

strain.

In

of

Case II.
2, we have

the second case, in which there

is

no strain

in the

^=i2-o-(P + g) =
Substituting for

In (13),

with a similar equation

W
This
the

equation

is

coefiicient

of

body, and the

for

(19).

and dividing by cr+1,

Proceeding as in the former case,

/S.

+ dfj^^li + 'd^-i^Ad^'^'dy')^

identical

the

with that of the

part due

value of

tr,

direction

to

H,

first

case,

we

find

'

with the exception of

which depends on the density of the

the ratio of lateral

expansion to longitudinal com-

pression.

Hence,

if

the external forces are given in the two cases of no stress and

no strain in the direction of


VOL.

II.

z,

and

if

the density of the body or the intensity

26

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

202
of the force acting on

two

cases,

the

substance

its

the ratio of

in

is

be

will

forces

internal

the

same

a-

to

(l-o-)'

in

the

every part, and will be

in

independent of the actual values of the coefficients of elasticity, provided the


The solutions of the cases treated by Mr Airy, as given in
strains are small.
his

elasticity.

into

do

paper,

the

In

not
fact,

exactly

conditions deduced from the theory of

the

fulfil

the consideration of elastic strain


Nevertheless,

investigation.

results

his

is

not explicitly introduced

are

statically

and

possible,

exceedingly near to the truth in the cases of ordinary beams.

As an

theory of Airy's Function, let us take the case of

illustration of the

F=-^r^co32p0
In this case

we have

(22).

the co-ordinates of the point in the diagram

for

corre-

ponding to (xy)
7'*-^ sin

and

for

(2^9-1)^

(23),

the components of stress

d^

_dr)

(24).

Txy^ dxdy .(2p-l)r^-'am{2p-2)0


If

we make

and

t''

sin

p0

.(25),

dGr\

'

then

H = p-

(^-^)e
,v

/^

(26).

dG dG
I

respectively are constant will be lines' of


Hence the curves for which G and
and the stress at any point will be inversely as the square of
the distance between the consecutive curves G or H.

principal stress,

If

we make

^=pcos<j> and

p = 7^-'

then we must have


If

we put

q for

2p

and
1

then -

+ -=2

T7

<f>

= psin^
= (2p 1)0}'
"I

and {2p-l) (2q-l) =

(27).

l,

AND DIAGRAMS OF
80

that

if f,

original figure,

g,

the diagram of

in

of a

Cctse

g=-

correspond to F,

G,

the

in

As an example

of the

application

per unit of length

cos

q(f),

= - p"^ sm q<l>

(28).

condition of no strain, let ua take the

placed horizontally with

of indefinite length

placed on

must

condition that the stresses

of the

initial

beam

case of a uniform rectangular

p''

Uniform Horizontal Beam.

be such as are consistent with an

=^

stress

we have
f=--p^cos2q<\>,

a load

203

FORCES.

its

upper

surface,

the weight of the

Let us suppose the beam to be supported

beam being k per unit of length.


by vertical forces and couples in a
let

us

applicable

to the

middle

the

only

consider

plane applied at the ends

vertical

portion

ends have no sensible

the

of

effect.

but

beam, where the conditions

Let the horizontal distance x

be reckoned from the vertical plane where there

is

no shearing

force,

and

let

no moment of bending be at distances a, from


Let y be reckoned from the lower edge of the beam, and let h
the origin.
d-F
be the depth of the beam. Then, if /"= - jj- is the shearing stress, the total
the

where there

planes

vertical shearing force

is

through a vertical section at distance x

j!^''^

and

this

from

must be
which

to X,

this

we

=,..-.-/

and opposite to the weight of the beam and load

evidently (h

'^=

Hence,

From

equal
is

is

+ ^x.

-{h + k)x<j>{y), where

<f>(h)-<f>{0)

=l

(29).

find the vertical stress

^=rfl'+55'=-(A+i)'#'{y)+fyThe

vertical stress

is

therefore

the lower side of the beam,


of the

beam,

where y = b.

of the beam, or

<f>'{y)

function of y only.

It

must vanish

at

where y = 0, and it must be ^ on the upper side


The shearing stress U must vanish at both sides

= 0, when y = 0, and when y = h.

262

RECIPROCAL FIGURES, FRAMES,

204

The simplest form of

Hence we

<l>{y)

which

will satisfy these conditions is

find the following expression for the function of stress

by integrating

(29) with respect to x,

P='^{'-^){3hf-W+r
where a
in

a constant introduced in integration, and depends

is

which

(30),

the

beam

vertical, horizontal,

is

supported.

and shearing

From

this

we

on the manner

obtain the values of the

stresses,

= ^l'+f^ = t2'-T^W-22^)

(31).

^=f='-F-'("'-^)(*-2^)+f

(32).

^=-Say = ^-^^(^-2')

(33)-

The values of Q and of U, the vertical and the shearing stresses, as


given by these equations, are perfectly definite in terms of h and
the load
and the weight of the beam per unit of length.
The value of F, the horiJc,

zontal

stress,

however, contains an arbitrary function

find from the condition that the

determine a and

/S,

beam was

which we propose to

We

(13),

X'

^{(3a'x-x')(6-2j,)-,Tx(35y-22/')}-<7ja^ +

is

x^+r

U,

we

(35),

Y' of y only.
Deducing from these
and comparing it with the value of the shearing

find the equation

*+^{6a'x-2af+12x(6y-2^)} + ,.|x=x^ +
Hence

(34),

a function of x only, and

displacements the shearing strain,


stress,

{x, y),

(14), (15)

2(o-+l)y8=-^{(5y-i/) + 3o-(a'-af)(62/-3f')}+j|y-<r^+X'
where

therefore

the horizontal and vertical displacement of any point

by the method indicated by equations

1n(,7+\)a

Y,

originally unstrained.

^' + ^'

^= ^i [hy-f)
12

= 2^-+^

(3a'.

- 2^) + <.|x,

(36).

(37),

^' =0

(38).

AND DIAGRAMS OF
If the

condition

-7-

of

value

the

we

any

stress across

total longitudinal

vertical

by equation

section of the

beam

and when y = h.

must be the same when y =

find the value of

205

FORCES.

any

at

zero,

From

this

(32)

^ = -5^{3K-^) + 2y'-2?>y-6'}(6-2y)
The moment of bending

is

beam

vertical section of the

(39).

is

Pydy = (h + k){i(af-a^) + ih^)

(40).

f.

when x= ia, where

This becomes zero

ao'

If

we wish

to

= a'-F

(41)-

compare this case with that of a beam of

finite

length sup-

we must make the moment of


bending zero at the supports, and the length of the beam between the supports
must therefore be 2ao- Substituting a^ for a in the value of P, we find
ported

both

at

and

ends

loaded

uniformly,

P = ^(3a:-Zx^ + 2y'-2hy + ih"-){b-2y)


If

we suppose the beam

beyond the supports, and sup-

to be cut off just

ported by an intense pressure over a small area,

we

the problem which are not fulfilled by this solution,

which requires the use of Fourier's


true,

the

we must suppose the beam


supports

of frames

on either

part of the

introduce conditions into

and the investigation of

In order that our result

may

be

extend to a considerable distance beyond

and the

vertical

forces

clamped to the ends of the beam, as

arising from

stresses

side,

series.

to

(42).

in

to

be applied by means

Diagram Va,

so

that

the

the discontinuity at the extremities are insensible in the

beam between the

supports.

This expression differs from that given by


the longitudinal stress

Mr

depending on the function

Airy only in the terms

in

Y, which was introduced

when no force is applied, the beam is


a maximum when ?/= '127886, and is
then equal to (h + k) 'Sli, or less than a third of the pressure of the beam
and its load on a flat horizontal surface when laid upon it so as to produce a
uniform vertical pressure ^4-^
in

order

unstrained.

to

fulfil

The

the

effect

condition that,

of these

terms

is

RECIPROCAL riGURES, FRAMES,

206

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS


Diagrams I

and

a.

a frame such, that

if

But the

determined.

illustrate

6.

must be a

diagi-ams, that each line

In

I.

II.

III.).

the necessity of the condition of the possibility of reciprocal

Diagram

and only two, polygons.

side of two,

I a. is a skeleton of

the force along any one piece be given, the force along any other piece

piece

NFH, NGI, NJL, and NKM,

forms a side of four triangles,

there could be a reciprocal diagram, the line corresponding to


impossible.

(Plates

this case

we can draw a diagram

N would

may be

so that

if

have four extremities, which

it

of forces in which the forces

H,

and

I, J,

are each

represented by two parallel lines.

Diagrams II a. and 116. illustrate the case of a frame consisting of thirty-two pieces, meeting four
and four in sixteen points, and forming sixteen quadrilaterals. Diagram II a. may be considered as a plane
projection of a polyhedron of double continuity, which we may describe as a quadrilateral frame consisting
of four quadrilatei-al rods, of which the ends are bevelled so as to
as a plane frame, has three

frame, considered

degrees of

stiffness,

fit

The

exactly.

projection of this

so that three of the forces

may be

arbitrarily assumed.

In the reciprocal diagram 116. the


is

lines are

drawn by the method given at p. 168, so that each line


figiire.
To make the corresponding lines parallel

perpendicular to the corresponding line in the other

only to turn one of the figures round a right angle.

we have

Diagrams III
Jenkin.
series.

a.

and III

two

different for the

IV a.

Diagrams

illustrate the principle as applied to a bridge designed

on the upper

series of joints,

and B^

Ji^,

by Professor F.
on the lower

fec.,

gives the stresses due to both sets of loads, the vertical lines of loads being

series.

IV 6.

and

diagrams of continuous

illustrate the

application of Airy's

Function to the

construction

of

stress.

represents a cylinder exposed to pressure in a vertical and horizontal direction, and to


The lines marked a, b, c, <fec., are lines of pressure, and
directions inclined 45* to these.

IV a.
tension in

those

6.

&c., are placed

The loads Q^ Q^,


The diagiam III 6.

marked

o,

In this case the lines of pressure and tension are rectangular


always equal to the tension, and varies inversely as the square of the

p, q, are lines of tension.

the pressure

hyperbolas,

is

distance between consecutive curves, or,

what

is

the same thing, directly as the square of the distance

from the centre.

The
represents the reciprocal diagram corresponding to the upper quadi-ant of the former one.
line in the first diagram is represented in magnitude and direction by the corresponding line

IV 6.
stress

on any

in the second diagram, the correspondence being ascertained by that of the corresponding systems of lines
o, 6,

c, tfcc.

We
a, 6, c,

and

may

ifec.

also consider

IV

and to tension along

quadrant of
strained

o, p, q,

body

IV a.

is

o,

6.

as a sector of a cylinder of 270, exposed to

p, q, the

in this case

magnitude of the

the reciprocal figure.

pressure along the lines

stress being in this

case

r'K

The upper

This figure illustrates the tendency of any

to be ruptured at a re-entering angle, for it is plain that at the angle the stress

indefinitely gi'eat.

becomes

VOL.

11.

PLATE XIL

(i)

6'^

s5

e.

&

g-

&

VOL.

ivt.

11.

PLATE XIIL

(ii)

pq

">

rt

'^

rrt
I

44!

n
an
<s1

VOL,

11.

PLATE

XIV. (m)

pT

AND DIAGRAMS OF
In diagram

IV a.

In diagram

IV 6.:

/=
Diagrams

V o.
at

is

V a.

the

and

Jp^ cos 5

V b.

9=

.^,

at

and B, at such a distance from

and

C and

b,

c,

h = Ip^

<^,

marked

1,

2,

sin <^

beams.

by means of bent pieces clamped

to the ends of the

D, that the part of the beam between

the local effecta of the pressures of the clamps at

o,

p' C08 I

illustrate Airy's theory of stress in

beam supported

horizontal dotted lines,

207

FORCES.

3, 4, 5, 6,

A and

B.

The beam

and into sixteen

is

and

is

free

beam
from

divided into six strata by

vertical slices

by vertical

lines

marked

kc.

The corresponding
stress across

any

lines in the

line joining

corresponding points, and

is

diagram

b.

are

marked with corresponding

any two points in

V a.

perpendicular to

in direction.

it

is

figures

and

represented in magnitude by the line in

letters.

The

V 6., joining

These illustrations of the application of the graphic method to cases of continuous stress, are
intended rather to show the mathematical meaning of the method, than as practical aids to the engineer.
is really useful, and is less liable to accidental
In cases of continuous stress, however, the
method of trigonometrical calculation.
symbolical method of calculation is still the best, although, as I have endeavoured to show in this
paper, analytical methods may be explained, illustrated, and extended by considerations derived from

In calculating the stresses in frames, the graphic method

errors than

the

the graphic method.

[From the London Mathematical

XL.

On

Society's Proceedings.

the Displacement in

Vol. in.]

a Case of Fluid Motion.

we consider the velocity at any


by its magnitude and direction, as a function of
the coordinates of the point and of the time. We are supposed to be able to
take a momentary glance at the system at any time, and to observe the veloIn most

of fluid motion,

investigations

point of the fluid as defined

cities;

during

but are not required to be able to keep our eye on a particular molecule
its

motion.

This method, therefore, properly belongs to the theory of a

all its parts, in which we measure the velocity by the


volume which passes through unit of area rather than by the distance travelled
by a molecule in unit of time. It is also the only method appUcable to the

continuous fluid alike in

case of a fluid, the motions of the individual molecules of which are not expresas functions of their position, as in the motions

sible

When

similar equations

tricity,

we

due to heat and

are constrained to use this method, for

we cannot even

meant by the continued identity of a portion of heat or

The molecular

theory, as

it

resources

can effect

As

it

is

this, I

define

of the

what

is

electricity.

supposes each molecule to preserve

requires for its perfection a determination

any assigned time.

diffiision.

occur in the theory of the conduction of heat or elec-

position

its

identity,

of each molecule at

only in certain cases that our present mathematical

propose to point out a very simple case, with the

results.

Let a cylinder of

infinite length and of radius a move with its axis parallel


and always passing through the axis of x, with a velocity V, uniform or
variable, in the direction of x, through an infinite, homogeneous, incompressible,
perfect fluid.
Let r be the distance of any point in the fluid from the axis

to

z,

209

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.


the cylinder; then

of

axis of the cylinder,

<f>

satisfy

will

V<f>

stream function*

point,

= ^{^-^o), and

rp

if

x,

is

the value of x for the

and

= (l-yjy,
and

the conditions of the velocity-potential,


and,

since

the expression for

i//

that

F/

If

we

and

r,

consider the

then

x}/,

and

If

in

then

if

this

we

observe that,

if

we

becomes

i//

when the

^,

= c,

axis of the

cylinder

is

of the

abreast

and

we now use

instead of r a

the

i/>,

+ V/^) + = 2/3, and

be the value of y

will

/8

particle,

and

y(4cr

this purpose

= (l-^)^'si
sin^,

terms of r and

we make

For

becomes
'/'

Expressing cos

motion.

of a particle as determined by the values of


remain constant during the motion, and we have

will

in polar coordinates, it

xp

its

position
t/

only to find r in terms of the time.

put

the

of

does not contain the time,

value will remain constant for a molecule during the whole of

its

z,

easy to shew that,

is

it

and x that of the

The

velocity-potential

velocity of

the

fluid

is

new angular

variable

x ^^^^ *^^*

2r

a quantity such that

its

resolved in the same direction.

rate of variation

Whenever

along any line

the motion of

is

equal

the fluid

is

to

irro-

tational, there is a velocity-potential.

The stream function


sions,

and

is

exists in every case of

such that the total

the motion of an incompressible fluid in two dimen-

instantaneous flow across any curve, referred

to

unit of

time,

equal to the difi*erence of the values of the stream function at the extremities of the cun.-e.

VOL.

II.

27

is

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.

210

then we can express jVdt or

x^ in

terms of

functions of the

elliptic

first

and

second kinds,

where the position of the axis of the


position of a molecule with respect to

cylinder

expressed

is

in

terms of the

it.

us take a molecule originally on the axis of y, at a distance rj


from the origin, and let the cylinder begin to move from an infinite distance

Now

let

on the negative side of the axis of x; then

^=

7),

and

a"

= y(4a' + ry')+7y, and

2/3

Qi

= c',

and when the cylinder has passed from negative infinity to positive
the direction of x, then the coordinates of the molecule will be

2a,

7^\

rf

infinity in

a(l-c)

It appears from this expression, that after the passage of the cylinder every
particle
is

which

at the same distance as at first from the plane of xz, but that it
forward in the direction of the motion of the cylinder by a quantity
infinite when y = 0, but finite for all other values of y.

is

carried
is

of a particle at

The motion
X

at

double

the

inclination

of

any instant
the

line

always inclined to the axis of

is

drawn

the axis of the cylinder.

to

of this line is 45",


Hence it is in the
The forward motion
45
afterwards.
again
135",
forward
and
to
backward from
and it appears
time,
longer
lasts
for
a
motion,
but
backward
the
than
slower
is

forward

that the

final

direction

displacement of

till

the

every particle

follows from this that the condition fulfilled

inclination

is

in

by the

the forward
fluid at

an

direction.

infinite

It

distance

not that of being contained in a fixed vessel; for in that case there would
have been, on the whole, a displacement backwards equal to that of the cylinder

is

forwards.
of an

The problem

infinitely

generate a finite

actually solved

difiers

small forward velocity to the

from this only by the application


infinite

mass of

fluid

such as to

momentum.

In drawing the accompanying figures, I began by tracing the stream-lines


by means of the intersections of a system of straight lines equidistant and parallel to the axis, with a system of circles touching the axis at
in Fig. 1, p. 211,

211

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.

Fig.

1.

Fluid flowing past a fixed cylinder.

272

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.

212

the origin and having their radii

the

as

reciprocals

of the

natural numbers.

(See Prof. Rankine's Papers on Stream- Lines in the Phil. Trans.)

The cylinder

is

| inch radius, and the stream-lines are originally -^ inch

apart.

I then calculated the coordinates,

corresponding to every
left

of Fig.

x and

of the final form of a transverse

y,

from the values of the complete

straight line

2,

p.

The

5".

result

elliptic functions

for values

of c

given in the continuous curve on the

is

213.

then traced the path of a particle in contact with the cylinder from the

equation

tan^^=e
where

cc

cCo

+ a cos ^

"

and y = a9>md.

The form of the path

is

the

curve nearest the axis in Fig.

The dots

3.

indicate the positions at equal intervals of time.

The paths of

contact with the cylinder might be calculated

particles not in

from Legendre's tables for incomplete functions, which I have not got.

have therefore drawn them by

I
ditions

The radius of curvature


with

eye so

as

to

the

fulfil

following

con-

a,

becomes nearly -
2y

is

-l-

-r-.^

^ a'siii'0

-.

which,

y'

when y

is

large

compared

The paths of
nearly

particles at a great distance

from the axis are therefore very

circles.

To draw the paths of intermediate particles, I observed that their two


must lie at the same distance from the axis of a; as the asymptote
of a certain stream-line, and the middle point of the path at a distance equal
to that of the same stream-line when abreast of the cylinder; and, finally, that
the distance between the extremities is the same as that given in Fig. 2.
extremities

In this way I drew the


transferred these
in a straight line,

to

Fig. 2, to

and

paths of different

shew the paths

particles

in

Fig.

3.

then

of a series of particles, originally

finally in the curve already described.

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.


I

then

stream-lines

laid

Fig.

on

and the paths

Fig.
of

2,

and drew, through the

213

intersections of the

the corresponding particles in the fluid originally

Fig.

Paths of particles of the

fluid

2.

when a

cylinder

moves through

it

OO'

Fio.

3.

Paths of particles at different distances from the cylinder: radius of


yt cylii
cylinder, f
vt
6
difltances {fi) the jath is a circle of radius
^, and in this circle tan
/3

inch.

At

(jreat

THE DISPLACEMENT IN A CASE OF FLUID MOTION.

214
at

rest,

the lines which shew the form taken by a Ime of particles originally

straight as

it

flows

the point where

the

past

the

This method, however, does not give

cylinder.

crosses

line

the axis of

x.

therefore

calculated

this

from the equation


a;

calculating r for values of

= r + ^log^,

differing

by ^

The curves thus drawn appear to be


without a much greater amount of labour.
If a
straight

maker of " marbled


lines

of

"

inch.

as

near

the

truth as I could get

paper were to rule the surface of his bath with

paint at right angles,

and then to draw a

through the bath up to the middle, and apply the painted

he would produce the design of Fig.

1,

p.

211.

cylindrical

ruler

lines to his paper,

[From the

Address

XLI.

to

British Association Report, Vol. XL.]

Mathematical and Physical Sections of the British

the

Association.

[Liverpool,

At
and

several

important

the

of

SepUmber

15,

1870.]

recent l^Ieetings of the British

business

of

the

IVIathematical

Association the

introduced by an Address, the subject of which has been

the selection

to

left

The perplexing duty of choosing a

of the President for the time being.

varied

and Physical Section has been


subject

has not, however, fallen to me.


Professor

Sylvester,

the

President

of

Section

at

the Exeter Meeting,

ga\e us a noble vindication of pure mathematics by laying


the

very working

of

the

laare,

as

mathematical mind, and setting before

us,

it

were,

not the

array of symbols and brackets which form the armoury of the mathematician,
or

the

dry

which are only the monuments of

results

mathematician himself, with


to

sagacity

which he

and

the

feels

pursuit,

to be

condition of

the

all

his

metry formed by the combination of


but has

characteristic note

"

Mr

exhibition

has,

pointed

that

above

own

his

but the

his professional

harmony

ideal
all

all

pleasure,

things,

an

subject with those of the former

out the duties of hia successor

in

the

following

Spottiswoode favoured the Section, in his opening Address, with a com-

bined history of the progress of Mathematics and Physics

was virtually on the


Prof Sylvester,

"

Science

in

matical

of

by

and Professor Sylvester has not only recognized the sym-

eye for synmietry;

Presidents,

conquests,

knowledge, the fountain of

all

The mathematician

action.

his

faculties directed

and

apprehension,

the root of
all

human

is

limits of Physical Philosophy

an attempted

the abstract.

faint

What

Dr. Tyndall's address

the one here in print," says

adumbration of the nature of Matheis

wanting

(like

a fourth sphere resting

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

216

on three others in contact) to build up the Ideal Pyramid is a discourse on


the Relation of the two branches (Mathematics and Physics) to, their action
and reaction upon, one another, a magnificent theme, with which it is to be

hoped that some future President of Section A will crown the


the Tetralogy (symbolizable by A + A\ A, A\ AA') complete."

The theme thus


is

indeed

realize.

distinctly laid

magnificent

one,

down

have endeavoured to follow

is

still

by our

Mr

and make

late President

of mine to

eflforts

Spottiswoode, aa with far-reaching

of science into which phenomena, our know-

vision he distinguishes the systems

ledge of which

for his successor

magnificent for any

too

far

edifice

in the nebulous stage, are growing.

I have been carried

Dr Tyndall

into that
the
sanctuary of minuteness and of power where molecules obey the laws of their
existence, clash together in fierce collision, or grapple in yet more fierce embrace,

by

penetrating

building

up

in

insight

and

forcible

expression

secret the forms of visible things.

of

I have been guided

by

Prof.

Sylvester towards those serene heights

"Where never creeps a cloud, or moves a wind.


Nor ever falls the least white star of snow.
Nor ever lowest roll of thunder moans,
Nor sound of human sorrow mounts to mar
Their sacred everlasting calm."

But who will lead me into that still more hidden and dimmer region where
Thought weds Fact, where the mental operation of the mathematician and the
physical action 'of the molecules are seen in their true relation? Does not the
to it pass through the very den of the metaphysician, strewed with the
remains of former explorers, and abhorred by every man of science? It would
indeed be a foolhardy adventure for me to take up the valuable time of the

way

Section

by leading you

into

those

speculations

which

require,

thousands of years even to shape themselves


But we are met as cultivators of mathematics and physics.

as

we know,

intelligibly.

In our daily

work we are led up to questions the same in kind with those of metaphysics;
and we approach them, not trusting to the native penetrating power of our
own minds, but trained by a long- continued adjustment of our modes of thought
to the facts of external nature.

As mathematicians, we perform
number

or of quantity,

more complex operations,

certain mental operations on the

symbols of

by proceeding step by step from more simple to


we are enabled to express the same thing in many

and,

;;

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

The equivalence of these

forms.

different

consequence of self-evident
but

the

many

As students

in

more

our

to

What we

minds,

self-evident

intelligible language.

the

result

the

phenomenon

out

its

features

in

an

of

ourselves to do

set

our minds,

we observe phenomena under

of Physics

and endeavour to deduce the laws of their


is,

though a necessary

forms,
to

can often transform a perplexing expression into another \^hich

meaning

its

different

not always,

long practice has acquired a familiarity with


and "has become expert in the processes which lea^I from

of these forms,

explains

is

who by

mathematician,

one to another,

axioms,

217

is

one by one,

how

thus gradually learning

infinitely

unravel these conditions,

to

way which

varied circumstances,

Every natural phenomenon


complex S3''stem of conditions.

relations.

is

in

itself

partial

and by viewing

and imperfect,

beginning with that which strikes us


to look at the whole

phenomenon

a continually greater degree of clearness and distinctness.

so as to

and

obtain

In this process, the

feature which presents itself most forcibly to the untrained inquirer

that which

to piece
first,

may

not be

most fundamental by the experienced man of science


for the success of any physical investigation depends on the judicious selection
of what is to be observed as of primary importance, combined with a voluntary
abstraction

the

of

we

appear,

considered

is

mind

from

those

Intellectual

and most

first

which
after

our

accompanies

it.

words

however attractive they

which,

kind have been going on since the

of this

processes

mation of language, and are going on


us

features

are not yet sujSiciently advanced in science to investigate with profit.

in

forcibly
it,

and

still.

No

first

for-

doubt the feature which strikes

any phenomenon,

is

the pleasure or the pain

the agreeable or disagreeable results which follow


is embodied in many of
by no means extinct even in our deliberate

theory of nature from this point of view

and

and

phrases,

is

opinions.

It
to

was a great step

in

science

when men became convinced

that,

in order

understand the nature of things, they must begin by asking, not whether
thing

is

how much

good or bad, noxious or


is

there of

it

beneficial,

but of

what kind

Quality and Quantity were then

first

is

it ?

and

recognized as

the primary features to be observed in scientific inquiry.

As

science

has

been

developed, the

encroached on that of quality,

till

domain of quantity has everywhere

the process of

scientific inquiry

seems to have

become simply the measurement and registration of quantities, combined with


It is this scientific
a mathematical discussion of the numbers thus obtained.
VOL.

II.

28

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

218

method of directing our attention to those features of phenomena which maybe regai'ded as quantities which brings physical research under the influence of
In the work of the Section we shall have abundant
mathematical reasoning.

examples of the successful application of this method to the most recent conquests of science; but I wish at present to direct your attention to some of
the reciprocal effects of the progress of science on those elementary conceptions

which are sometimes thought to be beyond the reach of change.


If the skill of the mathematician has enabled the experimentaHst to see
that the quantities which he has measured are connected by necessary relations,
discoveries of physics have revealed to the mathematician new forms of

the

quantities which he could never have imagined for himself.

Of the methods by which the mathematician may make


useful

to

portant

in

is

the

student of nature, that which I think

at

is

his

labours

most

present most im-

the systematic classification of quantities.

The quantities which we study in mathematics and physics may be classified


two different ways.
The student who wishes to master any particular science must make himself

familiar

with the various kinds of quantities which belong to that science. When
all the relations between these quantities, he regards them as

he understands

forming a connected system, and he classes the whole system of quantities together
This classification is the most natural
as belonging to that particular science.

from a physical point of view, and

it is

generally the

But when the student has become acquainted with

in order of time.

first

several different sciences,

he finds that the mathematical processes and trains of reasoning in one science
resemble those in another so much that his knowledge of the one science may
be made a most useful help in the study of the other.

he examines into the reason of this, he finds that in the two


which the mathehe has been dealing with systems of quantities,
matical forms of the relations of the quantities are the same in both systems,

When

sciences

though the physical nature of the quantities may be utterly

He

is

thus led to recognize a

classification

different.

of quantities on a

new

principle,

which the physical nature of the quantity is subordinated to its


This is the point of view which is characteristic of the
mathematical form.

according to

mathematician;
because the

but

it

stands second to the physical aspect in order of time,

human mind,

must have them presented

in

order to conceive of different kinds of quantities,

to it

by nature.

210

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.


I

do not here refer to the

that

fact

all

quantities, as

subject

are

such,

of arithmetic and algebra, and are therefore capable of being sub-

the rules

to

mitted to those dry calculations which represent, to so

many

minds,

only

their

idea of mathematics.

The human mind is seldom satisfied, and is certainly never exercising its
when it is doing the work of a calculating machine. What

highest functions,

the

man

aims at

of

whether

science,

acquire

to

is,

For this purpose he

is

he

a mathematician or a physical

is

and develope
willing to

clear

ideas

the

of

enter on long

things

and to be

calcidations,

make

inquirer,

he deals with.
for

if he can
he finds that clear ideas are not to be obtained by means of processes the steps of which he is sure to forget before he has reached the
conclusion, it is much better that he should turn to another method, and try

only at last

season a calculating machine,

But

to

if

understand

the

subject

subjects with which he

We
is

his ideas clearer.

is

by means of well-chosen

more

know how much more popular

all

illustrations

derived from

familiar.

the illustrative method of exposition

than that in which bare processes of reasoning and calculation form

found,

the principal subject of discourse.


is a method to enable the mind to grasp
one branch of science, by placing before it a conception or a law in a different branch of science, and directing the mind to
lay hold of that mathematical form which is common to the corresponding ideas

Now

a truly scientific illustration

some conception or law

in

two

the

The
in

leaving

sciences,

out

of

the physical nature of the real

between
of ideas

in

account

the present the difference

for

phenomena.

correctness of such an illustration depends on whether the

which are compared together are really analogous

When

class.

two systems

form, or

whether,

really belong to the

other words, the corresponding physical quantities

mathematical

in

same

this condition is fulfilled, the illustration is not only

convenient for teaching science in a pleasant and easy manner, but the recoga
nition of the formal analogy between the two systems of ideas leads to

knowledge

both,

of

more profound than could be obtained

by studying each

system separately.

men who, when any

There are
before

them

among

abstract

further

in

symbolical

quantities.

statement

that

form,

Such

quantities

relation

can

or

grasp

law,

men sometimes
actually

exist

however complex,
full

its

treat
in

meaning
with

nature

as

is

indifference

which

put

a relation

fulfil

the
this

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

220

The

relation.

than to

mental

But

the

training,

great

retain

to

of

the concrete reality seems rather to disturb

of mankind are utterly unable, without long


minds the unembodied symbols of the pure mathescience is ever to become popular, and yet remain scientific,

majority
their

in

matician, so that, if
it

image

assist their contemplations.

must be by a profound study and a copious application of those

of the mathematical

classification

of quantities which,

as

we have

principles

seen, lie

at

the root of every truly scientific illustration.

There
satisfaction
in

are, as I

have

said,

some minds which can go on contemplating with

pure quantities presented to the eye by symbols, and to the mind

a form which none but mathematicians can conceive.

There are others who

feel

more enjoyment

in

following geometrical forms,

which they draw on paper, or build up in the empty space before them.
Others, again, are not content unless they can project their whole physical
energies into the scene which they conjure up.
They learn at what a rate the
through space, and they experience a delightful feeling of exhilaThey calculate the forces with which the heavenly bodies pull at one
another, and they feel their own muscles straining with the effort.
To such men momentum, energy, ma^s are not mere abstract expressions
They are words of power, which stir their
of the results of scientific inquiry.

planets rush
ration.

souls like the

memories of childhood.

For the sake of persons of these

different types, scientific truth should be

presented in different forms, and should be regarded as equally


it

scientific,

whether

appears in the robust form and the vivid colouring of a physical illustration,

or in the tenuity

Time
scientific

would

and paleness of a symbolical expression.


fail

me

if

were to attempt to

value of the classification of quantities.

illustrate

I shall only

by examples the
mention the name

of that important class of magnitudes having direction in space which Hamilton

has called vectors, and which form


ternions,

the subject-matter of the Calculus of Qua-

a branch of mathematics which,

understood by

men

when

it

shall

have been thoroughly

and clothed by them with physical


imagery, will become, perhaps under some new name, a most powerful method
of communicating truly scientific knowledge to persons apparently devoid of the
of the illustrative type,

calculating spirit.

The mutual
thought

is

so

action

and reaction between the

different

departments of

human

interesting to the student of scientific progress, that, at the risk

221

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.


of

encroaching on the valuable time of the Section,

further

still

shall say

few words on a branch of physics which not very long ago would have been
I mean the atomic theory, or, as
considered rather a branch of metaphysics.

now called, the molecular theory of the constitution of bodies.


Not many years ago if we had been asked in what regions of physical
pointed
science the advance of discovery was least apparent, we should have

it

is

the hopelessly distant fixed stars on the one hand, and to the inscrutable
delicacy of the texture of material bodies on the other.
to

Indeed,

we

if

are

to

Comte

regard

as

any degree representing the

in

the research into what takes place beyond our


solar system seemed then to be exceedingly unpromising, if not altogether
opinion

scientific

own

of

his

time,

illusory.

The opinion that the bodies which we

and handle, which we can

see

which we can

set

break in pieces and destroy, are

in motion or leave at rest,


composed of smaller bodies which we cannot see or handle, which are always
nor in any
in motion, and which can neither be stopped nor broken in pieces,
way destroyed or deprived of the least of their properties, was known by the

name

was associated with the names of Democritus,


was commonly supposed to admit the existence
to the exclusion of any other basis of things from the

Atomic theory.
and Lucretius, and

of the

Epicurus,

only of atoms and void,

It

universe.

many

In
to

argue

senses

as

we

physical reasonings and mathematical calculations

such substances as

if

and

uniform

continuous,

air,

were

or metal,

water,

strictly

are accustomed

which appear to our

and mathematically uniform and

continuous.

We
portions,

know
each

that

we can

of which

as the whole pint

is

was; and

as
it

a pint

divide
fully

of

water

endowed with

all

many

into

the

millions

properties

of

of water

seems only natural to conclude that we might


just as we can never come to a limit

go on subdividing the water for ever,


in subdividing the space in

divided a gi'ain

we may

see

of gold

which

it

is

contained.

into an inconceivable

We

number

Dr Tyndall produce from a mere

have heard how Faraday


of separate particles, and

suspicion

an immense cloud, the minute visible portion of which


fore must contain many molecules of nitrite of butyle.

is

of
still

nitrite

cloud,

of

butyle

and there-

But evidence from different and independent sources is now crowding in upon
compels us to admit that if we could push the process of subdivision
which
us

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

222
still

further

we should come

power

to a limit, because each portion

an individual body, one and

only one molecule,

would then contain

by any

indivisible, unalterable

in nature.

Even

in

our ordinary experiments on very finely divided matter

we

find

beginning to lose the properties which it exhibits when


in a large mass, and that efiects depending on the individual action of molesubstance

that the

is

become prominent.
The study of these phenomena is at present the path which

cules are beginning to

development of molecular

That

leads to the

science.

superficial tension of liquids

which

is

called capillary attraction

is

one

phenomena. Another important class of phenomena are those which


are due to that motion of agitation by which the molecules of a liquid or gas
are continually working their way from one place to another, and continually
of

these

changing their course, like people hustled in a crowd.

On
other,

this

depends

the rate of diffusion of gases and liquids through each

study of which, as one of the keys of molecular science, that

the

to

unwearied inquirer

into

nature's

secrets,

Graham, devoted such

the late Prof.

arduous labour.

The

rate

of

electrolytic

conduction

is,

according to

Wiedemann's theorj^

and the conduction of heat in fluids depends


by the same cause
probably on the same kind of action. In the case of gases, a molecular theory
has been developed by Clausius and others, capable of mathematical treatment,
and subjected to experimental investigation; and by this theory nearly every
influenced

known mechanical property


so

the

that

properties

of gases has been explained on dynamical principles

of

individual gaseous

molecules are

become objects of scientific research.


Now Mr Stoney has pointed out""' that the numerical
on

render

gases

it

ordinary temperature and pressure


as a millionth of a millimetre,
several

mean

probable that the

as

the

electrification

Sir

of

and the

distance

between contiguous molecules

of

air,

particles

at

the

William Thomson has sincef shewn, by

metals

by

contact,

so

different

the tension of

is

less

in

soap-

than the hundred-millionth, and

greater than the two-thousand-millionth of a centimetre.


* PhU. Mag. Aug. 1868.

to

that in ordinary solids and liquids the average

bubbles,

friction

way

results of experiments

of their

independent lines of argument, drawn from phenomena

themselves

fair

a quantity of the same order of magnitude

is

and

distance

in

t Nature,

March

31,

1870.

223

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

These, of course, are exceedingly rough estimates, for they are derived from
measurements some of which are still confessedly very rough; but if, at the
time, we can form even a rough plan for arriving at results of this
we may hope that, as our means of experimental inquiry become more

present
kind,

accurate and more varied, our conception of a molecule will become more definite,
so that we may be able at no distant period to estimate its weight with a
greater degree of precision.

theory,

which Sir

W. Thomson

on Helmholtz's splendid

founded

has

molecules in the nngSuch whirling rings may


be seen when an experienced smoker sends out a dexterous puff of smoke into
the still air, but a more evanescent phenomenon it is difficult to conceive.
This evanescence is owing to the viscosity of the air; but Helmholtz has shewn

hydrodynamical

seeks

theorems,

for

properties

the

incompressible

vortices of a uniform, frictionless,

of

fluid.

in a perfect fluid such a whirling ring, if once generated, would go on


whirling for ever, would always consist of the very same portion of the fluid
which was first set whirling, and could never be cut in two by any natural

that

The generation of a ring-vortex

cause.

is

of course

equally beyond the power

has the properties of individuality,


permanence in quantity, and indestructibility. It is also the recipient of impulse
and of energy, which is all we can affirm of matter; and these ring- vortices

of

are

natural

such varied

of

capable

once generated,

but

causes,

connexions

of differently knotted vortices

properties

it

and knotted self-involutions, that the


must be as different as those of diffe-

rent kinds of molecules can be.


If a theory

mathematical
properties

of this kind should

difficulties

of molecules,

after

be found,

of

the subject,

it

will stand in

to

represent

conquering the enormous


in

a very different

any degree the actual


scientific

position from

those theories of molecular action which are formed by investing the molecule
with an arbitrary system of central forces invented expressly to account for the

observed phenomena.

In the vortex theory


properties of

the

vortex

is

arbitrary, no central forces or occult


have nothing but matter and motion, and when
properties are all determined from the original

we have nothing

any other kind.


once started

We
its

impetus, and no further assumptions are possible.

Even
of

the

in

the

present undeveloped state

individuality

and

indestructibility

of

of

the theory,

a ring-vortex

the contemplation
in

a perfect fluid


ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

224
cannot

commonly received opinion that a

disturb the

to

fail

molecule, in order

must be a very hard body.


one of the first conditions which a molecule must

to be permanent,

In

fact

parently,

inconsistent with

which have thrown

spectroscopic researches
of

which

it

that

that

fact

when

the same periods,


I

been

brought

your

attention

those

on difierent branches

a very remarkable
others

to

it

definite

period

of vibration.

we can

The

procure for our

the

fact.

describe the progress of that splendid series

to

by which the chemistry of the heavenly bodies has

the range of

within
to

in

light of definite refrangibility

by the passage of an electric spark,


or, to speak more accurately, that

or

human

inquiry.

wish rather to direct

only has every molecule of

not

that,

fact

hydrogen the same system of periods of


scopic

ap-

is,

composed of a system of simple vibrations having always

discoveries

of spectroscopic

fulfil

know from

the same periodic time,

is

must leave

by heat

agitated

in

are

vibrations

their

light

molecules (say, of hydrogen) which

the

precisely

and

wave-length

definite

of

is,

all

experiments,
vibrate

medium

gives off to the surrounding

light,

much

so

We

molecule can be set into a state of internal vibration,

that

science,

being a single hard body.

its

vibration,

free

terrestrial

but that the spectro-

examination of the light of the sun and stars shews that, in regions
we can only feebly imagine, there are molecules vibrating

the distance of which


in

as

exact unison with the molecules of terrestrial hydrogen as two tuning-

forks tuned to concert pitch, or

Now

this absolute

parts of the universe,

The dimensions
as

in

the

case

of

is

of individual

as in the case of seeds,

tative

differences

Even

all

met

natural bodies are either quite indeterminate,

stones,

planets,

are

to solar time.

worth our consideration.

Ihnits,

properties

two watches regulated

equality in the magnitude of quantities, occurring in

trees,

eggs, &c.

which

with

&c.,

or

they vary within moderate

but even in these cases small quanti-

do

not

interfere

with

the essential

of the body.
crystals,

Avhich

are

so

definite in geometrical form, are variable

with

respect to their absolute dimensions.

Among

the works of

man we sometimes

find a certain degree of uniformity.

which are cast in the


same mould, and the different copies of a book printed from the same type.
If we examine the coins, or the weights and measures, of a civilized
country, we find a uniformity, which is produced by careful adjustment to
There

is

a uniformity

among the

different bullets

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

made and provided by the

standards

standards

national

subject

The degree of uniformity

state.

of these

a measure of that spirit of justice in the nation which

is

them and appointed

has enacted laws to regulate

This

225

one

is

which we,

in

as

them.

oflBcers to test

body,

scientific

take a

warm

and you are all aware of the vast amount of scientific work which
has been expended, and profitably expended, in providing weights and measures
for commercial and scientific purposes.
interest;

The

has

earth

measured

been

as

basis

for

a permanent standard of

and every property of metals has been investigated to guard against


any alteration of the material standards when made. To weigh or measure any
thing with modern accuracy, requires a course of experiment and calculation
length,

in

which

almost

branch

every

of

physics

and mathematics

is

brought into

requisition.

Yet, after
relatively

all,

the dimensions of our earth and

to our present

any physical

necessity.

enlarged by a layer of meteorites falling on


slowly slacken, and yet

its

time of rotation, though,

means of comparison, very permanent, are not so by


The earth might contract by cooling, or it might be

it

would continue

it,

or its rate of revolution might

to be as

much a

planet as before.

But a molecule, say of hydrogen, if either its mass or its time of vibration
were to be altered in the least, would no longer be a molecule of hydrogen.

we wish

then,

If,

obtain standards of length,

to

be absolutely permanent,

shall

the motion,
vibration,

or the

and

the

we must

mass of our planet, but

mass

absolute

of

and mass which

time,

seek them not in the dimensions,

these

in

or

the w^ave-length, the period of

imperishable and unalterable and

perfectly similar molecules.

When we
multitudes of
to the grain,
in

a second,

find that here,


little

and

in the starry heavens,

bodies of exactly the same

and vibrating

there are innumerable

many, and no more,


same time, so many times, and no more,
that no power in nature can now alter in
mass,

so

in exactly the

and when we

reflect

we seem to have
advanced along the path of natural knowledge to one of those points at which
we must accept the guidance of that faith by which we understand that
the least either the mass or the period of any one of them,

" that

which

One
is

the

that

of

light

is,

VOL.

is

seen was not

made

of things which do

appear."

the most remarkable results of the progress of molecular


it

has thrown on the nature

of irreversible

processes

science

processes,

which always tend towards and never away from a certain limiting
II.

29

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

226

Thus, if two gases be put into the same vessel, they become mixed,
and the mixture tends continually to become more uniform. If two unequally
heated portions of the same gas are put into the vessel, something of the
kind takes place, and the whole tends to become of the same temperature.
If two unequally heated solid bodies be placed in contact, a continual approxistate.

mation of both to an intermediate temperature takes place.


In the case of the two gases, a separation may be effected by chemical means
but in the other two cases the former state of things cannot be restored by

any natural

process.

In the case of the conduction or diffusion of heat the process is not only
in-eversible, but it involves the irreversible diminution of that part of the whole
stock of thermal energy which

is

capable of being converted into mechanical work.

Thomson's theory of the irreversible dissipation of energy, and


equivalent to the doctrine of Clausius concerning the growth of what he
This

is

it is

calls

Entropy.

The

irreversible character of this process is strikingly

embodied

in Fourier's

theory of the conduction of heat, where the formulae themselves indicate, for
all positive values of the time, a possible solution which continually tends to
the form of a uniform diffusion of heat.

But

we attempt

if

diminishing

continually

the

formula

has

what

we

called

is

state of things the instant before,

We

are

led

critical

we

find

thus arrive at the conception of


as

that

critical

this

physical

the

conceived

its symbol
up to a state of things in which
and if we inquire into the
value

ascend the stream of time by giving to

to

values,

condition

result

that the formula becomes absurd.

a state of things which cannot be

of a previous

actually

existed

at

state

of things,

an epoch not

in

and we find
the utmost

depths of a past eternity, but separated from the present time by a finite interval.
This idea of a beginning is one which the physical researches of recent

brought home to us, more than any observer of the course of


thought in former times would have had reason to expect.
But the mind of man is not, like Fourier's heated body, continually settling
down into an ultimate state of quiet uniformity, the character of which we

times

have

scientific

can already predict;


themselves to the

it

new

is

aspects of the sky towards which they climb, and roots

among the strange strata of the earth into which they


To us who breathe only the spirit of our own age, and know only the

which contort themselves


delve.

rather like a tree, shooting out branches which adapt


OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
contemporary thought,

characteristics of

tone of the science of the future as

which

is

is

as impossible to predict the general

to anticipate the particular discoveries

make.

it will

Physical

research

we

and

processes,

it

it

227

continually

is

revealing

compelled

thus

are

to

us

to

search

for

new features
new forms

Hence the importance of a

appropriate to these features.

of

natural

of thought

careful study of those

between Mathematics and Physics which determine the conditions under

relations

which the ideas derived from one department of physics may be safely used
forming ideas to be employed in a new department.

The
ideas

of speech or of thought

figure

of a familiar science

by which we

one with which

to

we

and

transfer the language

are

less

acquainted

in

may

be

Metaphor.

called Scientific

Thus the words Velocity, Momentum, Force, &c. have acquired certain precise
They are also employed in the Dynamics
of a Connected System in a sense which, though perfectly analogous to the
elementary sense, is wider and more general.
meanings in Elementary Dynamics.

These

forms

generalized

of

truly

of

teristic

use

metaphorical

system which
that

retains

had

it

only

not

is,

system

scientific

of

legitimate

to the

relations

The charac-

that each term in

is

The method

in its original use.

be called metaphorical

metaphorical.

is

metaphors

formal

the

all

may

elementary ideas

terms in the sense in which every abstract term

is

its

other terms of the

then truly

scientific

product of science, but capable of generating

science in its turn.

There are certain

by

relations

To apply

of

to these the

reservations

visional

is

a legitimate metaphor
those

who have been

Suppose, then,
to

an

phenomena, again, which are connected together

phrases of

dynamical

phenomena.

d}Tiamic8 with proper distinctions and pro-

an example of a metaphor of a bolder kind; but


if

it

it

is

conveys a true idea of the electrical relations to

already trained in dynamics.

that

we have

successfully introduced certain ideas belonging

elementary science by applying them metaphorically to some new class

of phenomena.

what

electrical

the same form as those which connect

degree

It becomes an important philosophical

the

applicability

taken as evidence that the

The

best

instances

of

the

old

new phenomena
for

the

ideas

to

question to determine in

the

new

subject

may

be

are physically similar to the old.

determination of

(this

question are those in

which two different explanations have been given of the same thing.

292

ADDRESS TO THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTIONS

228

The most celebrated

case

undulatory theories of light.

kind

Up

a certain point the phenomena of light

by both

are equally well explained

that of the corpuscular and the

of this
to
;

beyond

is

this point, one of

them

fails.

To understand the true relation of these theories in that part of the field
where they seem equally applicable we must look at them in the light which
Hamilton has thrown upon them by his discovery that to every brachistochrone
problem there corresponds a problem of free motion, involving different velocities
and times, but resulting in the same geometrical path. Professor Tait has
\\'ritten

a very interesting paper on this subject.

According

Germany,

to

two

a theory

electrical

of

electricity

particles

act

on

which
one

is

making great progress

in

another directly at a distance,

but with a force which, according to Weber, depends on their relative velocity,
and according to a theory hinted at by Gauss, and developed by Riemann,

and Neumann, acts not instantaneously, but after a time depending


The power with which this theory, in the hands of these
on the distance.
eminent men, explains every kind of electrical phenomena must be studied in

Lorenz,

order to be appreciated.

Another theory of

and attributes

electricity,

which I

electric action to tensions

denies action at a distance

prefer,

and pressures

in

an all-pervading medium,

these stresses being the same in kind with those familiar to engineers, and the
medium being identical with that in which light is supposed to be propagated.
Both these theories are found to explain not only the phenomena by the
of which they were originally constructed, but other phenomena, which
were not thought of or perhaps not known at the time; and both have independently arrived at the same numerical result, which gives the absolute

aid

velocity of light in terms of electrical quantities.

That
a

field of

we cannot

theories

truth

apparently

common

so

to both

fully appreciate

till

is

fundamentally opposed should have so large


a fact the philosophical importance of which

we have

reached a

scientific altitude

from which

the true relation between hypotheses so different can be seen.


I shall only make one more remark on the relation between Mathematics
and Physics. In themselves, one is an operation of the mind, the other is a

The molecules have laws of their own, some of which we


We
to us and most amenable to our calculation.
form a theory from these partial data, and we ascribe any deviation of the
At the same time we
actual phenomena from this theory to disturbing causes.

dance of molecules.
select

as

most

intelligible

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.


confess

229

we call disturbing causes are simply those parts of the true


we do not know or have neglected, and we endeavour in

that what

circumstances which

future to take account

turbance

is

natural action there

But

this

mental

the

conclusions;

make
I

thus acknowledge that the so-called dis-

way

not the only

is

may

be

it

in

which the harmony of the material with

The mind of the mathematician is


loss of memory, and hasty

disturbed.

disturbing causes,

and

in

such as fatigue,

found that, from these and other causes, mathematicians

is

mistakes.

am

not

prepared to deny that, to some mind of a higher order than

each of these errors might be traced to the regular operation of the laws

ours,

of

We

no disturbance.

is

operation

many

subject to

of them.

a mere figment of the mind, not a fact of nature, and that

thinking;

actual

in

fact

we

ourselves

but the causes of these

calculation,

our conviction that they are errors,

often

do detect, not only errors of

however, by no means alters


and that one process of thought is right

errors.

This,

and another process wrong.


One of the most profound mathematicians and thinkers of our time, the
when reflecting on the precise and almost mathematical
late George Boole,
character of the laws of right thinking as compared with the exceedingly perplexing though perhaps equally determinate laws of actual and fallible thinking,
was led to another of those points of view from which Science seems to look
out into a region beyond her own domain.
"

even

We

We

must admit," he

the rigour of

must

in power,

ascribe

to

their

says,

" that there

exist

laws

"

(of thought)

" which

mathematical forms does not preserve from violation.

them an

authority,

the essence of which does not consist

a supremacy which the analogy of the inviolable order of the natural

world in no

way

assists us to

comprehend."

[From the Beport of

On

XLII.

the British Association, 1870.]

Colour-vision at different points of the Retina.

long been known that near that point of the retina where it is
by the axis of the eye there is a yellowish spot, the existence of
which can be shewn not only by the ophthalmoscope, but by its effect on
vision.
At the Cheltenham Meeting in 1856 the author pointed out a method
of seeing this spot by looking at that part of a very narrow spectrum which
Since that time the spot has been described by Helmholtz
lies near the line F.
and others and the author has made a number of experiments, not yet pubIt

has

intersected

determine

lished, in order to

One of the
author by Prof

Stokes.

its effects

methods

simplest

of

on colour-vision.
seeing

the

of a white cloud, through a solution of chloride of


it

spot was suggested to the

consists in looking at a white surface, such as that

It

appears of a bluish-green

colour.

If

chromium made

so

weak that

the observer directs his attention to

what he sees before him before his eyes have got accustomed to the new tone of
he sees a pinkish spot like a wafer on a bluish-green ground; and this
The solution transmits the red
spot is always at the place he is looking at.
colour,

end of the spectnim, and

The

latter

portion

is

also

a portion of bluish-green light near the

line F.

absorbed by the spot, so that the red light has

partially

the preponderance.

Experiments of a more accurate kind were made with an instrument the


original conception

of which

his Lectiones Opticce,


till

It

the author set


consists

though
it

up

of two parts,

is
it

in

side

due to Sir Isaac Nevrton, and

selected

portions

are

by being allowed

made

to

described in

1862, with a solid frame and careful adjustments.

by

side.

In the

persed by a prism so as to form a spectram.


are

is

does not appear to have been actually constructed

to

pass through

first

part,

white light

is

dis-

Certain portions of this spectrum


slits

in a screen.

These selected

converge on a second prism, which unites them into a

COLOUR- VISION AT DIFFERENT POINTS OF THE RETINA.

beam

single

of light,

The second part

which state they enter the eye.

in

231
of

the instrument consists of an arrangement by which a beam of light from the


very same source is weakened by two reflections from glass surfaces, and enters
the eye alongside of the

The

instrument

being

length

beam

about

of

formed

is

nine

feet.

compound

colours.

wooden
two prisms, two

of three rectangular
It contains

lenses, which are so adjusted that,

in

spite

tubes,

the whole

mirrors,

and

six

of the very different treatment to

which the two portions of a beam of light are subjected, they shall enter the
eye so as to form exactly equal and coincident images of the source of light.
In fact, by looking through the instrument a man's face may be distinctly
seen by means of the red, the green, or the blue light which it emits, or by

any combination of these at pleasure.


The arrangement of the three slits is made by means of six brass slides,
which can be worked with screws outside the instrument and the breadth of
the slits can be read off with a gauge very accurately.
In each observation three colours of the spectrum are mixed and so adjusted
;

that their mixture

is

so

exactly equivalent to the white light beside

the line which divides the two can no


It

is

found that in certain

cases,

it,

that

longer be seen.

when

this

adjustment

is

made

so

as

to

satisfy one person, a second will find the mixed colour of a green hue, while
to a third it will appear of a reddish colour, compared with the white beam.

But, besides this,


that,

if

we

it

is

look directly at

found that the mixed colour may be so adjusted


it appears red, while if we direct the eye away

it,

and cast a sidelong glance at it, we see it green. The cause of this
the yellow spot, w^hich acts somewhat as a piece of yellow glass would do,
absorbing certain kinds of light more than others; and the difference between

from

it,

is

different

persons arises from different intensities of

the absorbing spot.

It

is

found in

persona of every nation, but generally stronger in those of dark com-

plexion.

The degree

of

intensity

does

not seem to depend so much

on

tlie

COLOUR-VISION AT DIFFERENT POINTS OF THE RETINA.

232
colour

the

of

hair

the

or

iris

of the

individual,

as

to

run through families

independent of outward complexion.


The same difference is found between different colour-blind persons; so that
in the comparison of their vision with that of the normal eye, persons should
be selected for comparison

In my own eye the

who have the yellow

spot of nearly the same intensity.

part of the spectrum from

to '

seen decidedly

is

by the central part of the retina than by the surrounding parts. Near F
this is reversed, and the central part gives a sensation of about half the
Beyond G the central part is again the most sensitive,
intensity of the rest.
better

and

it is

decidedly so near

Before

study

at

to

colour

described by

H.

conclude I wish

the

to

exceedingly

Mr W. Benson

in his

direct

simple

the attention of those

and

works on

beautiful

colour.

the black and white diagrams in his book, any

true

relations

of

colour

By

series

of

who wish

looking through a prism

one can see more of the

than can be got from the most elaborately

theoretical arrangements of tints.

to

experiments

coloiured

[From the Philosophical Magazine

On

XLIII.

To

for

and

Hills

December, 1870.]

Dales.

Magazine and Journal.

the Editors of the Philosophical

Gentlemen,
FIND

that

the

in

part

greater

of

the following

the substance of

paper I have been anticipated by Professor Cayley, in a memoir " On Contour


and Slope Lines," published in the Philosophical Magazine in 1859 (S. 4. Vol.

xvin.

264).

p.

however,

so

is

that I have
scruple

in

no

An

exact knowledge of the

important,

and

hesitation

rejecting

if

in

elements of physical geography,


subject are

so

prevalent,

what you, I hope, will have no


superfluous after what has been done by
you

sending

you think

first

notions on the

loose

it

Professor Cayley.
I

am. Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,


J.

CLERK MAXWELL.

Glenlair, Dalbeattie,
Octoher 12, 1870.

1.

The

results

On

Contouiulines and Measurement of Heights.

of the survey of the surface of a country are most conveniently

exhibited by means of a

map on which

representing the intersection

and

being

which

it

by

surface

numeral

which

with the surface


indicates

the

of

level

the

earth,

surface

to

belongs.

When
VOL.

distinguished

are traced contour-lines, each contour-line

of a level

II.

the extent of country surveyed

is

smaU, the contour-hnes are defined


30

AND DALES.

HILLS

234
with

accuracy by the number of

sufficient

above the mean level of the

feet

the force of
but when the survey is
of the
new
definition
a
must
adopt
we
account,
into
taken
gravity must be
If we could deterheight of a place in order to be mathematically accurate.
so extensive that the variation of

sea;

the exact form of the surface of equilibrium of the sea, so as to know


in the interior of a continent, we might draw a normal to this

mine
its

position

the top of a mountain, and

surface from

would

This
is

be

perfectly

convex;

everywhere

but

the

call

the case

in

definite

lines

of

this

the height of the mountain.

when the

equal

height

surface

would

of

equilibrium

not

be

level

surfaces.

Level surfaces are surfaces of equilibrium, and they are not equidistant.
The only thing which is constant is the amount of work required to rise from
Hence the only consistent definition of a level surface is
one to another.
obtained by assuming a standard station, say, at the mean level of the sea
at a particular place, and defining every other level surface by the work
required to raise unit of mass from the standard station to that level surface.
This work must, of course, be expressed in absolute measure, not in local foot-

pounds.

At every
places,

step,

surveyor

the

therefore,

should

in

ascertaining

ascertain

the

the

force

of

difference

gravity,

of level of two
and multiply the

by the numerical value of the force of gi'avity.


The height of a place, according to this system, will be defined by a
number which represents, not a lineal quantity, but the half square of the
velocity which an unresisted body would acquire in sliding along any path from

linear difference of level observed

This is the only definition of the height


that places of equal height should be
condition
the
of a place
If by any means we can ascertain the mean value of
on the same level.
gravity along the line of force drawn from the place to the standard level
surface, then, if we divide the number already found by this mean value, we

that place to the standard station.


consistent with

obtain the length

shall

of this line

of

force,

which may be called the linear

height of the place.

On
Let
earth,

us

and

Forms of

Contour-lines.

with a level surface entirely wdthin the solid part of the


us suppose it to ascend till it reaches the bottom of the deepest

begin

let

the

AND DALES.

HILLS

At

sea.

it

will

touch the surface of the earth; and

continues

if it

a contour-line will be formed surrounding this bottom (or Immit, as


As the
called by Professor Cayley) and enclosing a region of depression.

ascend,

to
it

point

that

235

is

continues to ascend,

surface

level

will reach

it

the next deepest bottom of the

form another contour-line, surrounding this point,


sea; and as
and enclosing another region of depression below the level surface. As the level
surface rises these regions of depression will continually expand, and new ones
it ascends it will

be

will

corresponding

formed

the

to

different

lowest

points

the

of

earth's

surface.

but one region of depression, the whole of the rest of


The number
the earth's surface forming a region of elevation surrounding it.
of regions of elevation and depression can be altered in two ways.

At

there

fii-st

Two

1st.

is

of depression

regions

may expand

till

they meet and so run

If a contour-line be drawn through the point where they meet, it


into one.
This contour-line
forms a closed curve having a double point at this place.
shall call the point where these two
encloses two regions of depression.

We

regions meet a Bar.

that more than two regions run into

may happen

It

Such cases are

singular,

2ndly.

and we

shall

region of depression

reserve

them

each other at once.

for separate consideration.

thrust out arms, which

may

may meet

each

a region of elevation in the midst of the region of


depression, which thus becomes a cyclic region, while a new region of elevation
The contour-line through the point of meeting cuts off two
introduced.
is
other

and

cut

thus

off

regions of elevation from one region of depression,

a Pass.

There

may

and the point

itself

be in singular cases passes between more than

is

called

two regions

of elevation.
3rdly.
last are

As the

level

reduced to points.

surface

rises,

the regions of elevation contract and at


Summits or Tops.

These points are called

Relation between the Nuinher of Summits

At
of

first

elevation

point

there

the whole earth


there
is

is

a Pass,

Summit.

is

a region of elevation.

and

And

and

for

at

every

last

region

Passes.

For every new region

of elevation

reduced to a

the whole surface of the earth

302

is

HILLS

236
region

of depression.

number of

If

Passes.

AND DALES.

Hence the number of Summits is one more than the


is the number of Summits and P the number of passes,

S = P + l.
Number

Relation between the

For

every

new

region

of BottoTus
there

depression

of

diminution of the number of these regions there

and for every


Hence the number
/ is the number of

a Bottom,

is
is

and Bars.

a Bar.

Bottoms is one more than the number of Bars.


Bottoms or Immits and B the number of Bars, then

If

of

1 = B+1.

From
reckon

this

pass

it

is

as

regions of elevation
as

two,

may

census
If

three,

one

plain that

single,

or

if,

in the singular cases of passes

double,

or

w-ple,

and a bar as

meet at that

point,

n+l

of depression

regions

depression

of

bars,

or

we

n+l

double, or n-ple,

single,

meet at that

be taken as before, giving each singular point

region

and

according as two, three,

point,

its

then the

proper number.

meets another in several places at once, one of

these must be taken as a bar and the rest as passes.

The whole
of

function

of this

two

of

maxima and minima

theory applies to the case of the

which

variables

is

everywhere

finite,

determinate,

and

The summits correspond to maxima and the bottoms to minima.


If there are p maxima and q minima, there must be p + q 2 cases of stationary
If we regard those points in
values which are neither maxima nor minima.
but if we consider
themselves, we cannot make any distinction among them
continuous.

the regions cut off by the curves of


call

p1

of

them

false

maxima and ^

On
If

we suppose

every

negative

of

them

false

we may

minima.

Functions of Three Variables.

the three variables to be the three co-ordinates of a point,

and the regions where the function


called the positive and the negative
for

constant value of the function,

is

greater or less than a given value to be

regions, then, as the given value increases,

region formed there will be a

region will have an increase of


ferent negative regions there

its

will

periphraxy.

minimum, and the

positive

For every junction of two

dif-

be a false minimum, and the positive region

AND

HILLS

have a diminution of

\sill

there will

q\

\)e

false

its

237

DALES.

Hence

peripLraxy.

if

there are

true

minima

minima.

There are different orders of these stationary points according to the number

which meet

of regions

meet

and so

regions meet,
third

the

on.

and

three,

for

In

The

tliem.

by a positive

surrounded

order

first

Points of the second


so

in

on,

is

when two negative regions


when tliree negative

the second order

region,

relation

this

order count for two, those

of

between the true minima and

the false ones.

at

In like manner, when a negative region expands round a hollow part and
surrounds it, thus cutting off a new positive region, the negative region

last

new
maximum.

acquires perlphraxy, a

there

is

a false

When
region

any

positive region

positive region

is

reduced to a point and vanishes, the negative

perlphraxy and there

loses

Is

may

thrust out arms which

maximum.

a true

maxima there are p \ false maxima.


But these are not the only forma
region

formed, and at the point of contact

is

stationary

of

may meet

Hence
points

in a stationary point.

there are

if

for

a negative

The negative

and the positive region both become cyclic. Again, a cyclic region may close
in so as to become acyclic, forming another kind of stationary point where the
If there are r points at which cyclosis is gained and r
ring first fills up.
points at which

it

is

lost,

then we know that


r

but we cannot determine any relation between the number of these points and
that of either the true or the false maxima and minima.
If the

points

are

function
of stable

of three variables

is

a potential function, the true

equilibrium, the true

and at the other stationary points the equilibrium

in

every direction,

in

some directions and unstable

maxima

minima points of equilibrium unstable


is

stable

in others.

On

Line's

of

Slojoe.

Lines drawn so as to be everywhere at right angles to the contour-lines


are

and

called

general reach
general reach

a bar.

At every point of such a line there is an upward


If we follow the upward direction we shall in
a summit, and if we follow the downward direction we shall in
In particular cases, however, we may reach a pass or
a bottom.

lines

of slope.

downward

direction.

HILLS

238

On

AND

Hills

DALES.

and Dales.

Hence each point of the earth's surface has a line of slope, which begins
Districts whose lines of
and ends in a certain bottom.
Those whose lines
slope run to the same bottom are called Basins or Dales.
of slope come from the same summit may be called, for want of a better name,

at

a certain summit

HiUs.

Hence the whole earth may be naturally divided into Basins or Dales, and
by an independent division, into hills, each point of the surface belonging
a certain dale and also to a certain hill.

also,

to

On Watersheds and

Watercourses.

Dales are divided from each other by Watersheds, and Hills by Watercourses.

To draw these

we cannot

so that

begin at a pass or a bar.

lines,

begin to draw a line of slope

but

Here the ground is level,


if we draw a very small

and lowest points, the


and each one more
than the index number of the pass or bar. From each maximum point draw
a line of slope upwards till it reaches a summit. This will be a line of WaterFrom each minimum point draw a line of slope downwards till it reaches
shed.
Lines of Watershed are the
This will be a line of Watercourse.
a bottom.
only lines of slope which do not reach a bottom, and lines of Watercourse
All other lines of
are the only lines of slope which do not reach a summit.
slope diverge from some summit and converge to some bottom, remaining
throughout their course in the district belonging to that summit and that
closed

round

curve

point,

this

it

will

have

highest

number of maxima being equal to the number of minima,

bottom, which

is

bounded by two watersheds and two watercourses.

In the pure theory of surfaces there


of

watershed

drawing the

down the

or
line

lines

watercourses,

of

watercourse,

though

quantity,

except by

from that point.

of slope
of

is

slope,

no method of determining a
first

finding a pass

In nature, water actually trickles

which generally converge towards the mathematical

they do not actually join them

but when the streams

they join and excavate courses for themselves

increase

in

actually

run into the main watercourse which bounds the

out

river-bed,

which,

line

a bar and

or

whether

full

or

empty, forms a

district,

visible

and these

and

so

cut

mark on the

HILLS

No

surface.

earth's

such

AND

takes

action

239

DALES.

which therefore

a watershed,

at

place

generally remains invisible..

There is another difficulty in the application of the mathematical theory,


on account of the principal regions of depression being covered with water, so
that very little is known about the positions of the singular points from which
the lines of watershed must be drawn to the summits of

complete

of

divi'^'on

the

dry land into

knowledge of the form of the bottom of the sea

On
Let

Let

Z>

the

Number of Natural

The number

will be

of watersheds will be

W= 2
The number

72

number

to find the

is

= 2,

{h, -\-2\)

+3

{k +}),)

+ &c.

of watercourses will be the same.

the number of

that of regions,

Here

Distiicts.

what we have proved,

and the number of bottoms

some

&c.

of summits will be, by

where

requires

lakes.

be the number of single passes, jh that of double passes, and so on.


Then the number
be the numbers of single, double, &c. bars.

pi
Z>2,

Now,

and of

near the coast.

hills

therefore,

districts,

viz.

of faces,

points,

we have by

that of

there being in this case no

Listing's rule

lines,

instance

the earth and the surrounding space

that

of

of cyclosis

faces,

or

and

periphraxy.

hence

F=L-P+2.
If

we put L

equal to the

summits, passes, and bars, then


equal to the
If
passes,

number

we put L
bars,

equal to the

is

of watersheds,

and

equal to that of

the number of Dales, which

is

evidently

of bottoms.

for

the number of

and bottoms, then

number

number

of summits.

is

watercourses,

and

the number of *Hills,

for

the number of

which

is

evidently

240

HILLS
If

whole

we put
number

named from a
sheds

or

L
of
hill

AND DALES.

lines, and P equal to the


number of natural districts
together, is equal to W, the number of waterthe whole number of summits, bottoms, passes,

equal to the whole

we

points,

find

and a dale

watercourses,

and bars diminished by

or

to

number

that F,

of

the

2.

Chart of an Inland Basin.

/,,

7^,

S^,

/S',,

/j,

/,.

S^, S^.

B^, B^, B^.

7,

B^

7j,

he.

aS',

Pj S^

(fee.

Dotted

line.

Lowest points, Bottoms or Immits.


Highest points, Tops or Summits.
Bars between regions of depression.
Lines of Watercourse.
Lines of Watershed.
Contour-lines.

XLIV.

The
by

University of Cambridge, in accordance with that law of

which,

phases

Introductory Lecture on Experimental Physics.

maintaining

while

of

its

requirements

itself

has

lately

it

the

times,

This course of

Physics.

study, while

of attention and

those powers

the University,

calls

strictest

adapts

history,

of

the

analysis

continuity

with more or
instituted

it

requires

ita

evolution,

between the successive


less

promptness to the

course

of

Experimental

us to maintain in action

all

which have been so long cultivated in

on us to exercise our senses

in observation,

and our hands

The familiar apparatus of pen, ink, and paper will no longer be


sufficient for us, and we shall require more room than that afforded by a seat at
a desk, and a wider area than that of the black board. We owe it to the
in manipulation.

munificence
of the
for

of our

Chancellor, that, whatever be the character in other respects

experiments w^hich

their

full

development

we hope
will

hereafter to conduct,

the material

facilities

be upon a scale which has not hitherto been

surpassed.

The main
Devonshire
occasion,

feature,

therefore,

of Experimental Physics at Cambridge

Physical Laboratory, and I think

before

we

it

desirable

is

the

that on the present

enter on the details of any special study,

we should

con-

by what means we, the University of Cambridge, may, as a living body,


appropriate and vitalise this new organ, the outward shell of which we expect
soon to rise before us.
The course of study at this University has always
included Natural Philosophy, as well as Pure Mathematics. To diffuse a sound
knowledge of Physics, and to imbue the minds of our students with correct
sider

dynamical principles, have been long regarded as among our highest functions,

and very few of us can now place ourselves

in the

mental condition in which

even such philosophers as the great Descartes were involved in the days before
Newton had announced the true laws of the motion of bodies. Indeed the

and diffusion of sound dynamical ideas has already effected a great


change in the language and thoughts even of those who make no pretensions

cultivation

VOL.

II.

31

INTRODUCTORY LECtURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

242
to

and we are daily receiving

science,

doctrines

scientific

society as the

Such indeed

material applications

is

proofs

fresh

that the popularisation of

producing as great an alteration in the mental state of

is

of science are

effecting in

its

outward

the respect paid to science, that the most absurd opinions

life.

may

become current, provided they are expressed in language, the sound of which
some well-known scientific phrase. If society is thus prepared to receive
all kinds of scientific doctrines, it is our part to provide for the diffusion and
recals

only

not

cultivation,
criticism,

apparently

scientific

we

"When

true

principles,

scientific

examination

an

the

of

but

evidences

of

a spirit of sound

on which

statements

depend.

shall

of

attention

trained

of

on

founded

be

able

the

to

employ

and

student,

in

his

education,

scientific

familiarity

not only the

with symbols,

but the

keenness of his eye, the quickness of his ear, the delicacy of his touch, and
the adroitness of his fingers, we shall not only extend our influence over a
of

class
all

men who

are

not fond of

the gateways of knowledge,

we

cold abstractions,

but,

by opening

shall ensure the association

of science with those elementary sensations

at

once

of the doctrines

which form the obscure background

our conscious thoughts, and which lend a vividness and relief to ideas,
which, when presented as mere abstract terms, are apt to fade entirely from
of

all

the memory.

In a course of Experimental
or the

Experiments as the leading

ments

to

illustrate

may make some


method.

the

we may consider either the Physics


We may either employ the experia particular branch of Physics, or we

Physics

feature.

phenomena of

physical research in order to exemplify a particular experimental

we should begin, in the Lecture Room, with


some branch of Physics aided by experiments of illus-

In the order of time,

a course of lectures on

and conclude, in the Laboratory, with a course of experiments of research.


me say a few words on these two classes of experiments, Experiments
The aim of an experiment of
of Illustration and Experiments of Research.
illustration is to throw light upon some scientific idea so that the student may

tration,

Let

The circumstances of the experiment are so arranged


it.
we wish to observe or to exhibit is brought into
which
phenomenon
that the
prominence, instead of being obscured and entangled among other phenomena, as
To exhibit illustrative
it is when it occurs in the ordinary course of nature.
experiments, to encourage others to make them, and to cultivate in every
be

enabled to grasp

way the

ideas on which they

throw

light,

forms an important part of our duty.

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

243

The simpler the materials of an illustrative experiment, and the more familiar
they are to the student, the more thoroughly is he likely to acquire the idea
which it is meant to illustrate. The educational value of such experiments is
often

who

inversely proportional

to

complexity

the

home-made apparatus, which

uses

The

the apparatus.

of

student

always going wrong, often learnS more

is

than one who has the use of carefully adjusted instruments, to which he

and which he dares not take to

to trust,
It
flicts

apt

very necessary that those who are trying to learn from books the

is

should be enabled by the help of a few illustrative

physical science

of

is

pieces.

experiments to recognise these facts when they meet with them out of doors.
Science

appears

that

is

it

with a very different

us

to

jected on a screen, that


find
in

we have found out

aspect after

not in lecture rooms only, and by means of the electric light pro-

of the

illustrations

we may

witness physical phenomena, but that

by land and by water,

travelling

wherever there

is

in

we may

games and gymnastics,


storms of the air and of the sea, and

highest doctrines of science

in

matter in motion.

This habit of recognising principles amid the endless variety of their action
can never degrade our sense of the sublimity of nature, or mar our enjoyment
On the contrary, it tends to rescue our scientific ideas from
of its beauty.
that

vague

condition

in

we

which

too

often

other products of a lazy credulity, and to raise


doctrines in which our faith

among the

is

leave them,

them

buried

so assured, that

we

among the

proper position

into their

ready at

are

all

times to act on them.

Experiments of

may be

illustration

of very

They

conditions.

phenomenon
with

it

to

the

all,

however, agree in

this,

life,

appropriate

scientific
it

way

its

Some may be

may

be carefully

only under peculiar

that their aim

When

idea.

has served

others

occurs

the senses of the student in such a

experiment which illustrates

kinds.

difierent

adaptations of the commonest operations of ordinary


arranged exhibitions of some phenomenon which

is

to present

that he

may

he has grasped this

some

associate
idea,

the

purpose.

In an experiment of research, on the other hand, this is not the principal


aim.
It is true that an experiment, in which the principal aim is to see what
happens under certain conditions, may be regarded as an experiment of research

by

who

those

researches,

we have

are

strictly so

already seen

not

yet

familiar

called, the

to

with

the

ultimate object

result,
is

but

in

experimental

to measure something which

obtain a numerical estimate of some magnitude.

312

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

244

those

which measurement of some kind is


In every experiment
involved, are the proper work of a Physical Laboratory.
but we must
phenomenon,
the
with
famihar
senses
we have first to make our
of measurecapable
are
features
its
of
which
out
find
must
we
not stop here,
Experiments

of

specification

class

this

measurements

what

and

ment,

of

required

are

We

phenomenon.

the

in

in

order

to

make a complete

must then make these measurements,

which we require to find.


This characteristic of modem experimentsthat they consist principally of
measurements, is so prominent, that the opinion seems to have got abroad,
approxithat in a few years all the great physical constants will have been
men
mately estimated, and that the only occupation which will then be left to

and deduce from them the

result

place of decimals.
of science will be to carry on these measurements to another
approaching, our
are
we
which
to
things
If this is really the state of
labour
conscientious
of
place
a
as
celebrated
become
perhaps
Laboratory may

and consummate

skill,

but

will

it

be out of place in the University, and ought

rather to be classed with the other great workshops of our country, where equal

more useful ends.

ability is directed to

But we have no
or

of

untried

the

right to think thus of the unsearchable riches of creation,

continue to be poured.

those

of

fertility

may

It

fi:esh

minds into which these riches will


true that, in some of those fields

possibly be

of discovery which He open to such rough observations as can be made without


artificial methods, the great explorers of former times have appropriated most

of

what

is

valuable,

and that

rather for their abstruseness,

of

science

devotes

shews

herself

that even

than

for

the

their

intrinsic

worth.

But the

after,

history

that phase of her progress in which she

during

improving

to

the gleanings which remain are sought

accuracy of

the

quantities with which she has long been familiar, she

numerical measurement of
is

preparing the materials

which would have remained unknown if


she had been contented with the rough methods of her early pioneers. I might
bring forward instances gathered from every branch of science, shewing how
the labour of careful measurement has been rewarded by the discovery of new

for

the

fields

of

subjugation

of

research,

and

new

regions,

by the development of new

scientific

ideas.

But the

the science of terrestrial magnetism affords us a sufficient example


of what may be done by Experiments in Concert, such as we hope some day

history of

to perform in our Laboratory.

That

celebrated

traveller,

Humboldt,

was profoundly impressed with the

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.


value of a combined effort to be

scientific

made by the

observers of

obtain accurate measurements of the magnetism of the

it

mainly

to

most

the

of

take

enthusiasm

his

men of science, but the governments


own among the number, were induced

our

nations,

But the

the enterprise.

part in

his

earth

only private

that not

civilised

science,

for

nations,

all

and we owe
great reputation and his wide-

to

spread influence,

245

of
to

working out of the scheme, and

actual

the arrangements by which the labours of the observers were so directed as to


obtain the best results,

we owe

to the great mathematician Gauss, working along

with Weber, the future founder of the science of electro-magnetic measurement,


in

magnetic

the

observatory

men

of scientific

Gottingen,

of

and

by

aided

the

of

skill

the

Numbers
the new instru-

These men, however, did not work alone.

instrument-maker Leyser.

joined the Magnetic Union, learned the use of

ments and the new methods of reducing the observations; and in every
of Europe you might see them, at certain stated times, sitting, each in

wooden shed, with his eye


clock, and his pencil recording
cold

fixed at the telescope,


in

his

city
his

his ear attentive to the

note-book the instantaneous position of

the suspended magnet.


conception

Bacon's

of

scattered forces

" Experiments

of

science were converted

concert

in

into

"

was thus

realised,

the

a regular army, and emulation

and jealousy became out of place, for the results obtained by any one observer
were of no value till they were combined with those of the others.
The increase in the accuracy and completeness of magnetic observ^ations
which was obtained by the new method, opened up fields of research which
hardly suspected

were

to

exist

by those whose observations of the magnetic


We must reserve for

needle had been conducted in a more primitive manner.


its

proper place in our course any detailed description of

which

magnetism

the

are

disturbances

Others

atmosphere,

the

most

which

and

they

mysterious

the

modified,
their

periodic,

sudden,

are

the

of

our

are

called

these

the

magnetic

magnetic

seasons

of

changes

is

earth, as

poles

the distui'bances to

Some

found to be subject.

of the sun

of

these

and moon.

magnetic storms, but, like the storms of

known

their

whole character of the

while

is

following the regular courses

have
of

planet

creep

on,

The

frequency.

last

that secular variation

a great magnet,

is

being

and

by

slowly

from century to century, along

winding track in the polar regions.

We
influences

have
of

thus

learned

that

the heavenly bodies,

the interior of

the earth

is

but that besides this there

subject to
is

the

a constantly

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

246

change going on, the cause of which

progressive

is

entirely

unknown.

of the magnetic observatories throughout the world an arrangement

by means

of which a suspended

moved by
now tracing,

sheet of paper

the earth

is

magnet

clockwork.

at work,

a ray of light on a prepared

directs

On

In each

is

that paper the never-resting heart of

telegraphic symbols which will one day be inter-

in

and its flutterings, as well as of that slow


but mighty working which warns us that we must not suppose that the inner
a record of

preted,

its

history of our planet

But
lasting
or

two

is

ended.

experimental

great

this

pulsations

on

research

The new methods of measuring

instances.

Magnetism produced

Terrestrial

on the progress of science in general.

effects

need only mention one

were successfully applied

forces

by Weber to the numerical determination of all the phenomena of electricity,


and very soon afterw^ards the electric telegraph, by conferring a commercial
value on exact numerical measurements, contributed largely to the advancement,
as well as to the diffusion of scientific knowledge.

But

it

influence

is

felt.

observers

in

general, that

is

not in these more


It

is

to

modern branches of

Gauss,

we owe our

science

alone that this

the Magnetic Union, and to magnetic

to

deliverance from that absurd

method

estimating forces by a variable standard which prevailed so long even

men

of

science.

magnetic

force

It

w^as

Gauss who

(and therefore of

of

among

based the practical measurement of

first

every other force) on those long established

principles, w^hich, though they are embodied in every dynamical equation, have
been so generally set aside, that these very equations, though correctly given

in our

to

Cambridge textbooks, are usually explained there by assuming,

the variable standard of force, a variable, and therefore

illegal,

in addition

standard of

mass.

Such, then, were some of the scientific results which followed in this case

from bringing together mathematical power, experimental sagacity, and manipu


lative

skill,

therefore

the

that

maintain
body.

we

to direct
desire, for

Devonshire
it

We

in

and

assist the labours

our

Laboratory should

living union

shall

therefore

of a body of zealous observers.

own advantage and

for the

be successful,

we must endeavour

first

with our own subjects, and which

mode

in

to

with the other organs and faculties of our learned


consider

the

relation

those mathematical studies which have so long flourished

the

If

honour of our University,

difler

in

which we stand to

among

us,

which deal

from our experunental studies only in

which they are presented to the mind.

247

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.


There

is

more

no

method

powerful

mind than that of presenting

in

it

knowledge

introducing

for

many

as

different

ways

as

we

into

the

When

can.

entering through different gateways, effect a junction in the


mind, the position they occupy becomes impregnable. Opticians
obtain
tell us that the mental combination of the views of an object which we
in
produce
sufficient
to
is
from stations no further apart than our two eyes
tlie

ideas,

after

of the

citadel

and we find that


our minds an impression of the solidity of the object seen
are really looking
we
that
aware
are
we
when
even
produced
is
impression
this
;

at

two

flat

pictures placed in a stereoscope.

It

is

therefore natural to expect that

the knowledge of physical science obtained by the combined use of mathematical


analysis and experimental research will be of a more solid, available, and enduring

kind than that possessed by the mere mathematician or the mere experimenter.
But \vhat will be the effect on the University, if men pursuing that course
of readino-

work

which has produced so many distinguished Wranglers, turn aside to


Will not their attendance at the Laboratory count not

experiments?

merely as time withdrawn from their more legitimate studies, but as the introduction of a disturbing element, tainting their mathematical conceptions with
material

and sapping their

imagery,

in

faith

the formulae of

the textbooks'?

studies,

we have already heard complaints of the undue extension of our


of the strain put upon our questionists by the weight of learning

them

to get

up

time

by observation and manipulation,

Besides this,

and
which they try to carry with

The

Physical

them

into

their subjects not only

Laboratory,

we

are

the

Senate-House.

by books and
will

If

we now ask
same

writing, but at the

they not break down altogether?

may perhaps be useful to those who


and who do not take in Mathematics, but to
told,

going out in Natural Science,


attempt to combine both kinds of study during the time of residence at the
University is more than one mind can bear.
No doubt there is some reason for this feeling. Many of us have already
are

overcome the

initial

with our study, we

mathematical training.

difficulties of

that

feel

it

requires exertion

When we now

and involves

fatigue,

go on

but we

we only work hard our progress will be certain.


the other hand, may have had some experience
experimental work. As soon as we can read scales, observe

are confident that if

Some
routine of
focus

mental

of us,

telescopes,
effort.

on

and

We

so

may

on,

this

perhaps

not greatly fatigue our minds.

kind

tire

of

work

ceases

to

require

of

the

times,

any great
we do

our eyes and weary our backs, but

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

248
It

not

is

we attempt

till

to bring the theoretical part of our training into

contact with the practical that

Faraday has

among the

"mental

called

concrete

objects

we begin

inertia"

before

experience the

to

not

us,

only

the

the

full

difficulty

abstract

relation

learned from books, but the distracting pain of wrenching the

the symbols

however

is

the

objects,

the price

we have

to

and from the


pay for new

what

of

recognising,

we

which

have

mind away from

objects back to the symbols.

to

This

ideas.

But when we have overcome these difficulties, and


gulph between the abstract and the concrete, it

the

effect

of

successfully bridged over

is not a mere piece of


knowledge that we have obtained: we have acquired the rudiment of a permanent mental endowment. When, by a repetition of efforts of this kind, we have

more

fully developed the scientific faculty, the exercise of this faculty in detecting

scientific

in nature, and in directing practice by theory, is no longer


becomes an unfailing source of enjoyment, to which we return so

principles

irksome, but
often,

that

at

even our

last

thoughts

careless

begin to

run

in

scientific

channel.
I quite admit that our mental energy

many

that

question

zealous

students

about the introduction

quantity.

It

in

good

is

experimental study

is

for

of

case

efforts

from

are

those

which

of

attention

are

more useful than

study,

not entirely one of

others, because

a great part of our fatigue often

by which we obtain the mastery of the

spent

know

But the

them.

Some

they are

which we desire to accomplish.

for those purposes

the

from those mental

efforts

of

we know,

distributions of energy,

Now

limited in quantity, and I

to a great extent a question of distribution of energy.

is

more available

is

try to do more than

in

our wandering thoughts

recalling

would be much

fatiguing

less

if

the

arises,

not

subject,

but

and these

disturbing force of

mental distraction could be removed.


This

is

the

reason

why

man whose

more progress than one whose aim


his occupation.

is

soul

is

in

his

work always makes

something not immediately connected with

In the latter case the very motive of which he makes use to

stimulate his flagging powers becomes the means of distracting his

mind from

the work before him.

their
is

There

may

own

sake.

be some mathematicians who pursue their studies entirely

Most men, however, think that the

found in the interpretation of nature.

mathematics

in

order

to

understand

Now

some

chief use

man who

natural

for

of mathematics

studies

a piece of

phenomenon which he has

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PUYSICS.


or to

seen,

make,

to

calculate

is

249

the best arrangement of some experiment which he means

likely to

meet with far less distraction of mind tlian if his sole


his mind for the successful practice of the Law, or to

aim had been to sharpen

obtain a high place in the Mathematical Tripos.

have known men, who when they were at school, never could see the

good of mathematics,

but

who, when in after

life

they made this discovery,

made

not only became eminent as scientific engineers, but


the study of abstract mathematics.

in

any of you to see the good of mathematics,


for
it

it

will not only ensure the success of

much

less likely

University

course should

will relieve us of

much

your future studies, but

to

it

help

anxiety,

make

will

prove the advantage of practical science to

Let us rather speak of the help which the

give to science,

it

that they will prove injurious to your health.

But why should we labour


the

considerable progress

If our experimental

when men

University

may

well trained in mathematics and enjoying the advan-

tages of a well-appointed Laboratory, shall unite their

eflforts

some

to carry out

experimental research which no solitary worker could attempt.

At

first

illustration

this the

by

its

it

is

probable

that our principal experimental work must be the

of particular branches of science, but as

study of

scientific

we go on we must add

to

methods, the same method being sometimes illustrated

application to researches belonging to difierent branches of science.

We

might even imagine a course of experimental study the arrangement of


classification of methods, and not on that of the

which should be founded on a


objects

of investigation.

combination of the two plans seems to

me

better

and while we take every opportunity of studying methods, we shall


take care not to dissociate the method from the scientific research to which it
is applied, and to which it owes its value.
than

either,

We

shall therefore arrange our lectures according to the classification of the

phenomena, such as heat, electricity, magnetism and so on.


In the laboratory, on the other hand, the place of the difierent instruments
be determined by a classification according to methods, such as weighing

principal natural

will

and measuring, observations of time,

optical

and

electrical

methods of observa-

and so on.
The determination of the experiments to be performed at a particular time
must often depend upon the means we have at command, and in the case of
the more elaborate experiments, this may imply a long time of preparation, during

tion,

VOL. n.

32

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

250

the

which the instruments,


gradually

fitted

requisites,

both

sometimes

be

their

for

and

material

that

desirable

methods, and the observers themselves, are being

When we

work.

thus brought

it

the

may

dismounted and the

other experiment, requiring the same


of physical

but deahng perhaps with an entirely different class

method,

together

a particular experiment,

instruments are

the

before

we should make some

observers dispersed,

have

for

intellectual,

phe-

nomena.

Our

with

selves

all

and

think, be

It vnll,

their value.

of the relative

discussion

full

and more

a result worthy of our University,

be accomplished here than in any private laboratory,

to

likely

work, however, in the Laboratory must be to acquaint ourkinds of scientific methods, to compare them, and to estimate

principal

value

of different

scientific

if,

by the

free

we

procedures,

succeed in forming a school of scientific criticism, and in assisting the develop-

ment of the doctrine of method.


But admitting that a practical acquaintance with the methods of Physical
Science is an essential part of a mathematical and scientific education, we may

we

be asked whether

are not attributing too

much importance

to science

alto-

gether as part of a liberal education.


Fortunately,
tinue

young men
see

there

is

be a place of

to

reason

for

to

no question here whether the University should conliberal

or

education,

should devote

itself

preparing

to

Hence though some of us may,


make the pursuit of science the main business of our
particular

professions.

I hope,
lives,

it

must be one of our most constant aims to maintain a living connexion between
our work and the other liberal studies of Cambridge, whether literary, philological,
historical or philosophical.

There
science,

is

just

a narrow professional
as

does

it

But surely a University is the very


come this tendency of men to become,
which are all the more worldly for
vantage of having

men

It
or to

is
is

different

any other

special

business.

where we should be able to over-

as

were, granulated into small worlds,

it

their

very smallness.

We

lose

spirit

the ad-

we do not

even of those whose special branch of

from our own.

not so long ago since any

any science requiring continued

misanthrope,

practise

place

of varied pui'suits collected into one body, if

endeavour to imbibe some of the


learning

which may grow up among men of

spirit

among men who

man who devoted

application,

who must have abandoned

all

himself to geometry,

was looked upon as necessarily

human

interests,

and betaken

251

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

action that
himself to abstractions so far removed from the world of life and
the claims
to
and
pleasure
of
attractions
the
to
alike
he has become insensible
of duty.

men

In the present day,

material spirit

men

not looked

are

upon with the same

supposed to be in league with the


among
of the age, and to form a kind of advanced Radical party

or with the

awe

of science

same

They

suspicion.

are

of learning.

We

study

proper

the

We

are not

admit that
here to defend literary and historical studies.
But is the student of science to be
of mankind is man.

withdrawn from the study of man, or cut


Hves in intellectual feUowship with

as he

off

from every noble

men who

feeling,

so long

have devoted their lives to

have impressed themthe discovery of truth, and the results of whose enquiries
who never heard
men
of
thinking
of
way
selves on the ordinary speech and
from his conomit
to
man
of
and
history
of
student
names? Or is the
their

sideration

which have
the history of the origin and diffusion of those ideas
between one age of the world and another?
from the science of
true that the history of science is very different
working of those
the
study
We are not studying or attempting to

produced so great a difference


It

is

history.

we

which,

forces

blind

are told,

are

operating on

crowds of obscure people,

reasonable
shaking principaUties and powers, and compelling
to pass in an

order laid

down by

The men whose names are found


hypothetical constituents
recognise

more

free

of other
of

human

in

the history of science are not mere

of a crowd, to be reasoned

men, are aU the better materials

upon only

history
It

of science

has to

is

tell

for

the study of the calmer parts

not restricted to the enumeration of successof unsuccessful inquiries, and to

some of the ablest men have

failed

has

only

reputation

which they

of

others

why

explain

of knowledge, and how

to find the key


given a firmer footing to the errors into

fell.

The history of the development, whether normal


all

We

in masses.

nature.

ful investigations.

of

to bring events

them as men like ourselves, and their actions and thoughts, being
from the influence of passion, and recorded more accurately than those

But the

the

men

philosophers.

subjects that

in

or

abnormal, of ideas

which we, as thinking men, take the deepest

stage,
But when the action of the mind passes out of the intellectual
violently emotional
truth and error are the alternatives, into the more

is

interest.

in

which

states of

322

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

252

anger and passion, malice and envy, fiiry and madness; the student of science,
though he is obliged to recognise the powerful influence which these wild forces
have exercised on mankind, is perhaps in some measure disqualified from pursuing
the study of this part of

We

human

nature.

of us are capable of deriving profit from

But then how few

such studies.

sympathy with these lower phases of our nature


without losing some of that antipathy to them which is our surest safeguard
against a reversion to a meaner type, and we gladly return to the company of
those illustrious men who by aspiring to noble ends, whether intellectual or
practical, have risen above the region of storms into a clearer atmosphere, where
there is no misrepresentation of opinion, nor ambiguity of expressiwi, but where
cannot enter into

one mind

comes into

full

closest

contact

with

another

the point where both

at

approach nearest to the truth.


I propose to lecture during this term on Heat, and, as our facilities for
experimental work are not yet fully developed, I shall endeavour to place before
you the relative position and scientific connexion of the different branches of the

science, rather

We

shall begin

Calorimetry,
to

than to discuss the details of experimental methods.

or the

with Thermometry, or the registration of temperatures, and


measurement of quantities of heat. We shall then go on

Thermodynamics, which investigates the relations between the thermal proand their other dynamical properties, in so far as these relations

perties of bodies

may

be traced without any assumption as to the particular constitution of these

bodies.

The

of

principles

of nature,

and

is

it

Thermodynamics throw great

probable that

many

light

on

all

the phenomena

valuable applications of these principles

but we shall have to point out the limits of this


to be made
and to shew that many problems in nature, especially those in which
the Dissipation of Energy comes into play, are not capable of solution by the
principles of Thermodynamics alone, but that in order to understand them, we

have

yet

science,

are obliged to form some more definite theory of the constitution of bodies.

Two

of the constitution of bodies have struggled for victory with

theories

various fortunes since the earliest ages of speculation


universal plenum, the other

The theory

of

matical continuity,

the

and

is

plenum
its

one

is

the

theory of a

that of atoms and void.


is

associated

with

the

mathematical methods are those

doctrine
of

of

mathe-

the Difierential

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.


which

Calculus,

the

is

appropriate

expression

the

of

253
of

relations

continuous

quantity.

The theory of atoms and void leads us to attach more importance to the
numbers and definite proportions but, in applying dynamical
principles to the motion of immense numbers of atoms, the limitation of our
doctrines of integral

faculties forces us

to

abandon the attempt to express the exact history of each

atom, and to be content with estimating the average condition of a group of

atoms large enough to be

which

may

knowledge

is

call

the only available method of studying the properties of real bodies,

abandonment of

involves an

mathematical

This method of dealing with groups of atoms,

visible.

the statistical method, and which in the present state of our

strict

methods belonging

dynamical principles, and an adoption of the

to

the theory of

probability.

It

is

probable

that important results will be obtained by the application of this method, which

known and is not familiar to our minds. If the actual history


had been different, and if the scientific doctrines most familiar to
us had been those which must be expressed in this way, it is possible that
we might have considered the existence of a certain kind of contingency a selfevident truth, and treated the doctrine of philosophical necessity as a mere
is

of

as

yet

little

Science

sophism.

About the beginning of this century, the properties of bodies were investiby several distinguished French mathematicians on the hypothesis that
they are systems of molecules in equilibrium. The somewhat unsatisfactory nature
gated

of

the

results

reaction

in

of

these

favour of

investigations

produced,

especially

in

this

the opposite method of treating bodies as

so far at least as our experiments are concerned, truly continuous.


in the

hands of Green, Stokes, and others, has led to

does not at

all

if

country,

they were,

This method,

which
depend on what theory we adopt as to the ultimate constitution
results, the value of

of bodies.

One very important

result

of the

investigation of the properties of bodies

on the hypothesis that they are truly continuous

is

that

it

furnishes us with

by which we can ascertain, by experiments on a real body, to what


degree of tenuity it must be reduced before it begins to give evidence that its
properties are no longer the same as those of the body in mass.
Investigations
of this kind, combined with a study of various phenomena of diffusion and of
a

test

dissipation

of energy, have

recently added greatly to

the evidence in favour of

the hypothesis that bodies are systems of molecules in motion.

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

254

hope to be able to lay before you in the course of the term some of

evidence

the

having

the

for

definite
is

made us

the

properties,

of

are

may form

as

it

is

as

individual bodies

presented to the scientific

acquainted.

place

first

its

mass,

and

invariable;

absolutely

the

other

constants

which define

its

the individual molecule can neither grow

nor decay, but remains unchanged amid


it

considered

molecules,

The molecule,

a very different body firom any of those with which experience

imagination,

has hitherto

In

existence

properties.

the changes of the bodies of which

all

a constituent.

In the second place

it

is

not the only molecule of

its

kind, for there

are

innumerable other molecules, whose constants are not approximately, but absoidentical

lutely

with those

the

of

first

molecule,

found on the earth, in the sun, or in the fixed

By what
to

account

and

this

whether they are

stars.

process of evolution the philosophers of the future

for

identity in the properties

this

will

attempt

of such a multitude of bodies,

them unchangeable in magnitude, and some of them separated from


by distances which Astronomy attempts in vain to measure, I cannot
conjecture.
My mind is limited in its power of speculation, and I am forced

each

of

others

to believe

that

these

molecules

must have been made as they are from the

beginning of their existence.


also

conclude

varied action on

that since

none of the processes of nature, during their

different individual

have produced, in the course of

molecules,

the slightest difference between the properties of one molecule and those

ages,

of another, the

history of

whose combinations

ascribe either their existence or

of any of those causes which


Is

it

true

then

that

we
our

has been different,

we cannot

the identity of their properties to the operation


call natural.

scientific

speculations

have

really

penetrated

beneath the visible appearance of things, which seem to be subject

to gene-

and corruption, and reached the entrance of that world of order and perfection, which continues this day as it was created, perfect in number and
ration

measure and weight

We

may

"?

be mistaken.

No

one has as yet seen or handled an individual

molecule, and our molecular hypothesis may, in its turn, be supplanted

new theory

of the

constitution

of

matter; but the idea of the

unnumbered individual things, all alike and


enter the human mind and remain without

all

unchangeable,

fruit.

is

by some

existence of

one which cannot

255

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE ON EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.

But what if these molecules, indestructible as they are, turn out to be not
substances themselves, but mere affections of some other substance ?
According to Sir W. Thomson's theory of Vortex Atoms, the substance of
which the molecule consists
of a

are those

motion

perfect

is

fluid,

a uniformly dense plenum, the properties of which


the molecule itself being nothing but a certain

impressed on a portion of this

and

fluid,

matter to

motion

this

theorem due to Helmholtz, to be as indestructible

as

we

is

believe

shewn, by a
a

portion

of

be.

If a theory

of this kind

is

true, or

even

if

it

is

conceivable,

our idea of

matter may have been introduced into our minds through our experience of those
systems of vortices which we call bodies, but which are not substances, but
motions of a substance; and yet the idea which we have thus axxjuired of
matter,

as

a substance possessing

inertia,

may

be truly applicable to that fluid


existence, apart from the

of which the vortices are the motion, but of whose

motion

vortical

of

some

of

its

parts,

our

experience

gives

us

no

evidence

whatever.
It

has been asserted that metaphysical speculation

and that physical science has extirpated

it.

The

is

a thing of the past,

discussion of the categories of

existence, however, does not appear to be in danger of coming to an end


our time, and the exercise of speculation continues as fascinating to every fresh

mind

as

it

was

in the

days of Thales.

[From the Proceedings of

XLV.

On

the

Cambridge Philosophical

Problems hy

the Solution of Electrical

Society^ Vol.

ii.]

the Transformation

of Conjugate Functions'^.

The general problem in electricity is to determine a function which shall


have given values at the various surfaces which bound a region of space, and
which shall satisfy Laplace's partial differential equation at every point within
this

region.

The

solution

when the

of this problem,

conditions are

arbitrarily

beyond the power of any known method, but it is easy to find any
number of functions which satisfy Laplace's equation, and from any one of these
we may find the form of a system of conductors for which the function is a
given,

is

solution of the problem.

The only known method


is

one electrical problem into another

for transforming

that of Electric Inversion, invented by Sir William Thomson; but in problems

involving only

may

two dimensions, any problem of which we

know the solution


we can solve.

be made to furnish an inexhaustible supply of problems which

The

condition that two functions a and

of x and y

may be

conjugate

is

a + J~^l3 = F(x + J~^y).


This condition

may

be expressed in the form of the two equations

dx
If a denotes the

As examples

of

dy

'

dx~

dy

"potential function,"

/8

the method, the theory of

of a wire grating, used as an

electric

screen,

is

'

the

" function

of induction."

Thomson's Guard Ring and that

were

illustrated

by drawings

of

the lines of force and equipotential surfaces.


* [The author's treatment of this subject and a
the text

will

Magnetism.]

be found in

the

full

chapter on Conjugate

explanation of the examples mentioned in

Functions

in

his

treatise

on Electricity and

[From the Proceedings of

XLVL
The

On

London Mathematical

the

Society, Vol. in. No. 34.]

Mathematical Classijication of Physical Quantities.

the

part of the growth of a physical science consists in the discovery

first

of a system of quantities on which its

phenomena may be conceived

The next stage

the

the

is

discovery

After

between these quantities.


matical

and the

science,

the

of

investigation

become acquainted with

them

One

very

is

latent heat,

by a

quantities

theoretical

can be most

in

recent times that

we have

physical quantities that a

classifi-

desirable.

obvious

&c.,

science

number of

large a

so

are

of quantities

classification

which they occur.

sciences in

certain

be treated as a matheefiected

quantities.

only through the progress of

cation of

is

followed by an experimental realisation of these conditions,

accurately measured,

is

may

laws

which

under

conditions

the

of

to depend.

mathematical form of the relations

the science

this,

verification

and actual measurement of the


It

of

Thus temperature,

quantities

is

founded

on

that

of the

pressure, density, specific heat,

occurring in the theory of the action of heat on

bodies.

But the
or

classification

which

now

refer to

is

founded on the mathematical

formal analogy of the diiferent quantities, and not on the matter to which

they belong.
are

quantities,

matical form.

the

first

A
both

The

Thus a

finite

differing

We

may

in

straight

their

line,

distinguish

velocity

of rotation,

&c.,

agreeing in their mathe-

the two methods of classification by calling

classification

of quantities

is

of great use

the original investigator and to the ordinary student of the science.

most

quantities

VOL.

but

a physical, and the second a mathematical classification of quantities.

knowledge of the mathematical

to

a force, a

physical nature,

obvious
in

II.

case

new

is

science

that

in

which we learn that a certain system of


one another in the same mathematical

stand to

33

MATHEMATICAL CLASSIFICATION

258
as a certain

relations

other system in an old science, which has already been

reduced to a mathematical form, and

when Mossotti observed

Thus,
static

its

problems solved by mathematicians.

that certain quantities relating

to

electro-

induction in dielectrics had been shewn by Faraday to be analogous to


quantities

certain

magnetic induction in iron and other bodies, he

to

relating

was enabled to make use of the mathematical investigation of Poisson relative


to magnetic induction, merely translating it from the magnetic language into
the electric, and from French into Italian.
Another example, by no means so obvious, is that which was originally
pointed out by Sir William Thomson, of the analogy between problems in

and problems

attractions

we

make

are able to

electrical distributions,

in the steady conduction

use of

many

and of

of heat,

by the use of which

of the results of Fourier for heat in explaining

the results of Poisson in electricity in explaining

all

problems in heat.

But

it

evident that

is

more fundamental nature

we should be

of quantities,

analogies of this kind depend on principles of a

all

and

that,

able

if

we had a

at once to

true mathematical classification

any

detect the analogy between

system of quantities presented to us and other systems of quantities in known


sciences, so that we should lose no time in availing ourselves of the mathematical labours of those
All quantities

defined

by means

the second

who had

may
of

two

already solved problems essentially the same.

be classed together in one


factoi's,

the

first

of which

respect,
is

may be

that they

a numerical quantity, and

a standard quantity of the same kind with that to be defined.


said to rule the whole world of quantity, and the

is

Thus number may be


of

four rules

arithmetic

may

complete equipment

be regarded as the

of the

mathematician.
Position
of

possession

arithmetic by

made the

and

foim,

which were formerly supposed to be in the exclusive


Descartes to submit to the rules of

geometers, were reduced by

means of that ingenious

scaffolding

of co-ordinate axes

which he

basis of his operations.

Since this great step was taken in mathematics,

all

quantities

have been

and presented to the mind by means of numbers, or


numbers, so that as soon as any science has been

treated in the same way,

symbols

which

denote

thoroughly reduced to the mathematical form, the solution of problems in that


science,

as

a mental process,

carried on without the aid of

is

supposed

(at

least

by the outer world)

any of the physical ideas of the

science.

to

be

OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.
is

not true, and that mathematicians, in solving

much

aided by a knowledge of the science in which

need not say that this

are very

problems,

physical

259

the problems occur.

At

the same time, I think that the progress of science, both in the

discovery,

and

were paid

in a direct

in the

way
way

of diflfusion,

would be greatly aided

if

way

of

more attention

to the classification of quantities.

most important distinction was drawn by Hamilton when he divided the


quantities with which he had to do into Scalar quantities, which are completely
represented by one numerical quantity, and Vectors, which require three numerical
quantities to define them.

The invention of the

calculus of Quaternions

ledge of quantities related to

with the invention of

tance,

the greatest use in

We

may

invention

As our
for

all

for

impor-

its

its

parts of science.

imagine

conceptions

a step towards the know-

by Descartes. The ideas of this


operations and symbols, are fitted to be of

another step in the advancement of science to be the

a method, equally appropriate,

of

is

which can only be compared

co-ordinates

triple

distinguished from

as

calculus,

space

of physical science

of conceiving dynamical quantities.

rendered more vivid by substituting

are

the mere numerical ideas of Cartesian mathematics the geometrical ideas of

Hamiltonian

mathematics,

higher development

still

so

to dynamics as Hamilton's

in

the higher sciences the ideas might receive a

they could be expressed in language as appropriate

if
is

to geometry.

Another advantage of such a


of the

four

rules

of arithmetic.

classification

We

know

is,

that

it

guides us in the use

we must not apply

that

the rules

of addition or subtraction unless the quantities are of the same kind.

we may multiply

cases

the result of the process


It has
called

divide

or
is

In certain

one quantity by another, but in other cases

of no intellectual value.

been pointed out by Professor Rankine that the physical quantity

Energy

or

Work

can be conceived as the product of two factors in

many

different ways.

The dimensions of

this

MU

quantity are jip

the concrete units of length, time, and mass.


factors,

If

where L, M, and

we

represent

divide the energy into two

one of which contains D, both factors will be

scalars.

hand, both factors contain L, they will be both vectors.

If,

on the other

The energy

itself is

always a scalar quantity.

332

260

MATHEMATICAL CLASSIFICATION
Thus,

we take the mass and the square

if

of the velocity as the factors,

done in the ordinary definitions of vis-viva or kinetic energy, both factors


are scalar, though one of them, the square of the velocity, has no distinct physical
as

is

meaning.

Another

division

into

apparently

hydrostatic pressure, though

scalar

we must

here

factors

consider

that into volume and

is

the volume,

not in itself,
but as a quantity subject to increase and diminution, and this change of volume
can only occur at the surface, and is due to a variation of the surface in the
direction of the normal, so that

it is not a scalar but a vector quantity.


The pressure
though the abstract conception of a hydrostatic pressure is scalar, must be

also,

conceived as applied at a surface, and thus becomes a directed quantity or vector.


The division of the energy into vector factors affords results always capable
of satisfactory interpretation. Of the two factors, one ia conceived as a tendency
towards a certain change, and the other as that change itself.
Thus the elementary definition of Work regards it as the product of a force

the distance through which

into

direction

of the force.

its

point of application moves, resolved in the

In the language of Quaternions,

it

is

the scalar part of

the product of the force and the displacement.

These two vectors, the force and the displacement,


types

many

of

scalar part

other

of vectors,

pairs

the products

may be

regarded

of which have

for

as

their

some form of energy.

Thus, instead of dividing kinetic energy into the factors " mass " and " square
of velocity," the latter of which has no meaning, we may divide it into "mo-

mentum" and
in the
tions,

same

"velocity,"

in taking

so that

the scalar part of

But

is

it

factors is

its

intensity

their

when we have

most

When we

in

in the

generalized dynamics,

product

dynamics of a

may

particle, are

be in different direc-

we must remember the

rule

for

finding

it.

distributed in space,

two

two vectors which,

but,

direction,

to

deal with

continuous

bodies,

and quantities

that the general principle of the division of energy into

clearly seen.

regard energy as residing intrinsically in a body,

by the amount contained

in

unit of volume.

This

we may measure
is,

of course, a

scalar quantity.

Of the

factors

which compose

other to unit of area.

among

it,

one

is

referred to unit of length,

and the

This gives what I regard as a very important distinction

vector quantities.

261

OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.
Vectors which are referred to unit of length I shall

word
the

integral

the

of

The

extremities.

result

of

force

surface

In certain cases the

call

The opera-

Fluxes.

the resolved part of a flux perpendicular to a

In

every element of the surface has always a physical meaning.

for

result of the integration over a closed surface

the

certain

cases

within

certain

its

then called a Potential.

is

taking the integral of

of

of taking

path of the line between

independent of the

is

Forces, using the

the direction of a line for

in

Vectors which are refeiTed to unit of area I shall


tion

call

The operation

shall see.

has always a physical meaning.

line,

the integration

of

part

resolved

every element of that


result

we

a somewhat generalized sense, as

in

the

of

restrictions,

position

the

of

is

independent,

The

surface.

result

then

expresses the Quantity of some kind of matter, either existing within the surface,
or flowing out of

In

many

it,

according to the physical nature of the flux.

physical

the

cases,

and proportional

direction,

and the flux are always in the same


The one is therefore used as the

force

each

to

other.

measure of the other, their symbols degenerate into one, and their ideas become
confounded

together.

One

most important mathematical

of the

results of the

discovery of substances having different physical properties in different directions,

has been to enable us to distinguish between the force and the

may be

us see that their directions

Thus, in the ordinary theory of


is

in

we can

that which

two

We

may

in

fluids,

directly perceive,

different ways.

with

reference

define

unit

to

define

passes

through unit of area

it

define the velocity equally well

with reference to unit of length, as

of area,

as

unit of time.

in

belongs to the category of forces

letting

which the only motion considered

we may

the number of such units described by a particle in unit of time


it

by

flux,

different.

the volume

If defined in

the

defined in the second way,

if

or

we may

the fluid which

of

to

first

way,

it

the category

of fluxes.

But
shall

if

take

we endeavour
into

to

account the

velocity from another in the

molecules of a
agitation

fluid,

in

develope a more complete theory of


facts

same place; or

virtue

then though we

of diff'usion,

may

of the

and measuring

we

fluids,

which

has a different

accept the doctrine, that the

heat of the substance, are in a state of

we cannot do

of defining the motion of the fluid


it

fluid

give a definition of the velocity of a single mole-

cule with reference to unit of length,

way we have

if

where one

by the mass of the

fluid

so for the fluid


is

by considering

and the only


it

as a flux,

which flows through unit of

area.

MATHEMATICAL CLASSIFICATION

262

more necessary when we come to heat and electricity.


even thought of in any way except
as the quantity which flows through a given area in a given time.
To form a
conception of the velocity, properly so called, of either agent, would require
This distinction

The

is

still

flux of heat or of electricity cannot be

heat or electricity as a continuous

us to conceive

having a known

substance

density.

We

must

consider

therefore

sponding to them

are, in

The

these quantities as fluxes.

forces

corre-

the case of heat, the rate of variation of temperature,

and, in the case of electricity, the rate of variation of potential.

enough to point out the distinction between

I have said

In statical electricity the resultant force at a point


potential,

and the

flux

forces

and

fluxes.

the rate of variation of

is

a quantity, hitherto confounded with the force, which

is

I have called the electric displacement.

magnetism

In
potential,

and

the

resultant

the flux

force

also

is

what Faraday

is

the

rate

of

of the

variation

the magnetic induction, and

calls

is

measured, as Thomson has shewn, by the force on a unit pole placed in a narrow
crevasse cut perpendicular to the direction of magnetization of the magnet.

the

not

must

briefly state the nature of a ratio of

detain

with the explanation of these quantities, but I

shall

Society

a force to a flux in

its

most general

form.

When
the

one vector

second

is,

in

is

a function of another vector, the ratio of the

which

quaternion

general,

is

function

first

to

of the

second

is

always

vector.

When,
case

the second vector varies in magnitude only, the

if

proportional

to

it,

and remains constant

of the function being a linear one.

linear

in direction,

The

and vector function of the second.

nents of the

first vector,

and

a,

6,

first

If a,

y8,

vector

first

we have the important


is

then said to be a

are the Cartesian compo-

c those of the second,

then

fi=p/i + rJ} + qjC,

y = q^a +pfi + r,c,


where the

coefficients p, q,

corresponding
represented

q's,

the

geometrically

When

r are constants.

function
as

is

the

said to
relation

be

the ^'s are equal to the

self-conjugate.

It

may

then be

between the radius vector from the

centre of an ellipsoid, and the perpendicular on the tangent plane.

OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

We may
purer

remark that even here, where we may seem to have reached a

uncontaminated by physical applications, one vector

air,

while

line,

263

the

other

is

essentially

is

the normal to a plane, as in

defined as

all

the other

pairs of vectors already mentioned*.

Another distinction among physical vectors

and divides them

ciple,

and those which are defined with reference to


between

these

of vectors

classes

rotation.

But the most remarkable

derived from the two different ways in which

is

plate the relation

between

The remarkable analogies

pointed out by Poinsdt in his

well

is

on the motion of a rigid body.

treatise

them

two

founded on a different prin-

is

into those which are defined with reference to translation

it

is

and magnetism.

electricity

how

Helmholtz, in his great paper on Vortex Motion, has shewn

an

analogy

between electro-magnetic

meignetic force

is

He

the analogy

is

According

which

in

a species of translation,

an explanation of electro-magnetism

as

perfect in form, the dynamics of the


to

fluid,

represented by the rotation of the elements of the

is

propose this

does not

to construct

and hydro-kinetic phenomena,

represented by the velocity of the

while electric current

illustration of

possible to contem-

Ampere and

followers,

his

all

two systems

for

fluid.

though

are different.

however, electric currents are

regarded as a species of translation, and magnetic force as depending on rotation.


I

am

constrained

agree

to

associated with electrolysis,

magnetism
which, as

associated with

is

with

because

view,

this

the

electric

and other undoubted instances of

current

translation,

is

whUe

the rotation of the plane of polarization of light,

Thomson has shewn,

involves actual motion of rotation.

The Hamiltonian operator FV, applied

any vector function, converts

to

it

from translation to rotation, or from rotation to translation, according to the kind


of vector to which

it is

I shall conclude

phrases

to

feel

the

express

obliged to

greatly

applied.

by proposing
results

for

of

the consideration of mathematicians certain

Hamiltonian operator A.

the

me

anyone who can give

that the onomastic power

suggestions on

very faint in me, and that

is

this
it

should be

subject,

as

can be success-

fully exercised only in societies.


.

V
where

^.

,,

IS

the operation

i,

j,

The

are

"^

unit

subject of linear

vectors

d
1~

'^^

parallel

d
'J"^

d
Tfy'

to x, y, z respectively.

The

result

of

equations in quaternions has been developed by Professor Tait, in severil

communications to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

MATHEMATICAL CLASSIFICATION

264

performing this operation twice on any subject

is

the well

known

operation

(of

Laplace)

The discovery

the square root of this operation

of

due to Hamilton

is

and the whole

of the applications here given,

but most

development of the

theory of this operation, are due to Prof. Tait, and are given in several papers,

which

of

April

the

first

in

is

the Proceedings of the

1862, and the most complete

28,

is

Royal Society of Edinburgh,


"Green's and other allied

that on

Theorems," Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1869 70.


(Laplace's operation with the
And, first, I propose to call the result of

negative sign) the Concentration of the quantity to which

it

applied.

is

be a quantity, either scalar or vector, which is a function of the


position of a point; and if we find the integral of Q taken throughout the
volume of a sphere whose radius is r; then, if we divide this by the volume

For

if

of the sphere,

we

shall

the value of

Qa

\b

or

the value of

obtain Q,

the mean value of

at the centre of the sphere, then,

at the centre

of the

within the sphere.

when r

sphere exceeds the

If

is small,

mean value

of

within the sphere by a quantity depending on the radius, and on V^*^. Since,
therefore, V=Q indicates the excess of the value of Q at the centre above its

mean value

If
if

is

an

in the sphere, I shall call

a scalar quantity,

is

electric potential,

its

V'^

it

the concentration of Q.

concentration
is

is,

of course, also scalar.

Thus,

the density of the matter which produces

the potential.

^ is a vector quantity, then both ^o and Q are vectors, and V-^ is


a vector, indicating the excess of the uniform force ^o applied to the whole
substance of the sphere above the resultant of the actual force Q acting on all
If

also

the parts of the sphere.

Let us next consider the Hanultonian operator V.

First apply it to a scalar

The quantity VP is a vector, indicating the direction in which P


function P.
I venture, with
decreases most rapidly, and measuring the rate of that decrease.

much
the

"

diffidence^,
first

to call

differential

this

the slope of P.

parameter

"

Lamd

calls

the magnitude of

VP

of P, but its direction does not enter into his


OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

265

We require a vector word, which shall indicate both direction and


magnitude, and one not already employed in another mathematical sense.
I have
taken the liberty of extending the ordinary sense of the word slope from topoconception.

where

graphy,

two

only

independent

variables

are

used,

to

space

three

of

dimensions.

If

represents

vector part, which


I

surface

propose to

vector

may

function,

Vtr

be wTitten *SVcr and

may

the scalar part the Convergence of

call

both a

contain

because,

cr,

be described about any point, the surface integral of

the effect of the vector

equal to the volume

o-

considered as an

that vector function in carrying

But

vcr

has,

great diffidence,

in

to

general,
this

call

also

a closed

if

which expresses

inward flux through the surface,

therefore, that the convergence of a vector function


effect of

cr,

throughout the enclosed space.

of SVo-

integral

its

and a

scalar

FVo-.

is

is

think,

a very good name for the

subject inwards towards a point.

vector portion,

vector the Curl or

and

with

propose, but

Version of the original vector

function.

represents

It

the

direction

matter carried by the vector

cr.

like Rotation, Whirl, or Twirl,

or screw structure which

is

and magnitude of the rotation of the subject


I have sought for a word which shall neither,

connote motion, nor, like Twist, indicate a helical

not of the nature of a vector at

all.

N
CONVERGENCE.

If
cTo

we

at the

convergence,
gentially
in

CONVERGENCE AND CURL.

CITRLb

subtract from the general value

point P,

point

of the

then the remaining vector

towards

P.

When

round P; and when there

is

there

cr

is

vector function

a^
pure

will,

when

curl,

both convergence and

it

cr

will

curl,

its

it

value

is

pure

point

tan-

there

will point

a spiral manner.

The following statements

are true

The

slope of a scalar function has no curl.

The

curl of a vector function has no convergence.

VOL.

11.

34

MATHEMATICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.

266

The convergence of the

slope of a scalar function

The

concentration

of

together with the curl of

The quaternion

vector

function

is

is

its

concentration.

the slope of

its

convergence,

its curl.

expressions, of which the above statements are a translation,

were given by Prof. Tait, in his paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, April 28th, 1862; but for the more complete mathematical treat-

ment of the operator

v,

see

and other Allied Theorems"

a very able paper by Prof.

Tait,

"On

Green's

Royal Society of Edinburgh,


1870), and another paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,

for

187071,

p.

318.

(Transactions of the

[From the Proceedings of

the

Royal Imtitution of Great Britain, Vol.

On

XLVII.

that

All
we

is

among

or shade
It

vision

colour vision, for

distinguish the

was

forms of

are

of

Colour Vision.

only by observing differences of colour

is

include differences

objects.

the .Eoyal Institution, about the beginning of this century, that

in

first

announcement of that doctrine

distinct

which I propose to

colours

We

illustrate.

these

sensations

different

in

proportions,

colour

produced.

are

In this statement there

That word

our attention.

is,

Sensation.

is

It

state

it

all

there

are

is

sensation

three

the

We

is

by the

different

the varieties of visible

one word on which

we must

seems almost a truism to say

and yet Young, by honestly recognising


So
mentary truth, established the first consistent theory of colour.
know, Thomas Young was the first who, starting from the well-known
that colour

of

thus

it

Light of different kinds

and

combinations of these three primary sensations that

fix

may

capable of feeling three different colour-sensations.

excites

brightness

of

differences of colour.

Thomas Young made the


vision

it

vi.]

primary colours, sought for the explanation of this

the nature of light, but in the constitution of man.

Even

this
far

fact that

fact,

of those

ele-

as

not in

who have

written on colour since the time of Young, some have supposed that they ought
to study the properties of pigments, and others that they ought to analyse

the rays of light.

They have sought

something in external nature

for

something

a knowledge of colour by examining

out of themselves.

Now, if the sensation which we call colour has any laws, it must be
something in our own nature which determines the form of these laws and I
need not tell you that the only evidence we can obtain respecting ourselves
;

is

derived from consciousness.

The

science

of

colour

must therefore be regarded

as

essentially

a mental

342

COLOUR

268
It

science.

from the greater part of what

differs

the large use which


optics

But

of

it

we always
shall

science.

coveries

gives evidence that

it

which

illustrations

In this place
physical

makes of the physical

it

and anatomy.

numerous

VISION.

Newton

to

is

it

is

mental science in

called

sciences,

and

in

particular

of

a mental science by the

furnishes of various operations of the mind.

we are dealing with


how we apply the dis-

on firmer ground when

feel

therefore

begin by shewing

the manipulation of light, so as to give you an oppor-

tunity of feeling for yourselves the different sensations of colour.

Before the time of Newton, white light was supposed to be of


things

the

When

purest.

light

appears

coloured,

it

known

all

was supposed

to

have

become contaminated by coming into contact with gross bodies. We may still
think white light the emblem of purity, though Newton has taught us that
its

purity does not consist in simplicity.

We

now form

the prismatic spectrum on the screen [exhibited]. These are


can distinguish
which white light is always made up.

We

the simple colours of

a great

many hues

in

passing from the one end to the other; but

we employ powerful spectroscopes, or


who have mapped out the spectrum,

avail

that

ourselves

of

the

we become aware

it

labours
of

the

is

when

of

those

immense

multitude of different kinds of light, every one of which has been the object
Every increase of the power of our instruments increases in
of special study.
the same proportion the number of lines visible in the spectrum.
All light, as Newton proved, is composed of these rays taken in different
Objects which

proportions.

make a

selection

of

we

these rays,

coloured when illuminated by white light,


and our eyes receive from them only a part

call

on them. But if they receive only the pure rays of


I
they can appear only of that colour.
spectrum
a single colour of the
the
in
paper,
green
and
red
of
quadrants
alternate
containing
disk,
place this
of the light which

falls

red rays, it appears all red, but the red quadrants brightest.
the green rays both papers appear green, but the red paper is
This, then, is the optical explanation of the colours of bodies

If I place

it

in

now the darkest.


when illuminated

They separate the white light into its component parts,


others.
scattering
and
absorbing some
One appears yellow, it
Here are two transparent solutions [exhibited].

with white

light.

of potash; the other appears blue, it contains sulphate of


transmit the light of the electric lamp through the two solutions
By means of the spectrum we
at once, the spot on the screen appears green.

contains bichromate
copper.

If I

COLOUR
be able to explain

shall

The yellow

this.

269

VISION.

solution

the blue

cuts off

end

of

the spectrum, leaving only the red, orange, yellow, and green.
cuts

off

The blue solution


and violet. The only light
you see. In the same way

the red end, leaving only the green, blue,

which can get through both is the green Ught, as


most blue and yellow paints, when mixed, appear green.
on the mixture is so beaten about between the yellow
that the

only light which survives

when mixed do not make

green,

you

will

see

which

light

falls

and the blue

But yellow and blue light


we allow them to fall on

the green.

is

as

The

particles

if

the same part of the screen together.


It

many

a striking illustration of our mental processes that

is

persons have

not only gone on believing, on the evidence of the mixture of pigments, that
blue and yellow

make

green,

in

even

persuaded

themselves

and of yellowness

blueness

of

sensations

the sensation of green.

We

have availed ourselves hitherto

substances.

We

must now

prismatic spectrum.

return,

but shewed how to put


but instead of catching

enough to receive

large

well-known principles

it
it

the

of

analysis

light

by coloured

all

in

the shining robe of day,"

all

together again.

We

on a screen we

allow

the coloured

But

see

image

no longer white, but coloured

is

white.

pure

spectrun),

through

pass

to

it

lens

These rays proceed, according

rays.

This image

and you

the result

have here a

form an image of the prism on a screen

optics, to

placed at the proper distance.

is

of

under the guidance of Newton, to the

still

Newton not only


"Untwisted

to

they have

but that

that they could detect the separate

if
;

formed by rays of

is

all

colours,

stop any of the coloured rays the

and

if

only

let

through

rays

of

one colour, the image of the prism appears of that colour.


I have
three

here an arrangement of

portions

of the

of the prism while


of the

light

all

slits

by which I can select one, two, or


them to form an image

of the spectrum, and allow

the rest are stopped.

colours of the spectrum,

and

This gives

me

a perfect conunand

can produce on the screen every possible

shade of colour by adjusting the breadth and the position of the sUts through

which the light

passes.

can

also,

by interposing a

the light, shew you a magnified image of the


different kinds of light

The

colours

are

at

slits,

lens

in

the

by which you

passage
will

of

see the

which compose the mixture.


present red,

green, and

blue^

and the mixture of the


COLOUR VISION.

270
as

you

three colours

is,

two of these

colours.

nearly

see,

Red and

Let us try the

white.

of

effect

Tiniying

blue form a fine purple or crimson, green and

blue form a sea-green or sky-blue, red and green form a yellow.

Here again we have a

fact not universally

mixes his red with his green.

very dirty drab colour.

He

is

No

known.

produce a fine yellow,

The

painter, wishing to

result

would be a

furnished by nature with brilliant yellow pigments,

When he mixes red and green paint, the


these.
paint
is robbed of nearly all its brightness by
red
the
by
red
getting among particles of green, and the green light fares no better, for it
But when the pencil with which
is sure to fall in with particles of red paint.
we paint is composed of the rays of light, the effect of two coats of colour
and he takes advantage of
scattered

light

The red and the green form a yeUow of great splendour,


very different.
which may be shewn to be as intense as the purest yellow of the spectrum.

is

You

have now arranged

see

it

is

the

to

slits

transmit

similar in colour to the yellow

It differs from the mixture, however, in being strictly

point of
as

it

is

The
of a

result

warm

you

as

see,

certainly not green;

is

hue, but

we

if

spectrum.

homogeneous in a physical
it into two portions

does not divide

Let us now combine

did the mixture.

spectrum.

yeUow

The prism,

view.

yellow of the

the

formed by mixing red and green.

this yellow

with the blue of the

we may make

choose a greenish

pink

it

if

our

yeUow we can produce

a good white.

You have now

seen the most remarkable of the combinations of colours


from them in degree, not in kind. I must now ask you to
think no more of the physical arrangements by which you were enabled to see

the others

differ

these colours, and to concentrate your attention upon the colours you saw, that
are here
is to say on certain sensations of which you were conscious.

We

surrounded by

physical inquiries.

They
have names
them.

of a kind which

difficulties

We

can

all feel

we do not meet with

are not only private property, but they are


for

in

purely

these sensations, but none of us can describe

the external objects which excite our

We

incommunicable.

sensations,

but not

for

the sensations themselves.

When we

look

at

broad

field

of

uniform

colour,

whether

it

is

really

that the sensation of colour appears to our concannot directly recognise the elementary
sciousness as one and indivisible.
sensations of which it is composed, as we can distinguish the component notes

simple or compound,

we

find

We

COLOUR VISION.
of a musical

chord.

the quality of which

To bring a

must be regarded

therefore,

colour,

271
a single

aa

quality within

the grasp of exact science,

we must

conceive

depending on the values of one or more variable quantities, and

as

step

our

in

scientific

thing,

capable of variation.

is

progress

which are necessary and

number

of

these

to determine the quality

of

determine

to

is

sufficient

the

the

it

first

variables

We

colour.

do not require any elaborate experiments to prove that the quality of colour
can vary in three and only in three independent ways.

One way

may

The
colours

in

tint,

difference in

The

the spectrum.

Tint

may

yellow, buff,

by the

illustrated

series

of hues

in the

we must blend

difference

The

tint.

colour

spectrum

is

tints,

the spectrum

between adjoining
is

not complete

the red and the blue.

be defined as the degree of purity of a colour.

and cream-colour, form a

but varying in

that

painters,

of colours, varying in hue,

series

hue may be

in order to get purple hues,

for,

by saying, with the

is

and shade.

example of a

finest

itself.

expressing this

of

vary in hue,

series of colours

Thus,

bright

of nearly the same hue,

corresponding to any given hue, form a

series,

beginning with the most pronounced colour, and ending with a perfectly neutral
tint.

Shade may be
we begin with any
black,

to

may

and

this

say that brown

The quality

We
80

defined

as

the greater

may vary

cannot conceive of any others.


as

to

less

defect

of

illumination.

If

a dark shade of orange.

is

of a colour

agree in hue,

indistinguishable.

or

any hue, we can form a gradation from that colour


gradation is a series of shades of that colour.
Thus we
tint of

in

tint,

in three different

In

and

fact,

in

if

shade,

we

and independent ways.

adjust one colour to another,

the two colours are

absolutely

There are therefore three, and only three, ways in which a

colour can vary.


I

have purposely avoided introducing at

which may be

called

this stage of our inquiry

anything

order to shew that

we may

experiment,

scientific

in

determine the number of quantities upon which the variation of colour depends

by means of our ordinary experience alone.


Here is a point in this room if I wish to specify its position, I may do
namely, the height above the
so by giving the measurements of three distances
:

floor,

at

my

the
left

distance

hand.

from the wall behind me, and the distance from the wall


COLOUR

272
This
is

If

we

we

only one of

is

many ways

one of the most convenient.

it

VISION.

of

Now,

stating the

of

a point, but

colour also depends on

three things.

position

and

these the intensities of the three primary colour sensations,

call

are able in

any way to measure these three

intensities,

the colour as specified by these three measurements.

we may

Hence the

if

consider

specification of

a colour agrees with the specification of a point in the room in depending on


three measurements.
Let us go a step farther and suppose the colour sensations measured on
scale of intensity, and a point found for which the three distances, or

some

number of feet as the sensations contain degrees


by a useful geometrical convention, that the
colour is represented, to our mathematical imagination, by the point so found
in the room; and if there are several colours, represented by several points, the
chromatic relations of the colours will be represented by the geometrical relaThis method of expressing the relations of colours is a
tions of the points.
co-ordinates,

contain the same

of intensity.

Then we may

say,

great help to the imagination.


in an

exceedingly clear

manner

You
in

will find

Mr

these relations of colours

Benson's

Manual of Colour one

stated
of the

very few books on colour in which the statements are founded on legitimate
experiments.
still more convenient method of representing the
relations of
is a
by means of Young's triangle of colours. It is impossible to represent
on a plane piece of paper every conceivable colour, to do this requires space of
If, however, we consider only colours of the same shade
three dimensions.

There

colours

that

is,

colours

in

which the sum of the

intensities of the

the same, then the variations in tint and in hue of


represented

by points on a

For

plane.

this

purpose

all

three sensations

is

may be

such colours

we must draw a

plane

cutting off equal lengths from the three lines representing the primary sensations.

The part

of this plane within the space in which

colours will be

an equilateral

triangle.

we have been

The three primary

distributing our

colours will be at the

three angles, white or gray will be in the middle, the tint or degree of purity

of any colour will be expressed by

hue

will

its

distance from the middle point,

depend on the angular position of the

line

which joins

it

and

its

with the

middle point.

Thus the ideas of tint and hue can be expressed geometrically on Young's
To understand what is meant by shade we have only to suppose the
illumination of the whole triangle increased or diminished, so that by means of
triangle.

COLOUR

VISION.

273

adjustment of illumination Young's triangle

this

them

may

we now take any two colours


any proportions, we shall find the resultant

variety

of colour.

in

If

be made to exhibit every


the triangle and mix

in

in the line joining

colour

the component colours at the point corresponding to their centre of gravity.

have said nothing about the nature of the three primary sensations, or
colours they most resemble.
In order to lay down on paper

what
the

particular
relations

primary

between actual

colours

colours,

may

it

not

is

necessary

any three

take

to

know what

provisionally,

colours,

the

as the

and determine the position of any other observed colour

of a triangle,

angles

We

are.

with respect to these, so as to form a kind of chart of colours.

Of

which we

colours

all

have

see,

prismatic

spectrum

either

some one kind of these

of

the

colours of all natural bodies are

by the

those excited

greatest

rays

different

importance.

scientific

All light

of the
consists

rays, or of some combination of them.


The
compounded of the colours of the spectrum. If

therefore

we can form

a chromatic chart of the spectrum, expressing the relations

between

the

of

bodies will

colours

different portions,

its

then the colours of

all

natural

within a certain boundary on the chart defined by the

be found

positions of the colours of the spectrum.

But the chart

of the spectrum will

also

nature of the three primary sensations.

which the primary colours are the angles.

trum must be
in

entirely

the spectrum

is

must be

spectrum

us to

the knowledge of the

every sensation

essentially

is

every compound colour-sensation must be within the triangle of

thing,

positive

help

Since

identical
in

In particular, the chart of the spec-

within Young's triangle of colours, so that

if

any colour

with one of the colour-sensations, the chart of the

the form of

line

having a sharp angle at the point

corresponding to this colour.


I

have

already shewn you

colours

the

intensity

colour side
till

it

any

of

by

side

when the

instrument

it

make a mixture

of

any three of

of

the

three

components.

requires

If

we

place

by altering
compound

this

with any other colour, we can alter the compound colour


resultant colour

which

matches between two

and

can

appears exactly similar to the other.

exactness

an

how we

of the spectrum, and vary the colour of the mixture

the

may

call

so

It can

colours.

daylight,

is

This can be done with the greatest

nearly white.
colour-box,

for

have therefore constructed


the

purpose

of

making

only be used by one observer at a time,

have not brought

it

with

me

to-night.

It

is

nothing but the realisation of the construction of one of Newton's propositions


VOL.

II.

35

COLOUR

274
in

separate

left

the box through a small

two

of

sisting

and afterwards to unite them into a beam again. The observer


He sees a round field of light conslit.

slits,

into

looks

into its

it

means of

where he shews how to take a beam of light, to


components, to deal with these components as we please by

Optica,

Lectiones

his

VISION.

which has been enfeebled by two

of light

consists

The

divided by a vertical diameter.

semicircles

semicircle on the

reflexions at the surface

That on the right is a mixture of colours of the spectrum, the positions


and intensities of which are regulated by a system of slits.
The observer forms a judgment respecting the colours of the two semicircles.
Suppose he finds the one on the right hand redder than the other, he says so,
of glass.

breadth of
and the operator, by means of screws outside the box, alters the
the right
till
on,
so
and
red
less
mixture
one of the slits, so as to make the
hne of
the
and
left,
the
as
appearance
same
the
of
semicircle is made exactly
;

separation becomes almost invisible.

the operator and the observer have worked together for some time,
and the colours are adjusted much more

When

they get to understand each other,


rapidly than at

When

first.

the match

pronounced

is

perfect, the positions of the slits, as indicated

and the breadth of each slit is carefully measured by


The registered result of an observation is called a "colour

are registered,

by a scale,
means of a gauge.

asserts

It

equation."

that a mixture of three colours

name is
Each
Standard White.

observer (whose

scale,
slit,

which

which

a measure of

is

of

is

indicates its position

In order to
purposes

colour

make

comparison,

is,

in

identical with a neutral tint,

given),

specified

in the

by the

the opinion of the

which we

position of the

shall call

slit

on the

spectrum, and by the breadth of the

its intensity.

survey

and

we

of the
call

spectrum

we

these the three

select

three

points

Standard Colours.

for

The

standard colours are selected on the same principles as those which guide the
They must be conspicuous and
enoineer in selecting stations for a survey.
invariable

and not

In the chart

in the

of

same straight

line.

the spectrum you

may

see

the relations of

the various

spectrum to the three standard colours, and to each other. It


be one of the
is manifest that the standard green which I have chosen cannot
the triangle
within
lie
true primary colours, for the other colours do not all
colours

of the

formed by joining them.


sisting of

two

But the chart

of the spectrum

straight lines meeting in a point.

may

be described as con-

This point corresponds to a green

COLOUR
auout a

275

VISION.

of the distance from h towards F.

fifth

This green

lias

a wave length

of about 510 millionths of a millimetre by Ditscheiner's measurement.


is

the true primary green,

either

we can

which

ever

we

the spectrum,

or at

it

This green

the nearest approach

is

to

it

Proceeding from this green towards the red end of

see.

the different colours lying almost exactly in a straight

find

This indicates that any colour

line.

least

chromatically equivalent to a mixture of

is

any two colours on opposite sides of it, and in the same straight line. The
extreme red is considerably beyond the standard red, but it is in the same
straight line, and therefore we might, if we had no other evidence, assume the
extreme

red

primary red
It

the

as

primary

true

somewhat beyond the extreme

lies

On

the

blue

The

accurate.

We

red.

however, that the true

shall see,

not exactly represented in colour by any part of the spectrum.

is

of

side

colours,

primary

however,

lie

red,

but

green

the

in a

line

same straight

in the

equations

colour

which

is

line.

are

seldom so

nearly straight.

have

not been able to detect any measurable chromatic difference between the extreme
indigo and the violet.
The colours
by a number of points very close

primary blue

is

a sensation differing

of this

end of the spectrum are represented

We

each other.

to

little

may

suppose that the

from that excited by the parts of the

spectrum near G,

Now, the

first

thing which occurs to most people about this result

by no means a

is

that

Between the red and


the green we have a series of colours apparently very different from either, and
having such marked characteristics that two of them, orange and yellow, have
the division of the spectrum

separate

received

names.

is

The

colours between

fair

one.

the green and the blue, on the

other hand, have an obvious resemblance to one or both of the extreme colours,

and no

distinct

experience.
to

names

have ever become popularly recognised,

for these colours

do not profess to reconcile this discrepancy between ordinary and

make

It

only shews that

it

is

impossible

a true analysis of our sensations.

by a mere act

Consciousness

scientific

of introspection

our only authority

is

but consciousness must be methodically examined in order to obtain any trust-

worthy

results.

have here, through the kindness of Professor Huxley, a picture of the


There is a minute
structure upon which the light falls at the back of the eye.
I

structure of bodies

mode
which

in

like rods

and cones

or pegs,

and

it

is

which we become aw*are of the shapes of things

differs

according to the

particular

conceivable that

the

by a consciousness
rods on the ends of which the light
is

352

276

COLOUR

faUg, just as the pattern

mode

VISION.

on the web formed by a Jacquard loom depends on the

in which the perforated cards act on the system of moveable rods in that

we have on the one hand light falling on this wonderful


and on the other hand we have the sensation of sight. We cannot
compare these two things
they belong to opposite categories. The whole of
In the eye

machine.

structure,

Metaphysics

lies like

in physiology

may

a great gulf between them.

It

possible that discoveries

is

be made by tracing the course of the nervous disturbance

"Up

the fine fibres to the sentient brain;"

but this would make us no wiser than we are about those colour-sensations
which we can only know by feeling them ourselves. Still, though it is impossible
to become acquainted with a sensation by the anatomical study of the organ
with which

it

is

connected,

we may make use

of the

sensation as a means of

investigating the anatomical structure.

remarkable instance of this

is

the deduction of

the structure of the retina from that of


of colour.

Young

asserts

Young with

Helmholtz's

that there are three elementary sensations of colour;

Helmholtz asserts that there are three systems of nerves


of which has

for

its

theory of

respect to the sensation

function,

when acted on by

light or

in

the

retina,

each

any other disturbing

agent, to excite in us one of these three sensations.

No

anatomist has hitherto been able to distinguish these three systems of

But it is admitted in physiology that the


which the sensation excited by a particular nerve can vary is by
The intensity of the sensation may vary from the faintest
degrees of intensity.
impression up to an insupportable pain
but whatever be the exciting cause,

nerves by microscopic observation.


only

way

in

the sensation will be the same

when

it

reaches the same intensity.

doctrine of the function of a nerve be admitted,

the fact that colour

may

it

is

If

this

legitimate to reason from

vary in three different ways, to the

inference

that

these three modes of variation arise from the independent action of three differ-

ent nerves or sets of nerves.

Some very remarkable observations on the sensation of colour have been


made by M. Sigmund Exner in Professor Helmholtz's physiological laboratory at
Heidelberg.
While looking at an intense light of a brilliant colour, he exposed
his eye to rapid alternations of light and darkness by waving his fingers before
Under these circumstances a peculiar minute structure made its
his eyes.
appearance in the

field

of view, which

many

of us

may have

casually observed.

COLOUB VISION.
M. Exner states that the character of
the colour of the light employed.
is

seen

when the

light

green, the

is

and when the light

dots,

is

blue,

structure

this

When

red light

according to

different

is

used a veined structure

is

appears covered with minute black

field

spots

277

are

a larger

of

seen,

size

than

the

dots in the green, and of a lighter colour.

Whether
they have

their

physical

that

if

themselves

present

cause any difference

the three systems in

nerves of
sure

appearances

these

for

Helmholtz's

to

theory I

and whether

eyes,

all

arrangement

the

in

cannot

systems of nerves have a real existence, no method

these

likely to demonstrate their existence

the

of

but

say,

am

more

is

than that which M. Exner has followed.

Colour Blindnesn.

The most valuable evidence which we possess with respect to colour vision
by the colour-blind.
A considerable number of persons in
every large community are unable to distinguish between certain pairs of colours
is

furnished to us

Dr

which to ordinary people appear in glaring contrast.

The true nature of


John Herschel
world
in

this

peculiarity

a letter written

in

to

of vision

was

first

his

Dr Henry.

The

depends on the variable intensities of two sensations

The best

description

his account of his

In

cases

all

of

own

colour-blind

vision

is

been

we

sufi&cient

appears to resemble that which

chart of

the spectrum represents the relation of the

call

care,

The point

red.

absent

If
chart,
lie

it
it

three.

the absent

on

the
the

box furnished

Pole.

were possible to exhibit the colour corresponding to this point on the

would be

absolutely black,

invisible,

to

Professor

within the range of the colours of the spectrum

and, in fact, colour-blind people can perceive the extreme

which we

of

sensation to

colours of the spectrum, deduced from observations with the colour

by Professor

Colour-blind

instead

1859.

examined with

sensation

not

defect consists

given by Professor Pole in

that-

case in the Phil. Trans.,

which have

case.

pointed out by Sir

the absence of one of the three primary sensations of colour.

vision

the founder

own

Dalton in 1832, but not known to the

the publication of Dalton's Life by

till

Dalton,

an account of

of the atomic theory of chemistry, has given us

call

red,

though

it

Pole.

we cannot

As

it

does

exhibit

it

end of the spectrum

much darker than to us, and


we call red. In the diagram of

appears to them

does not excite in them the sensation which

the intensities of the three sensations excited by different parts of the spectrum,

COLOUR

278
the upper

marked P,

figure,

VISION.

deduced from the observations of Professor Pole;

is

while the lower one, marked K,

founded on observations by a very accurate

is

observer of the normal type.

The only
same

absent.

sensations which

the

is

of

result

one

that in

the

upper

are

nearly the

We

both observers.

for

colour

This

is

The forms of the other two curves

between the two diagrams

difference

the red curve

is

have great reason therefore to conclude that the


are what we call green and blue.

Professor Pole sees

my

other colour-blind person

calculations;

whom

The colour-blind
confounding them with red.

sensations.

know

in

with every

agrees

denying that green

one

is

of his

making mistakes about green things and

are always

The

but Professor Pole

colours they have

no doubts about are

cer-

tainly blue and yellow, and they persist in saying that yellow, and not green,
is

the colour which they are able to

see.

To explain this discrepancy we must remember that colour-blind persons


They are told
learn the names of colours by the same method as ourselves.
that the sky is blue, that grass is green, that gold is yellow, and that soldiers'
They observe difference in the colours of these objects, and they
coats are red.
But
often suppose that they see the same colours as we do, only not so well.
if

we

look at the diagram

we

we

call

yellow,

see

shall

second sensation in the spectrum

is

that the brightest

example

of

their

not in the green, but in the part which

and which we teach them to

spectrum below Professor Pole's curves

is

call

yellow.

The

figure

of

the

intended to represent to ordinary eyes

would see in the spectrum. I hardly dare to draw your


you were to think that any painted picture would enable you
to see with other people's vision I should certainly have lectured in vain.

what a

colour-blind person

attention to

for if

it,

On
Experiments on
vision
for

colour

of different persons,

instance,

pinkish,

which one

the

indicate
all

of

person

Yelloiv Spot.

very considerable

whom

are

between

differences

of the ordinary type.

on comparing

another person will pronounce greenish.

it

white

with

will

the

colour,

pronounce

This difference, however, does

not arise from any diversity in the nature of the colour sensations in different
persons.

It

is

exactly of the same kind as would be

persons wore yellow spectacles.

In

fact,

observed

if

one of the

most of us have near the middle of

the retina a yellow spot through which the rays must pass before they reach
the sensitive organ

this

spot appears yellow because

it

absorbs the rays near

COLOUR

which are of a greenish-blue

the line F,

My own

strongly developed.
of very

yellow spot.
chloride

of

have this spot

us

am

which anyone may see


white object

looking at a

in

indebted to Professor

whether
through

has

he
a

are

Stokes

for

this

solution

of

of chromium, or at a screen on which light which has passed through

solution

this

account.

a method by
consists

It

Some

colour.

observations of the spectrum near the line

on this

value

little

the knowledge of

27!)

VISION.

thrown

is

the light which

is

This light

[exhibited].

the ordinary surface of the retina

it

of a neutral tint, but

is

spot only the red light reaches the

the yellow

a mixture of red light with


When it falls on

is

so strongly absorbed by the yellow spot.

nerve,

optic

spot floating like a rosy cloud over the illuminated

when

and we

falls

it

on

see a red

field.

Very few persons are unable to detect the yellow spot in this way. The
observer K, whose colour equations have been used in preparing the chart of
the spectrum,

As

yellow spectacles.

parts

in

if

through

the chart of

is

of the
as

see everything as

for myself, the position of white light

on the yellow side of true white even when I use the outer
retina; but as soon as I look direct at it, it becomes much

the spectrum

yellower,

who do not

one of the very few

is

is

shewn by the point

WC.

It is a curious fact that

we do not

and that we do not think white objects


of any colour for some time, or if we live
of one colour, we soon come to recognize

see this yellow spot on every occasion,

yellow.

But

if

we wear

spectacles

a room lighted by windows all


white paper as white. This shews that
in

we

place in our sensations, that

There are several interesting


only mention briefly.

One

is

it

is

only

when some

alteration takes

are conscious of their quality.


facts

about the colour sensation which

that the extreme parts of the. retina are

can

nearly

you hold a red flower and a blue flower in your hand


flower,
as far back as you can see your hand, you will lose sight of the red
diminished
is
light
the
when
that
is,
Another
while you still see the blue one.
The third is,
red objects become darkened more in proportion than blue ones.
insensible

to

red.

If

that a kind of colour bUndness

produced
is

artificially

described by

in

by taking doses

Dr Edmund

Rose,

which blue

is

of Santonine.

of Berlin.

It

the absent sensation can be


This kind of colour blindness
is

only temporary, and does

than headaches.
not appear to be followed by any more serious
this medicine,
of
course
a
undergone
I must ask your pardon for not having
hand about
firat
at
information
give
you
able
to
becoming
even for the sake of
consequences

colour blindness.

P'rom the Transactions of

XLVIII. On

Royal Society of Edinburgh,

the

the Geometrical

Mean

Vol. xxvi.]

Distance of Tivo Figures on a Plane.

[Received January 5th; read January 15th, 1872.]

There

are several problems of great practical importance in electro-magnetic

measurements, in -which the value of a quantity has to be calculated by taking


the

we

of the logarithms of the distances of a system of parallel wires from a

sum

given

The

point.

calculation

in

is

some respects analogous

to

that in which

the potential at a point due to a given system of equal particles, by

find

adding the reciprocals of the distances of the particles from the given point.
There is this difference, however, that whereas the reciprocal of a line is com-

when we know the


we know not only the

pletely defined

unit of length, the logarithm of a line has no

meaning

unit of length, but the modulus of the system

till

of logarithms.

In both

cases,

however, an additional clearness

may

be given to the state-

ment of the result by dividing, by the number of wires in the first case, and
by the number of particles in the second. The result in the first case is the
logarithm of a distance, and in the second

and

in

both cases this distance

centrated

at

potential as

In the

this

it

distance

is

it

such that,

is

if

from the given point,

the reciprocal of a distance


the

whole system were con-

it

would produce the same

actually does.

first case,

since the logarithm of the resultant distance is the arith-

mean of the logarithms of the distances of the various components


the system, we may call the resultant distance the geometrical mean distance
metical

of
of

the system from the given point.

In the second
arithmetical

mean

case,

since

the reciprocal of the resultant distance

of the reciprocals of the distances of the particles,

is

the

we may


THE GEOMETRICAL MEAN DISTANCE OF TWO FIGURES ON A PLANE.

mean

the harmonic

the resultant distance

call

distance

of the

281

system from the

given point.

The
of

of a

result

process

we cannot

which

mean

distances

may

be cotapared with that of

and distances which are known

length

the

gyration,

of these

use

practical

several artificial lines

of

in

Dynamics

as the radius

the equivalent simple pendulum, and

of

integration

recorded,

is

and presented

to

and which we may substitute

misunderstand,

mentary formulae which apply to the case of single


doubts about the value of the numerical

co-efficients,

particles.

we may

so

form

those

in

If

The

on.

us in

ele-

we have anv

test the expression

the mean distance by taking the point at a great distance from the system,

for

which case the mean distance must approximate to the distance of the centre

in

of gravity.

Thus
of which

it is

is

shall

which lead to
I

that the harmonic

distance

of

is

any

figure

distance of two spheres, each

from a thin shell which completely

equal to the radius of the

shell.

not discuss the harmonic

mean

distance,

because

the

calculations

and because we can do very well without

are well known,

it

mean

the distance between their centres, and that

it.

however, give a few examples of the geometric mean distance, in order

shall,

shew

to

known

mean

the harmonic
encloses it

well

external to the other,

is

its

use in electro-magnetic calculations,

some of which seem

to

me

to

be rendered both easier to follow and more secure against error by a free use
of this imaginary line.
If the co-ordinates of a point in the first of

and those of a point


these

points,

^ and

in the second

then R,

the

geometrical

rj,

and

mean

if

two plane

figures be

x and

distance

the

of

two

figures,

defined by the equation


log

Let

(1)

in

jjjjdxdyd^dr) = jjjj log r dxdyd^d-q.

following are some examples of the results of this calculation

The
not

the

AB

he

2i

and

line,

uniform Hne, and


let

OP

on the line AB, produced

is

the geometric

if

line

mean

a point

be the perpendicular

from

if

necessary, then

distance of

from the

AB,

AB
VOL.

II.

(\ogR+l) = PB

log

y,

r denote the distance between

OB -PA log OA + OP AOB.


.

36

is

THE GEOMETRICAL MEAN DISTANCE

282

is

of P, a point in the line

The geometrical mean distance

(2)

itself,

from

AB

found from the equation

AB{\ogR + l) = PB\ogPB-PA\ogPA.

When P

logarithm of
If

(3)

between

lies

PA

we

PA

the geometric

is

CD, lying in the same straight

AB.CD(2\ogR +
If

(4)

of

AB

must be taken

negative, but in taking the

as a positive numerical quantity.

distance between

mean

two

finite

lines

AB

with

CD, we

find

the geometric

for

mean

from each other

R = ABe-K
If

(5)

rectangle

POR

72

from the

QOS

and

mean

geometric

the

is

ABCD

are

point

parallel

distance of the

in

to

the

its

plane,

and

of

the

sides

rectangle through 0,

ABCD

(2\ogR + 2;) = 20P OQ\ogOA + 20Q.OR\ogOB


.

+ 20R. OS log 0C+20S.0P log CD


+0Q"- .a6b
+ op'.d6a
+ OS' COD
+ OR^ BOC
.

(6)

of

all

If

is

geometric

the
of

the

mean

rectangle

of

the

ABCD

distances

from

the

points

logi2

= log^(7-i-g^log^-i^^log-g^

each

other,

When

AB

and

line,

= ADnogAD + BCnogBC-ACnogAC-BDno^BD.

coincides

the points oi

all

2>)

PA

and B,

regard

the rectangle

is

a square, whose side

logi2 = loga

= a,

+ ilog2 + ^-f|

= log a -0-8050866,
i2

= 0-44705o.

distance

283

OF TWO FIGURES ON A PLANE.

The

(7)

point in

the

circle,

mean

geometric

and a

the point be within the

if

encloses

it

distance of any figure

both of which completely enclose


{a,'

- a/)

(log

being the radius of the outer

mean

concentric

any

of

distance

circles,

the

radius

from a

the point be without

if

figure

it,

is

of

figure

the

from a

circle

which 'com-

circle.

R, where

R + l) = a,' log a, - a* log a


circle,

from a

and

a,

circle

that of the inner.


or

an annular space

The geometric
between two

being completely external to the outer

figure

distance of the figure from the centre of the

mean

the geometric

The geometric mean


from the annular space between two concentric circles,

equal to the radius

is

of

line

is

circle.

The geometric mean distance of any

(8)

pletely

a,

of a circular

distance

plane at a distance r from the centre,

its

circle,

is

circle.

The geometric mean distance of all the points of the annular space
between two concentric circles from ^ach other is R, where
(9)

(,'

When

- clJ

(log

R - log aO = i (3a/ - a,^) (a/ - a,^) - a,' log |

the radius of the inner

a,,

vanishes,

circle,

we

find

R = ae-i.
When
outer

the radius of the inner

a^,

circle,

becomes nearly equal to a that of the

circle,

R=

a,.

coil

As an example of the application of this method, let us take the case of a


of wire, in which the wires are arranged so that the transverse section of

the

coil

exhibits the sections of the wires arranged in square order, the distance

between two consecutive wires being D, and the diameter of each


Let the whole section of the

coil

be

of dimensions

pared with the radius of curvature of the wires, and let


the geometrical mean distance of the section from itself
be R.

Let

it

be required to find the

of this coil on
1st.

the

If

whole

insulating

itself,

we

coefficient

matter,

of

the

then

if

coil,

is

which are small com-

of induction

the number of windings being

begin by supposing that the wires

section

Avire d.

n.
fill

up

without any interval^ of


the coefficient of induc-

3C

THE GEOMETRICAL MEAN DISTANCE

284
tion

circuit of the

of a linear

same shape as the

coil

on a similar

parallel cir-

cuit at a distance R, the coefficient of induction of the coil on itself will be

The

2nd.

It is confined

current, however,

to

length of a conductor

not uniformly distributed over the section.

is

Now

the wires.

the coefficient of self-induction of a unit of

is

C-2logjR,

where

is

the

Now

is

a constant depending on the form of the axis of the conductor, and


distance of the section from

mean geometric
for

itself.

a square of side D,

logA = logZ)-Hjlog2 + |-f|,


and

for a circle of

diameter d
log Ri = log

Hence
and the

log;^'

coefficient

d log ^ i-

= log^ + f log2-l-|-^,
of

of self-induction

the cylindric wire exceeds that of the

square wire by
2 {log

^-f 0-1380606}

per unit of length.

3rd.

We

must

wire and the other

and

the

also

neighbouring

squares side by side

compare the mutual induction between the

cylindric

is

square

wires next
wires.

it

The

cylindric

with that between the square wire


geometric

to the distance of their centres

mean

distance

of gravity as

of

two

0*99401

is

to unity.

The geometric mean distance of two squares placed comer

comer

is

correction for the eight wires nearest to the wire considered

is

the distance between their centres of gravity as

Hence the

-2

X (0-01971).

TOO 11

is

to

to unity.

to

OF TWO FIGURES ON A PLANE.

The

correction for the wires at a greater distance

is

285
less

than one-thousandth

per unit of length.

The

total self-induction of the coil

therefore

is

7r3f+2/|log^ + 0-11835},
wliere n

is

the

number

For a circular

coil

of windings,

of radius

and

the length of wire.

= a,

M= imi (log 8a - log R where

is

the geometrical

mean

2),

distance of the section of the coil from itself

[From the Proceedings of

XLIX.

On

the Induction

the

Royal

No. 132, 1872.]

Society,

of Electnc Currents in an Infinite Plane Sheet of

Uniform Conductivity.

"When, on account of the motion or the change of strength


1.
magnet or electro-magnet, a change takes place in the magnetic field,
motive forces are called into play, and,

the

if

conductor, electric currents are produced.


tion of electric currents, discovered

This

of

material in which they act


is

any

electrois

the phenomenon of the induc-

by Faraday.

I propose to investigate the case in which the conducting


substance is in
the form of a thin stratum or sheet, bounded by parallel planes, and
of indefi-

nite extent.
system of magnets or electro-magnets is supposed to exist on
the positive side of this sheet, and to vary in any way by changing its
position

We

or its intensity.

the

and

sheet,

their

have to determine the nature of the currents induced in


magnetic effect at any point, and, in particular, their

reaction on the electro-magnetic system which gave rise to them.


The induced
currents are due, partly to the direct action of the external system,
and partly
to

mutual

their

somewhat
2.

inductive

action;

so

that the problem

The

result

of

markably simple form,

the

investigation,

by the

aid

however,

of the

part

of this principle

positive side of a

certain

closed

is,

or

that

we

at

first

sight,

infinite

surface

if it

presented in a re-

of images

by

conceive the

actions having their seat on that surface) to be due

the negative side of the surface, which,

may be

principle

applied to problems in electricity and hydrokinetics


essential

appears,

difficult.

Sir

existed,

which was

first

Thomson.

The

state of things on the

(which
to

W.

is really caused by
an imaginary system on
and if the action of the

287

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

were

surface

abolished,

would give

the

of things in

actual state

the

to

rise

space on the positive side of the surface.

The

the positive side of the surface

of things on

state

mathematical function, which

expressed by a

is

form from that which expresses the

different in

is

of things on the negative side, but which is identical with that which
would be due to the existence, on the negative side, of a certain system which

state

is

called the Image.

The image,

what we should

therefore, is

mathematical function as

the

far

as

arrive at

go; just

will

it

by producing,
as,

in

as

it

the

optics,

were,

\'irtual

image is found by producing the rays, in straight lines, backwards from the place
where their direction has been altered by reflexion or refraction.

The position of the image of a point in a plane surface is found by


3.
drawing a perpendicular from the point to the surface and producing it to an
If the image is of the same
equal distance on the other side of the surface.
sign as the point, as
is

it

in hydrokinetics

is

If

called a positive image.

when the

surface

conducting circuit

is
is

it

is

a conductor,

it

reckoned

of the

when the

surface

is

a rigid plane,

opposite sign, as in statical

The image of a

called a negative image.

is

positive

when the

electric

current flows

corresponding directions through corresponding parts of the object

The image

is

it

electricity,

in

the

and the image.

reckoned negative when the direction of the current

is

reversed.

In the case of the plane conducting sheet, the imaginary system on the
not the simple image, positive or negative, of the
of a mo\nng
real magnet or electro-magnet on the positive side, but consists
define.
to
proceed
now
we
which
of
train of images, the nature
negative side of the sheet

length

a,

is

be

resistance of a rectangular portion of the sheet

the specific

and

if

is

is

is

whose

2na, be E.

on the electro-magnetic

measured

the value of which

p denotes

cube

electric

and whose breadth

to

is

velocity,

[If

the

Let

4.

is

independent

resistance

of

the

the thickness of the sheet,

of

system, and

material

then

is

therefore

magnitude of the

the

of

line

a
a.

the sheet for a unit

R = -^/,

and

the specific resistance of the sheet for a unit (or any other) square,

if cr

denotes

^ = ^-]

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

288

Let us begin by dividing the time into a num-

5.

ber of equal intervals, each equal to

we take

The smaller

Bt.

these intervals the more accurate will be the


of the

definition

which we

of images

train

shall

now

describe.
6.

magnet

At

a given time

image of the

let a positive

t,

electro-magnet be formed

or

on

negative

the

:
i

side of the sheet.

As soon as it is formed,
move away from the sheet
normal,

with

remaining

the

After

at the time

an

interval

the

direction

that

as

the

of

and intensity

form

its

same

the

constantly

magnet had

R,

velocity

image begin to

this

let

in

which

the

t.

that

Bt,

is

to

at

say,

time

the

+ Bt,

let

a negative

image, equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to this positive image, be formed
in the original position of the positive image,

and

let it

then begin to move along

The

the normal, after the positive image, with the velocity H.

between the

images at any point will be

arrival of these

between corresponding points


7.

Leaving

this

pair

attend to the real magnet,


this

instant

let

position,

and

velocity

E,

new

let this

will

Let these

be RBt.

images to pursue their endless journey,

or

electro-magnet,

it

is

at the time

formed of the magnet

image be

after

an

operations

each of these intervals being equal to


8.

as

also travel in the direction of the

and be followed

negative image.

interval of time

and the distance

of

positive

image

Bt,

interval

of

time

Bt

let

+ Bt.

in

its

us

At
new

normal with the

by a corresponding

be repeated at equal intervals of time,


8^.

Thus at any given instant there

will

be a train or

trail

of

images,

beginning with a single positive image, and followed by an endless succession of


This trail, when once formed, continues unchangeable in form
pairs of images.

and

intensity,

and moves

as

whole away

from

the

conducting

sheet

with

the constant velocity B.


9.

If

we now suppose

the interval of time

Bt

to

be diminished without

limit, and the train to be extended without limit in the negative direction, so
as to include all the images which have been formed in all past time, the
magnetic effect of this imaginary train at any point on the positive side of the

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.
sheet

conducting

with

be identical

will

that

28l>

the

of

which

currents

electric

actually exist in the sheet.

Before proceeding to prove this statement,

which

assumes in certain

it

Let us suppose the

10.

originally

intensity,

instant

this

positive

real

system to be an electro-magnet, and that

suddenly becomes

zero,

image

normal with velocity R.

us take notice of the form

let

cases.

is

formed,

After an interval

/,

which

begins

to

travel

another positive image

ht

its

At

and then remains constant.

the

along
is

formed;

but at the same instant a second negative image is formed at the same place,
which exactly neutralizes its effect. Hence the result is, that a single positive
image travels by itself along the normal with velocity R. The magnetic effect of

image on the positive side of the sheet

this

is

equivalent to that of the currents

of induction actually existing in the sheet, and the diminution of this effect, as

the unage moves away from

the

sheet,

accurately

represents

the

of the

effect

currents of induction, which gradually decay on account of the resistance of the

After a sufficient time,

sheet.

the image

is

so

distant that its effects are

no

on the positive side of the sheet. If the current of the electrolonger


magnet be now broken, there will be no more images but the last negative
image of the train will be left unneutralized, and will move away from the sheet
sensible

with

R.

velocity

The currents

in

the sheet will

therefore

be

of

same

the

magnitude as those which followed the excitement of the electro-magnet, but

in

the opposite direction.


It

11.

intensity,
its

it

intensity
also

It

appears

from

this

that,

when the electro-magnet

is

increasing in

be acted on by a repulsive force from the sheet,


diminishing, it will be attracted towards the sheet.

will
is

appears that

if

any system of currents

is

produced

and when

in the

sheet

and then left to itself, the effect of the decay of the currents, as observed at
a point on the positive side of the sheet, will be the same as if the sheet, with
its currents remaining constant, had been carried away in the negative direction
w^ith velocity
12.

R.

If a

magnetic pole of strength

is

along a normal to the sheet with a uniform


will be repelled

z is

VOL.

infinite

distance

towards the sheet,

with a force

4?
where

brought from an
velocity v

R^'

the distance from the sheet at the given instant.

II.

37

it

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

290

This formula will not apply to the case of the pole moving away from the
because in that case we must take account of the currents which are

sheet,

excited

when the

13.

pole begins to move, which

when near

does

magnetic pole moves in a straight line

If the

with uniform velocity


to its motion,

it

will be acted

it

v,

the sheet.

parallel

to

the

sheet,

on by a force in the opposite direction

and equal to
7)v

jR + ^- + R-v
'

{^E'+'if+Ey

42^

Besides this retarding force,

acted on by a force repelling

it is

it

from the

sheet, equal to

42=

E+

v'

+ EjE + v''

If the pole moves uniformly in a circle, the trail is in the form of a


and the calculation of its effect is more difficult it is easy, however, to
see that, besides the retarding force and the repelling force, there is also a force
14.

helix,

towards the centre of the


It

15.

shewn,

is

circle.

my

in

treatise

0)i

Electricity

and Magnetism

(Vol.

n.

any system are the same, whether the conducting


system or the inducing system be in motion, provided the relative motion is
the same. Hence the results already given are directly applicable to the case
Art. 600), tliat the currents in

of Arago's rotating disk, provided the induced currents are not sensibly affected

by the

limitation arising from the edge of the disk.

sets of images,

which we

The greater the

16.

now

shall not

Hence

in

most actual cases

the external system, and the


the induced currents

differ

of the external system (see

17.

If the

would be

will introduce other

sheet,

material,

whether from

the greater

is

its

thinness or

the velocity E.

very great compared with v the velocity of

images is nearly normal to the sheet, and


from those which arise from the direct action

trail of

little

is

its

1).

conductivity of the sheet were infinite,

or its

resistance

zero,

The images, once formed, would remain stationary, and all


Hence the trail
formed positive image would be neutralized.

zero.

except the last

of the

resistance

from the low conducting-power of

These

investigate.

291

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

would be reduced to a
~, on the

sive force
I

and the sheet would exert a repul-

single positive image,

whether the pole be

pole,

in

motion or at

need not say that this case does not occur

Something of the kind

supposed

is

exist

to

in

in

the

rest.

nature as
interior

we know

it.

of molecules in

Weber's Theory of Diamagnetiam,

Mathematical Investigation.

Let the conducting sheet coincide with the plane of xy, and let its
so small that we may neglect the variation of magnetic force at

18.

thickness be

different points of the

same normal within

its

and

substance,

that, for the

same

the only currents which can produce sensible effects are those which are

reason,

parallel to the surface of the sheet.

Current-function.

We

19.

function
of time,

j).

define

shall

This

the currents in the sheet

function expresses the

crosses from

right

to

left

by means of the current-

quantity of electricity which,

unit

in

a curve drawn from a point at infinity to

the point P.

This quantity will be the same for any two curves drawn from this point

P, provided no electricity enters or leaves the sheet at any point between


Hence <^ is a single-valued function of the position of the point P.
these curves.
to

The quantity which

crosses the element ds of

any curve from right to

left is

-y- as.

ds

By drawing
to

the axis of

directions of

ds

y,

first

we

perpendicular to the axis of

The curves
20.

and

for

which

</>

is

The annular portion


<f)-{-B(f)

and then perpendicular

x and of y respectively

=#,
ay

<^

x,

obtain for the components of the electric current in the

is

,=

_#
ax

constant are called current


of the

(I).

lines.

sheet included between the current lines

a conducting circuit round which an electric current of strength

372

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

292
S<j>

flowing in

Is

circuit

the

having the circuit for

magnetic

its

its

that

direction,

positive

equivalent In

Is

is,

from

x towards

to a magnetic

effects

shell

Such a

y.

of strength

B(j>,

edge*.
electric currents

The whole system of

in

the sheet will therefore be equi-

valent to a complex magnetic shell, consisting of all the simple shells, defined
The strength of the equivalent complex
as above, into which it can be divided.
shell at

any point

We

may

will

suppose

be

<^.

shell

this

to

consist

of

two

imaginary magnetic matter at a very small distance

^ on the

positive sheet,

To

21.

{^,

density

C)

7),

is

<f>,

--

plane

sheets

of

the surface-density being

on the negative sheet.

this complex plane shell at


by finding P, the potential at the
due to a plane sheet of imaginary magnetic matter whose surfaceand which coincides with the plane of xy. The potential due to

find the

any point not in


point

and

parallel

c,

its

magnetic potential due to

substance, let us begin

the positive sheet whose surface-density


the positive side of the plane of

xij,

is

-, and which

is

at a distance

on

is

l(p-4of..c.).
That due to the negative
plane of xy is

Hence the magnetic

sheet,

at a distance

potential of the shell

on the negative side of the

is

(^)-

^--'i
This,

any

therefore, is

point

given

magnetic

potential,

sheet the

potential

on the positive
'

W.

the value of the magnetic potential of the current-sheet at


on the positive side of it. Within the sheet there is no

and at
is

any point

(^,

rj,

-Q

on the negative side of the

equal and of opposite sign to that at the point

side.

Thomson, "Mathematical Theoiy of Magnetism,"

Phil. Trans. 1850.

(i,

-q,

Cj

293

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

At the

22.

positive surface the magnetic potential

is

K=-g = 2..^
At the negative

(3).

surface

f=M

W-

;-

of magnetic force at the positive surface

The normal component

dV

is

d'P

/-x

^^'

^^-dC^W
In the case of the magnetic
the surface

shell,

the magnetic force

is

discontinuous at

but in the case of the current-sheet this expression gives the value

of y within the sheet

itself,

as well as in the space outside.

Let F, G, II be the components of the electro-magnetic momentum at


in the sheet, due to external electro-magnetic action as well as to

23.

any point

that of the currents in the sheet, then the electromotive force in the direction
of

is

_dF_d^
dx'

dt

where

is

xft

where

cr

is

the

electric

potential'^;

and by

Ohm's law

this

is

equal to

au,

the specific resistance of the sheet.

dF dxP]
^''=dt~di

Hence

(6).

cru=

Similarly,

dG_dxp
dt

Let the external system be such that

by

dP
~

dy
its

magnetic potential

is

represented

then the actual magnetic potential will be

r=-|(P.+P)
and

F=-^{P. + P),
"Dynamical Theory

G=-^^{P, + P), H=0

of the Electromagnetic Field," Phil. Trans. 1865, p. 483.

(7),

(8).

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

294

Hence equations

become, by introducing the stream-function

(6)

dtdy^

dy

'

<j>

from

(1),

dx

'

(9).

dtdx^

dx

solution of these equations

is

o-<^=-^(P + P),
Substituting the value of

<}>

dy

'

"

i/,

= constant

(10).

in terms of P, as given in equation (4),

(")

2^f=-l(^+^)
The quantity
call it

is

evidently a velocity; let us therefore for conciseness

R, then

-f-f-^f24.

(-)

Let Po' be the value of P^ at the time t-T, and at a point on the
y, (z Rt), and let

negative side of the sheet, whose co-ordinates are x,

=\>
At the upper limit when t is infinite P^
when T = and P^ = P^, we must have

(13).

vanishes.

dQ

Hence

at the

dQ

lower limit,

but by equation (12)

^^o^_dPj,dP
dt

dt

Hence the equation

will be satisfied if

dz

we make
(^)-

^=-f=-y>--^^
25.
differ

This,

then,

is

a solution

of the

problem.

Any

other solution must

from this by a system of closed currents, depending on the

of the sheet,

initial

state

not due to any external cause, and which therefore must decay

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

Hence,

rapidly.

we assume an

since

eternity

295

of

past time,

this

tlie

is

only

solution of the problem.

This

expresses P,

solution

current, in terms

function due to

and through

of P/,

due to the external magnetic system.


to

z,

to

t,

we
we

the induced

differentiating

and P^ with respect

by equation (10), the current-function.


Hence the
and P,, as expressed by equation (16), is similar to the

obtain,

between the external system and


of these images in the

first

relation
relation

of images as expressed in the descrip-

its trail

paper

part of this

6,

meaning of equation

an explanation of the

simply

of

obtain the magnetic potential, and by differentiating them with respect

between

tion

By

the action

a function of the same kind

this of P,

7,

8,

which

9),

combined

(16)

is

with

the

to refer to

two

definition of P^' in 24.

Note to the preceding Paper.

At

when

the time

this paper

was written,

was not able

papers by Prof. Felici, in Tortolini's Annali di Scienze for

1853 and 1854, in

which he discusses the induction of currents in

solid homogeneous conductors and


two papers by E. Jochmann in Crelle's
Journal for 1864, and one in Poggendorff's Annalen for 1864, on the currents
induced in a rotating conductor by a magnet.

in

a plane conducting sheet, and

to

Neither of these writers have attempted to take into account the inductive
action of the currents on each other, though both have recognised the existence

of such an action,
of

case

Jochmann
plane

the

and given equations expressing

magnetic
solves

of the

He

disk.

lines,

poles of opposite

name

sides

Matteucci at

of
first

it,

it.

M.

Felici

almost in contact with a

the case in which the

equipotential

opposite

placed

pole

pole

is

at

finite

considers

the

rotating

disk.

distance

from the

E.

has also draAvn the forms of the current-lines and of


in

the

case

at equal

of a single pole,

distances

and

in

the case of two

from the axis of the

supposed, perpendicular to the equipotential

but on

disk,

and has pointed out why the current-Unes are


lines,

not,

as

which he

traced experimentally.
I am not aware that the principle of images, as described in the paper
presented to the Royal Society, has been previously applied to the phenomena

of induced

currents,

or

that the

problem of the

induction

of

currents

in

an

ELECTRIC INDUCTION.

29 G

taking into account the mutual induction

plane sheet has been solved,

infinite

of these currents, so as to

make the

solution applicable to a sheet of

any degree

of conductivity.

The statement
what

strange,

equation

in

(10),

that the

we know

since

that

touching the sheet at different points.

currents

to

the whole circuit

lies

may

be

a magnetic system

may appear someby

collected

electrodes

circuit

not included in the sheet

in the plane of the sheet, but

is

so arranged as not

with the uniform conductivity of the sheet, there will be no

interfere

of potential in

ference

of

These currents, however, depend entirely

on the inductive action on the part of the


for if

motion

differences of potential in the infinite sheet,

does not produce

who shews

that

any part of the

when the

This

circuit.

currents are induced

is

pointed out by

dif-

Felici,

by the instantaneous magnetiza-

tion of a magnet, these currents are not accompanied with differences of potential
in different parts of

When

the sheet

the sheet.
is itself

in motion, it appears,

from Art. 600 of

and Magnetism, that the electric potential


measured by means of the electrodes of a fixed circuit, is
0)1

Electricity

where

^ ^

are

to which the electrode

of

any

my

treatise

point,

as

the components of the velocity of the part of the sheet


is

applied.

In the case of a sheet revolving with velocity w about the axis of

z,

this

becomes

dP
dx
Note
thickness
cities

of

2.

The

velocity

for

dP}
dy

a copper plate of best quality

millimetre in

Hence it is only for very small velothe apparatus that we can obtain any approximation to the true result
is

about 25 metres per second.

by neglecting the mutual induction of the

currents.

Feb.

13.

[From the Proceedings of

L.

0)1

the

Condition that, in the Transformation of any Figure hy Curvilinear

Co-ordinates in

equal

Society, Vol. iv.]

London Mathematical

the

Three Dimensions, every Angle in the new Figure shall he

corresponding Angle in the original Figure.

to the

May

[Read

In the corresponding problem

in

9th, 1872.]

two dimensions, the only condition

x + >r:^ly=f{^+J^lr))
where

x,

y are the co-ordinates in one system, and

In three dimensions the solution

is

more

|,

is

(1).
t^

in the other.

restricted.

be functions of $,7), C, then the point in the system x, y, z,


a series
for which f is constant, will be in a certain surface, and by giving ^
of
series
other
two
There will be
of values we obtain a series of such surfaces.
rj,
system
second
the
in
C
If
^,
surfaces, corresponding to t) and ^ respectively.

Let

X,

y,

are rectangular

system

co-ordinates,

corresponding to

the surfaces

will intersect at right angles.

dx dx

The condition of

dzdz^_
dr)dC~

dy dy

d^dC'^d^dl
with two other equations in
If

we now

and

^,

and ^ and

dyy

d-n.

t;,

in

the

(2).

rj.

dzV
/
d-n.

^-*{i)'*(f
II.

^,
is

WTite

^
VOL.

this

(3);

first

TRANSFORMATION OF ANY FIGURE BY

298

and d^

the

is

surfaces ^

intercept

of the line

(7^

= const.,

= const.)

cut off between the

and ^+d^.

The angle e, at which a line whose co-ordinates are functions of


whose co-ordinates are functions of q, is found from the equation
dx dx dy dij dz dz
dp dq dp dq dp dq

line

mh&<PMm<i)-*m
Expressing this in terms of

$,

rj,

^.dldl_^
dp dq

= cose
In
{x,

y,

lines in

that

the system

these

'

dCdC
dp dq

the angle

e,

at which these lines intersect in the

should be always equal to the angle


{$,

rj,

are

at which the

e,

and

intersect, it is necessary
c^

for

drjdrj

dp dq

(4).

becomes

it

C,

f(f-^(i)-^(i)}'{-'*'''-^r-^

order
z),

and

cuts

2^

system

corresponding

sufficient that

=^=7

(6).

the conditions that equations

(4)

and

(5)

should be of the same

form.

Now
the
7}

consider

surface

the quadrilateral

(^ = const.) by

A BCD,

the surfaces

$,

cut off from

^+d^,

rj,

and

+ drj.

AB = adl
AD = ^drj,
OD=[a^%d,)dl
BC=[^^^f^di^dyj.
Since the three sets of surfaces are orthogonal, their intersections are lines
of curvature,

by Dupin's Theorem.

Hence

AB

is

a line of

curvature

of the

299

CURVILINEAR CO-ORDINATKS IN THREE DIMENSIONS.


surface

drawn

t),

at

some point 0.

of

a,

Hence the normals at A and B


OA, the radius of curvature of t)

parallel to a.

Let us

call

AB

DC

7^

::

J^,^

+ '^D.

^^'^"^

^"^^^''^^^^^

Hence

^^"^^Zl'

dr]

cIt)

These values of the radii of curvature are true

or the

in the xdanc

then

/*,,

surfaces,

intersect

will

but since in this case a = y,

principal

= y8 = 7,

Hence the

the other

any system of orthogonal

for

find

of cur\'ature of the surface

radii

every point of the surface.


Since a

we

surfaces

t]

flimilies of surfaces

r)

equal to each other at

are

must be spherical.
| and

must

also

be spherical.

take one of the points where three spherical surfaces meet at right
These spheres when inverted
angles for the origin, and invert the system.
and the other spheres become
angles,
right
at
intersecting
planes
three
become

Now

spheres,

centres

from

each
lie

the

intersecting

point of intersection of the three

are

(/

?-'

= 6- + r,
p'

whence
the

planes,

systems, and

three

these

Let

planes.

a, b,

of the
let

their

Hence

their

c be the distances,

centres
radii

of spheres

be

p,

q,

Then the conditions that these spheres intersect at right angles

respectively.

all

of

in the lines of intersection of the planes.

belonging each to one of the

or

angles two

right

at

spheres

tangent plane.

pass

Hence

if

r-+p-

= a-,

q-

= c- + (r,
= h-,

r^

_2)'

+ 2' = ' + ^^

= c-;
system has a common

through

the origin, and each

we take

these three planes as co-ordinate planes, and

write
x"-

we have rp = R\

+ 7f-{-z- = r,

a constant quantity,

?/

382

300

whence

TRANSFORMATION OF ANY FIGURE,

X--

&C.

[From Nature,

LI.

Vol. vii.]

Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism.


D.C.L., LL.D.,

By

Sir

W. Thomson,

F.KS., F.R.S.E., Fellow of St Peter's CoUege, Cambridge,

and Professor of Natural Philosophy


Macmillan and Co., 1872.)

To obtain any adequate


we must study these papers

in the University of

Glasgow.

(London:

idea of the present state of electro-magnetic science


of Sir

W.

Thomson's.

It

is

true that a great deal

work has been done, chiefly by the Germans, both in analytical


calculation and in experimental researches, by methods which are independent
of, or at least different from, those developed in these papers, and it
is
the
glory of true science that all legitimate methods must lead, to the same final
But if we are to count the gain to science by the number and value
results.
of admirable

of the ideas developed in the course of the inquiry, which preserve the results

thought in a form capable of being employed in future investigation,

of former

we must

place

the very highest

One
is

Sir

W.

Thomson's contributions to electro-magnetic science

of the most valuable of these truly scientific, or science-forming ideas,

that which forms the

scientific

on

level.

problems,

considered

from

subject

of

the

first

paper

each of the highest order of

quite

different

points

of

view.

in

this

collection.

Two

had hitherto been


Cavendish and Poisson had

difficulty,

investigated the distribution of electricity on conductors on the hypothesis that

the particles of electricity exert on each other forces which vary inversely as

the square of the distance between them.

On

the

other

hand Fourier had

investigated the laws of the steady conduction of heat on the hypothesis that

the flow of
are

colder

is

heat from the hotter parts of a body to contiguous parts which


proportional to

point to point of the body.

the

rate

at

The physical

which

the

temperature

ideas involved in these

varies

from

two problems

quite

are
at

AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTROSTATICS

30-2

electricity

problems,

determined

In the other

expresses

their

in

this

as

colder

to

parts.

on a

force

the

of

resultant

the

we have

relation

paper,

elementary

mathematically identical, and

methods, are

hotter

In the one the

different.

to solve a certain

between

the

of

rates

passing along lines drawn in three different direc-

in

both

different,

so

be

Thomson, in

a point.

throuo-h

to

which

equation

of temperature

variation

has

the other particles.

differential

partial

were also

investigation

of

particle

attraction of all

tions

the other heat creeping along from

in

The methods of
given

In the one we have an attraction acting instantaneously

dift'erent.

a distance,

that,

points
ideas

that

out

and

by a proper

these

their

two

analytical

substitution

of

thermal terms in the original statement, any of Fourier's wonderful


methods of solution may be applied to electrical problems. The electrician has
only to substitute an electrified surface for the surface through which heat is
supplied, and to translate temperature into electric potential, and he may at

electrical for

once take possession of

Fourier's solutions

all

of

the problem of the uniform

flow of heat.

To render the

results obtained in the prosecution of one branch of inquiry

another is an important service done to science,


more important to introduce into a science a new set of ideas,
belono-ino- as in this case, to what was, till then, considered an entirely unconnected science. This paper of Thomson's, published in February 1842, when he
to

available

but

it

is

the students of

still

was a very young freshman at Cambridge,


science

that

idea

of

electrical

medium which, though

it

as the guiding idea of his

action

first

earned

on

introduced

by means

into

of

mathematical
a

continuous

had been announced by Faraday, and used by him


researches, had never been appreciated by other men

and was supposed by mathematicians to be inconsistent with the


action, as established by Coulomb, and built on by Poisson.
laws
It was Thomson who pointed out that the ideas employed by Faraday under
the names of Induction, Lines of Force, &c., and implying an action transmitted

of

science,

of electrical

from one part


results

of

medium

obtained by the

to

another,

were not

only consistent

mathematicians, but might be employed

in

with
a

the

mathe-

new results. One of these new results, which


we have reason to believe, obtained by this method, though demonstrated
by Thomson by a very elegant adaptation of Newton's method in the theory
of attraction, is the "Method of Electrical Images," leading to the "Method
matical form so as to lead to
was,

of Electrical Inversion."

AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTROSTATICS

303

Poisson had already,


harmonics,
electricity

by means of Laplace's powerful method of spherical


the form of an infinite series, the distribution of
on a sphere acted on by an electrified system.
No one, however,
determined,

in

seems to liave observed that when the external electrified system is reduced
to a point, the resultant external action is equivalent to that of this point,
together with an imaginary electrified point within the sphere, which Thomson
the electnc image of the external point.

calls

Now

if in an infinite conducting solid heat is flowing outwards uniformly


from a very small spherical source, and part of this heat is absorbed at another

small

spherical

directions

all

calculate

surface,

which we may

through the

infinite

call

solid,

it

a sink, while the rest flows out in


is

One

the isothermal surfaces.

of

these

by

easy,

the stationary temperature at any point


surfaces

methods, to

Fourier's

the

in

solid,

sphere,

and

and

to

draw

the
problem, this sphere becomes a conducting surface in connection with
the earth, and the external source of heat is transformed into an electrified
is

if,

in

electrical

point, the

flow

sink will become the

image of that point, and the temperature and

of heat at any point outside the sphere will become the electric potential

and resultant force.


Thus Thomson obtained the rigorous solution of electrical problems relating
to spheres by the introduction of an imaginary electrified system within the
sphere.
But this imaginary system itself next became the subject of examination, as

the result of the transformation of the external electrified system by

By this method, called


many new problems was obtained by

reciprocal radii vectores.

solution of

already solved.
in

a letter to M.

beautiful
Liouville,

example of

this

dated October

8,

that of electrical inversion, the

the transformation of problems

method

is

suggested by Thomson

1845, and published in

Liouville's

Journal, for 1845,

but which does not seem to have been taken up

mathematician,

Thomson

till

of the book before us),

himself,

by any

a hitherto unpublished paper (No. xv.

in

wrote out the investigation complete.

This,

the

most

remarkable problem of electrostatics hitherto solved, relates to the distribution


of electricity on a segment of spherical surface, or a houi, as Thomson calls
it,

under the influence of any

important case of a

flat

circular hole cut out of


If,

method

electrical

circular

dish,

forces.

and of an

The

solution

infinite

flat

includes

screen

a very

with

it.

however, the mathematicians were slow in making use of the physical


of electric inversion, they were

more ready to appropriate the geometrical

idea

AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTROSTATICS

304

by

of inversion

having

geometers,

we

though, unless

radii vectores, which

reciprocal

we

been,

is

and

discovered

suppose,

now

well

most of these discoveries are

are mistaken,

known

re-discovered

to all

repeatedly,

than 1845,

later

the date of Thomson's paper.

But

we have

science,

No.

in

a paper of even

vii.

Thomson shews how the force acting on an elecbody can be exactly accounted for by the diminution of the atmospheric

trified

pressure
to

return to physical

to

date (1843), in which

earlier

on

pressure

name

only another

is

Now

by means of which,

in

This short paper,

of that

diminution of

Faraday's opinion, the mutual action between electrified


therefore, may be regarded as the germ
by which Maxwell has gradually developed the

of speculation

course

this

tension along the lines of electric force,

for that

bodies

takes place.

everywhere proportional

surface, this diminution being

electrified

its

the square of the electrification per unit of area.

mathematical significance of Faraday's idea of the physical action of the

lines

of force.

to

"We have dwelt, perhaps at too great length, on these youthful contributions
in order to shew how early in his career, Thomson laid a soHd

science,

foundation
theories

his

for

and

future

labours,

both

in

the

development

ever will do well to take note of the theorem in No.


of which

various branches

to

the apphcations

xni.,

them,

furnish

of science will

mathematical

of

Mathematicians how-

the prosecution of experimental research.

in

if

they be dihgent,

both occupation and renown for some time to come.

We

now turn to
now

must

mathematical

electrician,

attention to the

practical

the mathematician,

if

the

next

part

established

as

of

and experimental work of

he succeeds at

but a thoroughly furnished

man

volume,

this

which

in

a Professor at Glasgow, turns

the
his

In such work

his science.

proves himself no mere mathematician,

all,

of science.

And

we have an account of
demand for electro-

first

that research into atmospheric electricity which created a

meters

then a

series of electrometers of gradually

improving species

and

lastly,

an admirable report on electrometers and electrostatic measurements, in which


the

results

many

of

but

classified,

years'

experience

are

given

in

most

instructive

and

In this report the different instruments are not merely described,

scientific form.

so

new instrument

that the student


to

suit his

own

is

furnished with the means of devising a

wants.

He may

also

study,

in

the recorded

history of electrometers, the principles of natural selection, the conditions of the

permanence

of

species,

the

retention

of

rudimentary organs

in

manufactured

AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTROSTATICS
articles,

and the tendency to reversion

305

to older types in the absence of scientific

control.

A
to

good deal of Sir

in this volume.

ELCCount

pended

many

of his
coils,

papers on

It

W.

is

Thomson's practical

to be

hoped that he

measurement

of

resistance,

is

not referred

time to give some

admirable telegraphic contrivances in

and recording instruments, and to complete

electrolysis,

work

electrical

will yet find

galvanometers,

this

collection

qualities

electric

of

sus-

by

his

metals,

and electro- magnetism in generar'\


The second division of the book contains the theory of magnetism.
The first paper, communicated to the Royal Society in 1849 and 1850, is
The
the best introduction to the theory of magnetism that we know of.
discussion of particular distributions of magnetisation is altogether original, and

thermo-electricity,

way

prepares the

for

on electro-magnets
years, during

is

the theory of electro-magnets which follows.

This paper

interesting as having been in manuscript for twenty-three

which time a great deal has been done both at home and abroad

on the same subject, but without in any degree

Though

occupied by Thomson in 1847.

upon the ground

trenching

in these papers

we

find several formidable

equations bristling with old English capitals, the reader will do well to obser^*e

that the most important results are

often

obtained

without

mathematical apparatus, and are always expressed in plain

As regards the most interesting of all subjects, the


ment of scientific ideas we know of few statements so

note at
electric

419

p.

relating

flowing in

currents,

goes on to say

to

"

Ampere's
circuits

From twenty

use

of

this

history of the developof

full

theory of magnetism,

within the

the

scientific English.

molecules

as

of

to five-and-twenty years ago,

meaning as the
depending on

the

magnet

when the

he

materials

of the present compilation were worked out, I had no belief in the reality of
this theory

but I did not then know that motion

has been hitherto called matter.

At

is

the very essence of what

the 1847 meeting of the British Association

Oxford, I learned from Joule the dynamical theory of heat, and was forced
abandon at once many, and gradually from year to year all other, statical
preconceptions regarding the ultimate causes of apparently statical phenomena."

in

to

After a short, but sufficient, proof that the magnetic rotation of the plane
of

polarised

light

discovered by Faraday

something, and that this motion


* [See

is

part

implies an actual
of the

Mathematical a-nd Physical Papers, hj Sir

W.

rotatory motion

Thomson, Vol.

L,

Cambridge University

Press, 1882.]

VOL. XL

of

phenomenon of magnetism, he

39

AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTROSTATICS

30G

"The

adds:

of

explanation

all

phenomena of

electro -magnetic

attraction

or

and of electro-magnetic induction, is to be looked for simply in the


and pressure of the matter of which the motions constitute heat. Whether

repulsion,
inertia

matter

this

or

is

is

not electricity, whether

whether

or

finite

impossible

matter

all

vortical

decide,

to

or

is

itself

interper-

fluid

molecularly grouped

continuous, and molecular heterogeneousness consists in

is

other relative motions of

or

a continuous

is

it

meating the spaces between molecular nuclei,

and perhaps

contiguous parts of

a body

it

is

to speculate, in the present state of

in vain

science."

The date

of these remarks

is

In 1861 and 1862 appeared Maxwell's

1856.

"theory of molecular vortices applied to magnetism, electricity, &c." which may


be considered as a development of Thomson's idea in a form which, though
rough and clumsy compared with the

of nature,

realities

may have

served

its

turn as a provisional hypothesis.

The concluding
of magnetic

force

sections

of the book before us

derived from the motion of

put forward as explanations

of magnetic

are devoted to illustrations

a perfect

force,

for

in

They

fluid.

fact

the

forces

are

are

not
of

They belong more properly to that


remarkable extension of the science of hydrokinetics which was begun by
Helmholtz and so ably followed up by Thomson himself.
the

opposite

Tlie
is

It

kind to those of magnets.

conception of a perfectly homogeneous,

incompressible frictionless fluid

as essential a part of pure dynamics as that of a circle


is

true

of those

that the motions

of the

perfect

fluid.

which we are pleased to

of ordinary

But

it

is

of pure geometry.

very imperfect

illustrations

equally true that most of the objects

is

call circles are

are

fluids

very imperfect representations of a true

circle.

Neither a perfect fluid nor a perfect

which we deal with,


liomogeneous except
is

truly continuous

for

when regarded roughly

and the perfect

It follows, however,
if

fluid

can be formed from the materials

in large masses.

fluid is truly

The

perfect circle

homogeneous.

from the investigations of Helmholtz and Thomson that

a motion of the kind called rotational

of the

circle

they are assemblages of molecules, and therefore not

to which this motion

is

is

once set up in the

fluid,

the portion

communicated, retains for ever, during

all

its

wanderings through the fluid mass, the character of the motion thus impressed

on

it.

This vortex then, as Helmlioltz

calls

it,

be

it

large or small, possesses that

ELECTROSTATICS
of

molecule,

while

characteristics

and

permanence

character

at

individuality

the same time

unchanged both

infinite variety of

AND MAGNETISM.

in

it

is

which we

capable,

307
attribute

while

nature and value, of clianging

to

retaining

its

its

material
essential

form in an

ways, and of executing the vibrations which excite those rays

spectrum by which the species of the molecule may be discovered. It


would puzzle one of the old-fashioned little round hard molecules to execute
There was no music in those spheres.
vibrations at all.

of the

But

besides this application of hydrokinetics to this

old atom, there

is

papers of Helmholtz and Thomson.

complete

his

new conception

of the

a vast field of high mathematical inquiry opened up by the

papers on

It

is

to be

hoped that the

latter will soon

Vortex Motion and give them to the world.

does no one else work in

the same

field

put a stop to the development of ideas

Has the

But why

multiplication of symbols

[From the Proceedings of

LII.

On

the

Proof

the

of the

Cambridge Philosophical

of a system the forces which act on

the primary aim of the science of Dynamics.

when the

forces are

known, though a more

The

difficult

tant, nor so capable of application to the analytical

The expressions

for

the

forces

motion of the system were

1876.]

ii.,

Equations of Motion of a Connected System.

To deduce from the known motions


is

Society, Vol.

first

it

calculation of the motion


operation,

is

not so impor-

method of physical

science.

which act on the system in terms of the

given

by Lagrange

the second part of his Mecanique Analytique.

in

the fourth section of

Lagrange's investigation

may

be

regarded from a mathematical point of view as a method of reducing the dy-

namical equations, of which there are originally three for every particle of the
system, to a

number equal to that of the degrees of freedom of the system.


it is a method of eliminating certain quantities called reactions

In other words

from the equations.

The aim of Lagrange was,

as

he

tells

us himself, to bring dynamics under

the power of the calculus, and therefore he had to express dynamical relations in
teiTQS of the corresponding relations of numerical quantities.

In the present day


in

dynamics that they

sciences.

We

must

and selecting from

necessary for physical inquirers to obtain clear ideas

it is

may

be able to study dynamical theories of the physical

therefore avail ourselves of the labours of the mathematician,


his

symbols those which correspond to conceivable physical

we must retranslate them


In this way our words will

quantities,

into the language of dynamics.


call

up the mental image, not of

certain

operations of the calculus, but of certain characteristics of the motion of bodies.

The nomenclature of dynamics has been greatly developed by those who in


the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy, and
will be seen that most of the following statement is suggested by the investi-

recent times have expounded


it

309

PROOF OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A CONNECTED SYSTEM.


gallons

Thomson and

in

Xatuml

Tait's

especially

Philosophy,

method

the

of

beginning with the case of impulsive forces.

*I have applied this method in such a way as to get rid of the explicit
consideration of the motion of any part of the system except the co-ordinates or
It is important to the
variables on which the motion of the whole depends.
be

student to

able

to

way

the

trace

in

which the motion of each part

determined by that of the variables, but I think

it

is

desirable that the final equa-

That

tions should be obtained independently of this process.

this

can be done

is

evident from the fact that the symbols by which the dependence of the motion
of the parts on that of the variables was expressed, are not found in the final
equations.

of motion

The whole theory of the equations


maticians.
in

It

ought to be

application

its

to

for it is

so,

is

But the importance

matter.

no doubt familiar to mathe-

the most important part of their science


of these

equations does not

depend on their being useful in solving problems in dynamics. A higher function


which they must discharge is that of presenting to the mind in the clearest
and most general form the fundamental principles of dynamical reasoning.
In forming dynamical theories of the physical sciences, it has been a too
frequent practice to invent a particular dynamical hypothesis and then by means
The agreement of these
of the equations of motion to deduce certain results.
results

with real phenomena has been supposed to furnish a certain amount of

evidence in favour of the hypothesis.

to

The true method of physical reasoning is to begin with the phenomena and
forces from them by a direct application of the equations of

deduce the

The

motion.

during

the

difficulty

first

stages

we have no terms

that

some notion not


It

is

has hitherto been that

of doing so
of the

investigation,

sufficiently general to

strictly deducible

at

results

express

we

arrive,

which are so

at

least

indefinite

them without introducing

from our premisses.

therefore very desirable that

men

of science should invent

some method

of statement by which ideas, precise so far as they go, may be conveyed to the
mind, and yet sufficiently general to avoid the introduction of unwarrantable
details.

For

instance,

such a method

express exactly what

is

of statement

is

greatly

known about the undulatory theory

* [In the Author's treatise

On

and Magnetism, Vol. il. Part iv. Chap,


from the point of view advocated in the text.]

Electricity

will find the subject treated at length

needed

in

order

to

of light.
v.,

the reader

[From the Proceedings of

On a Problem

LIII.

the

Cambridge Philosophical

The

a problem in
in

Mr

its

4,

was

Todhunter's essay "^^

is

Senate-House paper of Wednesday,

an example of discontinuity introduced into


a way somewhat different, I think, from any of those discussed

1^ to

was involved or
a curve

1876.]

discontinuous.

rider on the third question in the


15,

ii.,

in the Calculus of Variations in which the solution


is

January

Society, "Vol.

set

In some of

possibility

its

as

Mr

Todhunter's cases the discontinuity

in the statement of the problem, as

impUed

when

precluded from transgressing the boundary of a given region, or where

must not be negative. In the case of figures of revolution congenerated by a plane curve revolving about a line in its plane, this

curv-ature

sidered as

forms a boundary of the region within which the curve must

lie,

and therefore

often forms part of the curve required for the solution.


is no discontinuity in the statement,
problem by the continuous change of the co-

In the problem now before us there

and

is

it

efiicients

introduced into the

of a certain equation as

the two roots of this

we

pass along the curve.

minimum

equation which satisfy the

At a

certain point

condition

coalesce

with each other and with a maximum root. Beyond this point the root which
formerly indicated a maximum indicates a minimum, and the other two roots

become impossible.
* Hesearclies in the Calculus of Variations,

<L'C.

If the velocity of a carriage along


[The question referred to was set in 1873, and is as follows
a road is proportional to the cube of the cosine of the inclination of the road to the horizon, determine
the path of quickest ascent from the bottom to the top of a hemispherical hill, and shew that it consists
of the spherical curve described by a point of a great circle which rolls on a small circle described about
:

the pole with a radius


into this

problem?]

together with an arc of a great

circle.

How

is

the discontinuity introduced

[From the Proceedings of

LIV.
I

HAVE no new

you to go

Royal

the

On

Action at a Distance.
bring before you this evening.

discovery to

over very old

Institution of Great Britain, Vol. vii.]

ground, and to turn your

attention

must ask

to

question

which has been raised again and again ever since men began to think.

The question
Does

We

see that

two bodies

each other exert a mutual influence on each other's motion.

on the existence of some third thing, some

mutual action depend

this

medium

that of the transmission of force.

is

at a distance from

of communication, occupying the space between

the

bodies,

do the

or

bodies act on each other immediately, without the intervention of anything else

The mode
kind

aim

from that adopted by many other modern inquirers, and

difiers

will

which Faraday was accustomed to look at phenomena of

in

my

this

special

be to enable you to place yourselves at Faraday's point of view, and to

point out the

scientific

value of that conception of lines of force which, in his

hands, became the key to the science of electricity.

When we

observe

one body acting on another at a distance, before we

is direct and immediate, we generally inquire whether


any material connection between the two bodies and if we find strings,
or rods, or mechanism of any kind, capable of accounting for the observed
action between the bodies, we prefer to explain the action by means of these

assume that

there

action

this

is

connections, rather than

intermediate

admit the notion of direct action at a

to

distance.

when we

Thus,

the wire are

first

a bell by means of a wire,

ring

tightened and then moved,

a distance by a process in which

taken

part

ways,

as

cylinder

one

by
with

after the

forcing

air

piston

all

which

a
is

the successive parts of

at last the

bell

is

rung at

the intermediate particles of the wire have

We

other.

into

till

may

ring a bell at a distance in other

long tube, at the other end of

made

to

fly

out and strike the

which
bell.

is

We

ACTION AT

312

may

DISTANCE.

use a wire; but instead of pulling

also

we may

it,

connect

it

at one end

with a voltaic battery, and at the other with an electro-magnet, and thus ring
the bell by electricity.

Here are three

different

ways of ringing a

bell.

They

agree,

all

the circumstance that between the ringer and the bell there

in

communication,

of

line

process

and that at

goes on by which the action

The process of transmission

point

of this line

however,

an unbroken

some physical

transmitted from one end to the other.

not instantaneous, but gradual; so that there

is

of time after the impulse has been given to one extremity of the

an interval

of communication,

line

is

every
is

is

during which the impulse

is

on

way,

its

but has not

reached the other end.


It

clear,

is

distance

may

therefore,

that in

many

cases

the action between bodies at a

be accounted for by a series of actions between each

successive

and it is asked,
pair of a series of bodies which occupy the intermediate space
we cannot
which
in
cases
those
in
whether,
action,
mediate
of
advocates
by the
perceive the intermediate agency, it is not more philosophical to admit the
;

existence of a

medium which we cannot

a body can act at a place where

it is

than to assert that

at present perceive,

not.

To a person ignorant of the properties of air, the transmission of force by


means of that invisible medium would appear as unaccountable as any other
example of action at a distance, and yet in this case we can explain the whole
process,

and determine the rate at which the action

is

passed

on from one

portion to another of the medium.

Why then should we not admit that the familiar mode of communicating
motion by pushing and pulling with our hands is the type and exemplification
of all action between bodies, even in cases in which we can observe nothing
between the bodies which appears to take part in the action?
Here for instance is a kind of attraction with which Professor Outhrie
has made us familiar. A disk is set in vibration, and is then brought near a
light
if

suspended body, which immediately begins to move towards the disk, as

drawn towards

it

by an

invisible cord.

What

is

this cord

Sir

W.

Thomson

has pointed out that in a moving fluid the pressure is least where the velocity
The velocity of the vibratory motion of the air is greatest nearest
is greatest.
the disk.

Hence the pressure of the

side nearest
pressure,

air

on the suspended body

the disk than on the opposite

and moves toward the

disk.

side,

is

less

on the

the body yields to the greater

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

The
in

it,

this motion

the air in turn,

of

portions

does not act ^Yhere

therefore,

disk,

motion by pushing

is

the

of

excess

of

and thus the

The

pressure.

It sets the air next

not.

is

it

communicated to more and more distant

suspended body are rendered unequal, and


quence

it

313

on opposite sides of the

pressures
it

moves towards the disk

force

is

in

conse-

a force of the old

therefore

a case of vis a tcnjo a shove from behind.


The advocates of the doctrine of action at a distance, however, have not
Wliat right, say they, have we to
been put to silence by such arguments.
Do we not see an instance of
assert that a body cannot act where it is not ?
action at a distance in the case of a magnet, which acts on another magnet not
only at a distance, but with the most complete indifference to the nature of
school

matter which

the

occupies

the

intervening

space

If the

something occupying the space between the two magnets,


matter of indifference whether

wood,

glass, or copper,

tliis

space

Besides this, Newton's law of

on

act

gravitation,

act on

which

each

another
the

across

immense

or whether

not only that the heavenly

intervals

of

it

two
of

the body of the

in
if

but that
the interior

the strata beneath

any medium takes part in


must surely make some difference whether the space

buried had been non-existent.

transmitting this action,

space,

one buried a thousand miles deep in

one another with precisely the same force as


is

or not,

which every astronomical obser-

asserts

and the other a hundred thousand miles deep

the earth,
sun,

matter,

of

portions

one

air

depends on

be placed between the magnets.

vation only tends to establish more firmly,


Ijodies

with

filled

is

action

cannot surely be a

it

If

this medium, or whether it is occupied


by the dense matter of the earth or of the sun.
But the advocates of dbect action at a distance are not content with

between the bodies contains nothing but

instances

of this kind, in which the

phenomena, even at

first

sight,

appear to

They push their operations into the enemy's camp, and


even when the action is apparently the pressure of contiguous

favour their doctrine.

maintain

that

portions of matter,

the contiguity

is

that

only apparent

They

venes between the bodies which act on each other.


so

far

from action at a distance being impossible,

which ever occurs, and that the favourite old

vis

it

is

a space ahcai/s interassert, in short, that

the only kind of action

terrjo

of the schools has no

existence in nature, and exists only in the imagination of schoolmen.

The best way


touch

it,

is

VOL.

II.

to

to

prove that

when one body pushes another

measure the distance between them.

Here are two

it

does not

glass lenses,

40

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

314
one of which

is

pressed against the

By means

other by means of a weight.

Hght we may obtain on the screen an image of the place where


A series of coloured rings is formed on
the one lens presses against the other.
These rings were first observed and first explained by Newton.
the screen.
of the electric

The

any ring depends on the distance between the surfaces

particular colour of

of the pieces

we may

table,

corresponding to

the distance between the surfaces at that ring.

ascertain

arranged

are

colours

table of the colours

that by comparing the colour of any ring with Newton's

so

distances,

different

Newton formed a

of glass.

rings because the surfaces

in

are

spherical,

The

and therefore

the interval between the surfaces depends on the distance from the line joining

The

the centres of the spheres.

of the rings

spot

central

indicates

the place

where the lenses are nearest together, and each successive ring corresponds to
4000th

an increase of about the

part of a millimetre in the distance of the

surfaces.

The
an ounce
place

this,

they
I

are

pressed together with a force equal to the weight of


still

is

now

a measurable interval between them,

apply a greater

nearer than at

all

first,

weight.

to

but they are not yet in optical contact,


I

therefore

increase the

for

if

weights,

press the lenses into optical contact.

But what we
cates

This shews that the surfaces

the rings increase.

they were, the central spot would be black.


so as

even at the

They are not in optical contact. To


A new colour appears at the central

nearest together.

and the diameters of

spot,

are

but there

where

prove

now

are

lenses
;

call optical

only that the

contact

is

not real contact.

distance between the

surfaces

is

Optical contact indi-

much

less

than a wave-

To shew that the surfaces are not in real contact, I remove


the weights.
The rings contract, and several of them vanish at the centre.
Now it is possible to bring two pieces of glass so close together, that they
will not tend to separate at all, but adhere together so firmly, that when torn
asunder the glass will break, not at the surface of contact, but at some other
place.
The glasses must then be many degrees nearer than when in mere optical
length of light.

contact.

Thus we have shewn that bodies begin to press against each other whilst
at a measurable distance, and that even when pressed together with great
force they are not in absolute contact, but may be brought nearer still, and
still

many degrees.
Why, then, say

that by

the

advocates

of

direct

action,

should

we

continue to

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.
founded only on the rough experience of a

maintain the doctrine,


age,

that matter cannot act where

facts

from which our ancestors concluded

in

reality

cases

of

it

not,

is

that contact

at a distance,

action

we

are

up

philosophical language

in

the

we must do

of nature,

facts

men

of

ledge of the facts which throw most light on these

who

introduce cetherial,

or

other media,

the

all

were

essential to action

opinions

loose

is

the distance being too small to be

ever to discover the laws of nature,

most accurate acquaintance with the

the

pre-scientiiic

instead of admitting that

measured by their imperfect means of observation


If

315

to

And

laws.

account for

by obtaining

so

and not by dressing


who had no know-

these

as

those

for

actions,

without

any direct evidence of the existence of such media, or any clear understanding
of how the media do their work, and who fill all space three and four times
over with aethers of different sorts, why the less these men talk about their
philosophical scruples about admitting action at a distance the better.

If the
it

progress

were regulated by Newton's

of science

would be easy to cultivate opinions

have to compare the science of to-day with that of


producing, in the geometrical sense,

first

advance of the age.

in

fifty

the line of progress,

law of motion,

"We should only

years

ago

we should

and by

obtain

the

science of fifty years hence.

The progress of

science

in

Newton's time consisted in getting

of the

rid

machinery with which generations of astronomers had encumbered the

celestial

heavens,

and thus " sweeping cobwebs

off

the sky."

Though the planets had already got rid of


swimming in the vortices of Descartes.

their crystal spheres,

they were

Magnets were surrounded by


effluvia, and electrified bodies by atmospheres, the properties of which resembled
in no respect those of ordinary effluvia and atmospheres.
still

When Newton
heavenly

the

l)odies,

phers

bodies

demonstrated that

depends

on

its

the

relative

force

position

which
with

on

respect

each
to

of

the

the

other

new theory met with violent opposition from the advanced philosoday, who described the doctrine of gravitation as a return to the

of the

exploded method of explaining everything by occult

and the

causes,

attractive

vii-tues,

like.

Newton
speculations,
l)y

acts

himself, with that wise moderation

which

is

characteristic of all his

answered that he made no pretence of explaining the mechanism

which the heavenly bodies act on each other.

To determine the mode

in

which their mutual action depends on their relative position was a great step

ACTION AT

:316

DISTANCE.

and this step Newton asserted that he had made. To explain the
by which this action is effected was a quite distinct step, and this
step Newton, in his Pnncipia, does not attempt to make.
But so far was Newton from asserting that bodies really do act on one
in

science,

process

another

at

"It

is

Epicurus,

between

them,

which

else,

not material, operate

is

be essential and inherent

and

essential

to

matter,

must do

it

in

so

upon and

gravitation,

if

through which their action and force

me

great an absurdity, that I

so

in

That gravity

it

we

find

in his

innate,

upon another at
else,

by and

may be conveyed from one to another, is


believe no man who has in philosophical

matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever


Accordingly,

be

should

that one body can act

other

affect

the sense of

in

a distance, through a vacuum, without the mediation of anything

to

that

he says

in this place,

inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the media-

matter without mutual contact, as

inherent,

anything

of

which has been quoted by Faraday

something

tion of

independently

distance,

letter to Bentley,

Optical

fall

into

and

Queries,

made the attempt

in

it."

his

letters

to

Boyle,

by
means of the pressure of a medium, and that the reason he did not publish
these investigations "proceeded from hence only, that he found he was not
that

Newton had very

able,

from experiment and observation, to give

early

medium, and the manner of

its

account for

to

gravitation

account

satisfactory

operation in producing the chief

of

this

phenomena of

nature*."

The doctiine
his
to

preface

Cotes,

not learn in
tation,

gravitation.

It

was

first

asserted by

Roger Cotes, in

the Principia, which he edited during Newton's

to

it

of direct action at a distance cannot claim for its author the

universal

of

discoverer

life.

According

by experience that we learn that all bodies gravitate.


any other way that they are extended, movable, or solid.

is

therefore,

has as

much

right

to

We

do

Gravi-

be considered an essential property of

matter as extension, mobility, or impenetrability.

And when

the Newtonian philosophy gained ground in Europe,

opinion of Cotes rather than that of


at

last

Newton that became most

Boscovich propounded his theory, that matter

matical points, each

endowed with the

others according to fixed laws.

is

* Maclaurin's Account of Xewton^s

is

was the
till

a congeries of mathe-

power of attracting

In his world, matter

it

prevalent,

or

repelling

the

unextended, and contact

Discoveries.

317

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

is

impossible.

with

inertia.

thought that

He did not forget, however, to endow his mathematical points


In this some of the modern representatives of his school have
he "had not quite got so far a^ the strict modern view of
'^'."

matter' as being but an expression for modes or manifestations of force


But if we leave out of account for the present the development of
'

the

ideas of science, and confine our attention to the extension of its boundaries,

to

that

see

shall

was most

it

every branch of science to which

gate the forces

it

those

to apply

who

was applicable

that

we should

with which bodies act on each other in the

attempting to explain how that force


fitted

we

that Newton's method should be extended

essential

is

transmitted.

themselves exclusively to the

first

first

No men

part

of

could

the

investi-

place, before

be better

problem,

than

considered the second part quite unnecessary.

Accordingly Cavendish, Coulomb, and Poisson, the founders of the exact


sciences of electricity and magnetism, paid no regard to those old notions of

"magnetic effluvia" and "electric atmospheres," which had been put forth in
the previous century, but turned their undivided attention to the determination
attract
of the law of force, according to which electrified and magnetized bodies
In this way the true laws of these actions were distook
covered, and this was done by men who never doubted that the action
would
who
and
medium,
any
of
intervention
the
without
distance,
place at a
have regarded the discovery of such a medium as complicating rather than as

or

repel

each other.

explaining the undoubted phenomena of attraction.


have now arrived at the great discovery by Orsted of the connection

We

between

electricity

and magnetism.

on a magnetic pole, but that


to move round the current.
conflict acts in

it

Orsted found that an

neither attracts

He

electric

nor repels

it,

expressed this by saying that

current acts

but causes

"the

it

electric

a revolving manner."

The most obvious deduction from this new


current on the magnet is not a push-and-pull
accordingly

it

many minds were

set a-speculating

was that the action of the


force, but a rotatory force, and

fact

on vortices and streams of aether

whirling round the current.

Ampere, by a combination of mathematical skill with experimental


proved that two electric currents act on one another, and then
analysed this action into the resultant of a system of push-and-pull forces

But

ingenuity, first

between the elementary parts of these currents.


*

Review of Mrs Somerville, Saturday

Revietc, Feb.

13, 1869.

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

318

extreme complexity, as

compared

many attempts have been made

to resolve

The formula of Ampere, however,


with Newton's law of gravitation, and
it

is

of

into something of greater apparent simplicity.

have no wish to lead you into a discussion of any of these attempts to

Let us turn to the independent method of

improve a mathematical formula.

employed by Faraday

investigation

in

those researches in electricity and mag-

netism which have made this Institution one of the most venerable shrines of
science.

No man
all

his

ever more conscientiously and systematically laboured to improve

mind than did Faraday from the very beginning of his


But whereas the general course of scientific method then conthe application of the ideas of mathematics and astronomy to each new

powers

scientific

sisted in

of

career.

investigation in

a technical

Faraday seems to have had no opportunity of acquiring


his knowledge of astronomy was

turn,

knowledge of mathematics, and

mainly derived firom books.


Hence, though he had a profound respect for the great discovery of Newton,
mystery, which,

he regarded the attraction of gravitation as a sort of sacred


as

he was not an astronomer, he had no

duty being to believe

Such a dead

means of

faith

in

was not

gainsay or

to

likely

to

him

lead

to

doubt,

to

his

was delivered to him.


explain new phenomena by

the exact form in which

it

du-ect attractions.

Besides this,
form,

it

right

the treatises of

Poisson

that to derive any assistance from

thoroughly trained in mathematics, and

and Ampere are of so technical a


them the student must have been

it

is

very doubtful

such a training

if

can be begun with advantage in mature years.

Thus Faraday, with


his

opportunities for

his

penetrating intellect,

thought which had led to the

his

was debarred from

experiments,

achievements

of the

devotion to science, and


following

was obliged to explain the phenomena to himself by means


which he could understand, instead of adopting what

the

course

of

French philosophers, and

had

of

symbolism

hitherto

been

the

only tongue of the learned.


This
in

new symbolism

consisted

of those lines of force extending themselves

every direction from electrified and magnetic bodies, which Faraday in

his

mind's eye saw as distinctly as the solid bodies from which they emanated.

The idea

of

was nothing new.

lines

of

force

and their exhibition by means of

They had been observed

iron

filings

repeatedly, and investigated mathe-

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

319

But let us hear Faraday


an interesting curiosity of science.
he introduces to his reader the method which in his hands became

as

matically
himself, as

so powerful^'.

aid

"It would be a voluntary and unnecessary abandonment of most valuable


an experimentalist, who chooses to consider magnetic power as represented

if

were to deny himself the use of iron filings. By


their employment he may make many conditions of the power, even in com-

by

of magnetic

lines

plicated

cases,

force,

visible

the eye at once,

to

the lines of force and determine the


direction

determine

the power

the

power, even
probable

is

may

increasing or diminishing,

neutral

places

or

points,

the varjHng direction of

trace

may

polarity,

relative

where

and

in

there

observe

is

when
may be

seen

at once,

which

polarity

neither

they occur in the midst of powerful magnets.

results

in

complex systems

By

may
nor

their use

and many a valuable suggestion gained

for future leading experiments."

Experiment on Lines of Force.


In this experiment each

filing

becomes a

little

The

magnet.

poles of oppo-

names belonging to different filings attract each other and stick together,
and more filings attach themselves to the exposed poles, that is, to the ends
In this way the filings, instead of forming a confused
of the row of filings.
system of dots over the paper, draw together, filing to filing, till long fibres
of filino-s are formed, which indicate by their direction the lines of force in
site

every part of the

field.

The mathematicians saw

in this

experiment nothing but a method of exhibit-

ing at one view the direction in different places of the resultant of two forces,
one directed to each pole of the magnet; a somewhat complicated result of
the simple law of force.

But

Faraday, by

series

of

steps

as

remarkable

for

their

geometrical

definiteness as for their speculative ingenuity, imparted to his conception of these

of force a clearness and precision far in advance of that with which the
mathematicians could then invest their own formulae.
In the first place, Faraday's lines of force are not to be considered merely

lines

as

individuals,

but as forming a system, drawn in space in a definite manner


Exp. Res. 3284.

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

320
\

number of the

SO that the

indicates

lines

of force become

When

and time.

own

each

place,

current begins to flow,


its

lines

which proceed from

measured by the number of

is

In the second
space

one square

area, say of

Thus the
The strength of a magnetic pole is

number.

in

definite

measured by the number of


of a circuit

which pass through an

lines

the intensity of the force acting through the area.

inch,

individual

it

the electro-tonic state

which pass through


has

line

it.

continuous

a piece of steel becomes a magnet, or

existence

when an

in

electric

the lines of force do not start into existence each in

but as the strength

place,

lines

new

increases

lines

are

developed within

the magnet or current, and gradually grow outwards, so that the whole system

expands from within,


of

line

though
I

to

identity during the whole

may

shape and size

its

Thus every

Newton's rings in our former experiment.

like

preserves its

force

course

of

its

existence,

be altered to any extent.

have no time to describe the methods by which every question relating

the forces acting on magnets or on currents, or to the induction of currents

in conducting circuits,

may

be solved by the consideration of Faraday's lines of

In this place they can

force.

electro-magnetism,
cable to

never

be

By means

forgotten.

Faraday defined with mathematical precision

symbolism,

in

the

to that of

He went

electric

new

But Faraday did

on from the conception of geometrical

physical lines

magnetic or

this

theory of

language free from mathematical technicalities, and appli-

the most complicated as well as the simplest cases.

not stop here.

of

whole

of

force

He

force.

tends

to

lines

observed that the motion

produce

is

invariably

such

as

of force

which
to

the

shorten

the lines of force and to allow them to spread out laterally from each other.

He
like

thus perceived in the


that of

pressure in

This

a rope,

all

is

in

medium a

state

the direction of

of

stress,

the lines

of

consisting
force,

of

a tension,

combined with a

directions at right angles to them.

quite a

new

conception of action at a distance, reducing

it

to

phenomenon of the same kind as that action at a distance which is exerted


by means of the tension of ropes and the pressure of rods. When the muscles
of our bodies are excited by that stimulus which we are able in some unknown
way to apply to them, the fibres tend to shorten themselves and at the same
time to expand laterally. A state of stress is produced in the muscle, and the
limb moves. This explanation of muscular action is by no means complete.
It gives no account of the cause of the

does

it

excitement of the state of

stress,

nor

even investigate those forces of cohesion which enable the muscles to

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.
support this

the simple

Nevertheless,

stress.

fact,

321
that

it

substitutes a kind of

which extends continuously along a material substance

action

we know only a cause and an


us to accept

at a

effect

induces

knowledge of animal mechanics.

as a real addition to our

it

one of which

for

from each other,

distance

For similar reasons we may regard Faraday's conception of a state of


in

the electro-magnetic

field

as

means of the continuous

transmission

how the

produced.

state of stress

But

one

Faraday's

of

polarised

of

rotation

light,

when analysed

nomenon,

Of two

circularly

rotating

in

which

is

opposite

rotates

of force,

pregnant

enables us to
its

simplest

same

that

ray

direction

even though we do not know-

discoveries,

proceed

precisely
is

that of

step

may

magnetic

the

The phe-

farther.

be described thup

similar in configuration, but

propagated with the greater velocity


the

as

elements,

rays of light,

directions,

the

in

most

into

polarised

stres.s

a method of explaining action at a distance by

electricity

the

of

magnetiziuL'

current.
It

in

from

follows

that the

reasoning,

of

state

rotation

may

which we

this, as Sir W. Thomson has shewn by strict dynamical


medium when under the action of magnetic force must be

that

is

to

say,

molecular vortices,

call

are

that small

portions

each on

rotating,

of the medium,

its

own

axis,

tlie

direction of this axis being that of the magnetic force.

Here, then,
force

netic

to

we have an explanation

of the tendency of the lines of

spread out laterally and to shorten

themselves.

It

arises

magfrom

the centrifugal force of the molecular vortices.

The mode in which electromotive


more abstruse, though it
is

vortices

force acts in
is

of course

starting and stopping

with

consistent

the

dynamical

principles.

We

have thus found that there are several different kinds of work to be

by the electro-magnetic

done

medium

if

it

exists.

We

have also seen that

magnetism has an intimate relation to hght, and we know that there is a theory
of light which supposes it to consist of the vibrations of a medium.
How is
this

luminiferous
It

medium

from which

related to our electro- magnetic

medium

we can

calculate

by dynamical

principles the velocity of progagatioii

of small magnetic disturbances in the supposed electro-magnetic

This velocity
according
VOL.

to
II.

happens that electro-magnetic measurements have been made

fortunately

is

medium.

very great, from 288 to 314 millions of metres per second,

different

experiments.

Now

the

velocity

of

light,

according
41

to

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

822
Foucault's experiments,

is

In

298 millions of metres per second.

the different

fact,

determinations of either velocity differ from each other more than the estimated
velocity of light does from the estimated velocity of propagation of small electro-

But

magnetic disturbance.

the luminiferous and the electro-magnetic

if

media

occupy the same place, and transmit disturbances with the same velocity, what
reason have we to distinguish the one from the other ? By considering them
as the

we avoid

same,

at

the reproach of

least

twice

space

filling

over with

different kinds of oether.

Besides this, the only kind of electro-magnetic disturbances which can be


jjropagated through a non-conducting
of propagation, agreeing in

direction

we

disturbance which

medium

Hence, for

call Hght.

a disturbance transverse to the

is

respect with

this

all

what we know of that

we know,

may be an
we admit this, the

light also

non-conducting medium.

electro- magnetic disturbance in a

If

electro-magnetic theory of hght will agree in every respect with the undulatory

and the work of Thomas Young and Fresnel

theory,
firmer

than

basis

will

be established on a

joined with that of Cavendish and

when

ever,

Coulomb by

Faraday's

the key-stone of the combined sciences of light and electricity

great

discovery of the electro-magnetic rotation of light.

The vast interplanetary and


as

the symbols of the manifold order of His kingdom.


already full of this wonderful
it

from

the

It extends

of hydrogen vibrates
vibrations
delivers

Mr

and

them

in

medium

portion of

smallest

infinite continuity.

of

no longer be regarded

interstellar regions will

waste places in the universe, which the Creator has not seen

after

in

so full, that no

or

space,

them

medium

in

its

to

fill

them

with
to be

human power can remove


;

its

and when a molecule

receives the impulses of these

immense

due course, regular order, and

Huggins, at Tulse

fit

shall find

produce the slightest flaw in

unbroken from star to star

the dog-star, the

carrying

We

bosom

full tale

for

three

years,

into the spectroscope

Hill.

But the medium has other functions and operations besides bearing light
from man to man, and from world to world, and giving evidence of the absolute
Its minute parts may have rotatory
and the axes of rotation form those lines of
magnetic force which extend in unbroken continuity into regions which no eye
has seen, and which, by their action on our magnets, are telling us in language
not yet interpreted, what is going on in the hidden underworld from minute

unity of the metric system of the universe.


as

well

as

to minute

vibratory motions,

and from century to century.

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.

And
They

these

are

must not be regarded as mere mathematical

lines

the direction

of

the

weight on eight square


lias

properly
it

wound

up,

is

in

country one

this

Joule's experiments, the

grain

medium

weight per square inch.

lbs.

is

same
able

also

elasticity

to

act

by which

as

it

a spring.

is

able

When

exerts a tension, different from the magnetic tension, by

draws oppositely

length of

Dr

virtue of the very

in

it

force

In some of

transmit the undulations of light,

which
the

magnetic

earth's
feet.

exerted a tension of 200

But the medium,


to

absti^actions.

medium is exerting a tension like that


our own muscles.
The tension of the medium

the directions in which the

of a rope, or rather, like that of


in

323

telegraph

electrified

wires,

bodies

together,

and when of

sufficient

produces

effects

intensity,

leads

through
to

the

which

has

rupture and explosion called lightning.

These are some

of

the

already discovered

often been called vacuum, or nothing at

all.

properties

of

They enable us

that

to resolve several

kinds of action at a distance into actions between contiguous parts of a continuous substance.
complication, I

Whether

must leave

this

resolution

is

of the

nature of exj)lication

to the metaphysicians.

412

or

[From Nature,

LY.

Xatuml

Elements of
P.

G.

Philosophy.

Vol. vii.]

By

Clarendon Press Series.

Tait.

Professors

W. Thomson and

Sir

(Macmillan and Co.,

1873.)

Natural Philosophy, which is the good old English name for what is
now called Physical Science, has been long taught in two very different ways.
One method is to begin by giving the student a thorough training in pure
mathematics, so that when dynamical relations are afterwards presented to him
in

the form of mathematical equations, he at once appreciates the language, if


new subject. The progress of science, according to this

not the ideas, of the

method, consists in bringing the different branches of science in succession under


the power of the calculus. When this has been done for any particular science,
it

becomes in the estimation of the mathematician


little to reward original

has been scaled, retaining

like

an Alpine peak which

explorers,

though

perhaps

some use, as furnishing occupation to professional guides-.


The other method of diffusing physical science is to render the senses
familiar with physical phenomena, and the ear with the language of science, till
the student becomes at length able both to perform and to describe experiments
The investigator of this type is in no danger of having no more
of his own.
of

still

worlds to conquer, for he can always go back to his former measurements, and
carry

them forward

Each

to another place of decimals.

of these

types of

men

of science

is

of service in the great

subduing the earth to our use, but neither of them can

fully

work

of

accomplish the

work of strengthening their reason and developing new powers of


The pure mathematician endeavours to transfer the actual effort of
thought from the natural phenomena to the symbols of his equations, and the
still

greater

thought.

pure experimentalist

and

of

detail

of

thought.

is

apt to spend so

calculation,

that

he

has

much

of his mental energy on matters

hardly any

left

for

the

Both of them are allowing themselves to acquire

higher

an

forms

unfruitful

ELEMENTS OF NATURAL nilLOSOrHV.

325

advantage of the opportunity

familiarity with the facts of nature, without taking

powers of thought which each fresh revelation of nature

of awakening those

is

fitted to call forth.

There

is,

however, a third method of cultivating physical science, in which

each department
co-ordinated

turn

in

regarded, not merely as a collection of facts to be

is

by means of the formulae

Every science must have


the process of our minds
process

of

nature

and

laid

up

its

fundamental ideas

itself,

but

of

ideas

modes

may

mathe-

be developed.

of thought by which

brought into the most complete harmony with the

is

these

ideas

have not attained their most perfect

as long as they are clothed with the imagery,


science

by the pure

store

in

new mathesis by which new

maticians, but as itself a

machinery

the

with

not of

which

the

phenomena
have

mathematicians

form

of the

been

accustomed to work problems about pure quantities.


Poins6t has pointed out several of his dynamical investigations as instances

mind the things themselves rather than


and the mastery which Gauss displayed over ever}^

of the advantage of keeping before the


arbitrary symbols of them

subject which he handled

allowed himself to

make

is,

as he said himself, due to the fact that he never

a single step, without forming a distinct idea of the

result of that step.

The book before us shews that the Professors of Natural Philosophy at


Glasgow and Edinburgh have adopted this third method of diffusing physical
science.
It appears from their preface that it has been since 1863 a text-book
in their classes, and that it is designed for use in schools and in the junior

The book is therefore primarily intended for students


in Universities.
whose mathematical training has not been carried beyond the most elementary
classes

stage.

The matter

the book however bears but small resemblance to that of

of

the treatises usually

put into the hands of such students.

introduced to the combination of

harmonic motions, to

We

are very soon

irrotational

strains,

Hamilton's characteristic function, &c., and in every case the reasoning

is

to

con-

ducted by means of dynamical ideas, and not by making use of the analysis
of pure quantity.

The

student,

if

he

has

the

studies,

may do

matical

equations the symbols of

his

mind

in the

so with

opportunity of

greater relish
ideas

when he

continuing
is

able

to

mathematical

his

see

in

the mathe-

which have been already presented to

more vivid colouring of dynamical phenomena.

The

differential

ELEMENTS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

326

method of reasoning

calculus, for example, is at once recognised as the

of continuous

in a state

quantities

to

This

change.

is

applicable

Newton's conception of

and all attempts to banish the ideas of time and motion from the
mind must fad, since continuity cannot be conceived by us except by following

Fluxions,

imagination the course of a point which continues to exist while

in

moves

it

in space.

The arrangement

the book

of

adopted in text-books.
subject

in

which the idea of change, though

conception of

the

first

of forces
as

force,

implicitly

For

the

the very

view

this

the

reason,

The

forces.

science of pure statics,

and takes no account of the nature of the material systems

The concrete

established

in

of

conversant with the relations of forces and of systems of

is

which they may be applied, or whether these systems

equilibrium,

parts

involved

assumed by the system.

been

hitherto

has generally been assigned to the doctrine of the equilibrium

place

thus set forth,

motion.

has

not explicitly developed so as to bring into


successively

and the equivalence of systems of

forces to each other,

to

is

configurations

different

from that which

diflfers

has been usual to begin with those

It

acting

on

illustrations

bodies

at

usually given relate to


rest,

but

by reasoning which has nothing

are

equilibrium

the

at

rest

or

in

systems of forces in
of

the

forces

is

to do with the nature of the body,

or with its being at rest.

The
is

practical reason for beginning

not supposed capable of

place

in

He

moving systems.

of reasoning about forces,

that of motion,

with

following the
is

statics

seems to be that the student

changes of configuration which

take

expected, how^ever, to be able to follow trains

the idea of which can never be acquired apart from

and which can only be thought of apart from

motion

by a

process of abstraction.

Professors
science

Thomson and

of mere motion

Tait,

on the contrary, begin with kinematics, the

considered apart from the nature of the moving body

and the causes which produce

its

motion.

This science differs from geometry

only by the explicit introduction of the idea of time as a measurable quantity.

(The idea of time as a mere sequence of ideas


in

every other department

smallest

number

of

thought.)

is

as necessary in geometry as

Hence kinematics,

as

involving

the

of fundamental ideas, has a metaphysical precedence over statics,

which involves the idea of

force,

which in

its

turn implies the idea of matter

as well as that of motion.

In kinematics, the conception of displacement comes before that of velocity.

ELEMENTS OF NATURAL nilLOSOPHY.


which

whom

of

And

displacement.

the rate of

is

authors, one

at

least

is

addition

displacements,

equally

is

of vectors
applicable

as
to

displacement, and to accelerations, or the

way

only in this

is

we cannot but

here

regret that

the

an ardent disciple of Hamilton, have not at

once pointed out that every displacement


of explaining the

327

is

a vector, and taken the opportunity

a process, which, applied piimarily to


velocities,

or

the

of change

rates

change

of

rates

that the method of Newton, to which

we

of

For

of velocities.

it

are glad to see

that our authors have reverted, can be fully understood, and the "parallelogram

of forces"

deduced from the "parallelogram of

of Hamilton's, however, that of the hodograph,

with great
of vectors

position

is

in

direction,
lines

most suitable

that velocities

so

may

may

be represented by straight

be moved parallel to themselves into whatever

for exhibiting their geometrical relations, as for instance

all drawn from one point.


The same idea is made
theorems of the " triangle " and the " polygon " of forces, and

the hodograph they are

in

use of in the

the more general method of "diagrams of stress," in which the lines which

in

represent the stresses are drawn,

We

not in the positions in which they actually

but in those positions which most fully exhibit their geometrical

exist,

and employed

The fundamental idea of the hodograph is the same as that


general.
The velocity of a body, being a vector, is defined by

and these straight

lines,

early introduced

effect.

magnitude and

its

Another conception

velocities."

is

a certain amount of slight

sorry that

are

411, where a

different proposition is called the

when a

is

relations.

thrown on these methods

tme

in

triangle of forces.
first

principle

of dynamics

that his true character as a sound thinker or otherwise

becomes

conspicuous.

It

And

is

here

Motus,

we

more

are

writer proceeds to set forth the

glad to see

perhaps

than

that

any

the

other

authors
part

of

follow
his

Newton, whose Leges

great

work,

exhibit

the

unimproveable completeness of that mind without a flaw.

We

would particularly recommend to writers on philosophy,

first

to deduce

from the best philosophical data at their command a definition of equal intervals
of time, and then to turn to 212, where such a definition is given as a
logical conversion of

But

it

is

in

Newton's First Law.

the exposition of the Third Law, which affirms that the actions

between bodies are mutual, that our authors have brought to light a doctrine,
which, though clearly stated by Newton, remained unknown to generations of
students and commentators, and even

when acknowledged by the whole

scientific

world was not known to be contained in a paragraph of the Pvincipia

till

it

ELEMENTS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

;328

was pointed out by our authors

in

an

article

on " Energy

"

in

Good

Words,

October 18G2.

Our

forbid

limits

us from following the authors as they carry the student

through the theories of varying action, kinetic

We

solids.

conversant with
of that
clothe

force,

can only express our sympathy with the


all

electric images,
efforts

in

elastic

that mathematicians have achieved, to divest scientific truths

symbolic language in which the mathematicians have

them

and

of men, thoroughly

left

them, and to

words, developed by legitimate methods from our mother tongue,

but rendered precise by clear definitions, and familiar by well-rounded statements.

Mathematicians

may

mere human language


express

to
if

these

ideas

is

flatter

as yet

themselves that they possess new ideas which

unable to express.

in appropriate

Let them make the

words without the aid

of

effort

symbols,

and

they succeed they will not only lay us laymen under a lasting obligation,

l)ut,

we venture

the

process,

and

to say, they will find themselves very


will

even

be

doubtful

whether

the

much
ideas

enlightened during
as

expressed

symbols had ever quite found their way out of the equations into their minds.

in

[Fri)m the Proceedings of the

On

LVI.

the

TTieory

London Mathematical

Socitty, Vul.

iv.]

of a System of Electrified Conductors, and other Physical


Uomogeneous Quadratic Functions.

Theories involcimj

[Read April 10th, 1873.]

The

theory

homogeneous

of

functions

of

the

second degree

is

useful

in

several parts of natural philosophy.

The general form of such a function may be written


V=\(A,,x,' +
or

more concisely

+ kc.)

(l),

= ^^ S {A^^^,)

Vx

in

2A,;c,x,

(1'"),

=1

which each term consists of a product of two out of n variables a:...a-,


may or may not be different, and of a coefficient ^ belonging to that

which

pair of variables.

Differentiating

get n

new

quantities

with respect to each of the n variables


^i,

...

^ of the

dV
Multiplying each ^ by

we

its

succession,

we

'="

i=f'=.?.(^"-')

products,

in

form

corresponding

x,

(2)-

and taking half the sura of the

obtain a second expression for V,


T^n

V=iX{x,l)
r

we

(3).

Since each of the 7i quantities ^ is a linear function of the n variables x,


may, by solving the n equations of the form (2), obtain expressions for

each X in terms of the

^'s
r=n

x.= S{af,)
VOL.

II.

(4);

42

THEORY OF A SYSTEM OF ELECTRIFIED CONDUCTORS.

330

and by substituting these values of the xs

in (3),

we

obtain a thu'd expression

T;

for

V, = fiT(a^^Ur)

(5).

=1 r=l

The

and

first

X and

suffixes

x and the

may

functions

be

for

are distinguished

first

is

expressed in terms of the

last

of

in

terms of the variables

|.

The

coefficients

variables.

Let

y^

expressions

these

order to

in

^,

variables

of

last

shew that the

any number, m,

of

be

by the

and a

one of these

variables.

Since V^,

V,

and V^ are three

V,+

different expressions for the

V,

same quantity,

= 2V=t{x,^;)

(6).

r=l

we now suppose the

If

three sets of variables x, ^ and y to vary in any


is a function of the xs and y's, V^ of

manner, and remember that F,

consistent

the ^s and

and

y's,

of the

xs and f s, we

find

:!;{-f^>j:{-'>-h:j:{S-'4--'"The three
other,

for

if

may be

set

results

sets

of

variations

Sx,

Sf,

and By are not independent of each

the variations hy and either of the other sets be given, the other

Hence we cannot immediately deduce any definite


But we know, from equation (2), that the coefficients
Bx vanish of themselves, and the remaining variations 8 and By

determined.

from this equation.

of the variations

are all independent of each other, so that


of

them

to zero.

We

we may

equate the coefficient of each

thus obtain two seta of equations,

-=t

<)'

^^' + ^^ =

and

dyt

(9).

dy,

In this purely algebraical theory of quadratic functions, of the two sets of


variables

x and

^,

either

may be taken

as

the primary

applications of the theory, however, the variables form

two

set.

In the physical

classes

which are not

interchangeable.

Thus, in kinetics, the variables are the components of velocity and those of

momentum

in the theory of elasticity, they are stresses

and

strains

in electro-

331

THEORY OF A SYSTEM OF ELECTRIFIED CONDUCTORS.

magnetism, they are electric currents and the " electrotonic state" of circuits;

and

they are the potentials and the charges of conductors.

in electrostatics,

Now,

a change takes place in the configuration of the system, by whicli

if

energy (whether potential or kinetic) of the system

the

momenta, the

is

diminished, while the

the electrotonic states, or the charges remain constant, the

strains,

displacement will be aided by a force of such a magnitude that the work done
force during

by the

the displacement

equal to the diminution of the energy

is

of the system.

For the momenta, the

and the

strains, the electrotonic states,

cliarges

do not

require for their maintenance the application of energy from without the system.

of configuration, if effected under the

The same change


equation
it

potentials,

stresses,

velocities,

the

in

electric

currents

condition that the

remain constant, would, by

energy of the system by exactly the same amount as

increase the

(9),

was diminished

or

former case.

The work done by the system during

the displacement will be the same as before, so that energy must in this case be

amount double

supplied from without to an

these

new

For

is

it

only by external compulsion that the velocities of the system can

be maintained constant

an

work, in order to satisfy

of this

conditions.

system

elastic

when the
keep

to

Work must

configuration changes.

constant while the strain

the stress

be done on
varies.

The

currents in a conducting circuit tend to vary when the electrotonic state of the
circuit

and can only be kept constant by battery power. The same


employed to maintain the potential of a conductor constant

varies,

agency must

be

during the displacement of the system of conductors.

Hence, when momenta,


constant,

maintained

states, or charges are

strains, electrotonic

the internal forces of the system tend to produce displacements which

would diminish the energy of the system.


If,

are

on the other hand, the

maintained

constant,

the

velocities, stresses,

internal

electric currents, or

tend

forces

to

produce

potentials

displacements

which would increase the energy of the system.


This

distinction

between

the

two

sets

of

physical

quantities

is

of great

The characteristic
which we may observe

importance in the theory of classification of such quantities.


of the
in

first

the

functions

set

second

is

inherent persistence.

set

the

of

not vary or

is

is

first

only
set

apparent,

when the

Any
and

persistence
arises

from the second set being

configuration

not such as to cause a variation of the

of the

system either does

coeflficients

and

a.

422

[From the Proceedings of

LVII.

On

the

the

London Mathematical

Society, Vol. iv.]

Focal Lines of a Refracted Pencil.


[Read April 10th, 1873.]

Hamilton has shewn, by means of his Characteristic Function, that in


whatever manner a pencil may be refracted, the rays always pass through two
focal lines, the planes through which and the axis of the pencil are at right
The same method leads to the following geometrical
angles to each other.
construction for finding the focal lines of any thin pencil after refraction through
a curved surface, the focal lines of the incident pencil and the nature of the

curvature of the surface being given.


1.

of a thin pencil whose axis coincides with


and whose rays pass through focal lines in the planes of xz and
distances a and h from the origin respectively, is foe points near the

The

the axis of
yz

at

characteristic function

z,

origin

V=K+J.-^-l]
If

we turn

this

system of rays round the axis of


y, the expression for V becomes

(1).

z,

through an angle

reckoned from x towards

(2),

where

-r

=-

008"^+ j-sm'A
^
^

^ = -a sin' ^ + T cos^ci^
<^

If

sin2<^

(3).

<^

FOCAL LINES OF A REFRACTED PENCTL.

we now

If

from

towards

turn

round

system

the

we

x,

the

axis

of

333
through an angle $

y,

find

{2x cos 6-\-z sin 0)

sin 6

yz sin $]

Now

2.

coefficients
{.

and

consider

media,

diflferent

two

portions

of

(4).

2C i

2A
pencil,

whose indices of refraction are

/i

close
/i,

the origin but in

to

respectively,

and

the

,).

Let the media be separated by the surface whose equation

is

y*
xy
_ cc'
''~2A'^2B'^2C

Then,

since

the

when

Substituting this value of

z in

terms of the third degree in x and


ti^

function

characteristic

have the condition Fi F, =

(x^

let

belonging to these portions be distinguished by corresponding suffixes

is

continuous at this surface,

has the value given in

we

Fj,

and neglecting

obtain

xy \

/re*

cos' ^1

That the term

in

xyco8 0\

y*

/ai^cos*^,

ocycoad.\

>

x may vanish, we must have


^1 sin ^1

= /x, sin ^,

(7),

the ordinary law of refraction.

Equating to zero the

coefficients of x*, y\

COS"^,

COS'^i

and
.

/I

xy,

we

i/i\

z:srk-2:iiE^.=2<^''''-~*^''

s^rsii^ri^"'^^'-"'^^''*
cot^

c^

=^(cote.-cot(?.)

we

(5).

the expressions for F, and


y,

^^^

find
,r.\

w(')

(10).


FOCAL LINES OF A REFRACTED PENCIL.

334

3.

These

lowing construction

quantities

of the

relations

OR

Let 10 be the incident and


normal to the surface; NOI^O,,

Find the points A, B,

C,

B,

^ = ^ cot^.-cot^/

'

=^

x=

=B

0,

^ cos d. - COS

6^

^=^ cot^;-cot^:

f"-^^'

The

positions of these

is

absolutely fixed,

ON

be the

6,.

ri
'=^
-

cos'^,cot(9,-cos=^,cot^,

^''^'

cot^.-cot;^,

cos

6,

cot

6^ - cos

cot

6.^

z^eT^^e,

(12);

^^

('^>-

form of the surface and

points depend only on the

on the directions of the axes of the incident and

fol-

whose co-ordinates are

^cos-^.-cos'^,

for

be found by the

the refracted ray, and let

NOR =

^^^^^'

C may

A, B,

refracted

pencil.

The point

being the centre of curvature of a normal section

of the

surface perpendicular to the plane of refraction.

Let

0A 0B OC,

find the corresponding

AA BB

be the values of

quantities

for

A B

CO, intersecting the refracted ray

are the required values of A, Bj,

C,

for the

the refracted ray, draw


in

A B

C,.

incident ray.

To

the straight lines


0A, 0B, and OC^

(Z.

When any of these quantities becomes infinite, the line must be drawn
For A B or Q infinite, it must be parallel to the
in a given direction.
For A B or C, infinite, it must be parallel to the refracted
incident ray.
For B infinite, it must be parallel to the normal for A infinite, it must
ray.
make with the normal an angle whose tangent is
;

COS' 6^

cos" dj

cos'^icot^,-cos^^,cot(9,

(14)^

^'


335

FOCAL LINES OF A REFRACTED PENCIL.


and

for

infinite

the tangent of the angle must be


cos

^,

cos ^iCot 6

the

plane

and

if

If

C= 00

C,=

refraction,

of

refraction

cuts

cos Ot
cos ^3 cot
the

(15).
0.^

along a line of

surface

one of the focal lines of the incident pencil


oo.

incident pencil,

and

The points A
A^,

/?,

is

then coincide with the

B^ with those of the refracted

curvature,

in the plane of

focal

hues of the

pencil.

That A^ may coincide with B^, and A^ with ^ the line joining both pairs
must be on the line AB. There is therefore one, and only one, point

of points

on the axis of the incident pencil

from which a pencil

may

diverge so that,

after refraction, it still diverges from or converges to a single point.

4.

A,

When

plane

B,

of
C.

the quantity

symmetry, and

Let OA, OB,

Draw
point

on

has a

we have

value, the

finite

to

deduce

The following construction enables us

systems to the other

A A'

plane of refraction
quantities

the
to

pass from

a,

h,

either

is
<f>

not

from

of these

OC

be the values of A, B, C.

perpendicular and equal to

the perpendicular to

OA

AO.

through 0.

Join

Cut

BA\
off

and produce to D,

OD'

equal

to

OD,

FOCAL LINES OF A REFRACTED PENCIL.

330

produce

and

D'A,

Join

direction.

opposite

but in the

to

P,

where

0^

in

D'A

BD.

meets

OQ

CD, and draw

Join

Make

Bisect the angle

Then

DOQ

by

If a,

and

h,

<^

DOE =

the

(f>,

aO

d'P cutting

angle

are given, the construction

DOE =

and

a.

which the

first

line

focal

from

Cut

in d.

is

easily reversed, thus:

(f>.

perpendicular and equal to aO.

Draw aa

from 0.

c/P,

xz.

Let Oa = a, Oh = b, and

pendicular to

CD

Draw

OjEJ.

Ob = h, and

Oa=^a,

makes with the plane of


5.

perpendicular to

Od, Od' each equal to OQ.

off

OcZ'

Draw ha

cutting

OD, the perDraw

equal and opposite to Od.

d'a cutting hd in P.

Draw

OQ=Od

Di-aw

CQZ> perpendicidar

Make OD'

so that the angle

DOE=OEQ.

OQ, cutting Oa

to

and opposite to OD.

equal

in

and

Draw DP,

Oci in

D.

X)'P cutting

Oa

in

and A.

Then 0.4 = .4,


6.

OP = P,

If therefore

OC=C.

and

the given data be the radii of curvature of the refracting

which the plane of incidence makes with the prinand the angle,
is a, we may determine A, B, C for the refracting
curvature
whose
section

surface
cipal

</>,

surface.

Then from
and

<^i

Pi,

I
Ci\se

and

h^ the distances of the focal lines of the incident pencil,

the angle which

a^

makes with the plane of

incidence,

we must

find

Ci for the incident pencil.

From
pencil,

a^

these

data,

and from these

by
a.^,

h.,,

4,

we must

and

determin.e

A._,

B.

C^

for

the refracted

<f>.,.

have not been able to obtain any

simpler construction for the general

of a refracted pencil.

after passing through any series of surfaces the construction


more complex, as ten constants are involved in the general term
of the second degree of the characteristic function, which is of the form
7.

is

For a pencil

necessarily

F= ^,x,' + lh,ij^ + c,x,y,

-}-

\a^.^ + ^6.^,' +

cjc.^,

+px,x, +

qx,y, -h ry,x,

+ sy,y,

337

FOCAL LINES OF A REFRACTED PENCIL.


V,

= h'i .^.' + ^B^y" +

and

r,

= ^A^* + ^B^* + C^^

and we put

D = {A, + a,) {B, + h,)-{C, + c,y,

and

if

C'.x^i

{A,-a,)D+p^B, + h,) + T'{A, + a,)-2pr(C, + c,) = 0,


{B,
(C,

- c,)

-b,)D + q' (B, + 6.) + s*

D -{-pq (B, +

6.)

(J.

+ a,) - 2qs

(C,

+ c,) = 0,

+ rs (A, + a,)-(ps + qr) (C, + c,) = 0.

These equations enable us to

determine

B^,

C,

when A B

C,

are

given.

Here we must observe that the quantities A, B,


lines,

as

VOL.

in

It.

the

first

C, &c.,

part of this paper, but the reciprocals of

do not represent
lines.

^'^

[From Nature,

An

LVIII.

James

Vol. viii.]

the Mathematical Principles of Physics, &c.


By the Rev.
M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of Astronomy and

Essay on

Challis,

Experimental

Philosophy in the

Cambridge, and

University of

(Cambridge: Deighton,

Trinity College.

Bell,

and

Co.,

Fellow of

1873.)

This Essay is a sort of abstract or general account of the mathematical


and physical researches on which the author has been so long engaged, portions
of which have appeared from time to time in the Philosophical Magazine, and
also
is

in

his

larger

work on the "Principles of Mathematics and Physics."

always desirable that mathematical results should be expressed in

language, as well as in the symbolic form in which they were at

and we have to thank Professor Challis


because,

it

It

intelligible

first

obtained,

Essay, which though, or rather

for this

hardly contains a single equation, sets forth his system more clearly

than has been done in some of his previous mathematical papers.

The aim of

this

Essay,

and of the author's long-continued

advance the theoretical study of Physics.

He

labours,

is

"a

vast and wonderful mechanism, of which not the least wonderful quality

its

being so constructed that

fact,

contains

we can understand

elementaiy chapters, and, to those

them, the mastery of one chapter

is

to

regards the material universe as

The Book

it."

is,,

of Nature, in

who know where

to

look for

a preparation for the study of the next.

The discovery of the calculation necessary to determine the acceleration of a


whose position is given in terms of the time led to the Newtonian

particle

epoch

of

Natural

Philosophy.

The study from the

author looks for the "inauguration of a

motion of

he recommends
sophy,"

commonly

fluids,

namely,

is

that

called

properties

Newton

as

The
the

of which our

cultivation

scientific

Hydrodynamics.

described by

that the

new

epoch,"

is

" foundation

which we attribute to the

that of the

method which

scientific

of

least

all

philo-

parts

of

AN ESSAY ON THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCTPLES OF

339

PHYSICS.

matter must be consistent with those of which experiments on sensible bodies

have made us cognizant.

The world, according to Professor Challis, is made up of atoms and aether.


The atoms are spheres, unalterable in magnitude, and endowed with inertia, but
with no other property whatever. The aether is a perfect fluid, endowed with
inertia,

and exerting a pressure proportional to

tinuous

(and

of the

interstices

so

set

many marbles

and the

destitute of viscosity,

We

and

diflSculty,

the

elements

hypothesis

is

at

It
fills

truly

is

up

all

con-

the

with perfect clearness the two conwhich we can picture in our minds as
which behaves exactly as air would do il'

sether,

if

have no
of

it

us

before

Boyle's law were strictly accurate,

properties

and

the atoms,

the universe:

of

density.

its

atoms),

of

consist

atoms.

we have

Here, then,
stituents

not

does

therefore

its

if

therefore, in forming

It

if it

were

it.

an adequate conception of the

we have

which

from

an honest one.

least

temperature were invariable,

gravity did not act on

construct a world.

to

attributes

to

The

the elements of things

It stands, therefore,
no properties except those which we can clearly define.
on a dLfiferent scientific level from those waxen hypotheses in which the atoms

endowed with a new system of attractive or repulsive forces whenever a


new phenomenon has to be explained.
It is no less than to
But the task stiU before us is a herculean one.
explain all actions between bodies or parts of bodies, whether in apparent
contact or at stellar distances, by the motions of this all-embi-acing sether, and
are

the pressure thence resulting-

One kind

of motion

sound-waves in

air.

of the aether

How

will

it

forward like the driftwood which

it

back Uke the shingle which

they make

on the whole

We
this

oscillate

it

is

evidently a wave-motion, like that of

such waves afiect an atom

is

is

Will they propel

flung upon the shore, or will they draw

carried out

by the returning wave?

Or

will

about a fixed position without any advance or recession

have no intention of going through the calculations necessary to solve

They

problem.

admits that

he

has

are not

been

contained

unable

to

in

this

determine

Essay,

the

and Professor

absolute

Challis

amount of the

constant term which indicates the permanent effect of the waves on an atom.
This is unfortunate, as it gives us no immediate prospect of making those

numerical comparisons with observed facts which are necessary for the verification

AN ESSAY ON THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF

340
of

the

Let

theor}\

surmounted, and

undulations

of the

atom

let

will

this

purely mathematical

us admit with Professor Challis that

if

the

difficulty-

wave-length

very small compared with the diameter of the atom, the


the direction of wave-propagation, or in other words

is

urged

be

however, suppose

us,

PHYSICS.

in

from the origin of the waves. If on the other hand the wave-length
is very great compared with the diameter of the atom, the atom will be urged
in the direction opposite to that in which the waves travel, that is, it will
be attracted towards the source of the waves.
repelled

The amount of

or repulsion

attraction

this

will

depend on the mean

of

the square of the velocity of the periodic motion of the particles of the sether,
and since the amplitude of a diverging wave is inversely as the distance from

the centre

We
as

the

di verger ce,

of

force

will

be

inversely

the

as

square

must remember, however, that the problem

we do not know the

absolute

is

value of this force,

only imperfectly solved,

exact proportion to the mass of the attracted body, whatever be


(See

p.

this

and we have not yet

explanation of the fact that the attraction of gravitation

arrived at an

nature.

of

Newton's law.

distance, according to

its

is

in

chemical

36.)

and supposing the great ocean of aether to be


and are reflected in
the form of diverging waves. These, in their turn, beat other atoms, and cause
Thus
attraction or repulsion, according as their wave-length is great or small.
of
repelling
atom
from
atom,
the
office
perform
period
of
shortest
waves
the
and rendering their collision for ever impossible. Other waves, somewhat longer,
Admitting these

traversed by waves,

results,

these waves impinge on the atoms,

bind the atoms together in molecular groups.


of

of

bodies

sensible

size,

Others contribute to the

while the long waves are

gravitation, holding the planets in their courses,

heavens in

all

their freshness

our author contemplates

its

and strength.

the

cause

of

elasticity

universal

and preserving the most ancient

Then besides the waves of aether,


by which he accounts

streams, spiral and otherwise,

and galvanic phenomena.


Without pretending to have verified all or any

for electric, magnetic,

this theory is based, or to

have compared the

electric,

of the calculations on which

magnetic, and galvanic phe-

nomena, as described in the Essay, with those actually observed, we


to

make
The

may

venture

a few remarks upon the theory of action at a distance here put forth.

explanation of any action between distant bodies by means of a clearly

conceivable process going on

ia

the intervening

medium

is

an achievement

of

AN ESSAY ON THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF


Of

the highest scientific value.


universal

and the most

such actions, that of gravitation

all

Whatever theory of the

mysterioua

341

PHYSICS.

is

the most

constitution

of

bodies holds out a prospect of the ultimate explanation of the process by which
gravitation

effected,

is

men

of science will be found ready to devote the whole

remainder of their lives to the development of that theory.

The only theory hitherto put


is

who adopts the

that of Lesage,

Gravitation on this theory


incalculable minuteness,

and

velocity

in

every

possible

accounted

is

which are

a dynamical

as

forth

impetus, and would have

no

of

upon

"ultramundane

These

direction.

effect

by the impact

for

atoms

of

through the heavens with inconceivable

flying

on a solitary heavenly body would strike

falling

theory of gravitation

Lucretian theory of atoms and void.

it

in the

it

corpuscules"

on every side with

way

of resultant

equal

force.

If,

however, another heavenly body were in existence, each would screen the other

from a portion of the corpuscular bombardment, and the two bodies would be
The merits and the defects of this theory have been
attracted to each other.

by

recently pointed out

Sir

W.

Thomson.

If the corpuscules are perfectly elastic

one body cannot protect the other from the storm, for
as

many

corpuscules as

what becomes of them

after collision

them

the perpetual accumulation of

becomes
minutes
as

it

their

energy

shall

not enter on Sir

involves a different kind

way we

Why

How

reflect

exactly

are not bodies always growing

do they get swept away

do they not

of
?

Essay, but in whatever


in

Why

will

it

If they are inelastic, as Lesage supposes,

intercepts.

it

W.

volatilise

the

earth

by

and what
in

few

Thomson's improvement of this theory,

of hydrodynamics from that

cultivated

in

the

regard Lesage's theory, the cause of gravitation

the universe can be represented only as depending on an ever fresh supply

of something fi'om

without.

Though Professor Challis has not, as far as we can see, stated in what
maimer his jethereal waves are originally produced, it would seem that on his
theory also the primary waves, by whose action the waves diverging from the
atoms are generated, must themselves be propagated from somewhere outside the
world of

On

stars.

either theory, therefore, the universe

is

not even temporarily automatic,

but must be fed from moment to moment by an agency external to


If the

corpuscules

of the

were from any cause to be supplied at a different


force in the universe

would

itself.

one theory, or the sethereal waves of the other,

suffer change.

rate,

the

value

of

every

AN ESSAY ON THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF

342

PHYSICS.

On both theories, too, the preservation of the universe is effected only by the
unceasing expenditure of enormous quantities of work, so that the conservation
of energy in physical operations, which has been the subject of so many
measurements,

and

apparent only, and

and destruction.
It may seem a
of

invention

down

study of which has led to so many discoveries, is


merely a kind of "maveable equilibrium" between supply

the
is

of anticlimax

sort

to

the

would not be right to pass by the

descend from these highest heavens

to

condition"

"equations of

are not in all respects similar to those

met with

they obey a law, which our author was the


or perhaps in

some cases

of

But

motion.

fluid

fact that the fluids treated of in this

in opposition

In

elsewhere.

first

to

all

lay down,

to those prescribed for

it

Essay

their motions
in

addition

them by Lagrange,

Poisson, &c.
It is true that a perfect fluid, originally at rest, and afterwards acted on
only by such forces as occur in nature, will freely obey this law, and that not
only in the form laid down by Professor Challis, in which its rigour is partially

relaxed

by the introduction of an

arbitrary

factor,

but in

its

original

severe

simplicity, as the condition of the existence of a velocity-potential.

But, on the one hand, problems in which the motion


this

condition have been solved

by Helmholtz and

us what the fluid will then do;


fluid is

of

able, in virtue of

on

the

new equation, to
As this is what

the

transverse displacements.

fether,

and,

other

hand,

action

the

entirely normal to the surface

assumed to

violate

Thomson, who
Professor

tell

Challis's

transmit plane waves consisting


takes place in the luminiferous

other physicists refuse to regard that sether as a

to their definition,

is

W.

Sir

between any contiguous

fluid,

because, according

portions

of

a fluid

is

which separates them.

It is not necessary, however, for us to say any more on this subject, as


the Essay before us does not contain, in an expUcit form, the equation referred
of those wider theories of the
to, but is devoted rather to the exposition

constitution

of matter

and the phenomena of nature, some of which we have

endeavoured to describe.

[From Nature,

On

LIX.

Loschmidt's Experiments on

kinetic

molecules

of

make

will

their

the

molecules,

the case of hydrogen, to

in

way

one part of a vessel

in

Kinetic

1,800

each

metres

course

their

full

of the

gas

In spite of the great velocity of the

other parts.

of

direction

liberty

at

set

into

is

so

often

altered

with other molecules, that the process of diffusion

collision

the

to

This velocity, however, by no means determines the rate at which

per second.

group

relation

in

theory asserts that a gas consists of separate molecules,

moving with a velocity amounting,


a

Diffusion

of Gases.

Tlieory

The

Vol. viii.]

is

and reversed by
comparatively a

slow one.

The
of one

first

experiments from which a rough estimate of the rate of diffusion

gas through another can be deduced are those of Graham'".

Professor

Loschmidt, of Vienna, has recently f made a series of most valuable and accurate

experiments

on

the interdiffusion of gases in a

has deduced the coefficient of

diflfusion

vertical

of ten pairs

from which he

tube,

These results I

of gases.

be the most valuable hitherto obtained as data for the construction

consider to

of a molecular theory of gases.

There are two other kinds of diffusion capable of experimental investigation,


and from which the same data may be derived, but in both cases the experimental methods are exposed to much greater risk of error than in the case
of

The

diffusion.

communication
is

of

first

the explanation,
gases.

great

The

delicacy,

of these

of sensible

k,

investigation

and

Akad.

the diffusion of

on the kinetic theory,


of

involving

Brande's Journal for 1829,


t SU7h. d.

is

d.

momentum,

or

the lateral

motion from one stratum of a gas to another.

pt.

Wisseiich.

ii.

of the

viscosity

This

or internal friction

the viscosity of gases requires experiments of


very
p.

74,

considerable

"On

10 Marz. 1870.

corrections

before

the

the Mobility of Gases," Phil. Trans. 1863.

true

EXPERIMENTS ON DIFFUSION IN RELATION TO

344

Thus the numbers obtained by myself in 1865


by Prof Stokes from the experiments
of Baily on pendulums, but not much more than half those deduced by 0. E.
Meyer from his own experiments. The other kind of diffusion is that of the
coefficient of viscosity is obtained.

nearly double

are

energy

of

of those

agitation

calculated

This

the molecules.

of

called the

is

conduction of

heat.

The

experimental

it

only recently that Prof. Stefan of Vienna*, by means of a very ingenious

is

method, has obtained the


of

This

air.

of

investigation

result

confessedly

is

so

he

says,

difficult,

striking agreement with

in

that

the conductivity

experimental determination of

first

as

is,

subject

this

the kinetic

theory of gases.

The

experiments

Loschmidt

and

than any

causes

are

gases

to

left

on

the

far

experiments on viscosity

or

pupils,

themselves

No

being underneath.

a vertical

in

gases, as conducted by Prof


more independent of disturbing

of

interdiffusion

appear to be

his

The

conductivity.

cylindrical

vessel,

interdiffusing

the heavier gas

disturbing effect due to currents seems to exist, and the

of different experiments with the same pair of gases appear to be very

results

consistent with each other.

They prove
the

pressure,

thesis

conclusively that the coefficient of diffusion varies inversely as

a result

we adopt

accordance with the kinetic theory,

in

as to

whatever hypo-

the nature of the mutual action of the molecules during

their encounters.

They
rises,

shew that the

also

coefficient of diffusion increases

to enable us to decide whether

varies as 'P, as

it

theory of a force inversely as the

paper

as the temperature

but the range of temperature in the experiments appears to be too small

the

in

should be according to the

it

power of the distance adopted in

my

T^ as it should do according to the


spherical molecules, which was the 'hypothesis originally developed
Trans.

Phil.

theory of elastic

fifth

by Clausius, by myself

or

1866,

in the

as

Mag. 1860, and by 0. E. Meyer.

Phil.

In comparing the coefficients of diffusion of different pairs of gases, Prof.

Loschmidt
diffusion

of the

two

which

molecules,

of

formula

according

to which the coefficient of

vary inversely as the geometric mean of the atomic weights

gases.

kinetic theory,

of the

made use

has

should

am
in

unable to see any ground for this hypothesis in the

fact leads to

as well

as

their

Sitzb.

d. k.

a different

masses.

result,

involving the diameters

The numerical

Akad. Feb. 22, 1872.

results

obtained by


THE KINETIC THEORY OF OASES.
Loschmidt do not agree with

Prof.

his

formula

They agree

the accuracy of his experiments.

in

in

345

manner corresponding

to

a very remarkable manner with

the formula derived from the kinetic theory.


I

have recently been revising the theory of gases founded on that of the

dynamical
paper

using,

however, the methods of

{Phil.

Trans. 18GG)

18 GO,

which are more

the

in

Mag.,

Phil.

me

which led

my

spheres,

theory of gases

of elastic

collisions

into

great confusion,

especially

rather

in

paper on the

my

first

of

application,

and

of

the

than those of

difficult

treating

diffusion

of

gases.

The

"

where

two

coefficient of interdiffusion of

gases, according to this theory,

^'''

N'Jw.'^w,?:

2V6ir

and w, are the molecular weights of the two

tv^

is

gases, that of

hydrogen

being unity.
Sa is the distance

between the centres of the molecules at

collision in centi-

metres.

the " velocity of

is

mean square "

of a molecule of hydrogen at

0" C.

185,900 centimetres per second.

N
(the

the number of molecules in a cubic centimetre at O'C. and 76 cm. B.

is

same

for all gases).


(

Z>u

the

is

coefficient

interdiffusion

of

two

the

of

gases

PPTltllTlGtrG

l'

in

measure.

We

may

simplify this expression

by writing

2j6u N' '^'~D Vw,


Here a
number N.
a-

of

is

is

a quantity

a quantity which

M. Loschmidt.

We

the

may

same

for

II.

gases,

but involving the unknown

be deduced from the corresponding experiment

have thus
5i,

VOL.

all

(2).

w,

= ao-u

(3).

44

EXPERIMENTS ON DIFFUSION IN RELATION TO

346
or

the distance between the centres of the molecules at collision


cr, which may be deduced from experiment.

is

proportional

to the quantity

If di and d, are the diameters of the two molecules,


s^

Hence

d = ah

if

Now M.

= ^(d^ + d,).

Loschmidt

has

o-,,

= i (S, + 8,)

determined

for

the

(4).

six

pairs

of gases which

can be formed from Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbonic Oxide, and Carbonic Acid. The
six values of <r deduced from these experiments ought not to be independent,
since
gases.

they

may

be deduced from the four values of

Accordingly

we

find,

by assuming

Table
8(H)

I.

=.1-739

=2-283
(CO) =2-461

S(0)
8

8(COJ = 2-775

(7,2

belonging to the two


347

THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.


of viscosity,

and p the density of a gas at O'C. and 760 mm.

B.,

the theory

gives
(5),
10 d'

so that

the following relation exists between

the viscosities of two gases and

their coefficient of interdiffusion

D..

= \i^^^^

(6).

'-^^\P^P

the data of Table I., the viscosities of the gases, and comand reducing all
paring them with those found by O. E. Meyer and by myself,
to centimetre, gramme, second measure, and O'C

Calculating from

Table
Coefficient

Gas.

II.

of Viscosity.

348

EXPERIMENTS ON DIFFUSION IN RELATION TO


more

molecule, or,

mean path.

the

concisely,

Its

value,

according to

my

cal-

culations, is

JI^s'N" JnV
Its value in tenth-metres (1

metre x 10"")

is

Table
For
For
For
For

Hydrogen
Oxygen

...
.

Carbonic Oxide

560
482

Carbonic Acid

430

(The wave-length of the hydrogen ray


times the

mean path

may now

"We

proceed

for

4,861

is

0" C.

and 760 B.

tenth-metres,

or about ten

a.

few steps on more hazardous ground, and


Prof. Loschmidt himself in his

the molecules.

paper "Zur Grosse der Luftmolecule

make

Tenth-metres at

of a molecule of carbonic oxide.)

inquire into the actual size of

to

III.

965

.(7).

S'

this attempt.

"

{Acad.

Vienna,

Oct.

12,

1865), was the

Independently of him and of each other,

Mr G. J.
Stoney (Phil. Mag., Aug. 1868), and Sir W. Thomson {Nature, March 31, 1870),
have made similar calculations. We shall follow the track of Prof. Loschmidt.
first

The volume of a

spherical molecule

is

s',

where

s is its

b
if

is

the number of molecules in unit of volume, the space actually

by the molecules
This,

Hence

diameter.

then,

is

filled

t-ZVs'.

would be the volume to which a cubic centimetre of the gas


if it could be so compressed as to leave no room whatever

would be reduced
between

the

molecules.

sake of clearness,

call

This,

of

course,

is

impossible

but we may,

for

the

the quantity
-

= 1^^

(8)

* The difference between this value and that given by M. Clausius in his paper of
1858, arises
from his assuming that all the molecules have equal velocities, while I suppose the velocities to be

distributed according to the

"law of

errors."

349

THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.


The actual

the ideal coeflScient of condensation.

coefficient of condensation,

when

reduced to the liquid or even the solid form, and exposed to the
greatest degree of cold and pressure, is of course greater than c.

the gas

is

Multiplying equations

(7)

and

(8),
s

where
I

is

diameter of a molecule,

the

mean path

the

we

find

= 6j2d

(9).

the coefficient

of condensation, and

of a molecule.

Of these quantities, we know I approximately already, but with respect


It is only by ascertaining whether calcuto we only know its superior limit.
consistent
lations of this kind, made with respect to different substances, lead to
results, that we can obtain any confidence in our estimates of e.
has compared the " molecular volumes " of different
by Kopp from measurements of the density of these
compounds, with the values of s* as deduced from experi-

Meyer*

Lorenz

M.

substances,

as estimated

substances and their

ments on the viscosity of gases, and has shewn that there


deo-ree of correspondence between the two sets of numbers.

The "molecular volume" of a substance here spoken of


centimetres of as

cubic
as

many

much of the
gramme of hydrogen.

substance in

molecules as one

of hydrogen, and
of condensation

is

is

a considerable

the volume in

the liquid state as contains

Hence

if po

denote the density

the molecular volume of a substance, the actual coefficient

is
e'

= pb

(10).

These "molecular volumes" of liquids are estimated at the boiling-points of


and
the liquids, a very arbitrary condition, for this depends on the pressure,
a
as
B.
mm.
on
760
fixing
there is no reason in the nature of things for
standard
of our
it,

pressure

atmosphere.

merely

because

What would

it

roughly represents the ordinary pressure

be better,

would be the volume at -273"C. and

But
oxide

the

oo

if

it

were not impossible to obtain

B.

volume relations of potassium with its oxide and its hydrated


Faraday seem to indicate that we have a good deal yet

as described by

to learn about the


*

volumes of atoms.

Annalen

d.

Cftemie u. Fkarmacie v. Snpp. bd. 2, Heft (1867).


350 EXPERIMENTS ON DIFFUSION IN RELATION TO THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.
If, however, for our immediate purpose,
we assume the smallest molecular
volume of oxygen given by Kopp as derived from a comparison of the volume
of tin with that of its oxide and put

b(0 = 16) = 27,


we

find for the diameters of the molecules

Table IV.
Hydrogen
Oxygen

....

Carbonic Oxide
Carbonic Acid

The mass

of a molecule of

The number of molecules

76
8-3

...
.

9*3

hydrogen on this assumption


4-6 X 10"''

760 mm. B.

5-8 tenth-metres.

gramme.

a cubic centimetre of

in

is

any gas at O'C. and

is

iV= 19x10".
Hence the

side of a cube which,

on an average, would contain one molecule

would be
iV"*

= 37

tenth-metres.

[From Nature, Vol

On

LX.

viii.]

Final State of a System of Molecules in motion subject

the

to

forces

of any kind.

Let
by

which

forces

elastic

have

and

sides,

different

of

molecviies

elastic

perfectly

with perfectly

vessel

the

potential,

kinds be

in

motion witHn a

each kind of molecules be acted on

let

form

of which

may

be different for

different kinds of molecules.

be the co-ordinates of a molecule, M, and ^, t), i the comand let it be required to determine the number of
molecules of a given kind which, on an average, have their co-ordinates between

Let

ponents

X,

of

y,

its

velocity,

z and z + dz, and also their component velocities


This number must
and ^ and C + dCTj + dr),
and
between ^ and i+d^,
depend on the co-ordinates and the components of velocities and on the Umits

X and

x + dx, y and y + dy,


rj

of these quantities.

We

may

dN=f{x,

therefore write
y, z,

7j,

it

dxdydzd^drjdC

(l).

We shall begin by investigating the manner in which this quantity depends


on the components of velocity, before we proceed to determine in what way it
depends on the co-ordinates.

by suffixes the quantities corresponding to different kinds


kind within
molecules, the whole number of molecules of the first and second
If

of

we

distinguish

a given space which have velocities within given limits

and

The number of
kind

is

n,.

7i

f(L

v.,

f(L

1^,

pairs

Q
Q

may

be written

di,.

dr^,.

dC.

= n,

(2),

d^,.

dri,.

di,

= n,

(3).

which can be formed by taking one molecule of each

FINAL STATE OF A SYSTEM OF MOLECULES IN MOTION

352

their

Let a pair of molecules encounter each other, and after the encounter let
The nature of the
component velocities be ^/, t;/, t,( and f/, -q^, U.

encounter

completely defined

is

when we know

relative to the

^^-^^, rji-Vi,

4-^i the

encounter,

before the

velocity

and x^-x

of the second molecule


relative to the
y.-y^, z^-z, the position of the centre of the second molecule
When these quantities are given, ^/-^/i
first at the instant of the encounter.
the components of the relative velocity after the encounter,
7),' -7),'
and
first

C,'-Ci,

determinable.

are

Hence putting

a,

y8.

and

these relative velocities,

for

a,

for

h,

the

number of molecules of the first kind having


encounter molecules of
velocities between the limits |, and ^, + d^, &c., which
and
limits
^, + d^, &c., in such
,
the second kind having velocities between the
and the relative
&c.,
da,
and
a
a
between
+
lie
a way that the relative velocities
relative positions,

positions

^/

after

find for the

between a and a + da, &c.

/ {L
and

we

Q d^d-qdC.f, {L V. 9 d^dyjdC.

V.

4>

(ahcaM

dadbdcdadfidy...{A),

the encounter the velocity of M, will be between the limits


and that of M^ between the limits ^/ and ^/ + d^, &c.

The differences of the limits of velocity are equal


cules, and both before and after the encounter.

When
as

many

from F/,
are

^,'

and

d^, &c.

the state of motion of the system


of molecules

pairs

F/

to

precisely similar

brevity the
cases,

we

cZ^,

&c.,

(L

V.

and

<f>,

F/,

F/

as

in the one case


for

the sake of

which are of the same value in the two

QML V. Q=m:^
log/(|,

7j,

C)

v:,

= F{MV\

I,

u)fM,

v:^

40

(s),

m, n)

(6),

m, n are the direction-cosines of the velocity, F, of the molecule M.

Taking the logarithm of both sides of equation


F, (M, VX'm.n,) -f F, (M, Vfyi^n,)

The only necessary


encounter

F, to

Hence, omitting

to those in the second;

writing
I,

Fj,

find

/
where

permanent condition,

its

change their velocities from

both kinds of mole-

and the circumstances of the encounter

Fj,

quantities

in

is

for

relation

(5),

= F, (if, V,%'mX') + ^2 (^. F,%'7) ... (7).


between the

variables

before

and

after

is

M,V,' + M,V,' = M,V,'' + M,V:'

(8).

the

ANY

SUBJECT TO FORCES OF

right-hand side of the equations (7) and (8) are constant, the

If the

also be constant

hand sides will


we must have

F,

where

353

KIND.

is

and since

= AM,V: and

l^,

n,

are independent of

left-

l m^, n,

F, = A3I,V,'

(9),

a quantity independent of the components of velocity, or

/(^^.,Q = C,e^''"-'
/,(^,.^. = C,e-^'^.'

(10),

(11).

This result as to the distribution of the velocities of the molecules at a


given place

independent of the action of

is

their encounter, for such

do not

forces

finite forces

on the molecules during

afiect the velocities

during the infinitely

short time of the encounter.

We

may

therefore write equation (1)

dN^Ce^''^^^'>'^^d^d-qdt,dxdydz

where

is

of molecules,
for

a function of
while

is

x,

y,

which may

(12).

be difierent for different kinds

the same for every kind of molecule, though

may,

it

aught we know as yet, vary from one place to another.


Let

us

now suppose

that the kind of molecules under consideration are

acted on by a force whose potential

is

r//.

the motion of the molecules during a time


hx==^%t. hj

and those of

^,

-q,

^ in

The
Zt

= r)ht,

variations of x, y, z

Sz

= C^t

the same time due to the action of the

'^=-Pj'-'^--p'-'^--'l'^
If

we make

arising from

are

= logC

(13).
force,

are

(1^)-

(15),

dN
The

variation of this quantity due to the variations Sx 8y

Bz^, S^i, Btj^,

S^

4>4^^S^'-^^^^(4'-/4^^3^'
....(17).

+if(f+V-.C)(f^5^+/^+C^^)3.
VOL.

II.

45

is

FINAL STATE OF A SYSTEM OF MOLECULES IN MOTION, &C.

354

number of the molecules does not vary during their motion, this
whatever the values of $, t], C- Hence we have in virtue of the

Since the

quantity

is

zero,

term

last

dA ^ dA ^ dA ^
3j=' Tr'- &=
or

constant throughout the whole region traversed by the molecules.

is

Next, comparing the

first

and second terms, we

find

c = AM{2xfj + B)

We

thus obtain as the complete form of

(19).

dN

dN, = e^''^^^^'^'>^'^^^''-'*^^'^^^dxdydzdid7]dC

when

is

we must

integrate this quantity

with respect to the six variables, and equate

the result to the number of molecules of the


integrating dN,^M,{i,' + rj^- +

and equate

^^'

The quantity

of the

is

according

medium

system,
ture

We

shall

thus obtain a sufficient number

common

to

all

negative.

Its

is

the kinetic

to

at that

the molecules, and

value determines that of

kinetic energy of all the molecules in a given place,

therefore,

must then, by

each kind.

essentially

is

We

kind.

first

determine the whole energy of the system,

determine the constant A,

to

B^, &c. those belonging to

mean

+ 2xjj,)

to the original energy.

it

equations

(20),

an absolute constant, the same for every kind of molecule in the


but B^ belongs to the first kind only.
To determine these constants,

vessel,

of

^''^'

theory,

it

also

which

the

%-j, and

is

determines the temperature

Hence, since A^, in the permanent state of the

place.

the same for every part of the system,

it

follows that the tempera-

everywhere the same, whatever forces act upon the molecules.

The number of molecules of the

-^\

The

of the

effect

molecules of the

first

force

first

kind in the element dxdydz,

e^""^^'^^^^^^

dxdydz

whose potential

is

i/zj

(21).

is

therefore

to

cause

the

kind to accumulate in greater numbers in those parts of

the vessel towards which the force acts, and the distribution of each different

kind of molecules in the vessel


in

the

same

way

as

if

is

determined by the forces which act on them

no other molecules were present.

Dal ton's doctrine of the distribution of mixed gases.

This

agrees

with

'a/la^a^a^.

(2:'^.<ffn^u^.Z^^.i>/i>a^ttz^^-^ (lJc>^^T^.^^.a^^'^M.J^f.<^yt^/>na'i^J^s<s/^

[From Nature,

LXI.
[Michael Faraday,

With
This

number

this

what we hope

the

portrait

is

best appreciate

engraving

a memorial
life

is

of

beams upon

September

of Nature

photograph by "Watkins.
best will

Faraday.

we

22,

1791, died August 25, 1867.]

more

one of Faraday, engraved on


the

artist's

life-like

There

Men

steel,

first

of

of Science.

by Jeens, from a
Faraday

Those who had the happiness of knowing

such a man,
us.

the

present to our subscribers

be a long series of Portraits of Eminent

will

first

bom

Vol. viii.]

is

skill

he

has indeed surpassed himself, for

than the photograph.

one in which

the

all

no posturing here

We

could

beautiful

ill

spare such

simplicity

of

his

no need that we should accompany the portrait with a memoir


Bence Jones, Tyndall, and Gladstone have already lovingly told the
story of the grand and simple life which has shed and will long continue to
shed such lustre on English Science, and their books have carried the story
home to millions; nor is there any need that we should state why we have

There

is

of Faraday.

chosen to commence our series with Faraday; everybody will acknowledge the
justice of our choice.

But there
from Faraday's

is

great need just

life

circumstance that

now

that some of the lessons to be learnt

should be insisted upon,

and we regard

we have thus the opportunity

as

a fortunate

of insisting upon

them while

it

and before the echoes of the Address of


our Scientific Congress is
for the Advancement of Science have
Association
British
the
of
President
the
in

session,

died away.

In the first place, then, we regard Faraday at once as the most useful
and the most noble type of a scientific man. The nation is bigger and stronger
in that Faraday has lived, and the nation would be bigger and stronger still

were there more Faradays among us now.

Professor Williamson, in his admirable

452

FARADAY.

356

time

acknowledges that the present

address,

"

is

momentous."

In

truth

question of the present condition of Science and the ways of improving

occupying

minds more

men's

conceded on

that this

sides

all

than

Science

It

is

simply

this,

instruction

number and

of

calibre

question,

it

and not only

is

is

now

so,

but

the present condition of English

is

number of students is increasing, while


and text-books multiplied, while the
popular lecturers and popular writers in Science is

being

is

what

and

that while the numbers of our professors and their

emoluments are increasing, while


practical

done before

ever

a national

is

Now

one of fundamental importance.

has

it

the
it,

the

introduced

increasing, original research, the fountain-head of a nation's wealth, is decreasing.

of

Now a scientific man is useful as such


new knowledge with which he endows

to a nation according to the

that nation.

This

amount

the test which

is

the nation, as a whole, applies, and Faraday's national reputation rests on

Let the nation know then that the

more Faradays
It

in other

refreshing

is

to

real difficulty at present is this

it.

we want

words more men working at new knowledge.


see

want

this

stated

clearly

so

in

the

Presidential

Address

"The

first

well-qualified

thing wanted for the work of advancing science

The second thing

workers.

is

to place

most favourable to their efficient activity.


must be found while still young, and trained to the work.
conditions

one really effectual


for

the purpose

way

of finding the youths

and that

is

to systematise

which accidentally concur in particular

cases,

who

a supply of

is

and keep them under the


The most suitable men

Now

are best,

know only

endowed by nature

and develop the natural conditions


and enable youths to

rise

from

the crowd.
" Investigators,

once found,

ought to be placed in the circumstances most

favourable to their efficient activity.


"

The

first

and most fundamental condition

for this

is,

the acquisition of knowledge be kept alive and fostered.


retain the hold

that their desire for

They must not merely

which they have acquired on the general body of their science

they ought to strengthen and extend that hold, by acquiring a more complete

and accurate knowledge of its doctrines and methods in a word, they ought
to be more thorough students than during their state of preliminary training.
;

"They must be
energies

to

able to live

other pursuits

by

their work, without diverting

and they must

event of illness or in their old age.

feel

security

against

any of

their

want, in the

FARADAY.
"

They must be supplied with

357

and trained assistants

intelligent

aid in

to

the conduct of their researches, and whatever buildings, apparatus, and materials

may

be required for conducting those researches effectively.


"

The desired system must therefore provide arrangements favourable

to the

maintenance and development of the true student-spirit in investigators, while


providing them with permanent means of subsistence, suflBcient to enable
to

neutralise
all

and tranqud

secure

feel

working at science alone, yet not

in

motives for exertion

their

external aids,

proportion to their

in

to

must give them


wants and powers of making good use

and at the same time

them

sufficient

it

of them."

Whether the scheme proposed by Dr Williamson


things about

have the

will

what

rate

importance

now

fully recognised.

So
will

the

far

usefulness.

It

is

success

to bring such a state of

a matter

is

of

second-

that the need of some scheme

is,

is

we have made have been suggested by Faraday's

remarks

to be hoped that the nobleness of his simple, undramatic

life,

memories as the discoveries which have immortalised

Here was no hunger

name.

he anticipates

importance

of

is

as long in men's

live

his

full

after

men's work, no swerving from the

popular applause, no jealousy of other


self-imposed

well-loved,

task

"working,

of

finishing, publishing."

"

The

of

his

others,

noble

soul

independent

Such was

and bold

his

portrait

of

is,

regard

all

should

their

we not

youth,

the discoveries

all

what he himself

to

combined, gave

these

discovered,

an

sketched by Dumas, a

Can men

own

life ?

hear less of

Nay,

men

if

it

man

in

that

all

this is far

of the

same

"brilliant promise"

tempted by "fees," or the "applications of Science," or the


little

less

attempts to aid

Lastly

the

were more widely followed than

away from the

falling

cast

of science find a nobler exemplar

advantages attendant upon a popular exposition of other men's work

we not hear a

his

incomparable

illustrious physicist."

as

All will recognise its truth.

on which to fashion their


it

and ingenuous admiration of

natural modesty in

charm to the features of the


mould.

candour, his ardent love of the truth, his

simplicity of his heart, his

fellow-interest in all the successes,

we may

it

frequently than

savour of jobbery

consider

from easy.

we do

that research

is

Should

a sham, and

Faraday's place in the general history of Science

Our minds

are

outward form and expression of

still

his

too

much occupied with

scientific

work

the

memory

to be able to

compare

FARADAY.

358

him

aright

with

other

the

men among whom we

great

shall

have to place

him.

Each has his own office and


That office did not exist
even in the imagination, till he came to fill it, and none can succeed to his
Others may gain distinction by adapting the
place when he has passed away.
Every great man of the

his

own

first

rank

unique.

is

place in the historic procession of the sages.

exposition of science to the varying language of each generation of students, but

true function

their

is

not so

much

didactic as paedagogic

of phrases which enable us to persuade ourselves that

but to bring the student into living

contact

with

not

to teach the use

we understand a

the

two

main

science,

sources

of

mental growth, the fathers of the sciences, for whose personal influence over
the opening mind there is no substitute, and the material things to which
their labours first gave a meaning.

and must always remain, the father of that enlarged science of


all the phenomena which former
inquirers had studied separately, besides those which Faraday himself discovered
by following the guidance of those convictions, which he had already obtained,
Faraday

is,

electro-magnetism which takes in at one view,

of the unity of the whole science.

Before him came the discovery of most of the fundamental phenomena, the

and magnetic attractions and repulsions, the electric current and its
Then came Cavendish, Coulomb, and Poisson, who by following the
effects.
path pointed out by Newton, and making the forces which act between bodies
electric

the principal object of their study, founded the mathematical theories of electric
and magnetic forces. Then Orsted discovered the cardinal fact of electro-magnetic
force,

and Ampere investigated the mathematical laws of the mechanical action

between

electric currents.

Thus the
Faraday
at

one view

special

in

first

the

field

of

electro-magnetic

all

its

departments

required

preparation was necessary.


first

Science was

entered upon his public career.


a

It

was

stretch

already very large

when

so large that to take in

of

thought

for

which

we find Faraday endeavouring


the known sources of electric action,

Accordingly,

place to obtain, from each of

Having thus
was
to form a conception of electrification, or electric action, which would embrace
them all. For this purpose it was necessary that he should begin by getting

all

the phenomena which any one of them was able

established the

unity of nature of

rid of those parasitical

ideas,

all

electric

to exhibit.

manifestations, his next aim

which are so apt to cling to every

scientific term,

359

FARADAY.
and to invest

it

the expense of

with a luxuriant crop of connotative meanings flourishing at

endeavoured to strip

therefore

word was intended to denote.


He
such terms as " electric fluid," " current," and

meaning which the

the

all

"attraction" of every meaning except that which


themselves, and to

new

invent

is

warranted by the phenomena

" elect^-olysis," "electrode," "di-

such as

terms,

which suggest no other meaning than that assigned to them by

electric,"

their

definitions.

He

thus undertook no

and

ideas,

the

less

terms

scientific

a task than the investigation of the


of

old

and

popular

phrase,

"electric

facts,

result

the

was the

new method.

remodelling of the whole according to an entirely

That

and the

electro-magnetism,

which

fluid,"

now, we

is

trust,

had done what it


upon those particular parts of bodies where

banished for ever into the region of newspaper paragraphs,


could to keep

men's minds fixed

the "fluid" was supposed to exist.

on

Faraday,

other

the

encouraged us to examine

between the
It

electrified

hand,
that

by
is

inventing

going

on

word

the
the

in

air

"dielectric,"

or

other

has

medium

bodies.

The terms, field of force,


They all illustrate

needless to multiply instances of this kind.

is

of force,

lines

all

induction,

&c.,

are

sufficient

to

recall

them.

the general principles of the growth of science, in the particular form of which

Faraday

We

is

the exponent.

have,

the

first,

careful

observation

examination of the received ideas, and the


ideas

and,

lastly,

of

selected

formation,

phenomena, then

when

necessary,

of

the

new

the invention of scientific terms adapted for the discussion

phenomena in the light of the new ideas.


The high place which we assign to Faraday in electro-magnetic science may
appear to some inconsistent with the fact that electro-magnetic science is an
exact science, and that in some of its branches it had already assumed a
mathematical form before the time of Faraday, whereas Faraday was not a

of the

professed
of

mathematician, and in his writings

difierential

exact science.

we

find

none of those integrations

equations which are supposed to be of

Open Poisson and Ampdre, who went

Neumann, who came

after

the very essence of an

before him, or

him, and you will find their pages

not one of which Faraday would have understood.

It

is

full

Weber and
of symbols,

admitted that Faraday

made some great discoveries, but if we put these aside, how can we rank his
scientific method so high without disparaging the mathematics of these eminent men ?

FARADAY.

360
It

Is

true that no one can essentially cultivate any exact science without

But we

understanding the mathematics of that science.

are not to suppose that

the calculations and equations which mathematicians find so useful constitute


The calculus is but a part of mathematics.
the whole of mathematics.

The geometry of

position

an example of a mathematical science established

is

Now

without the aid of a single calculation.

Faraday's lines of force occupy

the same position in electro-magnetic science that pencils

of

lines

do

in

the

method of building up an exact mental


image of the thing we are reasoning about. The way in which Faraday made
use of his idea of lines of force in co-ordinating the phenomena of magnetoelectric induction* shews him to have been in reality a mathematician of a

geometry of

They

position.

very high order

one

furnish a

whom

from

the mathematicians of the future

may

derive

valuable and fertile methods.

advance

For the

of

the

exact

a mental representation of the

facts,

and

stand for any particular case,

depends upon the discovery and


by means of which we may form
sufficiently general, on the one hand, to

sciences

development of appropriate and exact

ideas,

on the other, to warrant

exact,

sufficiently

we may draw from them by

the deductions

the

application

of

mathematical

reasoning.

From the

straight

Hne of Euclid to the

lines of force of

Faraday

this has

been the character of the ideas by which science has been advanced, and by
the

free

use

of

further advance.

of

the

dynamical

as

well

as

geometrical

The use of mathematical

application

of

these

concerned in our experiments.

ideas

with

Electrical

ideas

calculations

our

is

we may hope

measurements

science

is

now

for

to compare the results

of the

quantities

in the stage in

which

such measurements and calculations are of the greatest importance.

We

are

probably ignorant even of the name of the science which will be

developed out of the materials

we

are

now

collecting,

when the

great philosopher

next after Faraday makes his appearance.


To estimate the
and second

intensity of

series of his Researches

Faraday's scientific power,

and compare them,

first,

we cannot do

better than read the

first

with the statements in Bence Jones's Life

of Faraday, which tells tis the tales of the first discovery of the facts, and of the final publication
of the results, and second, with the whole course of electro-magnetic science since, which has added

no new idea to those


them.

set forth,

but has only verified the truth and

scientific

value of every one of

[From Nature,

LXII.

An atom

is

smallest possible

body which

portion

of

Vol. viil.]

Molecules^'.

cannot

be

in

particular

deal with things invisible

two.

No

Molecular science, therefore,

handled a single molecule.


of study which

cut

substance.

molecule

is

the

one has ever seen or

is

one of those branches


senses,

and

questions.

Is

and imperceptible by our

which cannot be subjected to direct experiment.

The mind
space
extent,
exist,

of

and

infinite,

and are

or

is

all

man
if

perplexed

has

so

many hard

with

Is

material

the

world

infinite

faculties,

in

Do atoms

matter infinitely divisible?

discussion of questions of this kind has been going on ever since

The

fifth

places within that extent equally full of matter?

began to reason, and to each


a part

itself

what sense

in

of

us,

as

soon

we

as

the same old questions arise as fresh as ever.

of the

science

century before

of the

nineteenth century of our

obtain

use

the

They form
era,

as

of

men
our

as essential

of that of the

it.

We

do not know much about the science organisation of Thrace twentytwo centuries ago, or uf the machinery then employed for difiusing an interest
There were men, however, in those days, who devoted
in physical research.
their

to

lives

distinguished

the pursuit of

members

of

the

knowledge with an ardour worthy of the most


and the lectures in which
British Association
;

Democritus explained the atomic theory to his fellow-citizens of Abdera realised,


not in golden opinions only, but in golden talents, a sum hardly equalled even
in America.

To another very eminent


as

the teacher of Socrates,

VOL.

11.

philosopher, Anaxagoras, best

we

are

known

to the world

indebted for the most important service to

Lecture delivered before the British Association at Bradford.

46

MOLECULES.

362
which,

the atomic theory,

Anaxagoras, in

done.

after

fact,

statement by Democritus,

its

a theory which so

stated

Democritus that the truth

atomic theory of

be

to

one

the

of

the

theory

The question of the existence

atoms cannot be preseufed to

non-existence of

falsehood

or

the falsehood or truth of the other.

implies

remained

exactly contradicts

us

clearness than in the alternative theories of these

this

two

evening

with

or

greater

philosophers.

Take any portion of matter, say a drop of water, and observe its properties.
Like every other portion of matter we have ever seen, it is divisible. Divide
it

in two, each portion appears to retain all the properties of the original di'op,

and among others that of being

The parts are

divisible.

similar to the whole

in every respect except in absolute size.

Now

go on repeating the process of division

till

the separate portions of

water are so small that we can no longer perceive or handle them.

have no doubt that the

sub-division

might be

were more acute and our instruments more


but now the question

arises,

Can

carried

delicate.

further,

Thus

far

After a certain number of sub-divisions,

negative.
into a

number of

parts each of which

should thus, in imagination,

the

This

is

may

Epicurus, and Lucretius, and, I

answer in the

the drop would be divided

incapable of further sub-division.

at

arrive

cannot be cut in two.

signifies,

is

senses

are agreed,

all

this sub-division be repeated for ever

According to Democritus and the atomic school, we must

which,

atom,
the

we

Still

our

if

atomic

as

name

its

doctrine

We

literally

Democritus,

of

add, of your lecturer.

According to Anaxagoras, on the other hand, the parts into which the drop
is

divided are in

body counting

all

for

the whole drop

is

respects

similar to

divisible,

mere

the whole drop, the

nothing as regards the nature of


so are its parts

down

its

to the

size

of a

Hence

substance.

if

minutest sub-divisions,

and that without end.

The essence
respects

of the
similar

in

all

of

Homoiomereia.

of Anaxagoras

doctrine
to

the

whole.

It

was,

is

that

parts

therefore,

Anaxagoras did not of course assert this

organised bodies such as

men and

universal

exception,

experience
is

mankind

doctrine

of the

parts of

testifies

that

every

that those inorso,

material

and that the


body,

without

divisible.

The doctrine
tradiction.

of

are

the

animals, but he maintained

ganic substances which appear to us homogeneous are really

body

of

called

of

atoms and that of homogeneity are thus

in

direct

con-

MOLECULES.

But we must now go on


not occur
to

to molecules.

The

in Johnson's Dictionary.

3G:?

Molecule
ideas

it

Is

a modern word.

It does

embodies are those belonging

modern chemistry.

drop of water, to return to our former example, may be divided into


Each of
a certain number, and no more, of portions similar to each other.
means
no
is
by
it
But
these the modern chemist calls a molecule of water.

an atom,

for

contains

it

the

a certain process

two

different substances,

molecule

may be

actually

oxygen and hydrogen, and by


divided into two parts, one

According to the received


oxygen and the other of hydrogen.
each molecule of watr there are two molecules of hydrogen and
Whether these are or are not ultimate atoms I shall not
oxygen.

consisting of
doctrine,

one

of

in

attempt to decide.

We now see what a molecule


A molecule of a substance is a

is,

of similar molecules

number
of

that substance,

were removed,

it

as distinguished from an atom.

if, on the one hand, u


were assembled together they would form a mass

small body such that

while on the other hand,

would no longer be

able,

if

any portion

of

molecule

this

along with an assemblage of othei-

make up a mass of the original substance.


Every substance, simple or compound, has its own molecule. If this molecule

molecules similarly treated, to

be divided,

its

parts

are

molecules of a different substance or substances from

An atom, if there is such a thing,


that of which the whole is a molecule.
must be a molecule of an elementary substance. Since, therefore, every molecule
is
not an atom, but every atom is a molecule, I shall use the word molecule
as the

of

more general term.


have no intention of taking up your time by expounding the doctrines

modern chemistry with respect

to

the molecules of different substances.

It

encourages
is not the special but the universal interest of molecular science which
me to address you. It is not because we happen to be chemists or physicists
or specialists

of

any kind that we are attracted towards this centre of all


we all belong to a race endowed with faculties

material existence, but because

which urge us on to search deep and ever deeper into the nature of things.
We find that now, as in the days of the earliest physical speculations.
point, and every
all physical researches appear to converge towards the same
inquirer,

discovery

as
is

he looks forward into the dim region towards which the path of
leading him,

sees,

each according to his sight, the vision

of

same Quest.

462

the

MOLECULES.

364

One may
potential

see

the atom as a material point, invested and surrounded

garment

Another sees no

forces.

of

but

force,

bare

only the

by-

and

utter hardness of mere impenetrability.

But though many a


him

the

he has seen

as

speculator,

into the innermost sanctuary of the inconceivably

exhorting

each

other

before

direct

to

attainable aim, each generation, from the earliest

a due proportion

time, has contributed

recede

has had to confess

and though philosophers in every age have


their minds to some more useful and

that the quest was not for him,

been

vision

little,

of its

dawn

ablest

of science to the present

intellects

to

the quest of

the ultimate atom.

Our
science,

business

and

in

evening

this

to

particular

describe

to

is

before

place

you

some researches in molecular


any definite information which

The old atomic theory,

has been obtained respecting the molecules themselves.

by Lucretius and revived

as described

of all

in

modern

times, asserts that the molecules

when the body

bodies are in motion, even

These motions of molecules are in the case of

itself

solid

appears to be at

rest.

bodies confined within so

narrow a range that even with our best microscopes we cannot detect that they
In liquids and gases, however, the molecules are not
alter their places at all.
confined within any definite limits, but

even when that mass

is

This process of diffusion, as

and even

some

in

work

their

way through

the whole mass,

not disturbed by any visible motion.


it

is

called,

which goes on

in gases

and Hquids

can be subjected to experiment, and forms one of the

solids,

most convincing proofs of the motion of molecules.

Now

the recent progress of molecular science began with the study of the

mechanical

efi'ect

of

the impact of

against any solid body.

ever

is

placed

Of

these moving

among them, and the

when they strike


must beat against what-

molecules

course these flying molecules

constant succession of these strokes

is,

according

and other gases.


This appears to have been first suspected by Daniel BernoulH, but he had not
The same theory was
the means which we now have of verifying the theory.
afterwards brought forward independently by Lesage, of Geneva, who, however,
to our theory, the sole cause of

what

is

called the pressure of air

devoted most of his labour to the explanation of gravitation by the impact of


Then Herapath, in his Mathematical Physics^ published in 1847, made a

atoms.

much more

extensive application of the theory to gases,

absence from our meeting


the molecules of hydrogen.

we must

all

regret, calculated

and Dr

Joule,

whose

the actual velocity of

365

MOLECULES.

further development of the theory is generally supposed to have


with
a paper by Kronig, which does not, however, so far as I can see,
begun
It seems, however, to have
contain any improvement on what had gone before.

The

drawn the attention of Professor Clausius to the subject, and to him we owe
a very large part of what has been since accomplished.
We all know that air or any other gas placed in a vessel presses against
the sides of the vessel, and against the surface of any body placed within it.
On the kinetic theory this pressure is entirely due to the molecules striking
against these surfaces, and thereby communicating to them a series of impulses
which follow each other

such rapid succession that they produce an

in

effect

which cannot be distinguished from that of a continuous pressure.


If the velocity of the molecules is given, and the number varied, then since
each molecule, on an average, strikes the sides of the vessel the same number

and with an impulse of the same magnitude, each will contribute an


whole pressure. The pressure in a vessel of given size is

of times,

equal share to the

number

therefore proportional to the

of gas in

This
Boyle,

of molecules in

that

it,

to the quantity

is

it.

is

the complete dynamical explanation of the fact discovered by Robert

that the pressure of


portions

air

of

proportional to

is

that
part

of the pressure independently of the rest,

different

density.

its

gas forced into a vessel,

of

and

this

It

shews also

each produces

own

its

vhether these portions

be of the same gas or not.

Let us next suppose that the velocity of the molecules


molecule will

now

strike

a second, but, besides

same
will

proportion,

so

this,

that

the impulse of each blow will be increased in the


the

vary as the square of the

responds,

on

explain the

our
effect

theory,

of

that the proportional

Each

increased.

is

the sides of the vessel a greater number of times in

to

part

of

the

a rise

warming the
expansion of

of

gas,
all

the

temperature,

and

due

pressure

Now

velocity.

also the

increase

and

in

each

to
of

molecule

velocity

w^ay

this

cor-

we can

law discovered by Charles

gases between given temperatures

is

the

same.

The dynamical theory

also tells us

what

will

than the smaller ones, so that, on an average,


will

have the same energy of motion.


The proof of this dynamical theorem,

happen

if

molecules of different

The greater masses

masses are allowed to knock about together.

in

will

go slower

every molecule, great or small

which

claim

the

priority,

has

MOLECULES.

366

developed and improved by Dr Ludwig Boltzmann.

recently been greatly

The

most important consequence which flows from it is that a cubic centimetre of


every gas at standard temperature and pressure contains the same number of
This is the dynamical explanation of Gay Lussac's law of the
molecules.
equivalent volumes of

But we must now descend

gases.

to

and

particulars,

calculate the actual velocity of a molecule of hydrogen.

centimetre of hydrogen, at the temperature of melting

cubic

at

what

rate

Dr

Joule,

and the

accustomed to
in

artillery

so

difference)

call

result

1,859

is

is

The

velocity

and at

in

separate

This

It

is

first

made by

what we are

any velocity obtained


as you will see by

greater than

of other gases

is

less,

is

very great as compared with that of bullets.

all cases it is

air in this hall flying

about

about seventeen miles in a minute.

in all directions, at a rate of

were flying in the same

If all these molecules

or

the calculation which was

"We have now to conceive the molecules of the

stitute

-altogether

ice,

have to find

produce the observed pressure on the

to

metres per second.

a great velocity.

practice.

the table, but in

as

This

cubic centimetre.

of the

sides

must move (whether

small mass

this

molecules makes no

We

0-00008954 grammes.

a pressure of one atmosphere, weighs

direction,

they would con-

a wind blowing at the rate of seventeen miles a minute, and the only

wind which approaches


a cannon.

How,

then,

mouth of
Only because the

velocity

is

that which proceeds from the

you and

able to

this

are

stand here

molecules happen to be flying in difierent directions, so that those which strike


against our backs enable us to support the storm which

Indeed,

faces.

if

bombardment were
our breath would leave

this molecular

would swell,
But it is not only against us

our veins
expire.

that they are flying

and we should,

us,

or against the

of

walls

in

every possible

direction,

and you

literally,

the hall that

Consider the immense number of them,

the molecules are striking.


fact

beating against our

is

to cease, even for an instant,

will

and the
see

that

Every time that two molecules come


the paths of both are changed, and they go off in new directions.

they cannot avoid striking each other.


into collision,

Thus each molecule

is

continually getting its

of its great velocity

it

may

from the point at which


I

its smell.

per second, so that

it

so

that

in

spite

reaches any great distance

it set out.

have here a bottle containing ammonia.

can recognise by

course altered,

be a long time before

if their

Its molecules

Ammonia

is

a gas which

you

have a velocity of six hundred metres

course had not been interrupted

by

striking against

367

MOLECULES.
of

molecules

the

air

the

in

everyone in the most distant

hall,

gallery

would

was able to pronounce the name of the gas. But


of ammonia is so jostled about by the molemolecule
each
instead of this,
cules of air, that it is sometimes going one way and sometimes another, and
like a hare which is always doubling, though it goes a great pace, it makes
have smelt ammonia before

very

be

progress.

little

perceptible

through the

Nevertheless,

the smell of ammonia

though the process

is

now beginning

to

bottle.

make

every opening of this hall so as to

is

The gas does diffuse itself


a slow one, and if we could close up

some distance from the

at

air,

it

air-tight,

and leave everything to

some weeks, the ammonia would become uniformly mixed through every

itself for

part of the air in the hall.

property

This

of

gases,

remarked by Priestley.
of

any

chemical

researches

were

that

they diffuse

Dalton shewed that

between

action
especially

directed

the

it

through

each

other,

was

first

takes place quite independently

Graham, whose
gases.
pheDomena which seem to
study of diffusion, and obtained

inter-diffusing

towards

those

throw light on molecular motions, made a careful


the first results from which the rate of diffusion can be calculated.

Still more recently the rates of diffusion of gases into each other
been measured with great precision by Professor Loschmidt of Vienna.

He

have

placed the two gases in two similar vertical tubes, the lighter gas being

placed above

the heavier,

so

as

to

avoid the formation of currents.

opened a sliding valve, so as to make


the gases to

He

then

the two tubes into one, and after leaving

themselves for an hour or

so,

he shut the valve, and determined

how much of each gas had diffused into the other.


As most gases are invisible, I shall exhibit gaseous diffusion to you by
means of two gases, ammonia and hydrochloric acid, which, when they meet,
form a solid product. The ammonia, being the lighter gas, is placed above the
you will soon see that
a cloud of white
produce
and
the gases can diffuse through this stratum of
smoke when they meet. During the whole of this process no currents or any
Eveiy part of the vessel appears as calm
other visible motion can be detected.
hydrochloric acid,

with a stratum of

air

between, but
air,

as a jar of

undisturbed

air.

But, according to our theory, the same kind of motion


air

as

in

the

inter-diffusing gases,

is

going on in calm

the only difference being that

we can

trace

the molecules from one place to another more easily when they are of a different

nature from those through which they are diffusing.

MOLECULES.

368

we wish

If

form a mental representation of what

to

the molecules in calm

when every
in

air,

bee

individual

flying

is

is

furiously,

swarm

of bees,

one direction and then

in

first

among

going on

better than observe a

the swarm, as a whole, either remains at

another, while

through the

we cannot do

or sails slowly

rest,

air.

In certain seasons, swarms of bees are apt to

and the owners,

fly

order to identify their property

in

off"

to a great

when they

distance,

them on

find

Now

other people's ground, sometimes throw handfulls of flour at the swarm.

swarm has whitened those

us suppose that the flour thrown at the flying

let

only which happened to be in the lower half of the swarm, leaving those

bees

in the

upper half free from

If the

bees

flour.

go on flying hither and thither in an irregular manner,

still

the floury bees will be found in continually increasing proportions in the upper

swarm,

part of the
of

with
is

they have become equally diffused through every part

till

But the reason of

it.

this

diffusion

is

not because the bees were marked

The only

but because they are flying about.

flour,

the marking

effect of

to enable us to identify certain bees.

We

have no means of marking a select number of molecules

of

air,

so

them after they have become diffused among others, but we may
communicate to them some property by which we may obtain evidence of their
as

trace

to

diffusion.

For instance,
diffusing

horizontal

out

of

if

motion

neighbouring strata,
into

a horizontal stratum of air

this

with

while

is

somewhat

like

the other, rubbing on


solid bodies;

It

those

and

so

molecules

is,

in

tend

it.

Friction

in fact, only another

it

is

is

and

it

the

horizontally, molecules

below

will

communicate

to

out

diffusing

that of two rough

the case of fluids

moving

is

above

the

of

carry their

motion

to

neighbouring

the

strata

rest.

The action between the

surf^-ces,

one of which shdes over

to

name given

to this

action between

called internal friction, or viscosity.

kind of diffusion

lateral diffusion of

momentum,

amount can be calculated from data derived from observations of the


kind of diffusion, that of matter. The comparative values of the viscosity

its

first

of

them,

into

the moving one will tend to bring

strata

and

stratum

different

gases were determined

by Graham

in

his

researches

on the tran-

through long narrow tubes, and their absolute values have


been deduced from experiments on the oscillation of discs by Oscar Meyer and

spiration

myself

of

gases

MOLECULES.

Another way of tracing the


heat the upper stratum

which this heat


kind of

of molecules

diffusion

the air in

a vessel, and

communicated to the lower

is

diffusion

of

369

that

of energy,

Vienna, has recently, by a very delicate method,

and he

finds

it,

as he

is

rate

is

to

at

a third

must take place


before any direct

it

viscosity

made.

air

the

This, in fact,

strata.

was calculated from data derived from experiments on

air,

observe

and the rate at which

experiments on the conduction of heat had been


conductivity of

through calm
to

Professor

Stefan,

of

succeeded in determining the

tells

in

us,

striking agreement with

the value predicted by the theory.


these three kinds of diffusion-^the

All

and of energy

are

carried

momentum,
The greater

of matter, of

diffusion

on by the motion of the molecules.

the velocity of the molecules and the further they travel before their paths are

by

altered

on

Professor

another.

of a molecule.

distance

in

which

you

No wonder

collision

it

are given in the table

about

is

know

collisions

The dynamical theory

free path,

and

even with

part

of

quantity.

must

molecules

swift

of liquids

is

is

the

Of
be

which each must undergo

is

mil-

but small,

millions of times In a second.


in

but

liquids,

the

relation

not so simple as in the

case

not so well understood as that

each molecule spends the greater part of

and

is

with other molecules,


path,

tenth

the

given in

is

us

but the principal difference between a gas and a liquid seems to be

that in a gas
its

The average

and another

and are reckoned by thousands of

between the rates at which they take place


of gases,

ideas

mean path

the

that the travelling power of the swiftest molecule

when its course is completely changed thousands of


The three kinds of diffusion, also take place
of gases.

gave us precise

distance

very small

is

by such

have calculated the number of

They

a second.

lions.

light,

time spent on so short a path

very small.

first

this

of the molecules of four well-known gases.

Roughly speaking,

a wave of

course the

who

calls

a very small distance, quite imperceptible to

is

our best microscopes.


length of

of molecules,

by a molecule between one

travelled

It

on an average, a molecule travels without


of Bonn,

have calculated, from Professor Loschmidt's diffnsion experi-

mean path

the table.

far,

Clausius,

about the motion of agitation

ments, the

diffusion.

already the velocity of the molecules, and therefore, by experiments

we can determine how

diffusion,

striking

with other molecules, the more rapid will be the

collision

Now we know

is

VOL. n.

for a

very small portion of

whereas,

in

a liquid,

the

Its

its

time In describing

time engaged in encounters

molecule

has

hardly any free

always in a state of close encounter with other molecules.


47

MOLECULES.

370

Hence

in

takes place

liquid

the

much more

the same reason that

for

motion from one

of

diffusion

it

more expeditious

is

a letter from hand to hand than to give


his

way through

the crowd.

have here a

it

in

made

has

his

results

in

diffusing

the

through,

itself

how

water

those

of

The rate of diffusion of momentum is


but by no means in the same proportion.

is

when

still

is

day

The rate of
Comparing

in liquids.

than in gases,

also slower in liquids

between the rates at which a

difference

less

of temperature

rise

propagated through a liquid and through a gas.

In

solids

the molecules are

within very narrow limits.


in

above.

The same amount of motion takes


long to subside in water as in air, as you will see by what
stir these two jars, one containing water and the other air.

about ten times as

There

It

progress the blue

on gases, we find that about as much

Loschmidt

diffusion takes place in a second in gases as requires a

takes place

little

a solution of sugar has been carefully observed by Voit.


with

work

to

the lower part of which contains

jar,

has been standing here since Friday, and you see

diffusion of

a dense crowd to pass on

a special messenger

to

another

to

while the upper part contains pure water.

a solution of copper sulphate,

liquid

molecule

of the molecules themselves,

rapidly than the diffusion

bodies,

solid

though

still

in motion,

Hence the

that

diffusion

motion

of

and

but their motions are confined


of matter does not take place

heat

takes

very

place

freely.

Nevertheless, certain liquids can diffuse through colloid solids, such as jelly and

gum, and hydrogen can make

We

its

way through

iron

and palladium.

have no time to do more than mention that most wonderful molecular

motion which

is

called electrolysis.

Here

is

an

electric current passing

through

acidulated water, and causing oxygen to appear at one electrode and hydrogen
at the other.

In the space between, the water

opposite currents
physical theory

of
of

is

perfectly calm

and yet two

oxygen and of hydrogen must be passing through


this

process

has been studied by Clausius,

it.

The

who has given

reasons for asserting that in ordinary water the molecules are not only moving,

but every

now and then

striking each other with such violence that the oxygen

and hydrogen of the molecules


crowd,

part

company, and

about

dance

through the

seeking partners which have become dissociated in the same way.

In

ordinary water these exchanges produce, on the whole, no observable effect; but

no sooner does the electromotive force begin to act than

it

exerts

its

guiding

on the unattached molecules, and bends the course of each toward its
proper electrode, till the moment when, meeting with an unappropriated molecule

influence

371

MOLECULES.
of the opposite kind,
it

till

it

again

is

enters again into a more or less permanent union with

it

by another shock.

dissociated

kind of diffusion assisted by electromotive

Another branch of molecular science

is

It includes the theory of evaporation

vapour of the

in question is the

which the gas

in

of a gas

also the theory of the absorption

therefore,

that which relates to the exchange

is

of molecules between a liquid and a gas.

and condensation,

Electrolysis,

force.

and

liquid,

liquid of a different substance.

by a

The researches of Dr Andrews on the relations between the liquid and the
though the statements in our elementary

gaseous state have shewn us that

may

text-books

be so neatly expressed as to appear almost self-evident, their

may

true interpretation

man has

hold of

laid

some

involve

it,

principle

so

no one ever suspects

profound that,

the right

till

that any thing

to

left

is

be

discovered.

These,

are

some

gathered.

We

then,

are

science

the

of

may

which

from

fields

data

the

the ultimate results into

divide

molecular

of

ranks,

three

according to the completeness of our knowledge of them.

To the
gases,

and

first

their

rank belong the relative masses of the molecules of different


These data are obtained from
in metres per second.

velocities

experiments on the pressure and density of gases, and are

known

to

a high

degree of precision.

In the second rank


different
in

gases,

These

second.

kinds of diffusion.

mations

till

There

we must

the length of

place

their

quantities

relative

paths,

deduced

are

size

molecules of

the

of

and the number of


experiments

from

on

collisions

the

three

Their received values must be regarded as rough approxi-

the methods of experimenting are greatly improved.


is

another set of quantities which

because our knowledge of them

is

approximate, as in the second, but


conjecture.

the

mean

These are

The

neither
is

we must

precise,

place in the third rank,

in

masses of different molecules with great accuracy,

From

these

the molecules themselves.

So

we

far

first

nor

rank,

we

its

absolute diameter,

We

know the
and we know their

a cubic centimetre.

diameters approximately.

the

in

only as yet of the nature of a probable

absolute mass of a molecule,

and the number of molecules

The great

as

relative
relative

can deduce the relative densities of

are on firm ground.

resistance of liquids to compression

makes

it

probable that their

molecules must be at about the same distance from each other as that at which

two molecules of the same substance

in

the gaseous form act on

each

other

472

MOLECULES.

372

This conjecture has been put to the test by Lorenz Meyer,

during an -encounter.

who

has compared the densities of different hquids with the calculated relative
the molecules of

of

densities

and has found a remarkable

vapours,

their

cor-

respondence between them.

Now

Loschmidt

all

from

deduced

has

remarkable proportion

As

dynamical

the

the volume of a gas

the molecules contained in

so

it,

mean path

the

is

theory

the

to the combined

is

of a

following

volume of

molecule to one-

eighth of the diameter of a molecule.

Assuming that the volume


form,

is

not

much

the substance,

of

when reduced

the liquid

to

we

greater than the combined volume of the molecules,

from this proportion the diameter of a molecule.

obtain

In this way Loschmidt,

in

Independently
made the first estimate of the diameter of a molecule.
of him and of each other, Mr Stoney in 1868, and Sir W. Thomson in 1870,
published results of a similar kind, those of Thomson being deduced not only
1865,

in this

way, but from considerations derived from the thickness of soap-bubbles,

and from the

electric properties of metals.

According to the Table, which

the size of the molecules of hydrogen

have

calculated

from

Loschmidt's

data,

such that about two millions of them

is

a row would occupy a millimetre, and a million million million million of


them would weigh between four and five grammes.
In a cubic centimetre of any gas at standard pressure and temperature
All these numbers
there are about nineteen million million million molecules.

in

of

the

thii'd

rank

are,

In order

conjectural.

obtained in this way,


of

independent

data

need

not

tell

you,

to

putting

be

regarded

as

any confidence

warrant

we

should have to compare together a greater

than

us

we have

in

as

present

at

to

in

numbers

number

yet obtained, and to shew that they

lead to consistent results.

Thus

far

we have been considering molecular science


But though the professed aim of all

natural phenomena.

unravel the secrets of nature,

it

has another

efiect,

as

an

scientific

inquiry into

work

is

to

not less valuable, on the

mind of the worker.


It leaves him in possession of methods which nothing
but scientific work could have led him to invent; and it places him in a
position

from which

many regions of
new aspect.

nature,

besides

that which he has been

studying, appear under a

also

The study of molecules has developed a method of


opened up new views of nature.

its

own, and

it

has

MOLECULES.

When

373

Lucretius wishes us to form a mental representation of the motion

of atoms, he

us

tells

look

to

a sunbeam

at

shining through a darkened rooni

(the

same instrument of research by which Dr Tyndall makes

dust

we

through

directions
result

and

breathe),

to

of the far more

motes

which

other- in

tells

us,

is

all

but a

complicated motion of the invisible atoms which knock

In his dream of nature, as Tennyson

the motes about.

to us the

visible

each

chase

motion of the visible motes, he

Tliis

it.

the

observe

"

And

Saw

tells

us,

he

the flaring atom-streams

torrents of her myriad universe,

Ruining along the

illimitable inane,

Fly on to clash together again, and make

Another and another frame


For ever."

And

it

is

of things

no wonder that he should have attempted

bonds of

the

burst

to

Fate by making his atoms deviate from their courses at quite uncertain times

and

thus attributing to them a kind of irrational free

places,

materialistic

his

action of which

As long

as

data given us,

theory

is

the

only

explanation

that

of

which on

will,

power of voluntary

we ourselves are conscious.


we have to deal with only two molecules, and have all the
we can calculate the result of their encounter; but when we

have to deal with millions of molecules, each of which has millions of encounters
in

a second, the complexity of the problem seems to shut out

all

hope of a

legitimate solution.

The modern atomists have therefore adopted a method which

new

in

department of mathematical physics, though

the

When

use in the section of Statistics.

it

has

is,

long

believe,

been in

the working members of Section

get

hold of a report of the Census, or any other document containing the numerical

data

of

Economic and Social Science, they begin

population
or

criminal

their

into

convictions.

tracing

labour within
of artificial

groups,

by distributing the

whole

according to age, income-tax, education, religious

belief,

The number of individuals

the history of each

human

groups.

limits,

separately,

so

is

far too

that, in

great to allow of

order to

reduce their

they concentrate their attention on a small number

The vaiying number of individuals in each group, and not


is the primary datum from which they work.

the varying state of each individual,


This, of course,

may

is

not the

only method of

observe the conduct of individual

studying

men and compare

human
it

nature.

We

with that conduct

MOLECULES.

37^

according to the
which their previous character and their present circumstances,
this method
practise
who
Those
best existing theory, would lead us to expect.
in much
nature
human
of
elements
the
endeavour to improve their knowledge of
comparing
planet
by
of
a
elements
the
corrects
the same way as an astronomer
The study
from the received elements.
its actual position with that deduced
historians and statesmen, is
by
schoolmasters,
and
parents
by
nature
human
of

and tabulators,
be distinguished from that carried on by registrars
may be called
one
The
figures.
and by those statesmen who put their faith in
method.
statistical
the historical, and the other the
the historical
equations of dynamics completely express the laws of
to

therefore

The

method

as

applied to matter,

perfect knowledge of

but the application of these equations impHes a


But the smallest portion of matter which

the data.

all

molecules, not one of which


subject to experiment consists of millions of
therefore, ascertain the
cannot,
becomes individuaUy sensible to us.

we can
ever

We

so that we are obliged to abandon


actual motion of any one of these molecules;
statistical method of dealmg with
the
adopt
to
and
the strict historical method,

large groups of molecules.

The data of the


sums of large numbers
quantities
of

statistical

the
as applied to molecular science are

of molecular quantities.

of this kind,

averao-es,

method

which we

In studying the relations between

we meet with a new kind


can

depend upon quite

of regularity, the regularity


sufficiently'

for

all

practical

character of absolute precision


purposes,but which can make no claim to that

which belongs to the laws of abstract dynamics.

Thus molecular
anything more than

science

give us
teaches us that our experiments can never

statistical information,

and that no law deduced from them


pass from the contemplation

But when we

can pretend to absolute precision.


ol
molecules themselves, we leave the world
of our experiments to that of the
is certam and imeverything
where
region
a
enter
chance and change, and
mutable.

The molecules are conformed

not to be found in the sensible


In the first place, the mass of
properties,
all

are

which is
to a constant type with a precision
constitute.
they
which
bodies
the
of
properties
each

absolutely unalterable.

individual

In

the

molecule,

second

place,

and
the

all

its

other

properties

of

identical.
molecules of the same kind are absolutely
molecules, those of oxygen
us consider the properties of two kinds of

Let
and those of hydrogen.

MOLECULES.

We

can procure specimens of oxygen from very different sources

specimens has been very different, and

from

The history

from rocks of every geological epoch.

from water,

air,

375

during thousands of years, difference

if,

oxygen

of circumstances could produce difference of properties, these specimens of

would shew

it.

may

In like manner we

Graham
it

from meteoric

did,

hydrogen from water, from coal, or, as


Take two litres of any specimen of hydrogen,

procure

iron.

combine with exactly one

will

form exactly two

Now

litres

during

if,

imprisoned

the

these

of

the

in

of the

whole

the

flowing

rocks,

any specimen of oxygen, and

of

litre

will

vapour of water.
previous
in

the

history
sea,

or

of

either

careering

whether

specimen,

unknown

through

with the meteorites, any modification of the molecules had taken place,

regions

these relations would no longer be preserved.

But we have another and an entirely different method of comparing the


The molecule, though indestructible, is not a hard rigid
body, but is capable of internal movements, and when these are excited, it
properties of molecules.

emits

wave-length of which

the

rays,

of the

is

measure of the time

vibration

of

molecule.

By means of
may be compared

the spectroscope the wave-lengths of different kinds of light


to within one ten-thousandth part.

ascertained, not only that

way

In this

has been

it

molecules taken from every specimen of hydrogen in

our laboratories have the same set of periods of vibration, but that light, having
the

same

periods

of

set

of vibration,

is

emitted from the sun and

from

the

fixed stars.

We

thus assured that molecules of the same nature as those of our

are

hydrogen exist

in

those

distant

regions,

or

at

least

did

exist

when the

light

by which we see them was emitted.

From

a comparison of

with those of the Greeks,


even
the

if

the dimensions of

the buildings

appears that they have a

same cubit as a standard of length, we might prove

a material

We

so

the Egyptians

Hence,

in

it

from the buildings

should also be justified in asserting that at some time or other

standard of length must have been carried from one country to the

other, or that

But

of

common measure.

no ancient author had recorded the fact that the two nations employed

themselves.

stars

it

both countries had obtained their standards from a

the heavens

distant

we

discover by

their

light,

and by

common

.their

source.

light alone,

from each other that no material thing can ever have passed

MOLECULES.

376

from one to another; and yet this


distant

the existence of these


up of molecules of the same

which

light,

worlds, tells

kinds

as

is

to

us the sole evidence of

us also that each of them

those

which

we

find

is

built

on earth.

or in Arcturus, executes
molecule of hydrogen, for example, whether in Sirius
its vibrations in precisely

Each molecule,
stamp of a metric

the same time.

on it the
therefore, throughout the universe, bears impressed
at
Archives
of
the
metre
the
does
as
distinctly
system as

Paris, or the double royal cubit of the

No

evolution

theory of

can

be

Temple of Karnac.
formed to

account

for

the

similarity

of

continuous change, and the molecule


molecules, for evolution necessarily implies
of generation or destruction.
is incapable of growth or decay,
Nature began, have
None of the processes of Nature, since the time when
are
molecule.
any
of
properties
the
in
difference
produced the sHghtest
molecules or the identity
the
of
existence
the
either
ascribe
to
therefore unable
of the causes which we call natural.
of their properties to the operation of any
all others of
On the other hand, the exact equality of each molecule to
essential
the
said,
well
has
the same kind gives it, as Sir John Herschel
eternal
being
its
of
idea
the
precludes
and
character of a manufactured article,

We

and

self-existent.

very near to the


Thus we have been led, along a strictly scientific path,
Science is debarred from^ studying
that
Not
stop.
must
Science
which
at
point
cannot take to pieces, any
the internal mechanism of a molecule which she
cannot put together. But
she
which
more than from investigating an organism
of matter Science is arrested when she assures
the molecule has been made, and on the other,
that
herself, on the one hand,
of the processes we call natural.
any
by
made
been
that it has not
upon the creation of matter itself out of
reason
to
incompetent
is
Science

in tracing

the

back

history

faculties when we
have reached the utmost limit of our thinking
it must
self-existent
and
eternal
have admitted that because matter cannot be

We

nothing.

have been created.


It

which
hold.

is

it

only

when we

actually

exists,

contemplate, not matter in itself, but the form


lay
that our mind finds something on which it can
.

propertiesthat it
That matter, as such, should have certain fundamental
motion should be
its
that
motion,
of
should exist in space and be capable
we know, be of
anythmg
for
may,
which
truths
persistent, and so on, are

377

MOLECULES.
kind which metaphysicians

the

We

necessary.

CiiU

may

our knowledge of

use

but we have no data

such truths for purposes of deduction,

for speculating

as

to their origin.

But that there should be exactly


molecule of

hydrogen

particular

distribution

Chalmers,

of

is

of

matter

so

collocation

which we have no

things

much matter and no more

We

a very different order.

a fact of

use

to

to

every

here

have

Dr

of

expression

imagining

in

difficulty

the

in

have

been

arranged otherwise.

The form and dimensions of the orbits of the planets, for instance, are not
determined by any law of nature, but depend upon a particular collocation of
The same is the case with respect to the size of the earth, from
matter.
which the standard of what is called the metrical system has been derived.
But these astronomical and terrestrial magnitudes are far inferior in scientific
that most fundamental of all standards which forms the base

importance to
of

the

system.

molecular

tend to modify,

if

Natural causes, as we know,

they do not at length destroy,

all

dimensions of the earth and the whole solar system.


of ages

catastrophes have occurred and

ancient

systems

may

remain

They continue
measure

and weight,

we may

learn

that

this

as

were

they

aspirations

men, are ours because they

who

in

the beginning

created,

materials of which heaven

VOL. n.

created

ineffaceable
after

statement, and justice in action, which


as

and

in the course

of their ruins,

foundation stones of

unbroken and unworn.

day

and from the


those

which

yet occur in the heavens, though

may

new systems evolved out

be dissolved and

work,

arrangements

But though

the molecules out of which these systems are builtthe


the material universe

at

are

the

perfect

characters

not

number

accuracy in measurement,

we reckon among our

are' essential constituents

aid earth

in

only the

and

impressed on them
truth

in

noblest attributes

of the image of

heaven and the

earth,

Him

but the

consist.

^^

378

MOLECULES.

[From the Proceedings of

On Double

LXIII.

behaves as an

and

instant

moment

Refraction in a Viscous Fluid in Motion.

elastic solid

again,

solidified

like

No. 148, 1873.]

Society,

to Poisson's* theory of the internal friction

According
fluid

Royal

the

an

solid

elastic

would do

so
free

that

at

frdin

of fluids,

viscous

were periodically liquefied

if it

each

fresh

start

The

state

strain.

becomes

it

of strain

for
for

of

an
the

certain

by means of their action on polarized


This action was observed by Brewster, and was shewn by Fresnel to be

transparent bodies
light.

may

an instance of double

be investigated

refraction.

In 1866 I made some attempts to ascertain whether the state of strain in


I
a viscous fluid in motion could be detected by its action on polarized light.
had a cylindrical box with a glass bottom. Within this box a solid cyUnder

The fluid to be examined was placed in the annular


Polarized hght was
and the sides of the box.
thrown ap through the fluid parallel to the axis, and the inner cylinder was
then made to rotate. I was unable to obtain any result with solution of gum or

made

could be

between

space

to rotate.

cylinder

this

though I observed an efiect on polarized light when I compressed


some Canada balsam which had become very thick and almost solid in a bottle.
It is easy, however, to observe the efiect in Canada balsam, which is so

sirup of sugar,

that

fluid

very rapidly assumes a level surface after being disturbed.

it

some Canada balsam


vertical

plane,

in a

wide-mouthed square bottle;

in

the

observe

be transmitted through the fluid;

Nicol's prism, and turn the prism so as to cut

let

ofi"

light, polarized

the

light

Put
in

through

a
a.

the light; insert a spatula

Whenever
the Canada balsam, in a vertical plane passing through the eye.
spatula is moved up or down in the fluid, the light reappears on both

sides of the

spatula;

this

As soon as the motion


have hitherto been
strain

continues

only

so

long as the spatula

stops, the light disappears,

and that

so

is

in

unable to determine the rate of relaxation of that

which the light

motion.

quickly that

state of

indicates.

If the motion of the spatula in its

own

plane, instead of being in the plane

* Journal de VEcole Polytechnique, tome

xiii.

cah. xx.

(1329).

482

DOUBLE REFRACTION IN A VISCOUS FLUID IN MOTION.

380

of polarization,

inclined 45* to

is

no

it,

effect is observed,

shewing that the axes

by the theory.

of strain are inclined 45" to the plane of shearing, as indicated


I

am

not aware that this method of rendering visible the state of strain

of a viscous fluid has been hitherto employed

but

appears capable of furnishing

it

important information as to the nature of viscosity in different substances.

Among

transparent solids there


If a small portion

polarized light.

place where the strain


as

the glass

is

the parts surrounding

But

if

small piece

from the stress

caused by the unequal contraction of

it.

a plate of gelatine

out of

cut

cut from a piece of unannealed glass at a

uniform, the effect on polarized light vanishes as soon

is

relieved

on

considerable diversity in their action

is

is

is

dry under longitudinal tension, a

allowed to
the

exhibits

it

same

effect

on light

as

it

did before,

shewing that a state of strain can exist without the action of stress. A film of
gutta percha which has been stretched in one direction has a similar action on
If a

light.

circular

piece

cut out of such a stretched film and warmed,

is

it

contracts in the direction in which the stretching took place.

The body
at one time

of a sea-nettle has

all

the appearance of a transparent jeUy

might be rendered

visible

by means of polarized

light transmitted

through

its

and

sea-nettle produced no effect on polarized light,

have learned by dissection, that the sea-nettle

is

I thus

found,-

not a true

and

what

jelly,

body.

of the

I found that even a very considerable pressure applied to the sides

But

living animal

thought that the spontaneous contractions of the

might

but consists

of cells filled with fluid.

On

the

other hand, the crystalline lens

has a strong action on polarized light


or

when

of the

eye, as

strained either

Brewster obsei-ved,

by external pressure

by the unequal contraction of its parts as it becomes dry.


I have enumerated these instances of the application of polaiized light to
of solid

the study of the structure


application of the same
liquid

differs

from a

method to

solid

in

bodies as

suggestions with respect to the

liquids so as to

having

a veiy small

small "time of relaxation"'", or in both ways.

determine whether a given


or

"rigidity,"

Those which,

like

in

having a

Canada balsam, act

strongly on polarized light, have probably a small " rigidity," but a sensible " time

Those which do not shew this action are probably much more

of relaxation."
"rio-id,"
*
for

The

and owe their


" time

of

fluidity to the smallness

relaxation "

of

a substance strained in a given manner

the complete relaxation of the strain,

at the beginning of this time.

of their "time of relaxation."


is

the

time required

supposing the rate of relaxation to remain the same as

[From

LXIV.

Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Vol.

tlic

On Hamilton's

Hamilton's
pagation

two

8th,

is

1874.]

an expression

from the point whose co-ordinates are


x.^,

two

It

z.^.

y.,,

The axes

points.

different for the

function

characteristic

of light

whose co-ordinates are


the

to

/a

which

the

co-ordinates

V may

[dVv

are

time,

then

x,

y,

z,

through

propagation
/x

is

and
the

a function

is

referred

are

may

be

unit of

in

,..

of these

length

be written

in

the

medium whose
the

If

co-ordinates.

vacuum be taken

co-

time of

the unit of

as

the index of refraction of the medium.

The form of the equation


is

fdvy

slowness of propagation at a point

the

is

point

to the

z^

y,,

points.

idv\
where

the time of pro-

for

x.^,

a function of these six co-ordinates of

is

In isotropic media the differential equation of

ordinates

a Narrow Beam of Light.

Characteristic Function for

[Read Janv/iry

vi.]

in

doubly refracting media, as given by Hamilton,

not required for our present purpose.

Let

OPQR

be the path of a ray of

let

QR

be in a homogeneous

of refraction

pass

through

is

/x.

Between

any combination

Let the part

light.

geneous medium whose index of refraction

is

medium whose index


and
of

the ray

media,

OP

be in a homo-

and

/Xj,

may

singly

n'

f^

Icl

\r,

or

doubly refracting.

Let us consider the characteristic function from a point near to


first

medium

to a point near to

QR

in

the second.

OP

in the

HAMILTON

382

Let
origin

the

position

of which

axes of

and

x^

most suitable

of

at P,

is

CHABACTERISTIC FUNCTION

the

may be turned

y^

point be

first

and the axis of

referred

Zj

drawn

rectangular axes,

to

in the direction

at pleasure round that of

as

of

and to axes of

Zj,

independent of that chosen for

Let the ray from the


pass through P'(^i,

We

the

The

into the position

for our calculations.

Let the position of the second point be referred to


axis

Zj

PO.

r}^,

have then

0),

x^ .and

y,

the

position

of

as

origin,

which

is

to

QR

of course,

x^, y^.

first

and

point C/

{x^, y^, Zj)

rj^,

(^^,

to the second point

(x^, y^, Zj)

0).

Vo-R'=V(yp'+Vp^Q+VQ>R

(2).

= /..(/P- = /x, J{x,-$,y+{y,-r),y + z,^

Here

F^^^

and

Fq,^ = 11,0'E' = ,1, J{x, - Q-^ 4-

(y,

- v^Y + 2/

(3).

(4).

Also

F,.^=F-,, +

dV

dV .dV

dV

tPF

f.^ + ,.^_ + f,^ + ,.g^^ + if.'^^,


d'V

cPF

^'F

A-V^,i:,d'V

+i,v.
.(5).

d'V

..

+ terms

d'V

obtain for the value of Fq.^

This

is

d'V

involving higher powers and products of i

Writing, for the sake of brevity,

we

d'V

single symbols

up to the terms

for

broken at P' and

Vo'iy+ Vjy^+

Vq^j^,,

r).

the differential coeflBcients,

of the second degree inclusive

Fp,+/i,+9','?.+/=f.+S','?.+4<.f,'+.f,'?,

the value of

r)

+ i''.V

(6).

supposing the course of the ray to be

Q' in an arbitrary manner.

FOR A NARROW BEAM OF LIGHT.


For the actual course of the ray the value of
regards

variations

variables,

we

of i

rj

V^'r-

must be stationary

as

Hence, differentiating with respect to these

-q,.

$,.

383

obtain the four equations

",+^)f,+

<-\Vi

pii

'111

-f-^in
+

i-q,

ST),

Since

OPQR

vanish together.

a,

+ 7U.+

=/^.

cry,

r"/

y-.

x,, y,,

is

ray

+U>.+ 7U...= F.T-^^

c.

the

of

Hence

the co-ordinates

system,

/ = ^i=/j = = 0,
i/.,

and

if

we

y^;

for

write

17,;

^,,

minant

^1

+9
c,

b,

c.

+^

a.
'

(8).

+ '-

c,

z..

/i2

c,

u, /

dA

c?A\,,u,

h,-\-

(7A

rfA\i

Then

(9).

Substituting in

(6),

we

-q,;

the deter-

obtain
0):

'

haMilton's chakactekistic function

384

dA
where

^'

/Ai'

dA

2Zi'A

c^Ci

^
di

z,'A da,'

z,

i^i'

c?^

Zi'A c/6i

a=-

/^,/^2

_fti

dA

fjL^fij

.(11).

ds

2Zi22A

'

j^dA
'

This
of

is

^'

2z.^Adc,'

zJa da,

ziAdb,j

z,

the most general form of Hamilton's characteristic function for a pair

each

points,

function

functions of

z^

which

of

second

the

of

and

the

near

is

degree

principal

in x,, y,,

x,,

y,

ray.

It

is

a homogeneous

the coefficients of which are

z^.

By turning the axes of x, and


we may get rid of two of the

y,

about

Zj,

and those of

x.^

and

y,

about

z^,

ten terms, and so reduce the expression to

eight.

We
in

may,

for

example, get rid of

c,

and

the theory of pencils having two focal

be added to
It

round

is
Zj,

61

and

better

to

62,

this transformation

begin

through an angle

by getting

0,,

also turning x,

and

y^

and

is

rid

so of Si

and g^; but

since,

may enter which must


much use.

terms

not of

of g and

r,

by turning

x,

and

y,

such that

|tan2^i =
and

Cj,

lines,

round

z^,

i tan

'pr

+ ^5
(12),

through an angle

2^2

'pq

Q^,

such that

+ TS
,(13).

For these new axes the values of q and r are reduced to

zero.

As an instance of the use of the characteristic function, let us find the


fdrm of the emergent pencil when that of the incident pencil is given.
The general form
axis of

z,

of the characteristic function of a pencil, whose axis

is

is

Fi

= Jr+/x

af

xy

2^

2(7

y""

^B,

(14),

the

FOR A NARROW BEAM OF LIGHT.


as in the Proceedings of the

where A, B,
the

The

xz,

may

focal

also let

Vol.

iv.,

p.

337 (1873);

quantities o,, &c.,

a,

= a, +

a..

lines,

and

<f),

the angle which

the

line

and

h,

a makes

be deduced.

which occur as the

function, are the reciprocals of

Let

Society/,

are lines from which, by the construction there given, a

co-ordinates of the

with the plane

London Mathematical

385

aj3r

i-

lines.

A=^'+i;-

coefficients

of the characteristic

Hamilton's characteristic function

386

The conditions

may

of conjugate pencils

therefore be written, either

yA=^iPq-yi(ps+qr) + (h'r's
/3A = IB.q'-2y^qs + a,s^
or in a form derived from this

(20),

by exchanging the

suffixes

and

j.

If the axes of co-ordinates are turned so that q and r vanish,

A=BA-cho^-^y^r.ps-i3Ap"+p's'
and

0,81

(21),

=Ap^
"I

yA=-%ps\
If

we

write

a,
(h

Fi, Z^ will

then X,,

= X,p, ^,= Y^s,


= X,p, A=Y^,

y,
y^

(22).

= Z,'Jps\
= Zjps]

,^

be inverse to X^^ Y^^ Zj, and will satisfy the equations

z,z,

+ r,r,=i, x,z+z,F,=oJ

^'

Fig. 3.

The relations between the quantities X^,


annexed figure (Fig. 2).

Fj, Z^

and X^,

Y^,

Zj, are

shewn

in the

Let

AR = Xi

dicular to

Draw

CR

circle.

These

cutting

RO

in

and

RB=Yi

With

AB.

same straight line, and RO = Z^ perpenand unity as radius describe a circle.

in the

as centre

the polar of A, and

lines

R.

meet
Then

CA'

the polar of B, with respect to this

AO in B' and A' respectively.


RR = X,. RA'=Y and OR = Z,.

BO

and

Join

A'R

FOR A NARROW BEAM OF LIGHT.

OR

Since

by the
Zj,

Fig.

measured downwards, Z,

is

It

figure.

is

manifest that X^,

negative in the case

is

process.

The

between the quantities A, D,

and

A'',

Y,

5",,

shewn

is

in

3.

Let a be one of the

Since a

Draw
Then,
dicular to

is

PT
BA

Vp.q..

the reciprocal of a

BC

a part

so that

ATC

the line

equal to

In

way

may

will

is

to the unit line as a to

cut off

from the

BC

line

between

known, or

is

relations

The geometrical process


when those of the incident

pencil are given, is therefore as follows

From
first

the
of

finding the

distances a^ and

h^

them and the plane

former communication (Vol.

iv.,

p.

of the
of

XjZ^,

and

focal

focal

lines

337), A^, B^,

and

by the construction

find

find a,,

Thus

far

C^,

we have been
number

B,,
62,

pencil,

C^*.

Ai,

A^, B^,

emergent

of the

<f>i

From
From

and Z.

between
and the angle
method given in a

lines,

A^, B^, C^, find, by the construction of Fig.

From X Y Z

knowii.

is

deduce, by the

From

Fj, Z^, find,

when

and between

The same method gives the

for

jp.

perpen-

For

when

be found

represent the line -

PT

A .p p
A

p
this

BP

line, let

BP

perpendicular to

P^=^,

if

three or the last three of the ten coefficients of

first

the characteristic function

the

represented

and Z, may be found from X^,

F,,

by the same
relation

387

3,

of Fig. 2,

Y^,

A'l,
A^j,

Fj,

and

Z^.

and Z.

C
<^j.

considering

the

of media between

most

general

case

of a

pencil

and Q, through surfaces of


any form, the media before incidence at P and after emergence at Q being
When some of these media are doubly refracting, there may be two
isotropic.
passing through any

or

more emergent pencils corresponding to one incident

is

appHcable

pencil

only to

must be treated

pencil.

one of these emergent pencils at a time.

Our investigation
Each emergent

separately.
* [Page 337, Vol. u. of this Edition.]

492

HAMILTONS CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION

388
In certain

cases

greatly simplified.

of practical importance the

For

instance,

when the

cKaracteristic function

axis ray

is

refracted

in

may

one

be

plane

through the prisms of a spectroscope, the same positions of the axes of x and y
which make (2 and r vanish, also make c^ and Cj vanish. The determinant A may

now be

written as the product of two factors

F=FpQ + /iiZi + /x^,

"+^

If

we

write

u,=

,'^'

+ ?)-^'

'
,

FOR A NARROW BEAM OF LIGHT.


either

apart from the other.

about

its

I,

/,,

In the case of an optical instrument symmetrical

axis,
u,

Let

389

= i\,

n,

= i\,

f,

= g,, and

f,

= g,

(29).

be the tangents of the angles which the incident and emergent rays,
make with the axis of 2,

projected on the plane of xz,

dV
^'"^'

^^='JV-(z,-u,){z,-u;)-fJ\
dz,

{Zr-U,)x,-f,X,

^3^^

{z,-u,){z,-u,)-fj,
If the incident ray

emergent ray

parallel

is

the axis,

to

l^

= 0, and

the

equation

of the

is

(z,-u,)x,-M =

(32).

The emergent ray cuts the plane of yz where


z.

This therefore

is

When
or

2;2

the ray

is

= u,

(33).

the position of the second principal focus.

at

= 2+/2.

= x,

x,

(34),

plane of yz as before incidence.

distance from the

the same

This gives the position of the second priacipcd plane.


Its

from

distance

second

the

focus

principal

is

/,,

which

is

called

the

second principal focal length.

When
or every
of yz

z,

= u,+f and

x,

= 0,

=l

l,

ray which passes through this point

is

(35),

equally inclined to the plane

This point

before and after passing through the instrument.

is

called the

second focal centre.

The distance of the emergent ray from the

axis of

z,

when z=z,,

is

given

by the equation

f^.= {z,-n;)x,-h{{z,-u,){z,-u.;)-fj;\

When
the term multiplied by
point {x

z,)

points X,,

2,

(36).

(z.-u^)(z.-u,)-fj. =
l^

pass through

and

a-^,

2,

vanishes.

(x

2,),

Hence

all

the rays which pass through the

whatever their

are therefore conjugate

(37).

foci,

inclination

and

.r,

is

to

the axis.

the image of

x,.

The

5 ^ 2^, ^ _/_

In this case
or,

the

narrow beam of

Hamilton's characteristic function for a

390

,^^y

The distance of the object from


words,
image from the axis as the distance of the

the

in

focus

Let

the

to

is

length is to
Ai

is

from

at

z.^,

may subtend an

it

the

to

Y when

x,

of

second principal focal

must be placed

x^

angle equal to that which

and seen through the instrument by an eye at


h,

distance

the first principal

the second principal focus.

be the distance at which an object of diameter

from the eye that

when placed

from

axis

object

or as the

iwincipal focal length,

first

distance of the image

tJie

light.

= 0.

it

h,= ^'

or

subtends

z^,

(39),

dxidxz

K=^^{{z,-u,)(z,-u,)-fJi

or

The

quantity

h^

is

that which

Smith gives the name of the

"

occurs

_z^ iu

dz,~

When

the focal length

characteristic function

F=
Here

is

two conjugate

z^

d\
'

infinite,

and

_Zj^

dz,~

z,

we

which

find

d% _1

u^

'

^X ^
\' '

dz,dz,~f

rira X

The

"t" QiTYlU, IX

-^

'

_{_ g,

the angular magnification, and

foci.

to

the instrument becomes a telescope, and the

^3^ ^ -1- fYl^ix

+ a,z. + u22; + i^-M

is

Theorem, and

is

M
F,

Cotes'

in

apparent distance."

Differentiating h^ with respect to

d\

(40).

linear magnification

is

u^,

u^ are

-^

similar

term

in y.

the co-ordinates of any

and the elongation

is

[From the Cambridge Philosophical Proceedings, VoL

LXV.

ii.

the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other parts of

On

and

The study

of

geometrical

Mathematics

Physics.

optics

may

be

made more

interesting

mathematician by treating the relation between the object and the

to

the

image by

methods used in the geometry of homographic figures. The whole theory


formed by simple or compound instruments when aberration is not
images
of
considered is thus reduced to simple proportion, and this is found very conthe

venient in the practical work of arranging lenses for an experiment, in order


to produce a given effect.

As a preparation for physical optics the same elementary problems may be


This function
treated by Hamilton's method of the Characteristic Function.
expresses, in terms of the co-ordinates of two points, the time taken by light
in

travelling from the one to the other, or

which

light

would

travel

in

more accurately the distance through

a vacuum during this time, which

the reduced path of the light between the two points.


this

The

we may

relation

reduced path and the quantity which occurs in Cotes' celebrated but

known theorem,

is

called

by Dr Smith the "apparent

distance."

The

call

between
little

relations

between the "apparent distance" and the positions of the foci conjugate to the
two points, the principal foci and the principal focal lengths, were explained
and the general form of the characteristic function for a narrow pencil in the
""

plane of xr was shewn to be


<^' ~ ^^
7+ar
^r +
V- F-f
-h* ^
/x,n-hi
^ + /^r,

[i.e.

paper

to the

+ ^' ^' ~ ^^ ""' " Vf' ""^"^^


(n-a,)(r,-a,)-/y:

"^''

Cambridge Philosophical Society

LXIV. were communicated.]

at

'^'''^

&c.,
^'^^'
+

meeting when the results of the foregoinj;

THE RELATION OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS TO MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

392

where

are

r^

r^,

in opposite directions

measured from the instrument

axis of the pencil in the

media

fx,,

and x

respectively,

ft^,

x,

along the

are perpendicular

to the axis.
Oi,

of r

are the values

a,

cipal focal lengths,

and

last

term of

(x^,

with respect to

dx,dx,
is

foci,

and /,

/,,

the prin-

r,),

^^

and an

and

{x^,

infinite

rj,

number

of

possible

which are therefore con-

foci.

Differentiating

assumes the form -

paths exist between the points


jugate

the principal

for

n-ch ^

If

the

r^,

/i/Xj =/j/Xi.

the

Distance,

quantity
or

the

in

Cotes'

distance

at

x^

and

x^

we

obtain

^ {rr-a,){r,-a,)-fj,
Theorems which Dr Smith calls the Apparent
which the object must be placed that it may

subtend the same angle as when viewed through the instrument.

We

have

also
.

dD

dD

[From Nature,

LXVL
On

an Etruscan vase

Those

bubbles.

children

into

of

spheres

enjoyed

their

occupation

just

as

modern

and deUcate forms, growing and


our breath which is turning dirty

of the beautifid

developing themselves, the feeling


soap-suds

Louvre figures of children are seen blowing

in the

Our admiration

do.

Plateau on Soap- Bubbles'''.

probably

children

Vol. X.]

tlaat

it

is

the fear lest by an irreverent touch

splendour,

we

may cause the gorgeous vision to vanish with a sputter of soapy water in our
eyes, our wistful gaze as we watch the perfected bubble when it sails away
from the pipe's mouth to join, somewhere in the sky, all the other beautiful
that have vanished before

tilings

may be we
Here,

for

a distinguished

man

and occupied

of science,

us that, whatever our nominal age

for

Can the poetry

practice of bubble-blowing.

and

assure

it,

same family as those Etruscan children.


instance, we have a book, in two volumes, octavo, written by

are of the

the most part with the theory

Will

of bubbles survive this?

not the lovely visions which have floated before the eyes of untold generations
collapse at the rude touch of Science, and "yield their place to cold material

laws

"

No,

we need go no

further than this book and

that the beauty and mystery of natural

on a fresh and open mind that no

sion

course of thought and study which

it

its

author to learn

phenomena may make such an


physical

obstacle can ever

impres-

check the

has once called forth.

M. Plateau in all his researches seems to have selected for his study those
In the
phenomena which exhibit some remarkable beauty of form or colour.
which he devoted himself to the investigation of the laws of the
zeal with
subjective impressions of colour, he exposed his eyes to an excess of light, and
* Statique experimentale
k

Gand

Clemm.

et Leipzig,

VOL. n.

F.

et

theoriqite

I'Universite

Plateau, Professeur

des

de Gand,

Par

Liquides soumis aux seules Forces moUculaires.


<fec.

(Paris, Gauthier-Villara

London, Triibner

1873.)

50

J.

Co.;

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLES.

394

But

has ever since been blind.


for

many

in

on the forms of liquid masses and


or

him by the hands,

furnished to

So

charmed

there

that

out,

that the measures

were

which he himself can never either see

films,

eyes,

materials of

and minds of devoted

science

as

they are

friends.

has been the co-operation with which these experiments have

perfect

carried

indicate

he has continued

of this great loss

from which he gathers the

but

handle,

been

spite

years to carry on experiments such as those described in this book,

observed

is

hardly a single

expression

in

the book to

which he took and the colours with which he was

by him,

not

in

ordinary wayj

the

bat through the

mediation of other persons.

Which, now,

is

the more poetical idea

the

Etniscan boy blowing bubbles

bhnd man of science teaching his friends how to blow them,


making out by a tedious process of question and answer the conditions

for himself,

and

or the

of the forms

and

tints

which he can never see

But we must now attempt to follow our author as he passes from phenomena to ideas, from experiment to theory.
The surface which forms the boundary between a liquid and its vapour is
the seat of phenomena on the careful study of which depends much of our
To take the
future progress in the knowledge of the constitution of bodies.
simplest case, that of a liquid,

but which

fill,

and the upper

vessel,

say water, placed in a vessel which

contains nothing
part,

The water

else.

originally

lies

empty, becomes

at

it

does not

the bottom of the

rapidly filled with the


^

The temperature and the pressure the quantities on which


the thermal and statical relations of any body to external bodies depend are
the same for the water and its vapour, but the energy of a milligramme of
the vapour greatly exceeds that of a milligramme of the water. Hence the energy
of a milligramme of water-substance is much greater when it happens to be in
the upper part of the vessel in the state of vapour, than when it happens
vapour of water.

to be in the lower part of the vessel in the state of water.

Now we

by experiment that there is no difference between the pheand those in another part except in a region
than a thousandth or perhaps a millionth
more
and
not
surface
the
to

nomena
close

of

find

in one part of the liquid

a millimetre

thick.

In

the

vapour

also,

everything

perhaps in a very thin stratum close to the surface.

is

the same, except

The change

in the value

narrow region between water and vapour.


Hence the energy of a milligramme of water is the same all through the mass

of the energy takes place in the very

395

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLEb.
of the

except in a thin stratum close to the surface, where

Trater

what

greater

and

energy

the

of

a miUigramme of vapour

through the mass of vapour except close to the surface,

where

it

some-

is

the same

is

it

is

all

probably

less.

The whole energy


to

must be added.
an

milligramme,

water

of water

has an excess

surface

the

of the

many milligrammes

so

therefore,

is

but besides

of energy,

the

in

a correction,

place,

first

since

this,

the

that due

water close to

depending on this excess,

Thus we have, besides the energy of the water reckoned per


energy

additional

reckoned

be

to

per square millimetre of

surface.

The energy of the vapour may be

calculated in the same

much

per milligramme, with a deduction of so

The

beginning

is

square

millimetre

is

made on account

of

be

however, which

vapour,

quantity of

energy

change

to

its

value

lies
is

way

at so

much

per square millimetre of surface.

within the region


so

small

that this

in

which the

deduction per

always much smaller than the addition which has to be

Hence the whole energy

the liquid.

of the

system

may

divided into three parts, one proportional to the mass of liquid, one to the

mass of vapour,

and the third proportional to the area of the surface which

separates the liquid from the vapour.


If the

area

system

the

of

displaced

is

of

surface

by an external agent

the liquid

and the only source of

increased,

the external agent.

There

is

is

this

increased,

in such a

increase of energy

therefore a

way that

the energy of the system

resistance to

is

the
is

the work done by

any motion which causes

the extension of the surface of a liquid.

On

the other hand,

diminishes,

if

the liquid moves in such a

the energy of the system diminishes,

way

that

its

surface

and the diminution of energy

work done on the external agent which allows the


a surface which tends to diminish in area, and which
thus tends to draw together any solid framework which forms its boundary,
Surface-tension is measured by the force acting
is said to have surface-tension.
appears

in

the

form

surface to diminish.

of

Now

on one millimetre of the boundary edge.


tension

is,

In the case of water at 20" C, the

according to M. Quincke, a force of 8*253 milligrammes weight per

millimetre.

Plateau hardly enters into the theoretical deduction of the surfacehypotheses respecting the constitution of bodies. We have therefrom
tension
fore thought it desirable to point out how the fact of surface-tension may be

M.

502

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLES.

396

deduced from the known

and

liquid

its

that there

fact

a difference in

is

energy between a

vapour, combined with the hypothesis, that as a milHgramme of

the substance passes from the state of a liquid within the liquid mass, to that
of a vapour outside

the change of

it,

energy takes place, not instantaneously,

its

but in a continuous manner.

M. van der Waals, whose academic thesis, Over de Continuiteit van den
Gas en Vloeistoftoestand*, is a most valuable contribution to molecular physics,
has attempted to calculate approximately the thickness of the stratum within

which

continuous change of energy

this

is

accomplished, and finds

it

water

for

about 0-0000003 millimetre.

"Whatever we
the only path
of the

in

may

think of these calculations,

it

is

at least manifest that

which we roay hope to arrive at a knowledge of the


ordinary matter

molecules of

to

is

size

be traced among those phenomena

which come into prominence when the dimensions of bodies are greatly reduced,
as in the superficial layer of a liquid.

But

it

is

the experimental investigation of the effects of surface-tension

in

on the form of the surface of a liquid that the

He

be found.

uses two

M. Plateau's book

vaslue of

In the

methods.

distinct

first

of alcohol and water which has the same density as olive

some

into

oil

the mixture and

portion of alcohol into

mass of

oil

no

surface-tension

but

spherical,

presses

its

stability of

oil

under the

action of gravity,
Its

into

best

glycerine.

By
film,

the

of a

when

small

he obtains a

but subject only

of iron,

disks, &c.,

number

then introducing

its position,

therefore,

is

to

to

the

undisturbed,

he draws out or com-

of different figures, the equilibrium

and

theoretically.

blowing soap-bubbles. M. Plateau,


by finding out the best kind of soap and
proportion of water, and then by mixing his soapy water with
Bubbles formed of this liquid will last for hours, and even days.

The other method

rings,
a.

form

oil,

by absorption

which are here investigated, both experimentally and


the

is

however, has improved the


the

has,

it

boundary.

by means of

mass of

his

till

become accommodated to

itself,

longer
of

waiting

is

he prepares a mixture

old

art,

one of

first

forming a frame of iron wire and dipping

the figure of which

frame

for

its

sides of the film.

boundary.
If,

is

it

that of the surface of

This

is

the case

however, the portions of


* Leiden: A.

W.

Sijthoff,

into

when the

air

this liquid

minimum
air

he forms

area which has


is

free

on both

on the two sides of the

1873.

film

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLES.
are not in continuous communication, the film

minimum

no longer the surface of absolute

is

but the surface which, with the given boundary, and inclosing a

area,

given volume, has a

tion

397

minimum

area.

M. Plateau has gone at great length into the interesting but difficult quesHe shews that the
of the conditions of the persistence of liquid films.

surface

of certain

has a species

liquids

viscosity of the mass.

from the

of viscosity distinct

This surface-viscosity

is

interior

very remarkable in a solution of

There can be no doubt that a property of this kind plays an impor-

saponine.

M. Plateau,
tant part in determining the persistence or collapse of liquid films.
however, considers that one of the agents of destruction is the surface-tension,
and that the persistence mainly depends on the degree in which the surfaceIt is plain, however, that it is rather
viscosity counteracts the surface-tension.
the inequality of the surface-tension than the surface-tension itself which acts as

a destroying force.
It

experimentally ascertained whether the tension varies

yet been

has not

according to the thickness of the


insensible in those cases
If,

The

film.

of tension

variation

is

certainly

which have been observed.

as the theory seems to indicate, the tension diminishes

ness of the film diminishes, the film

On

would be unaccountable.

must be unstable, and

the other hand,

when the

thick-

its actual persistence

the theory has not as yet been

able to account for the tension increasing as the thickness diminishes.

of the most remarkable

One

formation of the black spots,

the

name

phenomena of

liquid

a vertical film protected from currents of

little

rest,

and begin

to

phenomenon

As the

air.

owing to the gradual descent of the liquid of which

become thinner than the


These

it is

shew the

tail

of a tadpole.

These

film

as he observed

becomes thinner,

formed, certain portions


of

colours

tadpoles,

them, soon begin to accumulate near the top of the


in

under

thin

plates.

spots of colour immediately begin to ascend, dragging after them

a sort of train like the

selves

undoubtedly the

of holes,

Fusinieri has given a very exact account of this


it in

films is

which were described in 1672 by Hooke,

horizontal

bands according

to

their

film,

colours,

as

Fusinieri

calls

and to range them-

those

%vhich

have the

colour corresponding to the smallest thickness ascending highest.

In this w^ay the colours become arranged in horizontal bands


gradation, exhibiting
film

is

made

to

all

the colours of Newton's

oscillate,

these

bands

oscillate

scale.

like

When
the

the

strata

in

beautiful

fmme

of the

formed by a

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLES.

398

of diflferent

of liquids

series

This shews that the film

densities.

dynamical conditions similar to those of such a liquid


subject

the

to

condition

and the motion


(which

is

arises

the volume of each portion of

that

by the

rise of

offers

the

rise

liquid

is

invariable,

is

the rarer portions) the gravi-

tational potential energy of the system is diminished.

entail

it

from the fact that by the descent of the denser portions

necessarily accompanied

the condition which

subject to

is

The

system.

In the case of the

film,

determines that the descent of the thicker portions shall

must be that each portion

of the thinner portions

a special resistance to an increase or diminution of area.

of the film

This resistance

probably forms a large part of the superficial viscosity investigated by M. Plateau,

which retards the motion of


than the viscosity of

magnetic needle, and evidently

his

figure, in virtue of

which the

greater

far

is

film resists a shearing motion.

The coloured bands gradually descend from the top of the

film,

presenting

at first a continuous gradation of colour, but soon a remarkable black, or nearly

band begins

iDlack,

itself

There

is

Newton's
or

form at the top of the

to

The lower boundary

downwards.

table,

but

the

distinctly

the physical properties of the

film,

other respects different from the

is

point through

without bursting the


shattered at once.

which

is

film,

that there

when

And

than that of the black portion.

to pass a solid

and M. Fusinieri has even observed

order,

first

it

bands of the third order.

Nothing can shew more

it,

to extend

sharply defined.

is

black appears in immediate contact with the white

even the yellow of the

many

and gradually

not a continuous gradation of colour according to the arrangement in

in contact with

in

film,

black band

of this

in

fact

rest.

is

some remarkable change

of a thickness

it is

It

is

if

is

in

easy, as Leidenfrost tells us,

the thicker part of the film,

but

somewhat greater

the black part of the film

and to withdraw

anything touches the black part, the film

The black portion does not appear to possess the mobility


parts.
It behaves more like a brittle solid,

so apparent in the coloured

such as a Prince Rupert's drop, than a

fluid.

Its edges are often very irregular,

and when the curvature of the film is made to vary, the black portions sometimes seem to resist the change, so that their surface has no longer the same
continuous curvature as the rest of the bubble.
We have thus numerous indiof the great assistance which molecular science

cations

to

derive from

have no time or inclination to discuss M. Plateau's work

in a critical

is

likely

the study of liquid films of extreme tenuity.

We
spirit.

The

directions for

making the experiments

are very precise, and

if

some-

399

PLATEAU ON SOAP-BUBBLES.
times tliey appear tedious on account of repetitions,

we must remember

that

it

and words alone, that the author can learn the details of the
experiment which he is performing by means of the hands of his friends, and
that the repetition of phrases must in his case take the place of the ordinary
The description of the results of mathematical
routine of a careful experimenter.
investigation, which is a most diflScult but at the same time most useful species
of literary composition, is a notable feature of this book, and could hardly be
is

by

words,

better done.
&c.,

The mathematical researches of

on surfaces of

minimum

Lindelof, Lamarle, Scherk, Riemann,

deserve to be

area,

known

to others besides pro-

and M. Plateau deserves our thanks for giving us an


intelligible account of them, and still more for shewing us how to make them
visible with his improved soap-suds.
In the speculative part of the book, where the author treats of the causes
of the phenomena, there is of course more room for improvement, as there
fessed mathematicians,

always must be when a physicist


of molecular science.

must be very
small,

is

is

pushing his way into the unknown regions

In such matters everything human, at least in our century,

imperfect, but for

of the greater value.

the same

reason

any

real

progress,

however

[From Nature,

Grove's " Correlation of Physical

LXVII.

There

are

Vol, x.]

few instances in which anyone whose

sively scientific has

made such

Forces'"''."

life

has not been exclu-

valuable contributions to science as those of Sir

W. E. Grove. His nitric acid battery, to the invention of which he was led,
not by accident, but by a course of reasoning, which in the year 1839 was as
new
by

was

as it
its

original,

a contribution to science the value of which

is

and continuing

surviving

still

most powerful generator of


Grove have

since that of

in

daily use in

is

proved

every laboratory as

the

while hundreds of batteries invented

electric currents,

and become extinct

fallen into disuse,

in the struggle

for scientific existence.

The gas

though not of such practical importance, is still of great


and the collection which we have before us of those contributions to science which took the form of papers, tempts us to indulge in
speculations as to the magnitude of the results which would have accrued
scientific

battery,

interest,

to science if so powerful a mind could have been continuously directed with


undivided energy towards some of the great questions of physics.
But the main feature of the volume is that from which it takes its name,
the essay on the Correlation of Physical Forces, the views contained in which

were

first

advanced in a lecture

printed by the proprietors,


of lectures in

1843,

at the London Institution in January 1842,


and subsequently more fully developed in a course

published in abstract in the Literary Gazette.

has a value peculiar to itself


point of

its

scientific

mission

Though
to the

* TIte Correlation of Physical Forces.


the Hon. Sir

W.

Longmans, 1874.)

it

This essay

has long ago accomplished the main

world,

it

will

always retain

its

place

in

Sixth edition.
With other Contributions to Science. By
R. Grove, M.A., F.R.S., one of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas. (London

401

grove's correlation of physical forces.


the

memory

of the student of

human

thought, as one of the documents

which

serve for the construction of the history of science.

'

and the registration of them by learned


The true seat of science is not in the
that science is advanced.
societies,
volume of Transactions, but in the living mind, and the advancement of science
It

not

is

by

discoveries

only,

whether this
in the direction of men's minds into a scientific channel
done by the announcement of a discovery, the assertion of a paradox, the
It
invention of a scientific phrase, or the exposition of a system of doctrine.

consists

is

is

for

the historian

of science to determine the

magnitude and direction of the

impulse communicated by either of these means to

is

in

human

at any given epoch for the

In the history of science

cultivated.

we

find that effects of this kind

been produced by suggestive books, which put into a

men

definite,

have often

intelligible,

and

the guiding ideas that are already working in the minds


of science, so as to lead them to discoveries, but which they cannot yet

communicable
of

thought.

advancement of science
of thought
concentration
produce
a
thinking,
but
to
not merely to set men
to be
ought
season
particular
that
which
at
of
science
field
the
part
of
that

But what we require

form,

shape into a definite statement.


the

In

first

the

half of

present

principle of the conservation of energy


its

vague shadow back from the depths of

or less

when what is now called the


unknown by name, it "flung
futurity," and those who had greater

century,

was

as yet

understanding of the times sketched out with greater or


which science was shaping itself

less

clearness

their view of the form into

Some
speaking,

of these
of

course,

addressed themselves to the advanced cultivators of science,


in

learned

phraseology;

but others appealed to a larger

and spoke in language which they could understand. Mrs Somerville's


book on the "Connection of the Physical Sciences" was published in 1834, and
had reached its eighth edition in 1849. This fact is enough to shew that there
already existed a widespread desire to be able to form some notion of physical

audience,

science as a whole.

But when we examine her book

in

order to

connexion of the physical sciences, we are at

first

find

out the nature of the

tempted to suppose that

it is

due to the art of the bookbinder, who has bound into one volume such a quantity
of information about each of them.

What we

find,

in fact,

is

a series of expo-

but hardly a word about their connexion. The little


that is said about this connexion has reference to the mutual dependence of
51
vol. II.
sitions of diiferent sciences,

GROVES CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL FORCES.

402

a knowledge of the elements of one being

the different sciences on each other,


the

to

essential

successful

Thus

another.

astronomy

physical

a knowledge of dynamics, and the practical astronomer must learn a

requires

amount of

certain

prosecution of

and the
shewn to have a common method,
that analytical methods invented for the in-

optics in order to understand atmospheric refraction

The

adjustment of telescopes.
namely, mathematical

sciences are also

analysis

so

vestigation of one science are often useful in another.

The unity shadowed

forth

Mrs

in

Somerville's book

is

therefore a unity

of

the method of science, not a unity of the processes of nature.

W.

Sir
its

Grove's essay
It

sixth edition.

may

be fairly called a popular book, as

the author, but an index of the state of scientific thought

which distinguish Mrs Somerville's writings.


book of any

science,

or even as

The design

conversation.

of the

and

fact,

essay as

one could use

of the book

to

is

may

it

shew that of the various forms of

be transformed into any other, the one


This

is

what

is

meant

and the whole essay

is

in

the essay

an exposition

each of the physical forces in turn being taken as the starting-

are sorry that

scientific

No

a text-

correlation of the physical forces,"

exercised

number

scientific

and employed as the source of

We

large

as

form appearing as the other disappears.

of this

among a

an aid to the cultivation of the art of

energy existing in nature, any one

point,

has reached

It has not the universal facility p.nd occasional felicity of exposition

of readers.

by the "

it

not merely a record of the speculations of

therefore,

is,

we

public

at

reviews

the reception given to the doctrine by the literary

indicating

very

the others.

all

are not at present able to refer to the early

the time of

considerable

effect

its

original

in

moulding

It has

publication.

certainly

the mass of what

is

called

what a scientific
man shall say when he has to make a statement about a science which he does
not understand. Many things in the essay which were then considered contraiy
to scientific opinion, and were therefore objected to, have since then become
scientific

opinion, that

is

to say, the influence which determines

that the objections

themselves

part of scientific opinion,

telligible to

the rising generation of the scientific public.

Helmholtz's essay

doubtedly

"On

masters a far

so

now appear

unin-

the Conservation of Force," published in 1847,

greater

step

in

science,

un-

but the immediate influence

was confined to a small number of trained men of


on the public mind.

science,

and

it

had

little

direct effect

The various papers of Mayer contain matter calculated

to

awaken an

interest

GROVES CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL FORCES.

403

the transformation of energy even in persons not exclusively devoted to science,

in

but they were long unknown in this country, and produced

direct effect,

little

even in Germany, at the time of their publication.

The rapid development


of the

principle

belongs to a later stage of the

century,

this

and of other

of thennodynamics,

applications- of the

conservation of energy, at the beginning of the second half of


history of science than that with

which we have to do.

To
regard

form a just estimate of


it

the value

by which

as the instrument

of

Sir

W.

we must

Grove's work

certain scientific ideas

were diffused over

a large area, in language sufficiently appropriate to prevent misapprehension, and


yet sufficiently familiar to be listened to by persons

from any statement in which literary convention


It

is

is

who would

recoil

with horror

sacrificed to precision.

worth while, however, to take note of the progress of evolution by

which the words of ordinary language are gradually becoming differentiated and

The

rendered scientifically precise.


of words in
force,

had

common

of dynamical science found a

fathers

use expressive of action and the results of action,

They

power, action, impulse, impetus, stress, strain, work, energy, &c.

words as

these

words Force
pelled to

also

minds a number of ideas to be expressed, and they appropriated

their

in

number
such as

Vis,

they best could to

came most

Kraft,

carry almost

all

express

these

ideas.

easily to

hand,

so

the ideas

above

that

But the equivalent


we find them com-

mentioned, while

which might have borne a portion of the load were long

left

the other

out of

words

scientific

language, and retained only their more or less vague meanings as ordinary words.

Thus we have the expressions Vis acceleratrix. Vis motrix, Vis viva, Vis
and even Vis inertice, in every one of which, except the second and
fourth, the word Vis is used in a sense radically different from that in which

mortua,

it

is

used in the other expressions.


Confusion

students,

may

perhaps be avoided in

by means of a

distinguish the meanings of the


larised,

unless

its

nomenclature

scientific

works w^hen read by

appropriation of epithets

careful

word

is

Vis,

scientific

such as those which

but as soon as science becomes popu-

refonned and arranged upon a better principle,

the ideas of popular science will be more confused than those of so-called popular
ignorance.

Thus the

" Physical

Forces,"

whose correlation

is

discussed in

the essay

before us, are Motion, Heat, Electricity, Light, Magnetism, Chemical Affinity,

"other modes

of force."

According to the

definition

of force, as

it

has

512

and
been

grove's correlation of physical forces.

404

down during the

laid

to

last

two centuries

except perhaps chemical

these,

that

"force

definition,

which

that

is

on dynamics, not one

in treatises

can be admitted as a

affinity,

change of

produces

motion,

measured by the change of motion produced."


Newton himself reminds us that force exists only so long as

may

eifects

but the force

remain,

itself is

we meet with such phrases as. Conservation


and the like, we must suppose the word Force
from that adopted by

different

these

cases,

and

scientific

"The

the phrase

in

transitive.

essentially

Force,

of

of

According

force.

it

and

is

Its

acts.

Hence, when

Persistence

of Force,

to be used in a sense radically

men from Newton downwards.

Physical Forces"

as

In

applied to heat,

all

we

now, thanks to Dr Thomas Young, able to use the word Energy instead
for this word, according to its scientific definition as "the capacity

are

of Force,
for

performing work,"

even

is

applicable to all these cases.

to the metaphorical use of the

word Force.

The confusion has extended

Thus,

it

may

be a legitimate

being brought to bear on

metaphor to speak of the force of public opinion


a statesman so as to exert an overpowering pressure upon him, because here
we liave an action tending to produce motion in a particular direction but
when we speak of "the Queen's Forces," we use the term in a sense as
as

when we speak

unscientific as

cluding remarks, points out

of the Physical Forces.

the confusion of

enunciate

scientific

propositions,

fection of scientific language.

This, he

tells us,

his

endeavours

to

neology which

The

author, in his con-

terms which embarrassed him in

on account of the imper-

" cannot be avoided without a

have not the presumption to introduce or the authority to

enforce."

Such a
thino-s,"

is

confession, proceeding

most

valuable

from so great a master of the art of "putting


to the importance of the study and

testimony

special cultivation of scientific language;

and a comparison of many passages in

the essay with the corresponding statements in more recent books of far inferior
power, will shew how much may be gained by the successful introduction of
appropriate neologies.
giant, labouring

of the

child,

What

appeared mysterious and even paradoxical to the


into a truism in the eyes

among rough-hewn words, dwindles

born heir to the palace of truth, for the erection of w^hich the

giant has furnished the materials.

Thus the

appropriation

of

the

word "Mass" to denote the quantity of

matter as defined by the amount of force required to produce a given acceleration, has placed the students of the present day on a very different level from

grove's correlation of physical forces.


\vho

those

had to puzzle out the meaning of the phrase

405

Vis

by com-

inertioe

bining the explanation of Vis as force, with that of inertia as laziness.

same-

way

the word

as a generic

name

of trouble

deal

" stress "

to

the

an equivalent

" action

for

for pressure, tension, &c., will save

and the

act of doing work, which

objections

as

doctrine

distinction

now

is

In the

reaction,"

future generations

q,

and

great

between the possession of energy and the

so familiar to us,

of the

and

essay,

which

are

would have obviated several


founded on statements in

which the production of one form of energy and the maintenance of another are
treated

current
gives

as

"a

Thus,

is

they were operations of the same kind.

and

battery,

the

in

time

to

voltameter an

read at

make

(maintain)

equivalent

of gas,

same

ratios if the electro-magnet

Here the maintenance of a magnet


doing work.

This

is

had been used from the

p.

1G3:

an

electromagnet,

or

decomposes an

of an electrolyte for each equivalent of decomposition in


will give the

the decomposition of an electrolyte


is

We

decomposing water in a voltameter, while the same

employed at the same

nevertheless

equivalent
cells,

if

voltaic

the

well explained in
first,

is

first

a thing of a
is

the battery

be removed."
different order

from

maintenance of energy, the other

the essay; but

if

appropriate language

the objection could never have been put into form.

[From Nature,

On

LXVIII.

The

the

Vol. x.]

of Kirchhoffs Rules for Electric Circuits


Solution of a Geometrical Problem.

application

geometrical

problem

is

as

system of points so that the straight

follows

Let

lines joining

shall

form a network such that the sum of

lines

shall

be a minimum, the
given in

being any four points

first

and

space.

last

it

to

the

be required to arrange a

them

into rows

the squares

and columns

of all these joining

points of the

first

and

last

The network may be regarded

row
as

kind of extensible surface, each thread of which has a tension in each segment
proportioned to the length of the segment. The problem is thus expressed as
a statical problem, but the direct solution would involve the consideration of a
large

number of unknown quantities.


number may be greatly reduced by means of the analogy between
problem and the electrical problem of determining the currents and po-

This
this

which

the case of a network of wire having square meshes, one corner of


kept at a unit potential, while that of the other three corners is zero.

in

tentials
is

problem having been solved by Kirchhoffs method, the position of any


in the geometrical problem with reference to the given points A, B,
point
This

oi the correis by finding the values of the potentials p, Pb, Pc Pa


sponding point in the electric problem when the corners a, 6, c, d respectively
by supposmg
is then found
The position of
are those of unit potential.
C,

D,

l^a,

Pb,

Pc,

Pd placed at A, B,

C,

centre of gravity of the four masses.

respectively,

and determining

as the

[From Xature, Vol,

LXIX.

Van

That
in

the

and Liquid

Continuiti/ of the Gaseous

States*.

the same substance at the same temperature and pressure can exist

two very

tween these two

for

states,

a liquid and as a gas,

as

difterent states,

importance,

scientific

it

is

a fact of the highest

is

only by the careful study of the difference

be-

the conditions of the substance passing from one to the

and the phenomena which occur at the surface which separates a liquid

other,

vapour, that we can expect to obtain a dynamical theory of liquids.


dynamical theory of " perfect " gases is already in existence
that is to say,

from

Waals on

cler

x.]

its

we can

explain

many

state

by

on

one

of the physical properties of bodies

supposing

when

an extremely

in

and that
come very near one another. A
molecule of a gas, according to this theory, exists in two very diflferent states
during alternate intervals of time. During its encounter with another molecule,
an intense force is acting between the two molecules, and producing changes
rarefied

act

tliey

in the

cule

another

motion of both.
at

is

molecules to be in rapid motion,

their

when

only

they

During the time of describing

between them, and the centre of mass of the molecule


constant velocity and in a straight
If

we

its

such a distance from other molecules that no

define

therefore

of molecules so

that the aggregate of the time which a molecule spends in


other molecules

which

it

d}-'namical

is

sensible

the moleforce

acts

moving with

line.

a perfect gas a system

as

is

free path,

sparsely scattered

its

encounters with

exceedingly small compared with the aggregate of the time

spends in describing

its

free paths,

theory of such a system.

For

in

it

is

not

difiicult

work out the

to

this case the vast majority of tlie

molecules at any given instant are describing their free paths, and only a small
* Over de Continuiteit

Diderik van der "Waals.

van den Gas en

(Leiden: A.

W.

Vloeistoftoestnnd.
Sijthoff, 1873.)

Academisch

jrroffgchrijl

Door Johannes

VAN DER WAALS ON THE CONTINUITY

408

them

of

fraction

are

act of encountering

in the

each other.

We

know

that

during an encounter action and reaction are equal and opposite, and we assume,
with Clausius, that on an average of a large number of encounters the pro-

which the kinetic energy of a molecule is divided between motion


of its centre of mass and motions of its parts relative to this
This amount of knowledge is by no means
point approaches some definite value.
sufficient as a foundation for a complete dynamical theory of what takes place

portion

in

of translation

during each encounter, but

us to establish certain relations between

enables

it

the changes of velocity of two molecules before and after their encounter.

While a molecule is describing its free path, its centre of mass is moving
with constant velocity in a straight line. The motions of parts of the molecule
relative to the centre of mass depend, when it is describing its free path, only
on the forces acting between these parts, and not on the forces acting between

them and other molecules which come

into

Hence

play during an encounter.

the theory of the motion of a system of molecules is very much simplified if


we suppose the space within which the molecules are free to move to be so
large

the number of molecules which

that

encountering other molecules

any instant are

at

is

the act of

The dynamical theory

molecules which are describing their free paths.


a system

in

exceedingly small compared with the number of

is

of such

in complete agreement with the observed properties of gases

when

in an extremely rare condition.

But

if

the space occupied by a given quantity of gas

and more, the lengths of the free paths of

its

is

diminished more

molecules will also be diminished,

and the number of molecules which are in the act of encounter will bear a
larger proportion to the number of those which are describing free paths, till at
length the properties of the substance will be determined far more by the
nature of the mutual action between the encountering molecules than by the
nature

it

the

of

actually

motion of a molecule when describing

has reached a certain degree of condensation.

perties

may

In the

different,

and

Dulong

condensed

no

mode

and

state

of

Petit,

the

stating

&c.,

And we

path.

In the tarefied state

commonly

properties

these

having a simplicity and a generality at


laws."

free

its

pro-

be defined with considerable accuracy in terms of the laws of Boyle,

Gay-Lussac,

Charles,
laws."

its

that the properties of the substance become very different after

find

all

of

the

properties

called

the

"gaseous

substance are

entirely

has yet been discovered

approaching to that of the "gaseous

According to the dynamical theory this

is

to

be expected,

because in

409

OF THE GASEOUS AND LIQUID STATES.

of

properties

the

condensed state

the

action

when engaged

molecules

substance depend on

the

of
in

close

encounter,

and

this

mutual

the

is

determined

by the particular constitution of the encountering molecules. We cannot therefore extend the dynamical theory from the rarer to the denser state of substances without at the same time obtaining some definite conception of the
nature of the action between molecules when they are so closely packed that
each molecule

The

between them.
data

experimental

and

Regnault

in

his

between
of

field

exploration

we have the experiments

research

has been

of the

properties

of

and

temperature,

the density,

greatly

recently

of carbonic acid

Experiments of this kind, combined with experiments


on the latent heat of expansion, or on the thermometric effect
passing through porous plugs, fiirnish us with the complete theory

at

very high pressures.

on

specific heat,

on

In

the first place

relation

The

gases.

Dr Andrews

enlarged by

the

mutual action of molecules

the study of the

for

kinds.

on

others

various

of

pressure

two

of

principally

are

every instant so near to several others that forces of great

at

is

intensity are acting

gases

of the substance, so far as pure thermodynamics can carry us.

For the further study of molecular action we require experiments on the


rate

There are three kinds of diffusion

of difi'usion.

visible

motion, and that of heat.

The

inter-diff'usion

that

of matter,

that of

of gases of different kinds,

and the viscosity and thermal conductivity of a gaseous medium, pure or mixed,
enable us to estimate the amount of deviation which each molecule experiences
on account of

encounter wdth other molecules.

its

M. Van der Waals,


his

appreciation

of its

entering on this very difficult inquiry, has shewn

conducted in an

are

investigations

in

importance in the present state of science

extremely

original

and

clear

many

of his

manner; and

so that there can be


is continually throwing out new and suggestive ideas
no doubt that his name will soon be among the foremost in molecular science.
He does not, however, seem to be equally familiar, as yet, with all parts

he

of

the

subject,

and

Clausius

that in some places,

so

others,

where he has borrowed

from

results

he has applied them in a manner which appears to

me

erroneous.

He
motion

As

in

begins with the very remarkable theorem of Clausius,

the
this

ciated, it

VOL.

mean

energy of the system

is

that in stationary-

equal to the

mean

virial.

country the importance of this theorem seems hardly to be appre-

may
II.

kinetic

be as well to explain

it

little

more

fully.

52


VAN DER WAALS ON THE CONTINUITY

410

When
moments

motion

the
of

other through

of

system

material

is

centre of mass does not vary

its

from a constant value, the system

The motion of the

such that the sum of the

the system about three axes at right angles to each

of

inertia

solar

system

is

by more than small

quantities

said to be in a state of stationary motion.

and so does the motion

satisfies this condition,

of the molecules of a gas contained in a vessel.

The

energy of a particle

kinetic

square of

velocity,

its

is

half the product of

and the kinetic energy of a system

mass into the

its
is

the

sum

of the

kinetic energy of its parts.

When
duct

of

an attraction or repulsion exists between two points, half the prostress into the distance between the two points is called the

this

Virial of the

stress,

and

when

negative

the system

If
sides

of

is

is

reckoned positive when the stress

The

a repulsion.

the stresses which exist in

virial of

the

and
it

is

it

an attraction,

is

a system

is

the

sum

of

it.

contained,

is

the amount of

virial

of

due to

the
this

of the product of the pressure into the volume

three halves

is

of

subjected to the external stress of the pressure

a vessel in which

external stress

virial

of the vessel.

The

virial

due to internal

The theorem

of Clausius

stresses

may now

must be added to

The left-hand member denotes the

kinetic energy.

On

term,

the right hand, in the

and

of area,

The second term represents the


cule.

is

is

the external pressure on unit

virial arising

from the action between every

first

the volume of the vessel.

is

pair of particles,

this.

be written

whether belonging to

different molecules or to the

the attraction between the particles, and r

is

same mole-

the distance between

them. The double symbol of summation is used because every pair of points
must be taken into account, those between which there is no stress contributing,
of course, nothing to the virial.

in

As an example of the generality of this theorem, we may mention that


any framed structure consisting of struts and ties, the sum of the products

of the pressure
of the

tension

in

each strut into

of each

tie

into

its

its

length, exceeds the

length,

the whole structure into the height of

its

sum

by the product

of the products

of the

weight of

centre of gravity above the founda-

OF THE GASEOUS AND LIQUID STATES.

p.

1870.)*

14.

In gases the
if

Trans. R. S. Edin., Vol. xxvi.

(See a paper on " Reciprocal Figures, &c."

tions.

411

This

remains constant.

we might be

product of the pressure and the volume

constant, the

is

is

justified in

Hence,

very small compared with the kinetic energy.

virial is

energy

kinetic

the

the case for a gas at constant temperature.

Hence

conjecturing that the temperature of any one gas

is

determined by the kinetic energy of unit of mass.


The theory of the exchange of the energy of agitation from one body to
another

one

is

present

most

the

of

we know the

theory

conditions

of molecular

parts

difficult

physical

the

understood,

fully

equilibrium

thermal

of

science.

If

would be

temperature

of

it

were

At

perfect.

only in the case of

gases in

which encounters take place between only a pair of molecules at once.

In

case

this

condition

the

energy due to

equilibrium

of thermal

the agitation of the

of mass

centre

is

that the

mean

of a molecule

kinetic

the same,

is

whatever be the mass of the molecule, the mean velocity being consequently
less for

the more massive molecules.

more complicated constitution, we know, as


on which their temperature depends,
though the researches of Boltzmann on this subject are likely to result in some

With

respect to substances

of

physical

condition

M. Van der Waals seems,

therefore,

nothing

yet,

of

the

valuable discoveries.

temperature of a substance

that the
of

of

agitation

its

molecules,

individual

somewhat too hasty

to be

though

this

the

mean

kinetic energy of a molecule,

assuming

undoubtedly the case

is

with substances in the gaseous state.


Assuming, however, for the present that the temperature

we

in

every case measured by the energy

in

is

is

measured by

obtain the means of determining the

by observing the deviation of the product of the pressure and volume


from the constant value given by Boyle's law.
It appears by Dr Andrews' experiments that when the volume of carbonic
virial

acid

is

diminished,

the

volume and pressure at

and

more

number
another,

rapid

of

pairs

as

of

the

remaining

temperature
first

density

molecules

Now, the

increases.

which

are

at

and this number in unit of volume

the density.

Hence the part

constant,

the

a
is

virial

more

depends on the

given instant acting on one


square of

proportional to the

of the pressure depending on the virial


*rVol.

the

product of

diminishes, the rate of diminution becoming

increases

n. p. 176.1

522

VAN DER WAALS ON THE CONTINUITY

412
the

as

square

the

of

and since, in the case of carbonic acid, it


must be of the positive sign, that is, it must arise

density,

diminishes the pressure,

it

from attraction between the molecules.

But
faction

volume
and from

the

if

begins,

further diminished,

still

is

point

this

the gas

till

at a
all

is

certain

liquefied

point lique-

no increase of

As soon, however, as the whole substance is in the liquid


any further diminution of volume produces a great rise of pressure, so

pressure takes place.


condition,

that the product of pressure and volume increases rapidly.


virial,

This indicates negative

and shews that the molecules are now acting on each other by

This

is

what takes

repulsion.

place in carbonic acid below the temperature of 30*92" C.

Above that temperature there

is

a positive and then a negative

first

virial,

but no sudden liquefaction.


Similar phenomena occur in

all

the liquefiable gases.

In other gases we are

able to trace the existence of attractive force at ordinary pressures, though the

This

been

never

has

gas

been carried so far as to shew any repulsive

liquefied,

liquefied, as the attractive force is so

We
a

and

it

is

probable that

it

never will be

weak.

have thus evidence that the molecules of gases attract each other at
small

certain

each other.
massive

from

but when they are brought

distance,

This

centres

changing

is

of

quite in accordance

the

force,

attractive

distance diminishes.

If

to

being a function

force

and back again

repulsive,

we suppose

that

still

nearer they repel

with Boscovich's theory of atoms as

when the

of

the

several

distance,

times,

and

as the

force begins to be repulsive

very rapidly as the distance diminishes, so as to become enormous

it

increases

if

the distance

first

force.

the repulsive force seems to prevail even at ordinary pressures.

hydrogen

In

not yet

has

compression

is

less

by a very small quantity than that

at which the force

begins to be repulsive, the phenomena will be precisely the same as those

of smooth elastic spheres.

M. Van der Waals makes


contact,

attract

each other.

his molecules elastic spheres, which,

when not

in

His treatment of the "molecular pressure" arising

from their attraction seems ingenious, and on the whole satisfactory, though he
has

not attempted a complete calculation of the attractive

virial

in

terms of

the law of force.

His treatment of the repulsive


principles
size

on which his investigation

of the

virial,
is

however, shews a departure from the

founded.

He

considers the efiect of the

molecules in diminishing the length of their "free paths," and he


OF THE GASEOUS AND LIQUID STATES.

shews

that this

volume

the

of

the case of very rare gases,

in

effect,

space

-which

in

diminished by four times the

He

then substitutes

sum

of the

are

is

free

the same as
to

the

if

move had been

volumes of the molecules themselves.

the volume of the vessel in Clausius' formula, this

V,

for

molecules

the

413

volume diminished by four times the molecular volume, and thus obtains the
equation

[p+^^(V-h) = R{l +
where

2^

*^

from

arising

the density,

<.t),

externally

applied

pressure,

y-

is

the

molecular

pressure

between the molecules, which varies as the square of

attraction

The

or inversely as the square of the volume.

factor

first

is

thus

what he considers the total effective pressure. V is the volume of the vessel,
and b is four times the volume of the molecules. The second factor is therefore the " effective volume " within which the molecules are free to move.
The right-hand member expresses the kinetic energy, represented by the

by a quantity, B, constant for each gas.


by M. Van der Waals by a comparison of this equawith the determinations of Regnault and Andrew^s are very striking, and

absolute temperature, multiplied

The
tion

results obtained

would almost persuade us that the equation represents the true state of the
But though this agreement would be strong evidence in favour of the
case.
accuracy of an empirical formula devised to represent the experimental results,
the equation of

M. Van der Waals, professing as it does to be derived from


must be subjected to a much more severe criticism.

the dynamical theory,


It

appears to

Clausius on which

me

that the equation does not agree with the theorem of


founded.

it is

In that theorem

is

the volume of the vessel.

is

the pressure of

the sides of the vessel, and

Neither of these quantities

is

is

subject to correction.

The assumption that the kinetic energy is determined by the temperature


and we have no evidence that any other law holds

true for perfect gases,

for gases,

The
for

sion

in

even near their liquefying point.


only source of

the term ^SS

of the

molecules,

deviation from Boyle's law

(^'')

which expresses the

causing

them

to

act like

is

virial.

elastic

be found by calculating the virial of this repulsion.

therefore

The

effect

spheres,

is

to

be looked

of the repultherefore

to

VAN DER WAALS ON THE CONTINUITY

414

that the effect of the impulsive

find

Neglecting the effect of attraction,

repulsion reduces the equation of Clausius to the form

pV= -IS (mi/) |l - 2 log


where

cr

is

^+ 17 ^ - &c.) j

the density of the molecules and p the

The form

of

equation

this

quite

is

mean

different

density of the medium.

from that of M.

of the impulsive

it indicates the effect

Waals, though

would carry us into considerable

in

force

takes no account of the attractive force, a

It

pressure.

-8

(l

full

Van

der

increasing the

discussion of which

difficulties.

At a constant temperature the effect of the attractive virial is to diminish


the pressm-e by a quantity varying as the square of the density, as long as
the encounters of the molecules are, on the whole, between two at a time,
and not between three
paths of the molecules

or
is

more.
to

The

any given
and r + dr of each other greater than the

instant are at distances between r

number

in

an

equal

volume

at

is

Hence a

virial

arising

so

that the

from repulsive forces acting through a


'

rise

of

temperature

at

of pressure than that given

The isothermal
nution

unity,

thus diminished.

distance, a rise of temperature will increase the

increase

to

the volume

rises,

becomes more uniform, and the

of molecules according to distance

there

If

approaches

the

the proportion of

As the temperature

being constant, the ratio of these velocities

virial is

of molecules which at

greater distance in

velocities corresponding to these distances.

distribution

the attraction in deflecting the

effect of

make the number

of

pressure

lines

at

due to

amount of

constant volume

by the law

finite

this kind of virial.


will

produce a greater

of Charles.

higher temperatures will exhibit less of the dimiattraction,

and as the density increases

will

shew

more of the increase of pressure due to repulsion.


I must not, however, while taking exception to part of the work of
M. Van der Waals, forget to add that to him alone are due the suggestions
which led me to examine the theory of virial more carefully in order to explore
the continuity of the liquid and the gaseous states.
I

cannot

experiments

now
of

enter into the comparison of his theoretical results with the

Andrews,

of

the

surface-tension

of

call

attention to the' able manner in

capillarity,

and to the remarkable phenomena

but I would

which he expounds the theory of

gases which

he

tells

(p.

38)

has been observed by

OF THE GASEOUS AND LIQUID STATES.


Bosscha
excess

in

of

properties

at the
fore,

tobacco smoke.
carbonic
at

the

acid

As tobacco smoke

carrying

surface of the

surface where

two

really

solid

cloud

simply ^va^m
along

must be very

different

the phenomenon observed by Bosscha

we may expect

is

particles

gases
is

415

first

with

slight

air
it,

if

change of

compared with that

come together.

If,

there-

a true instance of surface-tension,

much more striking phenomena at the meeting-place


we can make our observations before the surface of dis-

to discover

of different gases,

with a slight

the

continuity has been obliterated by the inter-diffusion of the gases.

[From Cambridge Philosophical Society Proceedings,

On

LXX.
The
have

Verslag

in

het

hetr.

by Mr

recently

the

The only

satisfactory

to

of obtaining a system

of co-ordinates fixed with

that adopted by Helmholtz (Handbuch der Physiolo-

and described in

wood,

Derde Jcmrlijksch
Utrecht, 1862), and

June 18, 1874). The chief difficulty


head while the eyeball moves.

method
is

rolled horizontallj

is

it

Doijer,

the

in

Optik, p. 517),

of

S.,

fixing

consists

the skull

piece

and

(Donders

Tupper (Proc. R.

L.

reference

the eye assumes as

Bonders

Nede^iandsch Gasthuis voor Ooglijders.

J.

investigation

gischen

by

investigated

365.]

ii.

Centre of Motion of the Eye.

the

of positions which

series

been

Vol.

part

the

of

his Croonian Lecture.

upper

surface

of which

is

covered with

warm sealingwax, is placed between the teeth and bitten hard till the sealingwax sets and forms a cast of the upper teeth. By inserting the teeth into
their proper holes in the sealingwax the piece of wood may at any time be
placed in a determinate position relatively to the skull.

By
screws
to

device

this

and

move

clamps

his

of Helmholtz the patient

applied

head as he

the

to

likes,

skin

of

is

relieved

his

head,

from the pressure of

and

he

becomes

free

provided he keeps the piece of wood between

his teeth.

If we can now adjust another piece of wood so that it shall always have
a determinate position with respect to the eyeball, we may study the motion
of the one piece of wood with respect to the other as the eye moves about.

For

this

purpose a small mirror

on

the

mirror.

in

the

mirror,

If the
sees

that

dot

the

mirror through the dot

eye,

is

right-angled prism

the

eye

sees

the

looking
in

the

is

fixed to a board,

straight

centre

of the pupil,

the visual axis of the eye


is

and a dot

at the image

of its

is

marked

own

pupil

the normal to the

determinate

line.

fixed to the board near the eye in such a position

image of

its

own

cornea in profile by reflexion,

first

THE CENTRE OF MOTION OF TUE EYE.


at

the

and

prism,

then

the

at

from the

or

eye

the

cornea,

while

the

pupil.

The only way

with

and

respect
this

by the

is

the

this

till

dot

is

still

in

vertical

line

is

drawn with black

prism next the eye, and the board

sealingwax on the surface of the

towards

mirror.

417

is

moved

appears as a tangent to the front of

line

seen

to

cover the centre

of the

image of

which the position of the board can now vary


by turning round the line of vision as an axis,

to the eye is
prevented by the board being laid on a horizontal platform carried

teeth.

If

now

the

eye

brought

is

moved on the platfomi, so


the eye, we have to find

to

as

the

two

into

positions

different

and the board

be always in the same position relative to


centre about which the board might have

turned so as to get from one position to the other.


For this purpose two holes are made in the platform, and a needle thrust

through the holes


thus

obtain

two

is

made

pairs

of

to

prick a card fastened

points,

AB

for

the

first

the upper board.

to

position,

and ab

for

We
the

second.

The ordinary rule for determining the centre of motion is to draw lines
The intersection of these is the centre
bisecting Aa and Bb at right angles.
the centre of motion is in or near
when
fails
construction
This
of motion.
the line

AB
This

and

AB,

for

ab

till

will

line

then the two Unes coincide.

they meet, and

pass

through

and when they coincide

VOL.

II.

it

draw a

the centre

intersects

them

line

In this case we
bisecting

of motion

as

may produce

the angle externally.

well

as

the other

at right angles.

53

two.

[From Nature,

LXXI.

0)1 the

When

Dynamical Evidence of

Vol. xi.]

the

any phenomenon can be described as an example of some general


is applicable to other phenomena, that phenomenon is said to be

which

principle

Explanations,

explained.

however, are of very various orders, according to the

degree of generality of the principle which

who

Molecular Constitution of Bodies*.

observed the

first

amount

of

mental

effect

made use

is

of.

of throwing water into a fire

when he found that

satisfaction

Thus the person

would

feel

a certain

the results were always

and that they did not depend on any temporary and capricious antiThis is an explanation of the lowest
fire.
in which the class to which the phenomenon is referred consists of other

similar,

pathy between the water and the


order,

phenomena which can only be distinguished from it by the place and time of
their occurrence, and the principle involved is the very general one that place
and time are not among the conditions which determine natural processes. On
the other hand, when a physical phenomenon can be completely described as a
change in the configuration and motion of a material system, the dynamical
explanation

of that

phenomenon

said

is

to be

complete.

We

cannot conceive

any further explanation to be either necessary, desirable, or possible, for as soon


as we know what is meant by the words configuration, motion, mass, and force,

we

see

that the ideas which they represent are so elementary that they cannot

be explained by means of anything

else.

The phenomena studied by chemists

are,

for

the most part, such as have

not received a complete dynamical explanation.

Many

diagrams and models of compound molecules have been constructed.

These are the records of the


material systems

efibrts

by the geometrical

of

chemists to imagine configurations of

relations of

lecture delivered at the Chemical Society, Feb. 18,

which chemical phenomena may

by

Prof. Clerk-Maxwell, F.R.S.

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.


be

No

explained.

or

illustrated

however,

chemist,

professes

to

see

in

419
these

diagrams anything more than symbolic representations of the various degrees of


closeness with which the difterent components of the molecule are bound
together.

the configurations

astronomy, on the other hand,

In

heavenly

on

are

bodies

Newton

observation.

tendency of

proved

bodies

all

such

scale

that

and motions of the

them by

ascertain

approach each other, and the doctrine of

to

direct

motions indicate a continual

observed

the

that

we can

universal

which he established not only explains the observed motions of our


but enables us to calculate the motions of a system in which the

gravitation

system,

astronomical elements

When

w^e

configuration

the

may have any

and

motion

of

these

but

found

are

forces

to

To form what Gauss

electricity.

forces

science,

bodies,

we can

still

observe

and thence, following the

with which they act on each other;


on fhe distribution of what wc

depend

" construirbar

called a

visible process of electric action is

Vorstellung

"

call

of the in-

the great desideratum in this part of science.

attempting the extension of

In

electrical

electrified

Newtonian path, deduce the

strict

values whatever.

pass from astronomical to

dynamical methods to the explanation of

phenomena, we have to fomi an idea of the configuration and motion


of a number of material systems, each of which is so small that it cannot be
We have, in fact, to determine, from the observed external
directly observed.

chemical

actions of an unseen piece of machinery, its internal construction.

method

The

inquiries

such

happen

if

which
that

is

the

hypothesis

phenomena, the hypothesis


else

been for the most part employed in conducting

has
of

forming an hypothesis, and calculating what would

were
is

true.

If

these results agree with the actual

said to be verified, so long, at least, as

does not invent another hypothesis which agrees

still

some one

better with the phe-

nomena.

The reason why so many of our physical theories have been built up by
the method of hypothesis is that the speculatoi-s have not been provided with
methods and terms
in its

early stages.

and therefore

sufficiently

They

useless,

general to express the results of their induction

w^ere thus

or to present

compelled either to leave their ideas vague

them

in a form the details of

which could

be supplied only by the illegitimate use of the imagination.

In the meantime the mathematicians, guided by that instinct which teaches

them

to

store

up

for

others

the

irrepressible

secretions

of

their

own minds,

532

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

420

had developed with the utmost generality the dynamical theory of a material
system.

Of

hypotheses as to the constitution of bodies, that

all

warrantable which assumes no more than

is

surely the

that they are material systems,

proposes to deduce from the observed phenomena just as

much

most
and

information about

the conditions and connections of the material system as these phenomena can
legitimately furnish.

When

examples of this method of physical speculation have been properly

and explained, we

set forth

reasoning

men

of

shall

of science,

hear fewer complaints of the looseness of the

and the method of inductive philosophy

will

no

longer be derided as mere guess-work.


It

is

only a small part of the theory of the constitution of bodies which

has as yet been reduced to the form of accurate deductions from

known

facts.

To conduct the operations of science in a perfectly legitimate manner, by means


of methodised experiment and strict demonstration, requires a strategic skill
which we must not look for, even among those to whom science is most indebted for original observations and fertile suggestions. It does not detract from
the merit of the pioneers of science that their advances, being

ground,

are

cut

often

oflP,

for

a time,

with an established base of operations, which

manent extension of

is

made on unknown

system of

from that

communications

the only security for any per-

science.

In studying the constitution of bodies we are forced from the very beginning to deal with particles which

we cannot

that bodies

Hence,

may be
if

we

divided into parts so small that


are

careful to

part of a body, and that

it

For whatever may be


we have experimental proof
we cannot perceive them.

observe.

our ultimate conclusions as to molecules and atoms,

remember that the word

particle

means a small

does not involve any hypothesis as to the ultimate

divisibility of matter, we may consider a body as made up of particles, and


we may also assert that in bodies or parts of bodies of measurable dimensions,
the number of particles is very great indeed.
The next thing required is a dynamical method of studying a material
system consisting of an immense number of particles, by forming an idea of their

configuration

from

and motion, and of the

forces acting

on the

the dynamical theory those phenomena which,

particles,

and deducing

though depending on the

configuration and motion of the invisible particles, are capable of being observed
in visible portions of the system.

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF

dynamical principles necessary for this study were developed by the

The

dynamics, from

of

fathers

adaptation

the special

elaborate
shall

deeper

still

Galileo

of

and Newton

principles

these

of

the work

extent

great

under

421

BODIES.

to

to

Lagrange and Laplace

molecular

Bonn, who has recently

Prof Clausius of

but

been to a

has

studies

laid

us

by giving us, in addition to the results of his


a new dynamical idea, by the aid of which I hope we

obligations

calculations,

much

be able to establish several important conclusions without

symbolical

calculation.

The equation

of Clausius,

the following form

Here

which

denotes the pressure of a

which contains

The product pV,

it.

remains,

ture,

to

as

Boyle's

quantities, each of

Law

member

This

and pressures.

must now

your attention,

call

is

of

tells

of the

fluid,

and

volume of the

vessel

constant for different volumes

nearly

us,

equation,

the

of gases at constant tempera-

in the case

therefore,

is

the product of two

which can be directly measured.

The other member


on the motion of the

of the equation consists of

two terms, the

and the second on the

particles,

first

depending

with which they

forces

act on each other.

The quantity
part

that

tke

of

the kinetic energy of the system,

is

energy which

is

due

in

or,

other words,

motion of the parts of the

the

to

system.

The
square of

kinetic
its

energy of a particle

velocity,

is

half the

product of

kinetic energy of the system

and the

mass into the

its
is

the

sum

of the

kinetic energy of its parts.

In the second term, r

is

and

/^

a pressure,

the distance between any two particles,

is

the attraction between them.

is

to be reckoned negative.)

(If

the force

is

repulsion or

The quantity ^Rr, or half the product of the attraction into the distance
which the attraction is exerted, is defined by Clausius as the virial of

across

the attraction.

(In the case of pressure or repulsion, the virial

The importance
giving

it

of this quantity

was

first

is

negative.)

pointed out by Clausius, who, by

a name, has greatly facilitated the application of his method to phy-

sical exposition.

The

virial

of particles

of the

system

which exist

in

is

the

sum

the system.

of the virials belonging to every pair

This

is

expressed by the double sum

TBE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

422

tl{\Rr), which indicates that the value of ^Rr


of particles, and the results added together.

to be found for every pair

is

Clausius has established this equation by a very simple

mathematical pro-

with which I need not trouble you, as we are not studying mathematics
We may see, however, that it indicates two causes which may affect
to-night.
cess,

the fluid on the vessel which contains it: the motion of its
tends
to increase the pressure, and the attraction of its particl'es,
particles, which

the

pressure

of

which tends to increase the pressure.

We

may

therefore

the pressure of a fluid either to the motion

attribute

between them.

of its particles or to a repulsion

Let us test by means of this result of Clausius the theory that the pressure of a gas arises entirely from the repulsion which one particle exerts on
another, these particles, in the case of gas in a fixed vessel, being really at rest.

In

case

this

the virial must be

product of pressure and volume

whatever
It

the

follows

volume,

from

this

in

same

the

also

the repulsion of two particles

must be constant,

repulsion must be inversely as the

by Boyle's Law the


must be constant,

since

virial

quantity of gas at constant temperature.

the product of

that Rr,

distance between them,

into the

and

negative,

constant, the

is

or

in other

words that the

Newton has shewn


would make the action

a law which

distance,

to be inadmissible in the case of molecular forces, as

it

In fact,
of the distant parts of bodies greater than that of contiguous parts.
we have only to observe that if Rr is constant, the virial of every pair of

must be the same,


to the number of

so that

particles

tional

square

of

the

number of

particles,

The

quantity of gas in the vessel.

be

same

the

in

different

of

pairs

vessels

the virial of the system must be proporparticles

or

in

pressure,

of gas

at

in

the system

that

is,

other words to the square

to

the

of the

according to this law, would not

the same density, but would

be

greater in a large vessel than in a small one, and greater in the open air than
in

any ordinary

vessel.

The pressure of a gas cannot


forces between the particles.

no

It

must therefore depend,

If

we suppose

virial,

in

therefore be explained

whole or

in part,

by assuming repulsive

on the motion of the

the particles not to act on each other at

and the equation

will

be reduced to the fonn

all,

particles.

there will be

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF
If

is

the mass of the whole quantity of gas, and

the velocity of a particle,

or

words,

in

the

we may

423

BODIES.

write the equation

mean square

the

is

of

product of the volume and the pressure

is

one-third

of the

mass multiplied by the mean square of the velocity. If we now assume, what
we shall afterwards prove by an independent process, that the mean square of
the

depends only on the

velocity

temperature, this equation exactly represents

Boyle's Law.

at

But ue know that most ordinary gases deviate from Boyle's Law, especially
Let us see whether the hypothesis

low temperatures and great densities.

of forces

between the

cause of

sole

which we rejected when brought forward as the


may not be consistent with experiment when

particles,

gaseous pressure,

considered as the cause of this deviation from Boyle's Law.

When

a gas

is

in

an extremely

number of

rarefied condition, the

particles

within a given distance of any one particle will be proportional to the density
Hence the virial arising from the action of one particle on the
of the gas.
will

rest

vary as the density, and the whole

virial

in unit of

volume

will

vary

as the square of the density.

Calling the density p, and dividing the equation by

where

yl

is

a quantity which

Now, the experiments


increases

the pressure

is

we get

nearly constant for small densities.

of Regnault

shew that

below the value

falls

V,

in

most

calculated

gases, as the density

Hence

by Boyle's Law.

must be positive that is to say, the mutual action of the particles


must be in the main attractive, and the effect of this action in diminishing
the pressure must be at first very nearly as the square of the density.
On the other hand, when the pressure is made still greater the substance
the

virial

at length

reaches a state

which an enormous increase of pressure produces

in

but a very small increase of density.


negative,

in

or,

main, repulsive.
ticles

at

any

We

may

sensible

each other the action

mum, then
attainable

the

other words,

diminishes,

action

therefore

first

and

quite

shews

itself

at

indicates

between the

that

the virial

particles

is

is

now

now, in the

conclude that the action between two par-

is

distance

This

length

insensible.

As the

particles

approach

as an attraction, which reaches a maxi-

becomes

force can reduce the distance of the

repulsion

particles

so

to zero.

great

that

no

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

424

The

between

relation

between the particles

As the
entirely

pressure

and

density increases from zero,

on the motion of the

from

density arising

an action

such

kind.

of this

is

particles,

depends almost

the

pressure

and

therefore varies almost exactly as

at

first

As the density continues

the pressure, according to Boyle's Law.

increase,

to

mutual attraction of the particles becomes sensible, and this


If
causes the rise of pressure to be less than that given by Boyle's Law.
the temperature is low, the effect of attraction may become so large in proportion to the effect of motion that the pressure, instead of always rising as
the

the

of

effect

the density increases,

At

may

Law, but

increase

so

that

as

so

an

to diminish.

the average distance of the particles


prevail over

of repulsion will

diminished, the effect


pressure will

maximum, and then begin

reach a

length, however, as

not only to

still

is

further

that of attraction, and the

be greater than that given by Boyle's

exceedingly small increase of

produce

an

represented

by

density will

enormous increase of pressure.

Hence the
the

curve

and the

between pressure and volume may be

relation

ABCDEFG,

vertical

ordinate

As the volume
diminishes to

where

the

represents

diminishes,

horizontal

ordinate

volume,

the

represents

the pressure.

the pressure increases up to the point C, then

the point E, and

finally

increases

without

limit

the volume

as

diminishes.

We
way
ever,

have

is

supposed

hitherto

that the density


impossible

in

medium from without

the

experiment to be conducted

in

such

This, howthe same in every part of the medium.


on the
impose
we
can
condition
only
the
practice, as

is

is

that

the

whole of the

medium

shall

be

contained

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF

doing

if

it

possible

is

the medium to arrange


we cannot prevent it from

for

that part has one density and part another,

itself so
so.

Now
the

Hence,

a certain vessel.

within

425

BODIES.

is

medium may

from

but
the

represent two

density

the

state

CDF, but by

way

states

the state

to

medium in which
The whole of the

the

of

very different.

small successive

In this

the state F.

to

and

the same

pass

mediate states
state

points

the

pressure

F,

not through the

inter-

portions passing directly from

the successive states of the

the

medium

as

by points on the straight line BF, the point B


a whole
representing it when entirely in the rarefied state, and F representing it when
This is what takes place when a gas or vapour is liquefied.
entirely condensed.
Under ordinaiy circumstances, therefore, the relation between pressure and
will be represented

vokune at constant temperature


however, the

medium when

is

liquefied

represented by the broken


is

line

ABFG.

carefully kept from contact with

If,

vapour,

be preserved in the liquid condition and brought into states represented


and F. It is also possible that methods
of the curve betw^een
portion
the
by
mav be devised whereby the vapour may be prevented from condensing, and

it

may

brought into states represented by points in BC.


The portion of the hypothetical curve from C to
are essentially unstable,

Now

curve

thetical

BCDEF

the straight line

FB

the temperature has

formed into work.


excess

of

the

the

maximum

BF

cuts

ofi"

and

us suppose the

let

area

in

medium
state

pass

to

always

represents states which

from

to

liquid

the heat transformed into

FDE

pressure

over

BCD.

of the vapour

Hence the
at

given

work

along

and vapour.

Since

have been trans-

been constant throughout, no heat can

Now

along the hypo-

homogeneous, and to return

the form of a mixture of

in

which cannot therefore be realised.

represented by the

is

condition

temperature

which determines
is

that the

line

equal areas from the curve above and below.

The higher the temperature, the greater the part


depends on motion, as

compared with that which

of

the

depends on

which

pressure
forces

between

Hence, as the temperature rises, the dip in the curve becomes


and at a certain temperature the curve, instead of dipping, merely
becomes horizontal at a certain point, and then slopes upward as before. This

the

particles.

less

marked,

point

is

called

the

critical

point.

It

by the masterly researches of Andrews.


pressure and density.
VOL.

II.

has

been

determined

It corresponds to

for

carbonic

acid

a definite temperature,

^^

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

426

At higher temperatures the curve slopes upwards throughout, and there is


nothing corresponding to Uquefaction in passing from the rarest to the densest
state.

The molecular theory

of

van der Waals'"', a graduate of Leyden.


think he has

fallen

into

mathematical

and

the liquid

the continuity of

Mr

forms the subject of an exceedingly ingenious thesis by

gaseous

There are certain points

and

errors,

final

his

states

Johannes Diderick

result

in

which I

is

certainly

not a complete expression for the interaction of real molecules, but his attack
on this difficult question is so able and so brave, that it cannot fail to give
It has certainly directed the attention
a notable impulse to molecular science.
of the Low-Dutch language in which
study
the
inquker
to
one
than
more
of
it

written.

is

The purely themiodynamical


not belong to our subject, as
molecules.

must

contribution

to

College, U.S.,

part

of the

states

do

of matter

omit to mention a most important American

of thermodynamics

who has given

different

they are independent of particular theories about

not, however,

this

relations

by

Willard Gibbsf, of Yale

Prof.

us a remarkably simple and thoroughly satisfactory

method of representing the relations of the different states of matter by means


By means of this model, problems which had long resisted the
of a model.
efforts of myself and others may be solved at once.
Let
pressure

us
is

now

mean square

the

return

to

the case of

due entirely to the motion of

highly rarefied

its

particles.

It

gas
is

in

which

the

easy to calculate

of the velocity of the particles from the equation of Clausius,

the pressure, and the mass are all measurable quantities.


Supposing the velocity of every particle the same, the velocity of a molecule
of oxygen would be 461 metres per second, of nitrogen 492, and of hydrogen

since

the volume,

1844, at the temperature of O'C.

The explanation of the pressure of a gas on the vessel which contains it


by the impact of its particles on the surface of the vessel has been suggested
The fact, however, that gases are not obat various times by various writers.
served to disseminate themselves through the atmosphere wdth velocities at
approaching those just mentioned, remained unexplained, till Clausius, by

* Over de continuiteit van den gas en vloeistoftoestand.

(Leiden

A.

W.

Sijtlioff,

all

1873.)

method of geometrical representation of the thermodynamic properties of substances by means


Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. ii. Part 2.
of surfaces."
t "

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF

427

BODIES.

thorough study of the motions of an immense number of


the methods and ideas of modern molecular science.

To him we
path

of

molecules.

are

indebted

molecule

of

As soon

as

for

gas

it

was

conception

the

between

how each

seen

a quite different direction,

it

length

of

encounters with

molecule,

describing

after

the

other

an

and then describes a new path

encounters another,

exceedingly short path,

the mean

of

successive

its

developed

particles,

became evident that the rate of

in

of gases

diffusion

depends not merely on the velocity of the molecules, but on the distance they
travel

between each encounter.

more to say about the

have

shall

special

of

contributions

Clausius to

The main facfjj however, is, that he opened up a new field


mathematical physics by shewing how to deal mathematically with moving

molecular science.
of

systems of innumerable molecules.


his

Clausius, in

whether the

investigations at least, did not attempt to determine

earlier

velocities of all the molecules of the

equal, or whether,

same gas are

He
unequal, there is any law according to which they are distributed.
if
therefore, as a first hypothesis, seems to have assumed that the velocities are
that

equal.

But

number

of molecules, their velocities,

equal,

for,

molecules
velocities

it

easy to

is

under

except

having
after

equal

velocities

encounters take

if

even

if

which

conditions

before

originally

every individual,

By distributing
we may substitute for

following

through

molecule

increase or decrease of the

number

and

we

will

only

rarely

encounter will
the

molecules

a great

become un-

satisfied,

acquire
into

two

unequal

groups ac-

the impossible task of following

that of

encounters,

its

among

place

equal,

registering

the

of molecules in the different groups.

method, which

this

mentally or mathematically,
those of statistics

all

be

can

their

the encounter.

cording to their velocities,

By

see

pass

is

the only one

from

the

available

methods of

either

strict

experi-

dynamics to

probability.

When an encounter takes place between two molecules, they are transferred
from one pair of groups to another, but by the time that a great many encounters have taken place, the number which enter each group is, on an average,
neither

When

more nor

less

than the number which leave

it

during the same time.

the system has reached this state, the numbers in each group must be

some definite law.


became acquainted with

distributed according to

As soon

as

the

investigations

of

Clausius,

endeavoured to ascertain this law.

542

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

428

I published in 1860 has since been subjected to a more


by Dr Ludwig Boltzmann, who has also applied his method
The mathematical investito the study of the motion of compound molecules.
gation, though, like all parts of the science of probabilities and statistics, it is

The

result

somewhat

we

must now attempt

to give

compelled to admit that

are

some-

the physical theory of molecular

thing essential to the complete statement of

it

while others seem to be so irreconcilable

experimental results, that

encounters must have hitherto escaped

the physical side, however,

being manifestly true, seem to indicate

which,

of

that the hypotheses are well chosen,

with known

On

does not appear faulty.

diflScult,

consequences^ some

to

leads

which

investigation

strict

us.

you some account of the present state of these

investigations, without, however, entering into their mathematical demonstration.

must begin by stating the general law


among molecules of the same kind.

of

If

we take a

a dot at the end of the

line,

distribution

and draw from

fixed point in this diagram

representing in direction and magnitude the

the

velocity

of

velocity

this point a line

of a molecule,

and make

the position of the dot will indicate the state of

motion of the molecule.


If

we do

the same for

all

the other molecules, the diagram will be dotted

the dots being more numerous in certain places than in others.

all over,

The law

of distribution of the dots

may

be shewn to be the same as that

which prevails among errors of observation or of adjustment.

The dots

in the

diagram before you

may

be taken to represent the velocities

of molecules, the different observations of the position of the same star, or the
bullet-holes

round the bull's-eye of a target,

all

of which are distributed in the

same manner.

The
so

velocities

of the

molecules have values ranging from zero to infinity,

that in speaking of the average velocity of

the molecules

we must

define

what we mean.
The most useful quantity for purposes of comparison and calculation is called
the "velocity of mean square." It is that velocity whose square is the average
of the squares of the velocities of

This
gases.

is

all

the molecules.

the velocity given above as calculated from the properties of different


molecule

moving with

the

velocity

of

mean square has a

kinetic

energy equal to the average kinetic energy of aU the molecules in the medium,

and

if

a single mass equal to that of the whole quantity of gas were moving

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF
with

velocity,

this

has, only

same

If in the

maas than others,


so

it

would be

it

it

would have the same kinetic energy as the gas actually


a visible form and directly available for doing work.

in

vessel there are different kinds of molecules,

its

some of greater

appears from this investigation that their velocities will be

average kinetic energy of a molecule will be the same,

distributed that the

whether

429

BODIES.

mass be great or

small.

Diagram of

Velocities.

Here we have perhaps the most important apphcation which has yet been
For, suppose that we have
made of dynamical methods to chemical science.
two tmses in the same vessel. The ultimate distribution of agitation among the
molecules

is

the same in

such that
either

equal temperature.

temperature

same

in

is

tlie

gas.

average kinetic energy of an


This ultimate state

is

also,

as

Hence the condition that two gases

individual molecule

is

we know, a

of

shall

have

state

the

same

that the average kinetic energy of a single molecule shall be the

the two gases.

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

430

Now, we have already shewn that the pressure


kinetic energy in

Hence,

unit of volume.

if

the

of a gas

pressure

is

two-thirds of the

as well

the tem-

as

perature be the same in the two gases, the kinetic energy per unit of volume
is

the same, as well as the kinetic energy per molecule.

There must, therefore,

be the same number of molecules in unit of volume in the two gases.


This result coincides with the law of equivalent volumes established by Gray

This law,

Lussac.

however, has

hitherto

on

rested

purely chemical evidence,

the relative masses of the molecules of different substances having been deduced

from the proportions in which the substances enter into chemical combination.
It

now demonstrated on dynamical

is

principles.

The molecule

is

defined

as

that small portion of the substance which moves as one lump during the motion
of agitation.

This

a purely dynamical definition, independent of any experi-

is

ments on combination.

The density of a gaseous medium,


is

at

standard temperature and pressure,

proportional to the mass of one of its molecules

We

of different

as

thus defined.

method of estimating the relative masses of molecules


substances when in the gaseous state.
This method is more to be

have thus a

safe

depended on than those founded on

electrolysis or on specific heat, because our


knowledge of the conditions of the motion of agitation is more complete than
our knowledge of electrolysis, or of the internal motions of the constituents of

a molecule.

must now say something about these internal motions, because the greatest
which the kinetic theory of gases has yet encountered belongs to this

difficulty

part of the

subject.

We

have hitherto considered only the motion of the centre of mass of the
We have now to consider the motion of the constituents of the
molecule.
molecule relative to the centre of mass.

we suppose

that the constituents of a molecule are atoms, and that each


what is called a material point, then each atom may move in three
different and independent ways, corresponding to the three dimensions of space,
so that the number of variables required to determine the position and conIf

atom

is

figuration of all the atoms of the molecule is three times the


It

is

not essential, however, to the mathematical

that the molecule

is

made up

and configuration of the

number

of variables.

of atoms.

molecule

can

All that

be

is

number

investigation

assumed

is

of atoms.
to

assume

that the position

completely expressed

by a

certain

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF
Let us

Of

number

this

call

these

centre of mass

of the

are

required

determine

to

and the remaining n

molecule,

figuration relative to its

To each of the

n.

three

variables,

431

IJODIES.

the
to

the

of

position

determine

con-

its

centre of mass.

variables corresponds a different kind of motion.

The motion of translation


The motions of the parts

of the centre of mass has three

of mass

the centre

to

relative

components.

have

^?

3 com-

ponents.

The

of

centre of

mass,

of mass.

The

rotation and

may be

energy of the molecule

kinetic

that

parts

the mass of

the

regarded as made

supposed

molecule

be

to

and that of the motions of the parts


first

part

vibration.

relative

to

the

its

centre

energy of translation, the second that of

called the

is

The sum

up of two

concentrated at

of these

is

the whole energy of motion of the

molecule.

The pressure
The

alone.

we have

of the gas depends, as

specific

seen, on the energy of translation

heat depends on the rate at which the whole energy, kinetic

and potential, increases as the temperature

rises.

Clausius had long ago pointed out that the ratio of the increment of the

whole energy to that of the energy of translation

know by experiment the ratio of the

specific

may be determined

if

we

heat at constant pressure to that

at constant volume.

He
parts

did not

of the

that the

however, attempt to determine a pnori the ratio of the two

energy, though he suggested, as an extremely probable hypothesis,

average values of the two parts of the energy in a given substance

always adjust themselves to the same

ratio.

He

left

the numerical value of this

ratio to be determined by experiment.

the two

In 1860 I investigated the ratio of

parts

of

the energy on

hypothesis that the molecules are elastic bodies of invariable form.

my

great surprise, that whatever be

are not perfectly

smooth and

the

found, to

shape of the molecules, jn'ovided they

the

spherical, the ratio of the

two parts of

tlie

energy

must be always the same, the two parts being in fact equal.
This result is confirmed by the researches of Boltzmann, who has worked
out the general case of a molecule having n variables.

He

finds

molecules of
is

that while
all

the

average

energy of

kinds at the same temperature,

to the energy of translation as n to 3.

translation

the

whole

is

the

same

energy of

for

motion

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

432

For a

body n = 6, which makes the whole energy of motion twice the

rigid

energy of translation.

But

if

the molecule

impressed forces,
are

forces

it

of changing

capable

is

form under the action of

its

must be capable of storing up potential energy, and

if

the

such as to ensure the stability of the molecule, the average potential

energy will increase when the average energy of internal motion increases.
Hence, as the temperature rises, the increments of the energy of translation,
the energy of internal motion, and the potential energy are as
respectively,

where

e is

a positive quantity of

unknown

3,

(n

3), and

law of the force which binds together the constituents of the molecule.
When the volume of the substance is maintained constant, the
the application of heat
specific

where
grade,

is

to increase the

value depending on the

We

whole energy.

effect

of

thus find for the

heat of a gas at constant volume

jPo

^^^

^o

or 273"

Q-^

^^

pressure and volume

temperature, and

absolute

heat at constant pressure

of unit of mass at zero centi-

the dynamic equivalent of heat.

is

The

specific

In gases whose molecules have the same degree of complexity the value of
the same, and that of e may be the same.

is

If

this

according

to

is

the case,

the law of

approximation,

verified

is

the specific heat

Dulong and

is

Petit,

inversely

which

as

is,

to

the specific
a certain

gravity,

degree

of

by experiment.

But if we take the actual values of the specific heat as found by Regnault
and compare them with this formula, we find that n + e for air and several
For carbonic acid and steam it is greater.
other gases cannot be more than 4*9.

We

obtain the same result

if

we compare the

ratio

of the

calculated

specific

heats
2

+ ?i + r
11 +

with the ratio as detennined by experiment

for

various gases, namely,

1-408.

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF

And

we

here

equation
If

7i

are

+^=4

greatest difficulty which

brought face to face with the

theory has

molecular

the

encountered, namely,

yet

433

BODIES.

the

the

of

interpretation

we suppose that the molecules are atoms mere material points, incapable
motion then n is 3 and e is zero, and the ratio

of rotatory energy or internal

of the specific heats

But we

of constant period.

It

capable of changing

is

small

too

its

make the

This would

which

1'66,

is

is

too great for

learn from the spectroscope that

any

real gas.

a molecule can execute vibrations

cannot therefore be a mere material point, but a system

Such a system cannot have

form.

less

than six variables.

greatest value of the ratio of the specific heats r33, which

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic oxide, nitrous oxide, and

for

hydrochloric acid.

But the spectroscope

us that some molecules can execute a great

tells

They must

kinds of vibrations.

different

therefore

siderable degree of complexity, having far

variable

additional

introduces

an

more than

amount
Every

additional

motion without affecting the external pressure.


the specific

increases

fore,

whether

heat,

many

be systems of a very consix variables.

of

Now, every

capacity for

internal

additional variable, there-

reckoned at constant

pressure

or

at

constant volume.

may have

So does any capacity which the molecule


the

in

potential

form.

But the

when we suppose the molecule


degree of

additional

calculated
to

consist

complexity which

we

specific

of

for

storing up energy

is

already too great

heat

two atoms

attribute

to

the

only.

Hence every

molecule can only

the difficulty of reconciling the observed with the calculated value of

increase

the specific heat.


I

have now put before you what I consider to be the greatest

yet

encountered by the

are

to

look for

and the
if

we

the

molecular

explanation in the

medium which surrounds them. I am afraid, however, that


the help of this medium, we shall only increase the calculated

aetherial

call

in

which is already too great.


The theorem of Boltzmann may be applied not only

specific

heat,

tribution

of velocity

among the

the molecules themselves


forces.

difficulty

Boltzmann has suggested that we


mutual action between the molecules

theory.

It tells

in

t]ie

dis-

a region in which they are acted on

by external

us that the density of distribution of the molecules at a point

where the potential energy of a molecule


VOL. n.

to determine

molecules, but to determine the distribution of

Is

i/>,

is

proportional to e~ where

55

is

THE DYNAillCAL EVIDENCE OF THE

434

and

the absolute temperature,


this,

that

like

that of gravity,

if

several

which

the distribution of each gas

atmosphere

the

atmospheres,

one

may be

faster

uniform than

is

the same as

nitrogen

other of

if

from

no other

the density of the

the atmosphere were never disturbed,

if

mix up the atmosphere and


would be if left at rest.
to

is

it

follows

than that of the nitrogen, as we ascend.

This would be the case


of winds

It

regarded as consisting of two independent

oxygen, and the

of

oxygen diminishing

effect

gases.

all

This result agrees with the law assumed by Dalton, according

gas were present.


to

a constant for

is

/c

the same vessel are subject to an external force

gases in

but the

to render its composition

more

Another consequence of Boltzmann's theorem is, that the temperature tends


to become equal throughout a vertical column of gas at rest.
In the case of the atmosphere, the effect of wind is to cause the temperature to vary as that of a mass of air would do

upwards, expanding and cooling as

if it

were carried vertically

ascends.

it

But besides these results, which I had already obtained by a less elegant
method and published in 1866, Boltzmann's theorem seems to open up a path
For if the gas consists of a number of
into a region more purely chemical.
similar systems, each of which may assume different states having different
amounts

proportional to

theorem

the

energy,

of

where

e'*^

xjj

tells

us

that the

number

each state

in

is

the energy, 6 the absolute temperature, and k a

is

constant.

It

easy to see that this

is

result

ought to be applied to the theory of

the states of combination which occur in a mixture of different substances.


as

it

so,

is

shall

week that

only during the present

not trouble you with

have confined

investigation.

my

crude calculations.

remarks to a very small part of the

and energy,

for

and the transpiration of

though the

part of our study the data of which,

results, especially in

to

exhibit the

manner

the

different

masses.

molecular

chemists,

depending on the conditions of the en-

evidence that the parts


in

the diffusion

many

data, they belong to a

counter of two molecules, are necessarily very hypothetical.

describe

field of

fluids are of great interest to

and though from them we deduce important molecular

better

But

have made any attempt to do

have said nothing about the molecular theory of the diffusion

of matter, motion,

of matter

my

which that motion

is

of fluids

I have thought

are in

distributed

it

motion, and to

among molecules

of

MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF
To shew that

we may

the molecules of the same substance are equal in mass,

all

to the

refer

methods of

may

of different densities

gases

435

BODIES.

dialysis introduced

be

by Graham, by which two

by percolation through a porous

separated

plug.
If in a single gas there

of the

portions

were molecules of different masses, the same process

would furnish us with two

repeated a sufficient number of times,

of dialysis,

in

gas,

one of which the average mass of the molecules would

The density and the combining weight of these


Now, it may be said that no one has carried
a sufficiently elaborate manner for every chemical sub-

be greater than in the other.

two portions would be


out this experiment in
stance.

But the

of the

same kind

different.

and

there were molecules

if

experiments

continually carrying out

nature are

of

processes
;

of the same

substance

nearly

but differing slightly in mass, the greater molecules would be selected in

alike,

preference

to

form one compound, and the smaller to form another.

drogen

of

the same density, whether V7e obtain

is

it

But hy-

from water or

from a

hydrocarbon, so that neither oxygen nor carbon can find in hydrogen molecules
greater or smaller than the average.

The estimates which have been made of the actual

size

of molecules are

founded on a comparison of the volumes of bodies in the liquid or


with their volumes in the gaseous

we meet with many


number of consistent
The theory
as

ought,

it

theory and

but at the

difficulties,

results to

solid state,

In the study of molecular volumes

state.

same time there are a

make the study a

sufficient

hopeful one.

of the possible vibrations of a molecule has not yet been studied

with the help


the

evidence

of

of

a continual comparison

the

spectroscope.

with the calculus and the spectroscope, can hardly

between the dynamical

An

intelligent

student,

fail

to discover

some important

armed

about the internal constitution of a molecule.

fact

The observed transparency


results

of

gases

may seem

hardly consistent with the

of molecular investigations.

model of the molecules of a gas consisting of marbles scattered at

tances bearing the proper proportion to their diameters, would allow very
light to penetrate

But

if

length of a

Lord

through a hundred

feet.

we remember the small size of


wave of light, we may apply

Eaylelgh's

about the

mutual

dislittle

action

the

molecules

certain

compared with the

theoretical

investigations

between weaves and

which shew that the transparency of the atmosphere,

if

small

affected

of

spheres,

only by the

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE

436

presence of molecules, would be far greater than


it

we have any

reason to believe

to be.

much more

difficult

investigation,

which has hardly yet been attempted,

No

relates to the electric properties of gases.

why

one has yet explained

dense

when rarefied or heated, they permit


perfect vacuum is the best of all insulators.

gases are such good insulators, and why,

the discharge of electricity, whereas a


It

true that the diffusion of molecules goes on faster in a rarefied gas,

is

because the

mean path

of

molecule

is

the

inversely as

But the

density.

between dense and rare gas appears to be too great to be

difference

electrical

accounted for in this way.

this

unconquered

I think it right to point out the hitherto

But while
of

facts

which

laws,

as they are

difficulties

you of the numerous

molecular theory, I must not forget to remind

We have already mentioned the gaseous


which express the relations between volume, pressure,

satisfactorily explains.

it

called,

and temperature, and Gay Lussac's very important law of equivalent volumes.
The explanation of these may be regarded as complete. The law of molecular
specific heats is less accurately verified by experiment, and its full explanation
depends on a more perfect knowledge of the internal structure of a molecule
than we as yet possess.

But the most important


ception

of

medium

is

thermal

result

phenomena.

of these

In the

measured by the average kinetic

molecule of the medium.

inquiries
place,

first

is

the

a more

distinct

temperature

of

con-

the

energy of translation of a single

In two media placed in thermal communication, the

temperature as thus measured tends to become equal.

In the next place,

we

call

heat

we

learn

how

to distinguish that kind of motion

heat from other kinds of motion.

is

that

it

is

perfectly

irregular

The

that

is

which

peculiarity of the motion called


to

say,

that the direction and

magnitude of the velocity of a molecule at a given time cannot be expressed as


depending on the present position of the molecule and the time.
In the visible motion of a body, on the other hand, the velocity of the
centre of mass

of all the

molecules in any visible portion of the body

observed velocity of that portion, though the molecules

may have

also

is

the

an irregular

depending agitation on account of the body being hot.


In the transmission of sound, too, the different portions of the body have
a motion which
observed.

But

is

generally too minute and too rapidly alternating to be directly

in the

motion which constitutes the physical phenomenon of sound,

MOLECCTLAR CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

437

the velocity of each portion of the medium at any time can be expressed as
depending on the position and the time elapsed so that the motion of a medium
during the passage of a sound-wave is regular, and must be distinguished from
that which we call heat.
;

If, however, the sound-wave,


instead of travelling onwards in an orderlv
manner and leaving the medium behind it at rest, meets with resistances which
fritter away its motion into irregular agitations, this irregular molecular motion

becomes no longer capable of being propagated swiftly

one direction as sound,

in

medium in the form of heat till it is communicated to


colder parts of the medium by the slow process of conduction.
The motion which we call light, though still more minute and rapidly
but

lingers

the

in

alternating than that


therefore

sound,

4ike

is,

What was

with

physically identical

When

of

not heat.

is

that

of

sound, perfectly regular,

formerly called Radiant Heat

it

and passes through

TS

engaged in transmitting

emerging at the other


the

radiation

it

it,

the

motion being entirely transferred to

the

medium,

As long

a certain

in

is

of the

side.

but as soon as the radiation has passed through


former state,

and

a phenomenon

light.

the radiation arrives at a certain portion


it,

is

as

state

enters

it

the

medium

of

motion,

medium returns to its


a new portion of the

medium.

Now, the motion which we


body to another unless the

first

heat

call

body

is,

can never of

itself

pass from

one

during the whole process, hotter than

The motion of radiation, therefore, which passes entirely out of one


medium and enters another, cannot be properly called heat.

the second.

portion of the

We

may

apply the molecular theory of gases to test those hypotheses about

the luminiferous aether which assume

it

to consist of

atoms or molecules.

Those who have ventured to describe the constitution of the luminiferous


aether have sometimes assumed it to consist of atoms or molecules.

The

application

of the molecular theory to

such hypotheses leads to rather

startling results.

In the
a gas.

We

first

place,

may,

if

a molecular aether would be neither more nor

we

please,

assume that

its

molecules are

less

than

each of them

equal to the thousandth or the

millionth part of a molecule of hydrogen, and

that they can traverse freely the

interspaces of

we have

seen,

an equilibrium

will

all

establish itself

ordinary molecules and those of the aether.

ordinary molecules.

But, as

between the agitation of the

In other words, the aether and the

438

THE DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE OF THE MOLECULAR CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

l)odies in

it

will

tend to equality of temperature, and the aether

to the ordinary gaseous laws as to pressure

Among
and

Petit,

other

must be equal

to

Its

ments on

specific
is

the

capacity for

that of

unit of

presence, therefore,

pressure.

the aether

properties of a gas,

that

so

heat,

it

will

heat

be subject

have that established by Dulong


of

unit

of

volume of the

volume of any ordinary gas at the

could not

fail

and we may therefore

not molecular.

will

and temperature.

to

aether

same

be detected in our experi-

assert

that the constitution of

[From the Proceedings of

On

LXXII.

London Mathematical

the

Society, Vol. vi.

Application of Hamilton's Characteristic Function

the

of an Optical Instrument symmetrical about

[Read April

When
(a-.,,

?/o,

as

the

ray

of

through any

2.)

distance

passes

light

from

series of media,

z^)

to

(a-,,

the

Function

It

reckon

shall

planes

z^

and

z.^

vacuum

in

the

of reference.

We

shall,

{x^,

co-ordinates

y^,

z^

the

to

point

V=jfids may be defined


in

the

same time as

y,,

z^)

and

{x.

y,

z),

it

Hamil-

of the

two points should be

In treating of optical instruments

axes.

opposite directions

in

[x^,

be defined as the value of the reduced distance

the same system of

to

Theory

terms of the co-ordinates of these points.

in

that

necessary

not

is

the

y,, 2.),

may

between two points expressed

point

the Hne-integral

Calling this the reduced distance between


ton's Characteristic

to

its axis.

8th, 1875.]

which Hght would travel

travels from {x^, y^,

referred

No. 83.]

we

along the axis, and from different

however, make the axes of

x^

and

x^ parallel

to

plane

of

each other in what follows.

Let

ray

from

the

point

R^

reference

at

the

Ri(a.,

0),

and reach the point

Z>2,

then, putting

and

point

{a^,

6,,

Pi{Xi,
0),

0,

c,)

pass through the

first

through the second plane of reference at

P.,{x.,,

0,

z.,);

F^R^- = (x^ a,)" + h," + z^ = ?-;|


Pj{} = (a-, - a,Y + h.^ + z; = r.;i

(1).

THE THEORY OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

440

characteristic

and the

function from R, to

the reduced path from F^ to P,

R,= V

(a function

of a,, h

U=fi,r,+ V+ix,r,
This quantity

is

b^),

is

(2).

stationary with respect to variations of

difierentiating with respect to these variables,

we

a^,

\,

a,,

\; therefore,

get

dcCi

iL^

and

If Pj

are conjugate foci

path

is

and

i^s

+ ^r = ^

rays in the plane

for

[^ (^ -

wi
EHminating

da^

and

from

da^

between the ray and the

^^) + U] '^.+^^.='
d
5^]^^^

{cL-x,y\

axis,

d'V

the reduced

For rays

in a

and

conjugate primary focal lines

r^ for

xz.

and r/ for the secondary focal

by simultaneous

r,

\ and

variation of
ffjL

(5),

\da

perpendicular to that of

plane

putting 6 for the angle

find

an equation connecting the values of


formed by rays in the plane of

and

these equations,

we

.(4).

da^da^

da^

i\

of xz,

ttj.

Hence

of

(3).

b,dV

= 0,

stationary in passing from one ray to the next by simultaneous variation

of

fli

P.2

a,-x.dV
-7

lines,

xz,

we

obtain the relation

by passing from one ray to the next

\,

d'V\,,

^ d'V

db,

=
(6),

whence

I.

r:

cfV]/^

d'V\

db:-)

db,' 1

(d'VV
~

(7).

\db,dhj

'

441

THE THEORY OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.


The form of this equation differs from that for the primary
only by the omission of cos' 0, and by substituting h for a.

From

these equations

of the ray in the primary

d^V
Let

we

lines

obtain the following values of the cardinal points

and secondary plane

d'V
daydcL

dh{

focal

THE THEORY OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

442

Let their curvatures be concave towards the instrument, their


/(*,

radii

being

and B, respectively, then,


<^^'-

^'-j^iS^^-ih'"-' ^-/(5+^)-.l+^=

We

now

must

simplicity,

we

shall

insert these values in equation (5), but, for the sake of


suppose the planes of reference to pass through the principal

foci.

We

now

find

/,

/. =

^'=lf'-m1

Hamilton's

function for a

V=

1 2( {a,'

(15),

''=^-&

+a

+a

symmetrical instrument

+ ?>r) +
+ ih

33 {a,a,

'^'''

is

of the form

+ 6,6,) + ^S (a; + 6/)

(a,a, + hAY + ic (a./ + 6/)^


hS} + ^q (r + h:) (/ + &/)
+
+p
+ r(a: + h:){a,cu + hj).;)

+ i

(/ + h:Y

(a,a,

Differentiating,

and making

6,

+ hA)
and

(a,'

h,

zero,

we

A = ^ + Saa,' + 6ra,a, + {b + q) a/

B^^ +

(18).

find

dra: + (2h + 2q)a,a,+

SpaA

C=(s + [h + q)a,' + 6pa,a, + 3ca/

(19),

= 21 + aa{ + 2ra,a + qa.-\


B' = '^ + ra,' + ha,a,+2^a.^
C = ^ + qa: + 2iJaa.; + ccC

yl'

(^^)'

the principal foci,


If the planes of reference pass through
21

Substituting hi equations (5) and

^-(a-^)H

^W%^7

and 6 =

=
(7),

^-L
-

(21)-

0'

and putting

'

''

'-P^}-ah-n^

"^=n:^i)^'<^'-'^

(22).

{-^3),

443

THE THEORY OF OPTICAL INSTRU>rENTS.

we

-^ +f,=3U+ W

find

_
The condition of

_l

U-\-

distinctness

That the image of a

primary image

the secondary image

for

flat object

may

be

flat as

Tr=0

and

BC=s

if

_Sl___^^^

foci.

be the radius, then

If the co-ordinates of P^

and

(26).

of the Cliaracteristic Function for a Spherical Refracting Surface.

Let

(25).

well as distinct,

Let the planes of reference pass through the


principal

(24),

U=0.

is

U=0
Form

for the

L
'*'

are

a^,

\,

P,

a.,

a,

h,

^^^^p.
'"'
1

-f^^
z,

P,P = r, and PP, = r then


V=ii,r, + fj.,r

under the condition that


b,

is

stationary with respect

to

variations of a

when
a-

+ h' + {s- z)- =

ST.

This gives the following values of a and 6

a = ! -1- Oj +
h

X/tj

+ \a, + &c.,

= h,-\-h,+ \A + K\ + &c.,

when

K = ^^V. {mi ii^' - 1^^. +

/^.')

(i'

Z>i')

+ 2/^if^.' (. + ^i^) + /^'(^' + ^'')}

'

562

and

THE THEORY OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

444
Avhence

we

get, as the value of

+ 4ft,
+
+ 4/x,

ifJir

/x,/x,

Hence the
us follows

coefficients

to terms of the fourth order,

+ 2/xjx,= + fx/) (i2 + 1>A) (a/ +


- 6/x^a + 7ft/)
+ ?>/) (/ + ?>/)
+ 2fx,% + ft./) (a/ + 6/) (a A + &i?>.)
Z>o;)

(7/xr
(ft,^

(otx^

the

general equations

= 0,

^=f^l^^^,

(18),

(19),

(20),

(22),

21

= i^^Fr(3/^r + K)^

Z>

s>.

^2-f^l
= 2^r7f^(/.r
+ ;./),

6=
c

sV,/x,

0,

=i

/A/-/^i

= i^^(^>'+2W^
+ i-^')S>,/X/

f^^-H-i

(/^/+3ft/).

(23) are

[From the Eacyclopoedia BHtannica.]

LXXIII.

Atom.

is a body which cannot be cut in two.


constitution of bodies, which asserts that
the
is a theory of
The opposite theory is that of the homogeneity
of atoms.
bodies, and asserts, at least in the case of bodies having no

Atom

tion,

(dTOfio<;)

such,

for

as

instance,

that as

water,

we can

The atomic theory


they are made up
and continuity of
apparent organisa-

divide a drop of water into

two parts which are each of them drops of water, so we have reason to beheve
that these smaller drops can be divided again, and the theory goes on to assert
that there

from

nothing in the nature of things to hinder this process of division


This is the
over and over again, times without end.

is

being repeated

doctrine

of the

infinite

divisibility

of bodies,

and

it

is

direct

in

contradiction

with the theory of atoms.

The atomists assert that after a certain number of such divisions the parts
The
would be no longer divibible, because each of them would be an atom.
body
conceivable
smallest
the
that
assert
matter
advocates of the continuity of
has parts, and that whatever has parts

may

be divided.

In ancient times Democritus was the founder of the atomic theory, while
Anaxagoi-as propounded that of continuity, under the name of the doctrine of

homoeomeria
whole.

('0/ioto/xepia),

The arguments

or

the similarity of the parts of a body to the

of

of the

atomists,

and

their replies

to

the objections of

Anaxagoras, are to be found in Lucretius.

In modern times the study of nature has brought to light many properties
which appear to depend on the magnitude and motions of their
ultimate constituents, and the question of the existence of atoms has once more

of

bodies

become conspicuous among scientific inquiries.


We shall begin by stating the opposing doctrines of atoms and of continuity

before

exists.

In the

giving

an outline

earliest

times the

of the' state

of

molecular

science

as

it

now

most ancient philosophers whose speculations

ATOM.

446

known

are

to us

seem to have discussed the ideas of number and of continuous


and time, of matter and motion, with a native power of

of space

magnitude,

thought

which has

however,

and their

been

surpassed.

Their

actual

knowledge,

experience were necessarily limited, because in their

human thought were

days the records of


probable that the

never

probably
scientific

only beginning to accumulate.

It

is

exact notions of quantity were founded on the considera-

first

It is by the help of numbers that concrete quantities are


measured and calculated. Now, number is discontinuous. We pass
from one number to the next per saltam. The magnitudes, on the other hand,
which we meet with in geometry, are essentially continuous. The attempt to

of number.

tion

practically

apply numerical methods to the comparison of geometrical quantities led to the


doctrine of incommensurables, and to that of the infinite divisibility of space.

Meanwhile, the same considerations had not been applied to time, so that in
the days of Zeno of Elea time was still regarded as made up of a finite number
This
of "moments," while space was confessed to be divisible without limit.

was the

state

the celebrated arguments against the possibility

when

of opinion

and the tortoise is a specimen, were


which that
continued to be the state of opinion
apparently,
and
such,
Zeno,
by
propounded
of

Aristotle pointed

out that time

of motion,

till

same sense that space


ideas
this

may be
statement

of

from the

Aristotle,

but

"Zeno".)

art.

is

divisible

without

limit,

in

precisely the

the slowness of the development of


fact

scientific

that Bayle does not see any force in

continues

admire

to

paradox

the

Thus the direction of true

Scientific

of

Zeno.

progress

ages towards the recognition of the infinite divisibility of space

time.
It

is

many

for

And

is.

estimated

(Bayle's Dictionary,

was
and

Achilles

of

was easy to attempt to apply similar arguments to matter. If matter


the same mental operation by which we recognise
fills space,

extended and

may

the divisibility of space

which occupies space.


reo-arded

opposite

the most

as

relic

From

be applied, in imagination at
this point

of view

of the old numerical

way

the distinction

The

atomists,

between matter and


void

spaces

between them.

there

Lucretius

there could be no motion,

first

us,

are

and the

appear for a time

on the other hand, asserted very strongly


The atoms, they said, do not fill
space.

up the universe;
tells

to the matter

of conceiving magnitude,

doctrine of the infinite divisibility of matter might


scientific.

least,

the atomic doctrine might be

must have some empty place to move

for

into.

the

If it were not so,

atom which gives way

447

ATOM.
"Quapropter locus est intactvis, inane, vacansque.
Quod si non csset, nulla ratione moveri
Res possent; uanniue, ofScium quod corporis exstat,
Officere atque obstare, id in omni tempore adesset

Omnibus

baud

igitur

quicquam procedere

Priucipium quouiam cedendi nulla daret

posset,

De Rerum Xatura,

res."

The opposite school mahitained then, as they have always done,


vacuum that every part of space is full of matter, that
universal plenum, and that all motion is like that of a fish in
which yields in front of the fish hecause the fit-h leaves room for it
"Cedere squamigeris

Et liquidas aperire

and

breadth,

length,

the

is

\vater,

behind.

quia post loca pisces

vias,

In modern times Descartes held that, as

extended in

there

latices nitentibus aiunt

Linquant, quo possint cedentes confluere undae."

be

that there

no

is

335.

I.

is

it

thickness,

i.

373.

of the essence of matter to

so

it

the

of

is

essence

of

cannot

be an extension of

Deus auferat omne corpus quod

in aliquo vase continetur,

extension to be occupied by matter,

extension

for

nothing.
"
et

Ac

proinde

nullum aliud

fore

Cum

contigua.

manifeste

si

quseratur quid

in ablati

fiet,

si

locum venire permittat? respondendum

enim inter duo corpora

nihil

repugnat ut distent, sive ut inter ipsa

quia omnis distantia est

modus

iuterjacet,

vasis latera sibi invicem hoc ipso

est,

necesse

ut

est

tamen ut

distantia, et

sit

se

mutuo tangant,

extensionis, et ideo sine substantia extensa esse

non

This

works,

Descartes's

of Spinoza.

and

Descartes,

of extension
it

particles,

18.

forms one of the ultimate foundations of the system

consistently

in this sense, that

however, would

II.

with substance runs through the whole of


with this doctrine, denied the existence of

He

atoms as parts of matter, which by their own nature are indivisible.


to admit, however, that the Deity might make certain particles
indivisible

potest."

Princijna,

identification

ac

ista distantia sit nihil

be

of

no creature should be able to divide them.


still

divisible

by

own

their

nature,

seems
matter

These

because the

Deity cannot diminish his own power, and therefore must retain his power of
dividing them.

Leibnitz, on the other hand, regarded his

monad

as the ultimate

element of everything.

There are thus two

modes

of

thinking about

which have had their adherents both

in

the constitution

ancient and

correspond to the two methods of regarding quantity


geometrical.

To the atomist the true method

of

in

modern

the

of

bodies,

times.

They

arithmetical and the

estimating

the

quantity

of

ATOM.

448

The void spaces between the


it.
matter with extension, the
identify
who
those
To
atoms count
volume of space occupied by a body is the only measure of the quantity of

matter In a body
for

matter in

is

to

count the atoms in

nothing.

it.

Of the

may be taken

different forms of the atomic theory, that of Boscovich

an example of the purest monadism. According to Boscovich matter is made


up of atoms. Each atom is an indivisible point, having position in space, capable
of motion in a continuous path, and possessing a certain mass, whereby a certain

as

amount

of force

the atom

is

force,

that

law of this

force,

for

all

Besides this

any two atoms

to say, that

is

or repel each other with a force depending

attract

is

required to produce a given change of motion.

is

endowed with potential

on their distance

The

apart.

distances greater than say the thousandth of an inch,

For smaller
an attraction varying as the inverse square of the distance.
is an attraction for one distance and a repulsion for another,

distances the force


accordinor to

the

ultimate

Boscovich himself, in order to obviate

some law not vet discovered.

possibilitv
force

atoms ever being in the same


repulsion which increases without

of

two

is

place,

asserts

limit

that the

the distance

as

But this
diminishes without limit, so that two atoms can never coincide.
seems an unwarrantable concession to the vulgar opinion that two bodies cannot
This opinion is deduced from our experience of the
co-exist in the same place.
but we have no experimental e^'idence that

behaviour of bodies of sensible

size,

two atoms mav not sometimes

coincide.

For instance,

if

oxygen and hydrogen

combine to form water, we have no experimental evidence that the molecule of

oxygen

is

Many

not in the very same place with the two molecules of hydrogen.

persons cannot get rid of the


breadth, and depth.

This

is

opinion that

all

matter

is

extended in length,

a prejudice of the same kind with the

last,

arising

from our experience of bodies consisting of immense multitudes of atoms.

The

system of atoms, according to Boscovich, occupies a certain region of space in


virtue of the forces acting between the component atoms of the system and

any

other

atoms

Xo

when brought near them.

of atoms

other system

can

occupv the same region of space at the same time, because, before it could do
so, the mutual action of the atoms would have caused a repulsion between the

two systems insuperable by any


of

the
this

soldiers

with firearms

force

enemy's armies, though the space

way

Boscovich

explained

Thus, a number

which we can command.

may occupy an

extensive region to the exclusion of

filled

the apparent

by

their bodies

is

but small.

extension of bodies

consisting

In
of

ATOM.
each of which

atoms,

nature

devoid of extension.

is

between bodies

action

all

as

action

is

the two bodies

in

At any

space.

continuous

path.

Atoms

attraction

or

In
in

may

endowed

it

On

atoms belonging to

some point of

and

space,

is

never

with the power of acting on one another by


of

the

force

depending on the distance

the other hand, the atom itself has no parts or dimensions.

the

in

it

from one place to another along

passes

it

a mere geometrical point.

is

same

This

place.

we may regard

no extension

It has

has not the so-called property of Impenetrability,

It

exist

at

is

It

amount

the

geometrical aspect

its

space.

that they are so near

is

nearest pairs of

has a definite mass which cannot be increased or di-

It

are

repulsion,

between them.

meant

is

in

in

is

the atom has continuity of existence in time

instant of time

more than one place at a time.

minished.

the

no such thing

two bodies are said

very great.

is

Thus, in Boscovich's theory,

and

that

all

repulsion between

the

There

When

contact between two bodies.

actual

that

According to Boscovich's theory,

a distance.

at

ordinary language to be in contact,

together

449

as

for

two atoms

one extreme of the

various opinions about the constitution of bodies.

The opposite extreme, that

of Anaxagoras

homogeneous and continuous are


incapable

of development.

theory

impossible.

is

instance,

from

define

definition

this

science

we

of

There

as

fluid

to

whether

theory that bodies apparently


in its

is

we make

theory

of

elastic

all

facts,

the

results

is

solids

of

molecular or continuous.

VOL.

II.

method

of

and

be built

In

like

manner, after the

less ingenuity,

to construct

this

hypothesis,

so

far

portions

into

in

Stokes and othere shewed

at least as
elastic

they agreed with

bodies exist,

and from

which we can divide them are

In this way the principle of continuity, which

homogeneous.

of the

may

from the hypothesis that they consist of atoms

the hypothesis that the smallest

basis

properties,

without any consideration of the constitution of a

might be deduced from the postulate that

sensibly

In hydrostatics,

known

the system of deductions which constitutes the

equilibrium under the action of their mutual forces,


that

its

In this way the science of hydrostatics

basis,
it

this

scientific progress

this theory is of service.

French mathematicians had attempted, with more or


a

extreme form, a theory

a certain stage, however, of

a fluid by means of one of

hydrostatics.

upon an experimental

is,

can only admit the observed properties of such sub-

which a method corresponding to

for

the

To explain the properties of any substance by

We

stance as ultimate facts.


in

so in reality

Fluxions and the whole of

is

the

modern mathematics, may


57

ATOM.

450
be

to

applied

the

analysis

with

connected

problems

of

material bodies

by-

the purpose of this analysis, to be homogeneous. AH that


is required to make the results applicable tr the real case is that the smallest
portions of the substance of which we take any notice shall be sensibly of the

assuming them,

for

if a railway contractor has to make a tunnel through a hill


one cubic yard of the gravel is so like another cubic yard
that for the purposes of the conti-act they may be taken as equivalent, then,
in estimating the work required to remove the gravel from the tunnel, he may,

same kind.

Thus,

and

of gravel,

without fear of

But

substance.

if

error,
if

make his calculations as if the gravel were a continuous


worm has to make his way through the gravel, it makes

the greatest possible difference to him whether he tries to push right against
a piece of gravel, or directs his course through one of the intervals between
the pieces

to him, therefore, the

gravel

is

by no means a homogeneous and

continuous substance.

In the same way, a theory that some particular substance, say water, is
homogeneous and continuous may be a good working theory up to a certain
but may fail when we come to deal with quantities so minute or so
point,
attenuated that their heterogeneity of structure comes into prominence. Whether
this heterogeneity of structure is or is not consistent with homogeneity and
continuity of substance

The extreme form

who

is

maintains that the

matter

is all

another question.

of the doctrine of continuity

whole universe

is

is

that stated by Descartes,

equally full of matter, and that this

of one kind, having no essential property besides that of extension.

we perceive in matter he reduces to its parts being


movable among one another, and so capable of all the varieties which we can
Descartes's
perceive to follow from the motion of its parts {Principia, ii. 23).
in
this way
bodies
of
actions
and
qualities
different
the
deduce
own attempts to
methods
invent
to
required
was
century
than
a
More
value.
much
of
are not
All the properties which

of investigating

Descartes

the

imagined.

conditions

of

the motion

of

systems

of bodies

such as

But the hydrodynamical discovery of Helmholtz that a

vortex in a perfect liquid possesses certain permanent characteristics, has been


appHed by Sir W. Thomson to form a theory of vortex atoms in a homogeneous,
proper
incompressible, and frictionless liquid, to which we shall return at the
time.


ATOM.

Modern Molecular

Outline of

Science,

and

451

in particular of the Molecular Theoiy

of Gases.

We
is

begin by assuming that bodies are

capable

consistent with

assumptions,

made up

parts

we

are

by

justified
all

the

we

in a

manner

In making these

may

that bodies

facts

bodies with which

each of which

of parts,

on each other

act

the principle of the conservation of energy.

smaller parts, and that

systems,

and that these

motion,

of

be divided into

are acquainted are conservative

which would not be the case unless their parts were

also conservative

systems.

We

may

also

assume that these small parts are

most general assumption we can make,


theory that the
gases

and

small

parts

is

all

This

motion.

the

is

as a particular case, the

may

of the

of

diffusion

be a motion of the

not perceptible to us.

make no assumption with

whether they are

in

The phenomena

at rest.

through each other shew that there

liquids

small parts of a body which

We

are

for it includes,

We

nature of the small parts

the

respect to

of one magnitude.

do not even assume them to have

Each of them must be measured by its mass, and any


bodies, have the power of acting on one another
when they come near enough to do so. The properties of the body, or medium,
are determined by the configuration and motion of its small parts.
The first step in the investigation is to determine the amount of motion
extension and

figure.

two of them must,

which

exists

medium

among the
whole.

as

like visible

small

For

parts, independent of the visible

purpose

this

it

motion of the

make use

convenient to

is

of a

general theorem in dynamics due to Clausius.

When

the motion of a material system

the quantity

(mx")

remains constant,

that of stationary motion.

the

sum

of the

angles through

moments
its

centre

When

The
square of

kinetic
its

of the system,

of inertia

and the

is

is

said
is

to

be

such that

about three axes at right

never varies by more than small quantities


said to be in a state of stationary motion.

energy of a particle

velocity,

such that the time average of

the motion of a material system

of mass,

from a constant value, the system

is

the state of the system

is

half the

product of

kinetic energy of a system

its
is

mass into the

the

sum

of the

kinetic energy of all its parts.

572

ATOM.

452

When

an

exists

repulsion

or

attraction

two

between

half the

points,

product of this stress into the distance between the two points is called the
%irial of the stress, and is reckoned positive when the stress is an attraction,

and

negative

the

virials

the

external

when

The

a repulsion.

is

virial

a system

of

system

If the

it.

sum

the

is
is

V is the volume of the


The theorem of Clausius may now be stated

pressure on unit of area and

of

subjected to

the sides of a vessel in which

of

introduce an amount of virial

will

stress

pressure

the

of

stress

this

contained,

it

the stresses which exist in

of

fpF, where p

it

is

the

is

vessel.

follows

as

In

a material

system in a state of stationary motion the time-average of the kinetic energy


In the case of a fluid enclosed in a
is equal to the time-average of the virial.
VGSSGi

^S(m?)=tpF+iSS(i2r),
where the

and

F,

is

the

because

every

into

term

third

of the

parts

of

pair

We

account.

into

mass

and

energy,

kinetic

mean square

the

of

half

is

sum

the

In

velocity.

its

of

the

the pressure on unit of surface of the vessel, whose volume

is

the

between

pressure

each

of

second term,

the

term denotes

first

product

the

expresses

system.

the

virial

due to the internal actions

summation

double symbol of

parts between which

any action

exists

is

used,

must be taken

have next to shew that in gases the principal part of the


the motion of the small parts of the medium, and not

from

arises

from a repulsion between them.

In
its

the

parts,

place,

fii'st

sider

a cube

each

side

its

rf

is

it

is

is

was,

But

original value.

distance between
force

For,

con-

with the gas at pressure p, and let the cube expand till
The pressure on unit of surface acn times its former length.

times what

and the

the pressure of a gas arises from the repulsion of

filled

cording to Boyle's law

is

if

the law of repulsion must be inversely as the distance.

now

and

since the

the whole pressure on the face of the cube

since

less

is

- of

everything has been expanded synunetrically, the

corresponding prrts of the air

n times

area of a face of the cube

than

it

is

now n

Hence the

was.

force

times what

it

was,

must vary inversely

as the distance.

But

Newton has shewn

inadmissible,

as

it

makes the

(Principia,
efiect

Book

of the

i.

Prop.

distant parts

93)

that this law

of the

is

medium on a


ATOM.

453

than that of the neighbouring

particle greater

at the conclusion that the pressure depends

on

but

the

know not

form and

Indeed,

parts.

arrive

dimensions of the vessel which contains

which we

it,

to be the case.

on the other hand, we suppose the pressure to

If,

we should

not only on the density of the air

entirely

arise

frorii

the

motion of the molecules of the gas, the interpretation of Boyle's law becomes
very simple.

The

For, in this case

term

first

the product of the pressure and the volume,

is

cording to Boyle's law

which

ac-

constant for the same quantity of gas at the same

The second term

temperature.

two-thirds of the kinetic energy of the system,

is

have every reason to believe that in gases when the temperature

and we

the

constant

unit of mass

of

energy of unit of mass

temperature,
of that

as

energy

kinetic

that the kinetic


absolute
well

is

this

of Boyle,

equation

is

is

in

also

is

constant.

If

is

we admit

a given gas proportional to the

the expression of the law of Charles as

and may be written

pV=Ee,
where $

The

the temperature reckoned from absolute zero, and

is

fact

that

is

& constant.

equation expresses with considerable accuracy the relation

this

between the volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas when


rarified

in an extremely
more and more compressed the deviation
equation becomes more apparent, shews that the pressure of a gas is

and that as the gas

state,

from this

is

due almost entirely to the motion of


that

it

is

only

when the density

effect of direct action

The effect
the number of
act

number

of the

The number

of molecules

action

law

will

is

pressure will

be

is

rare,

and

in

which at a given instant are near enough to


of such pairs is proportional to the square

unit

of volume,

that
is

is,

to

the square of the

so rare that the encounter

not affected by the presence of others, the deviation

is

on the whole repulsive, the pressure

given by Boyle's law.

less

the gas

be proportional to the square of the density.

between the molecules

greater than that

when

considerably increased that the

Hence, as long as the medium

between two molecules


Boyle's

is

direct action of the molecules on each other depends on

pairs of molecules

density of the gas.

from

molecules

between the molecules becomes apparent.

of the

on one another.

its

of the gas

If

it

is,

If

the

wOl be

on the whole, attractive, the

than that given by Boyle's law.

It

appears,

by the ex-

454

ATOM.

periments of Regnault and others,

that the pressure does deviate from Boyle's

law when the density of the gas

is

and other gases which are


however,

cases,

In the case of carbonic acid

increased.

easily liquefied, this deviation is

except that of hydrogen,

by Boyle's law, shewing that the

virial

the pressure

very great.

In aU

than that given

less

is

on the whole due to attractive forces

is

between the molecules.

Another

kind

evidence as to the nature of the action between the


by an experiment made by Dr Joule.
Of two vessels,
one was exhausted and the other filled with a gas at a pressure of 20 atmospheres
and both were placed side by side in a vessel of water, which was
molecules

of

furnished

is

The temperature of the whole was observed.

constantly stirred.

was opened between the

munication
twice

its

Then a com-

the compressed gas expanded to

vessels,

volume, and the work of expansion, which at

first

produced a strong

was soon converted into heat by the internal friction of


all
was again at rest, and the temperature uniform, the

current in the gas,

When

the gas.

temperature was again observed.

ducted by Dr Joule and Sir


thermal
cooling

the

effect

effect

of

appears that
agitation

Now,

if

is

depends

in

on

Joule's

on a different plan, by which the

be more accurately

can

measured, a slight

the gases examined except hydrogen.

all

the

of

velocity

agitation

when a gas expands without doing


not much affected, but that in most

of

it

is

Since

molecules,

work the

external
cases

the

it

velocity of

slightly diminished.

the molecules during their mutual separation act on each other, their

appears,

from the

therefore,

experiments

that the force between the molecules

Having thus
motion,

of experiments, con-

series

velocity will increase or diminish according as the force


It

experiments the ob-

original

In a

before.

W. Thomson

expansion

free

was observed

temperature

Dr

In

was the same as

temperature

served

justified

which act

on

on

other

only

is

repulsive or attractive.

free

expansion

of

gases,

small but, on the whole, attractive.

is

the hypothesis that

each

the

gas consists of

when they come very

molecules in
close

together

during an encounter, but which, during the intervals between their encounters

which constitute the greater part of their existence, are describing

and are not acted on by any molecular

force,

we

proceed

to

free paths,

investigate

the

motion of such a system.

The

mathematical

molecules in motion
first

to

is

investigation

of

the

properties

of

the foundation of molecular science.

express the relation

between

the

density of

the

such

a system

of

Clausius was the


gas,

the

length of

455

ATOM.
the

paths

free

of

He

each other.

the velocities of
ties

and

molecules,

its

the

was

but

infinity,

number

the

that

who shewed

writer,

molecules whose velocities

of

that

veloci-

molecules range from zero to

of the

that in the moving system the velocities

which the

in

by the present

investigated

first

earher investigations,

his

The mode

the molecules are equal.

all

are distributed

in

they encounter

at which

distance

assumed, however, at least

within given

lie

be expressed by a formula identical with that which expresses in the

limits can

theory of errors the number of errors of observation lying within corresponding

The proof of

limits.

who

mann*,

where

it

appeared weak, and to

it

of taking into account the action of external forces

of this

result

investi-

are

in

motion and acting on

of a molecule

is

the same whatever be

molecules

mean velocities. Now,


Hence we conclude
equal.
temperatures become

the molecules of greater mass having smaller

mass,

when

when several kinds of


the mean kinetic energy

that

is

one another,
its

entirely due.

is

The most important

the distribution of velocities.

gation

the method

expressed in terms of the quantities which enter into the expression

easily

for

whom

kinetic energy of a molecule, however, has a definite value, which

The mean
is

by Boltz-

theorem has been carefully investigated

this

has strengthened

gases are mixed their

that the

which

condition

physical

gases shall be

the same

is

determines

mean

that the

molecules of the two gases are equal.

individual

temperature

the

that

of

two

energies of agitation of the

kinetic

This result

of great

is

im-

though we are not yet able to establish any

portance in the theory of heat,

of

result for bodies in the liquid or solid state.


In the next place, we know that in the case in which the whole pressure
the medium is due to the motion of its molecules, the pressure on unit

of

area

similar

is

energy

kinetic

the

mean

number

two

of

molecules

in

are

gases

each
in

are
is

the

two

of

the same in each.

is

of molecules

of

two-thirds of

to

volumes

equal

if

kinetic energy of each

volumes

equal

kinds

numerically equal

Hence,

volume.

they are

If

molecule

is

equal

at

the

gases

kinetic

are

at

also

at

energy

equal

the same in each.

temperatures

and

in

unit

of

pressures the

equal

temperatures
If,

therefore,

pressures,

the

the same, and therefore, the masses of the two

same

ratio

as

the

densities

of

the gases to

which they belong.


This
Lussac,

statement

who

first

has

been

established

believed

by

chemists

that the weights of

since

the time of Gay-

the chemical

* SUzungsberichte der K. K. Akad., Wien, Sth Oct. 1868.

equivalents

of

456

ATOM.

when

different substances are proportional to the densities of these substances

The

the form of gas.

statement of Gay-Lussac's law

in the

same word

nition of the

as

by experiment the

ascertain

definition of the

From

compound.

substances, that

theory

of

The

gases.

chemists

these they deduce the chemical equivalents of the different

of a particular
of

substance, say hydrogen, being taken as unity.


is

that furnished by chemical combinations.

It

assumed, in order to account for the facts of combination, that the reason

also

why

is

kinetic

of the masses of the different substances in

ratios

The only evidence made use


is

the

in

in

word molecule, however, as employed


by no means identical with the defi-

substances combine in definite ratios

that the molecules of the substances

is

and that what we call combination


an action which takes place by a union of a molecule of one substance to

are in the ratio of their chemical equivalents,


is

a molecule of the other.

This kind of reasoning,


proper

reasoning

it

is

when presented

high

has a

evidence,

degree

of

in a proper

But

cogency.

not dynamical reasoning.

It

is

form and sustained by


it

purely

is

chemical

founded on chemical experience,

not on the laws of motion.

Our
minute
parts,

definition

portion
if

the gas.

it

of

of

molecule

substance

is

purely

which

result

of the kinetic

molecule

is

that

about as a whole, so that

has any, do not part company during the

The

dynamical.

moves

theory, therefore,

motion of agitation

is

its

of

give us information

to

about the relative masses of molecules considered as moving bodies.


sistency of this information with the deductions of chemists from the

The conphenomena

of combination, greatly strengthens the evidence in favour of the actual existence

and motion of gaseous molecules.


Another confirmation of the theory of molecules
ments of Dulong and Petit on

the

specific

heat

derived from the experi-

is

of

from

gases,

which

deduced the law which bears their name, and which asserts that the
heats of equal weights of gases are inversely

as

their

combining weights,

they

specific
or,

in

other words, that the capacities for heat of the chemical equivalents of different
gases are equal.
kinetic

amount

We

have seen that the

temperature

energy of agitation of each molecule.


of energy

of internal motion,

the hypothesis of Clausius, that the


bears a proportion fixed

for

is

determined by the

The molecule has

also

a certain

whether of rotation or of vibration, but

mean value

of the

internal energy

each gas to the energy of agitation,

probable and consistent with experiment.

The whole

kinetic

always

seems highly

energy

is

there-

457

ATOM.
equal

fore

energy communicated to a gas by heating

between

energy

the

and

agitation

of

For a given

molecule.

factor.

Thus the

divided in a certain

proportion

energy of agitation multiplied by a certain

the

to

it

the

of

that

of temperature

rise

is

motion of each

internal

of

say

the energy of agitation,

by the same amount whatever be the gas. The


heat spent in raising the temperature is measured by the increase of the
The thermal capacities, therefore, of equal numbers of
whole kinetic energy.
are in the ratio of the factors by which the energy
diflferent
gases
molecules of
molecules,

million

As

be multiplied to obtain the whole energy.

must

agitation

of

increiised

is

same

the

appears to be nearly

for

factor

this

gases of the same degree of atomicity,

all

Dulong and Pet it's law is true for such gases.


Another result of this investigation is of considerable importance in relawhich assume the existence of aethers or rare media
tion to certain theories
''',

molecules very

of

consisting

cording to our result, such a

Supposing

so-called

and

gas at the observed temperature,

rare

of the

medium

medium in
vacuum

aetherial

the so-called

in

The

space.

vacuum would
heat,

specific

will be equal

and

pressure,

its

so-called

filling

to

purpose the pressure

vacuum very

considerable

is

of

full

it

this

may

of

therefore,

the

that of the same volume of

Now, the purpose


is

to act

generally assumed

we should

find

the

for

on bodies by
be ven,-

to

heat of

specific

compared with that of a quantity of

air

the same space.

We
plete

for this

Hence, according to these theories,

be

whatever

the pressure,

at

any other gas at the same temperature and pressure.


which this molecular aether is assumed in these theories
great.

Aca gas.

molecules so small that they can penetrate between the molecules

substances such as glass,

of solid

be,

its

much smaller than those of ordinary gases.


medium would be neither more nor less than

have now made a certain definite amount of progress towards a com-

molecular theory of gases.

of each

gas in

molecules of difierent gases.

same gas are

We

metres per second,

all

equal

in

We
mass.

know the mean

and we know the


also

For

know
if

velocity of the
relative

molecules

masses

of

the

that the molecules of one and the

they are not, the method of

dialysis,

as employed by Graham, would enable us to separate the molecules of smaller


mass from those of greater, as they would stream through porous substances

with greater velocity.


into

two

portions,

We

having

should thus be able to separate a gas, say hydrogen,


difierent

densities

and

* See Gustav Hausemann, Die Atorne und ihre Bewegungeru

VOL.

II.

other
1871.

physical

properties,

(H. G. Mayer.)

58

^TOM.

458

combining weights, and probably different chemical properties of other

different

As no chemist has yet obtained specimens of hydrogen differing in this


way from other specimens, we conclude that all the molecules of hydrogen
statisare of sensibly the same mass, and not merely that their mean mass is a
kinds.

tical

constant of great stability.

as yet we have not considered the phenomena which enable us to


form an estimate of the actual mass and dimensions of a molecule. It is to
Clausius that we owe the first definite conception of the free path of a molecule

But

and of the mean distance travelled by a molecule between successive encounters.


that the number of encounters

He shewed

number

proportional to the velocity, to the

given time

of a molecule

in

molecules

in

unit of volume,

of

is

and to the square of the distance between the centres of two molecules when
they act on one another so as to have an encounter. From this it appears
that if we call this distance of the centres the diameter of a molecule, and
the volume of a sphere having this diameter the volume of a molecule, and
the sura of the volumes of all the molecules the molecular volume of the gas,

then the diameter of a molecule is a certain multiple of the quantity obtained


by diminishing the free path in the ratio of the molecular volume of the gas
to

The numerical value of

the whole volume of the gas.

according to the hypothesis

slightly,

of velocities.

encounter,
repulsive

but
forces

on

the

definition

spheres

elastic

of

an

When

encounter.

know what

we

is

the

meant by an

act on each other at a distance by attractive or


magnitude, the distance of their centres varies during
Nevertheless, the above statenot a definite quantity.

they

if

of Clausius

is

enables us,

the molecular volume


of the

as

this multiple differs

the law of distribution

of finite

an encounter, and

ment

depends

regarded

are

molecules

also

It

we assume about

if

we know

the

length of the

mean path and

of gas, to form a tolerably near estimate of the diameter

sphere of the intense action of a molecule, and thence of the number


To
in unit of volume and the actual mass of each molecule.

of molecules

complete the investigation we have, therefore, t determine the mean path and
the molecular volume. The first numerical estimate of the mean path of a
gaseous molecule was made by the present writer from data derived from the
internal

friction

of

air.

There

are

three

phenomena which

length of the free path of the molecules of a


greater

part of

the

the

free

path

medium

to

the

more rapidly

another,

will

gas.

the

It

is

molecules

because their direction will

depend

on

the

evident that the


travel

not

from

one

be so often

ATOM.

by encounters with other molecules.

altered

of

459

medium

the

medium

of

are

kinds,

different

If the

molecules In diffeient parts

from

progress

their

from different places.

not only between

on

molecules of the same gas,

the

molecules

their

given

the

of

paths

free

instant

The

have.

to

But the

among the

but

gases,

different

them

with

carry

the energy which they happen at a


of

diffusion

molecules

diffusing

momentum and

the

of

only in the latter case the results of the diffusion

cannot be traced by analysis.


in

part

This kind of diffusion

of estimating the length of the free path of a molecule.

goes

one

by analysing portions of the medium taken


The rate of diffusion thus found furnishes one method

to another can be easily traced

momentum

tends

to

the

equalise

apparent motion of different parts of the medium, and constitutes the pheno-

menon

called the internal friction or viscosity of gases.

tends

to

the

The

diffusion of energy

the medium, and


phenomenon of the conduction of heat in gases.
These three phenomena the diffusion of matter, of motion, and of heat
in gases
have been experimentally investigated, the diffusion of matter by
Graham and Loschmidfc, the diffusion of motion by Oscar Meyer and Clerk
Maxwell, and that of heat by Stefan.
equalise

temperature

of

parts

different

of

constitutes the

These three kinds of experiments


state

perfect

theory

with

each

other.

temperature of melting
10,000th of a

the

green

and the

give

ice,

At

the

the

mean path

millimetre,

The mean path

light.

about

which

difficulty

may

pressure of

or
of

results

extreme

those on the conduction of heat,

especially

sistent

the

of

experiments,

the

be regarded as tolerably con-

fifth

and

atmosphere,

our

of a molecule

the

the present im-

in

of

part

of hydrogen

of

the molecules of other gases

the

at
is

about

wave-length
is

of

shorter than

that of hydrogen.

The determination of the molecular volume of a gas is subject as yet to


The most obvious method is that of compressing the

considerable uncertainty.

gas

till

ance

it

of

assumes the liquid form.

liquids

to

compression,

It

that

seems probable, from the great

distance from each other as that at which


in

the gaseous form act on each

liquid

into

which

it

molecules

other during an

the molecular volume of a gas

case,

is

resist-

same
two molecules of the same substance

their

somewhat

are

encounter.

less

about

If

the

this

is

the

than the volume of the

would be condensed by pressure, or, in other words, the


is somewhat greater than that of the liquid.

density of the molecules

Now,

we

know

the

relative

weights

of

different

molecules

with

great

582

ATOM.

460
from

and,

accuracy,

diameters

relative

of different

densities

knowledge of the

From

approximately.

mean

path,

these

we

The

kinds of molecules.

we can

relative

calculate

deduce

can

densities

the

their

relative

calculated

so

have been compared by Lorenz Meyer with the observed densities of the liquids
into which the gases may be condensed, and he finds a remarkable correspond-

There

ence between them.

between

molecules of

the

number

larger

and

liquid

have

of comparisons

been

however,

doubt,

considerable

is

those

of

its

as

to

vapour,

so

the relation
that

till

made, we must not place too much

Another, and perhaps a more


method is that adopted by M. Van der Waals, who deduces the
molecular volume from the deviations of the pressure from Boyle's law as the

reliance

on the calculated densities of molecules.

refined,

gas

compressed.

is

The

numerical estimate of the diameter of a molecule was that made

first

by Loschmidt in 1865 from the mean path and the molecular volume. Independently of him and of each other, Mr Stoney, in 1868, and Sir W. Thomson,
those of Thomson being deduced
in 1870, published results of a similar kind

not only in this way, but

from

considerations

derived fi-om the thickness of

soap bubbles, and from the electric action between zinc and copper.

by these methods,
About two millions
of molecules of hydrogen in a row would occupy a millimetre, and about two
These
hundred million million million of them would weigh a milligramme.
they must be
numbers must be considered as exceedingly rough guesses
corrected by more extensive and accurate experiments as science advances
but the main result, which appears to be well established, is that the deter-

The diameter and the mass

of a molecule, as estimated

very small, but by no means infinitely

of course,

are,

so.

mination of the mass of a molecule

and that

is

a legitimate object of

research,

scientific

by no means immeasurably small.


Loschmidt illustrates these molecular measurements by a comparison with
the smallest magnitudes visible by means of a microscope.
Nobert, he tells us,
can draw 4000 lines in the breadth of a millimetre.
The intervals between
these

this

mass

is

of

the

present

molecules

can be observed with a good microscope.

lines

the 4000th of a millimetre,

of

day.

oxygen

Such
or

of

may be taken
a

would

cube

nitrogen

as the

but

contain
since

from

the

whose

cube,

minimum

visibile for

60

to

molecules

side

100
of

million

organised

substances contain on an average about

50 of the more elementary atoms,

may assume

particle

that the

smallest

organised

visible

under

is

observers

we

the microscope

ATOM.

461

At

contains about two million molecules of organic matter.


living

organism

under

the

consists

microscope

water,

of

not

d6e3

Some exceedingly

molecules.

that

so

more

contain

number

small a

sufficient

to

science

sets

It

least half of every

smallest

living

than about

may

organism

simple

not more than a million similar molecules.


so

the

being visible

supposed

be

organic

million
built

up

of

impossible, however, to conceive

is

form a being furnished with a whole

system

of specialised organs.

Thus molecular
It

forbids

us

to

face

with

face

physiological

the physiologist from imagining that structural

theories.

of

details

infinitely

small dimensions can furnish an explanation of the infinite variety which exists
in the properties

and functions of the most minute organisms.


germ is, we know, capable of development

microscopic

Do

an animal of a totally different kind.

which

distinguish

ference in
possible,

greater

still

no mere

one

the

the structure

we

shall

be

of the

called

all

from

respective

germs

arise

Even

but

characteristics of every

birth

death,

to

representative

sufficient

we admit

body,

containing

it

but also to afford

represents

Some

is

stock

of

till

as

admit

theory,

is

collected

the number

the

hereditarj'

latent
at

last

gemmules

to

be passed

the ancestral peculiarity

revived in some remote descendant.

whole

within a body so small


by using the phrase structureless

world of wonders

so devoid of visible structure as a germ,

germs*.

tree,

furnish

to

to

of the exponents of this theory of heredity have attempted to elude

the difficulty of placing a

and

not only

this

members

dif-

this

organ of the body and every habit of the animal from

on in an inactive state from germ to germ,

which

highly

each from some


if

upon by the advocates of Pangenesis

members being amply

these

the differences, infinite in number,

the other,

For the microscopic germ, according to

marvels.

individual,

animal

from every rank of the long-drawn ramification of the ancestral


of

into

Another germ, equally microscopic, becomes, when developed,

organised animal.

Now, one material system can

difier

from another

only in

the con-

and motion which it has at a given instant. To explain differences


of function and development of a germ without assuming differences of structure
is, therefore, to admit that the properties of a germ are not those of a purely
figuration

material system.

The evidence

as

to

the nature and motion of molecules,

with

which

we

have hitherto been occupied, has been derived from experiments upon gaseous
* See F. Galton,

"On

Blood Relationship," Proc. Roy. Soc, June

13,

1872.

ATOM.

462
the smallest sensible portion

media,

The

molecules.

medium

the

is

and

constancy
direct

of the

result

Any

agitation of its molecules.

which

of

uniformity

contains

the

of

inconceivable

millions

properties

of
of

millions

the

of

gaseous

motion of

irregularity of the

cause which could introduce regularity into the

motion of agitation, and marshal the molecules into order and method in their

might check or even reverse that tendency to diffusion of matter,

evolutions,

and energy, which

motion,

and

when a sound-wave

Thus,
is

one of the most invariable phenomena of nature,

is

which Thomson has given the name of the dissipation of energy.

to

passing through a mass

is

of a certain definite type, and

other masses of

to

at

it

air,

air,

and the sound-wave passes

on,

this

motion

passed on

is

leaving the air behind

on the other hand, never passes out of a hot body except

Heat,

rest.

of

to itself the whole motion

if left

enter a colder body, so that the energy of sound-waves, or any other form

to

of energy

which

is

propagated so as

to

pass

the

medium and into another, cannot be called


We have now to turn our attention to a

are

as

remarkable for their

regularity

wholly

out of

portion

of

of molecular motions, which

class

the motion of

as

one

heat.

agitation

is

for

its

irregularity.

It has been found, by means of the spectroscope, that the light emitted
by incandescent substances is different according to their state of condensation.

When

they are in an extremely larefied condition the spectrum of their light


of a

consists

denser

lines

set

of sharply-defined bright lines.

condition

the

becoming broader and

between them,
l)ecomes

till

identical

the

with

less

to

become continuous, either by the

defined,

or

by new lines and bands appearing

spectrum
that

of

As the substance approaches

tends

spectrum

at
solid

length
bodies

loses

all

when

its

raised

characteristics

to

the

and

same tem-

i:)erature.

Hence the vibrating systems, which are the source of the emitted light,
must be vibrating in a different manner in these two cases. When the spectrum
consists of a number of bright lines, the motion of the system must be compounded

of a corresponding

number

In order that a bright


which produces

it

line

of types of harmonic vibration.

may

must be kept up

hundreds or thousands of vibrations.


bodies
regular

is

kept

may

up

only during

be sharply defined, the vibratory motion


in

small

regular

perfectly

If the

manner

for

some

motion of each of the vibrating

number

of

be the vibrations of each body while

it

vibrations,
lasts,

then,

however

the resultant dis-

ATOM.
turbance of the

463

medium, when analysed

luminiferous

by the

prism,

be

will

Ibund to contain, besides the part due to the regular vibrations, other motions,

depending

which

on

the starting and stopping of each particular vibrating body,


become manifest as a diffused luminosity scattered over the whole

will

length of the spectrum.

spectrum of bright

when

the vibrating bodies

set

lines,

therefore,

motion are allowed to vibrate

in

that

indicates

accordance

in

with the conditions of their internal structure for some time before they are
again interfered with by external forces.
appears,

It

gas

rarefied

from

therefore,

from spectroscopic evidence that each molecule of u

during the greater

is,

other molecules that

all

regular manner.

This

part of

executes

it

distance

and

vibrations in an undisturbed

the same conclusion

is

such

at

existence,

its

its

which we were

to

by con-

led

siderations of another kind at p. 452.

We

may

therefore

regard the bright lines in the spectrum of

gas as

the result of the vibrations executed by the molecules while describing their

When

free paths.

two molecules separate from one another

each of

them

dijBferent

parts of the

is

of mass

centre

same molecule during the encounter.

of the

molecule describing

medium communicated

to

and

by

it

it

on

with

uniform

respect

to

the disturbance of the

is

the

action

moves with

vibratory motion

the centre of mass of the whole molecule,


luminiferous

an encounter,

Hence, though the

path

free

its

the parts of the molecule have a

velocity,

after

a state of vibration, arising from the unequal

in

vibrating

molecules

which

constitutes the emitted light.

We
bell

many
many

may compare
set

is

in

difi(erent

necessarily

molecule

vibrating

This motion

periods,

different pitches.

vibrations

the

motion.

is

each of which acts on the

As the
decay,

bell

some

communicates
of

sound contains fewer and fewer notes,


bell''.

precisely

each other,

another,

in

to

them
till

we suppose

mental note of the


similar

to

If

and

bell.

When

compounded of harmonic
its

faster

at

that

air,

last it is

of

producing notes of as

motion to the

than

the

struck,

vibrations

others,

so

air,

that

these

the

reduced to the funda-

there are a great

that they are struck,

first

many

bells

one and then

a perfectly irregular manner, yet so that, on an average, as many


in one second of time as in another, and also in such a wav

bells are struck

* Part of the energy of

motion

is,

in virtue of the viscosity of the metal,

in tbe case of the bell, dissipated in the substjxnce of the bell

and assumes the form

ot heat, but it is not necessaiy, for the


purpose of illustration, to take this cause of the decay of vibrations into account.

ATOM.

464
on an average, any one bell

that,

then the audible result

vibrate,

the sound emitted by bells in


actual stroke to the final

But now
ceased

in

vibrate,

to

that

so

states

all

ceased

to

composed of

from the clang of the

vibration,

of

has

it

till

continuous sound,

be reduced while the same number of

bells

Each

second.

appear

of the dying fundamental tone.

the number of

let

given

are

strokes

hum

not again struck

is

will

in

bell

will

resulting

the

now be

struck before

sound there

be

will

less

it

has

of the

fundamental tone and more of the original clang, till at last, when the peal is
reduced to one bell, on which innumerable hammers are continually plying
strokes

then-

sound

time, the

out of

all

will

become a mere

noise,

in

which

no musical note can be distinguished.


In the case of a gas we have an immense number of molecules, each of

which

is

set

vibration

in

when

encounters another molecule,

it

and continues

The molecule is a material system,


to
the parts of which are connected in some definite way, and from the fact that
the bright lines of the emitted light have always the same wave-lengths, we
vibrate

learn

that

as

it

the

describes

vibrations

the same periodic time,

the

molecule

to

its

its

free

path.

corresponding to these lines are always executed in

and therefore the

position of

force tending to restore

equilibrium

any part of

the molecule must be propor-

in

tional to its displacement relative to that position.

that

From the mathematical theory of the motion of such a


the whole motion may be analysed into the following

system,
parts,

it

appears

which may

In the first place, the centre


be considered each independently of the others
This
in a straight line.
velocity
uniform
with
moves
system
of mEiss of the
of
motion
a
may
be
there
place,
second
the
In
value.
any
have
may
velocity
:

rotation,

the

angular

momentum

of

the system about

its

centre

of mass

re-

maining during the free path constant in magnitude and direction. This angular
momentum may have any value whatever, and its axis may have any direction.
In the third place, the remainder of the motion is made up of a number of
motions, each of which is an harmonic vibration of a given type.
In each type of vibration the periodic time of vibration is determined by the
The relative
nature of the system, and is invariable for the same system.

component

amount

of motion

in

different

parts

of the system

is

also determinate for each

type, but the absolute amount of motion and the phase of the vibration of
each type are determined by the particular circumstances of the last encounter,
and may vary in any manner from one encounter to another.

465

ATOM.

The

the

of

values

periodic

times of

if

instance,

for

the

types of vibration are

different

In certain exceptionally simple cases,

nature of the connections of the system.


as,

the

by the roots of a certain equation, the form of which depends on the

given

the internal

structure of a molecule

might expect to find

in

whose wave-lengths are

But

we suppose

if

ferent

type,

finite

number

as,

and

equation are connected by simple arithmetical relations,

the

of

roots

that of a uniform string stretched between two fixed points,

in

for

of the

the spectrum

we

simplicity,

molecule a series of bright

lines,

in simple arithmetical ratios.

the

molecule to be constituted according to some

instance,

of atoms

had an analogous kind of

if

it

is

an

elastic

or

sphere,

if

it

consists

kept in their places by attractive and repulsive

dif-

of a

forces,

the roots of the equation will not be connected with each other by any simple
relations, but each may be made to vary independently of the others by a

Hence, we have no right to


system.
among the wave-lengths of the bright

suitable change of the connections of the

any

expect

definite

numerical relations

lines of a gas.

The bright

lines

of the

spectrum of an incandescent gas are therefore due

to the harmonic vibrations of the molecules of the gas during their free paths.
The only effect of the motion of the centre of mass of the molecule is to

the time of vibration of the light as received by a stationary observer.

alter

When
will

molecule

the

is

coming towards the

have a shorter distance to travel before

observer,
it

each successive impulse

reaches his eye,

and therefore

the impulses will appear to succeed each other more rapidly than if the molecule were at rest, and the contrary will be the case if the molecule is receding

from the
be

fore

observer.

shifted

approaching,

By

in

The bright

line

corresponding to the vibration will there-

the spectrum towards the blue end

and towards the red end when

it

is

when the molecule

receding from

observations of the displacement of certain lines in the spectrum,

the

is

observer.

Dr Huggins

and others have measured the rate of approach or of recession of certain stars
with respect to the earth, and Mr Lockyer has determined the rate of motion
But Lord Rayleigh has pointed out that according
of tornadoes in the sun.
to the dynamical theory of gases the molecules are moving hither and thither
with so great velocity that, however nan'ow and sharply-defined any bright line
to a single molecule may be, the displacement of the line towards the

due

blue by the approaching molecules, and towards the red by the receding molecules,

will

VOL.

II.

produce a certain amount of widening and blurring of

the

line
51)

in

-A'TOM.

466

of a gas.

lines

that there

so

spectrum,

the

to the velocity

portion

of the

due to

lines

cause will be in pro-

this

of the molecules.

agitation

of

the sharpness of definition of the

a limit to

is

The widening

will

It

be greatest for

the molecules of smallest mass, as those of hydrogen, and it will increase with
the temperature. Hence the measurement of the breadth of the hydrogen lines,

such as

or i^ in the spectrum of the solar prominences,

may

furnish evidence

that the temperature of the sun cannot exceed a certain value.

On

Theory of Vortex Atoms.

equations which form the foundations of the mathematical theory

The

motion were

fluid

the

fully

of

down by Lagrange and the great mathematicians


but the number of solutions of cases of fluid

laid

end of last century,


motion which had been actually worked out remained very small, and almost
of these belonged to a particular type of fluid motion, which has been
all
the

of

named the

since

time coming to

all

if

motion

its

move

an

in

the fluid was at one time at

had been shewn, indeed, by Lagrange,

It

type.

irrotational

that a perfect fluid,

at any

is

rest,

time irrotational, will continue in

manner, so that, by assuming that

irrotational

the calculation of

its

subsequent motion

may

be very much simplified.

was reserved

It

for

Helmholtz to point out the very remarkable properties

of rotational motion in a homogeneous incompressible fluid devoid of all viscosity.


must first define the physical properties of such a fluid. In the first place,

We
it

is

if

we

a material
follow

invariable.

substance.

it

These properties

it

its

volume

remains

remains the same during

as

it

invariable
its

is

continuous in space and time, and

moves, the mass of that portion remains

shares with

The form

place, it is incompressible.

but

motion

Its

any portion of

all

material substances.

of a given portion of the fluid


;

motion.

in

In the next

may

change,

other words, the density of the fluid

Besides this, the fluid

is

homogeneous, or

continuous, so
density
that the mass of the fluid contained within any closed surface is always exactly
This is equivalent
proportional to the volume contained within that surface.

the

to

of

all

parts

of

asserting that the fluid

the fluid

is

not

is

the same.

made up

It

is

of molecules;

also

for,

if it

were,

the

mass would vary in a discontinuous manner as the volume increases continuously,


because first one and then another molecule would be included within the closed

467

ATOM.
Lastly,

surface.

it

is

a perfect

fluid,

in

or,

the stress between

other words,

and a contiguous portion is always normal to the surface which


separates these portions, and this whether the fluid is at rest or in motion.
one

portion

We

in a molecular fluid the interdiSusion of the molecules

have seen that

an

causes

motion

of

interdifiusion

the action between contiguous

of

parts

no longer

normal

Hence the

tending to diminish their relative motion.

the

of

parts

different

is

perfect

fluid

that

so

fluid,

but in

direction

cannot be

molecular.

All

tha.t

a material

necessary

is

system

is

consistent with each

such

properties

that

actually

exists

to

form a correct mathematical theory of

order to
properties

This

other.

when we propose

only

in
its

is

shall

essential

is

question

make some

be clearly defined and shall be

but whether a substance having

comes to

which

be

considered

results of the

practical application of the

The properties of our perfect liquid are clearly defined


other, and from the mathematical theory we can
deduce remarkable results, some of which may be illustrated in a rough way
by means of fluids which are by no means perfect in the sense of not being
viscous, such, for instance, as air and water.
mathematical theory.

and

consistent

The motion

with each

of a fluid

is

spherical portion of the fluid

said

to

be irrotational

were suddenly

solidified,

when

it

such that

is

if

the solid sphere so formed

would not be rotating about any axis. When the motion of the fluid is rotaand angular velocity of the rotation of any small part of the

tional the axis

fluid are those of a small spherical portion

suddenly

The mathematical expression of these

solidified.

definitions

is

as follows

be the components of the velocity of the fluid at the point

_dv

dw

n_dw

'~dz~d[y* '^~dx
then

du

{x,

y,

_du _dv
dy

dz'

Let

z),

it,

and

v,

ic

let

dx

y are the components of the velocity of rotation of the fluid at the


The axis of rotation is in the direction of the resultant of
2).
and 7, and the velocity of rotation, w, is measured by this resultant.

a,

/3,

point (x, y,
a,

^,

line

drawn

in the fluid, so that at every point of the line

\dx
ads
where

is

_\

dy _

~^ ds

^_ L

yds

/o\

the length of the line up to the point x,

y,

%,

is

called a vortex

592

ATOM.

468
at

coincides

direction

Its

line.

every point with that of the axis of rotation

of the fluid.

We

may now

the theorem

prove

which at any instant

fluid

same vortex

in

lie

during the whole motion of the

line

The equations

is

the

density,

we may assume

fluid

fluid,

it

the pressure, and

with respect to
first,

represents the rate of varia-

prefixed at a point which

is

is

carried for^vard

du

du

du

z,

we

dii

,,.
(*>

= di+''di+''7hj+'"d^

is

and that

external forces.

There are two

Difierentiating the

equation in y

the potential of

other equations of similar form in y and

from the

r_K

so that

Si
is

dV

dp

to be unity, the operator

hu

j)

the

which in the case of our homogeneous incompressible

symbol to which

of the

tion

with the

in

lie

fluid.

of motion of a fluid are of the form

hu

when p

Helmholtz, that the points of the

of

the same vortex line continue to

z.

in z with respect to y,

and subtracting the second

find

dzTt~d^Tt~^
remembering equations

Performing the difierentiations and

(1)

and

also the

condition of incompressibility,

du
dx
r,

Now,

dw _
dz

^du

du

ha.

-'' fi"'^

dv

dy

//,v

du

,^
(')

St=''di+^Ty+yTz
let

us

suppose

vortex line drawn in the fluid so as always to

begin at the same particle of the


point are u,

v,

w.

fluid.

The components of the

velocity of this

Let us find those of a point on the moving vortex

line at

a distance ds from this point where

ds =

(odcr

(8).


-109

ATOM.

The co-ordinates of

this point are

x-\-ada;

and the components of

write

the

first

these

of

+ yda-

(9),

velocity are

its

u+"'d(T,
Consider

y + fid(r,

v+^da, iv+^daIn

components.

virtue

(10).

of

equation (7)

we may

it

+ ^<i^+|'^c;cr +

du dx
dx daw + -i-

or

du dy
dy da

gW,

(11)-

du dz
dz

/,n\

da
(13).

c?cr

da-

But

represents the value of the component u of the velocity of the fluid


same point, and the same thing may be proved of the other

this

the

itself at

components.

Hence

the

velocity

of

the

along with the

The vortex

line

always formed of the same row of fluid particles.


therefore no mere mathematical symbol, but has a physical

fluid,
is

point on the vortex line is identical


In other words, the vortex line swims

second

with that of the fluid at that point.

and

is

existence continuous in time and space.

By

differentiating

and adding the

results,

equations

we

(1)

with

respect to

x,

y,

and

respectively,

obtain the equation

=
+ dy + ^
^
dz
dx ^
This

is

an equation of the same form with

of flow of a fluid

of invariable

density.

(14).

(6),

which expresses the conif we imagine a fluid,

Hence,

dition
quite independent of the original fluid, w^hose components of velocity are
this imaginary fluid will flow

Now,

without altering

consider a closed curve

in

space,

both directions from every point of this


a tubular surface, which

imaginary

fluid

flows

is

its

and

curv^e.

let

^, y,

vortex lines be drawn

These vortex

lines

called a vortex tube or a vortex filament.

along

a,

density.

the vortex lines without change

of

will

in

form

Since the

density,

the

ATOM.

470

quantity which in unit of time flows through any section of the same vortex
tube must be the same. Hence, at any section of a vortex tube the product
of

the

area

of

This quantity

is

the

section

the

into

mean

velocity of

rotation

the same.

is

called the strength of the vortex tube.

vortex tube cannot begin or end within the fluid;

for,

if

did,

it

the

whose velocity components are a, ^, y, would be generated from


nothing at the beginning of the tube, and reduced to nothing at the end of it.
Hence, if the tube has a beginning and an end, they must lie on the surface
If the fluid is infinite the vortex tube must be infinite, or
of the fluid mass.
imaginary

else it

fluid,

must return

into itself.

We

have thus arrived at the following remarkable theorems relating to a


vortex tube in an infinite fluid: (1) It returns into itself, forming a

finite

closed

We

ring.

may

therefore

describe

as

it

a vortex ring.

(2)

It

always

Hence its volume is invariable. (3)


consists
Hence the velocity of rotation at any
Its strength remains always the same.
section varies inversely as the area of that section, and that of any segment
of the

varies
is

not

and

du'ectly

same portion of the

fluid.

as the length of that segment.

(4)

No

part of the fluid which

originally in a state of rotational motion can ever enter into that state,

no part of the

fluid

whose motion

is

rotational

can ever cease to move

vortex tube can ever pass through any other vortex tube,
(5)
Hence, if two vortex, tubes are linked
or through any of its own convolutions.
together, they can never be separated, and if a single vortex tube is knotted

No

rotationally.

on

itself,

it

can never become untied.


including

the

(6)

The motion at any instant

vortex rings themselves,

may

be

of every

accurately

part of the fluid,


represented by conceiving an electric current to occupy the place of each vortex
The
ring, the strength of the current being proportional to that of the ring.

magnetic force at any point of space will then represent in direction and magnitude the velocity of the fluid at the corresponding point of the fluid.

These properties of vortex rings suggested to Sir William Thomson* the


The conpossibility of founding on them a new form of the atomic theory.
ditions which must be satisfied by an atom are permanence in magnitude,
motion or vibration, and a sufficient amount of possible
between atoms of different kinds.
and adopted by Newton, was
Lucretius,
The small hard body imagined by
the permanence of the profor
accounting
of
purpose
express
the
invented for

capability

internal

of

characteristics to account for the difference

"On

Vortex Atoms," Proc. Roy,

Soc. Edin.,

18th February, 1867.

ATOM.

this

But

of bodies.

perties

revealed
is

account for the vibrations of a molecule as

to

fails

it

471

by the spectroscope. We may indeed suppose the atom elastic, but


to endow it with the very property for the explanation of which, as

in aggregate bodies, the atomic constitution was originally assumed.


The massive centres of force imagined by Boscovich may have more to recommend them to the mathematician, who has no scruple in supposing them to be
invested with the power of attracting and repelling according to any law of the
Such centres of force are no
distance which it may please him to assign.

exhibited

doubt in their own nature


of

To

vibration.

many such

but,

centres,

separated altogether
taste,

in

In the

hitherto imagined.

volume and

tively

on

of
as

periods,

rid

it

in

is

changes

infinite

we know that

acting at

of forces

being

questionable scientific
sensible

dis-

its

of

imagined as the true

place, it is quantitatively permanent, as regards

independent quantities.

degree of

implication,

other vortex rings.


form,

molecules

vortex rings

of

implications

consisting of

centres

more of the conditions than any atom

satisfies

two

with

"linkedness"

or

itself

ferent

first

strength,

its

permanent as regards

capable

Besides,

get

of these

possibility

hand, the vortex ring of Helmholtz,

other

singly, incapable

also,

function of the atoms an action at insensible distances.

form of the atom by Thomson,

its

the

doing,

so

again introduced.

make the whole


the

but then they are

we must imagine molecules

using atoms so freely to

after

tances, to

On

is

indivisible,

vibrations

obtain

It

is

whether

At

also

the same time,

and may execute vibrations of

And

do.

may

qualita-

" knottedness

the number of

it

'

is

different

essentially

dif-

be very great without supposing the

degree of implication of any of them very high.

But the
of view,

is

greatest recommendation of this theory, from a philosophical point

that

its

ingenuity with which


hypothetical

motion,

all

force
its

success in

and then

the primitive

equations.

The

disciple

When

another.

are absolutely

properties

motion of

explaining phenomena does not depend on the

contrivers "save appearances,"

its

fluid,

which

of Lucretius

fixed

is

first

one

once set in

and determined by the laws of

are fully

may

by introducing

the vortex atom

expressed

in

the

fundamental

cut and carve his solid atoms in the

hope of getting them to combine into worlds; the follower of Boscovich may
imagine new laws of force to meet the requirements of each new phenomenon
but he who dares to plant his feet in the path opened up by Helmholtz and

Thomson has no such


inertia, invariable

His primitive fluid has no other properties than


and perfect mobility, and the method by whicli the

resources.

density,

ATOM.

472

motion of this
culties

fluid

be traced

to

is

method

of this

pure mathematical analysis.

is

are enormous, but the glory of surmounting

The diffithem would

be unique.

There

seems

atoms would be
described.

be

to

doubt

little

an encounter between two vortex

that

which we have already

in its general character similar to those

the

Indeed,

encounter between two smoke rings in air gives a very

lively illustration of the elasticity of vortex rings.

But one
of matter

is

of the
to

may seem an absurd


of matter
in

his

to

not the very

if

first,

explain

mass,

first,

of his

momentum and

of that

primitive fluid, attributes to

primitive fluid.

It

is

mode

the

it

is

of the essence

energy, and even Thomson,

the possession of mass.

it

But according to Thomson, though the primitive fluid


yet that which we call matter is not the primitive
of motion

To explain mass

gravitation.

"We generally suppose that

achievement.

be the receptacle of

definition

desideratum in a complete theory

first

and second,

is

the only true matter,

fluid

itself,

but a mode

of motion which constitutes

the vortex rings, and which furnishes us with examples of that permanence and
continuity

of existence

which we are accustomed to attribute to matter

itself.

The primitive fluid, the only true matter, entirely eludes our perceptions when
it is not endued with the mode of motion which converts certain portions of
it into vortex rings, and thus renders it molecular.
In Thomson's theory, therefore, the mass of bodies requires explanation. We
have to explain the inertia of what is only a mode of motion, and inertia is
It is true that a vortex ring
a property of matter, not of modes of motion.
and a definite energy, but to
momentum
instant
has
definite
a
at any given
shew that bodies built up of vortex rings would have such momentum and
energy as
very

we know them

difiicult

It

may seem hard

gravitation.

to

have

is,

in

the present state

of the

theory, a

task>

the

Since

to

say of an infant theory that


of Newton,

time

admitted and expounded,

it

till

it

is

bound

to explain

the doctrine of gravitation has been

has gradually acquired the character rather of

an ultimate fact than of a fact to be explained.


It

seems doubtful whether Lucretius considers gravitation to be an essential

property of matter, as he seems to assert in the very remarkable lines

"Nam

si

tantundem

est in lanse glomere,

Corporis in plumbo

Corporis officium est

quantum

tantundem pendere par est


quoniam premere omnia deorsum."

est,

De Rerv.m Natura,

i,

3G1.

ATOM.
If this

atoms
he

the true opinion of Lucretius, and

is

in

arises,

liis

opinion

and

tonien,

Le Sage

from regions

directions
is

in

in

in

flight of the

far

any way known to

his Liicrkce

The
New-

all

The theory of

1818*.

that the gravitation of bodies towards each other

ultramundane corpuscules,

calls

downward

seems very doubtful whether

Physique Mecanique, published, along with a second

cle

impact of streams of atoms flying in


he

the

if
it

own, by Pierre Prevost, of Geneva,

his

is

gravity,

Le Sage, of Geneva, propounded

of

Traite

in his

of

treatise

that

is

own

view, from their

weight of sensible bodies to the impact of the atoms.

attributed the

latter

473

is

caused by the

directions through space.

These atoms

because he conceives them to come in

all

beyond that part of the system of the world which


us.

He

supposes each of them to be so small that

a collision with another ultramundane corpuscule

is

an event of very rare occur-

by striking against the molecules of gross matter that they discharge their function of drawing bodies towards each other. A body placed by
itself in free space and exposed to the impacts of these corpuscules would be
rence.

It

is

bandied about by them in


as

many blows on one

velocity.

other

But

from

if

there

certain

all

directions,

but because, on the whole,

side as on another,

are

two bodies

proportion

in

the

it

receives

cannot thereby acquire any sensible

it

space, each

of

them

will

screen

the

bombardment, so that a
smaller number of corpuscules will strike either body on that side which is next
the other body, while the number of corpuscules which strike it in other direcof

corpuscular

tions remains the same.

Each body
excess

of the

will

therefore

impacts

be urged towards the other by the

receives

it

effect of

on the side furthest from the other.

If

the

we

take account of the impacts of those corpuscules only which come directly from
infinite space, and leave out of consideration those which have already struck

mundane

easy to calculate the result on the two bodies, supposing


compared with the distance between them.
of attraction would vary directly as the product of the areas of

bodies,

it

is

their dimensions small

The
the

force

sections

of the

bodies taken normal to the distance and inversely as the

square of the distance between them.

Now, the
the

attraction

of gravitation

bodies between which

between

them.

If,

then,

it

acts,

varies

we can imagine

* See also Constitution de la Matiere, &c., par

VOL.

II.

as

the product of the masses of

and inversely as the square of the distance


constitution

le

of bodies

such that

P. Leray, Paris, 18G9.


(50

ATOM.

474

the effective areas of the bodies are proportional to their masses, we shall make
Here, then, seems to be a path leading towards an
the two laws coincide.

law

the

of

explanation

which,

gravitation,

of

may

other respects consistent with facts,

if

can be shewn to be in

it

turn out to be a royal road into the

very arcana of science.

Le Sage himself shews


which

of

virtue

in

proportional to the

puscules,

we must admit

small,

that, in order to

make the

effective area of

a body,

a screen to the streams of ultramundane cor-

acts as

it

mass of the body, whether the body be large or

that the size of the solid atoms of the body

is

exceed-

compared with the distances between them, so that a very small


proportion of the corpuscules are stopped even by the densest and largest bodies.
We may picture to ourselves the streams of corpuscules coming in every direcingly small

body to

from a uniformly illuminated sky.

light

tion, like

and we may represent

this

observer at a distance this

sky

in

certain

quarter.

We

may

imagine a material

atoms at considerable distances from each other,

consist of a congeries of

by a swarm of

swarm
This

will

insects

flying in

the

air.

To an

be visible as a slight darkening of the

darkening

will

represent

the

action

of the

Now, if the proportion


two such swarms will stop nearly

material body in stopping the flight of the corpuscules.


of light stopped by the

swarm

is

very small,

the same amount of light, whether they are in a line with the eye or not, but
if

one of them stops an appreciable proportion of

much

left

to

light,

there will not be so

be stopped by the other, and the effect of two swarms in a line

less than the sum of the two effects separately.


Now, we know that the effect of the attraction of the sun and earth on
the moon is not appreciably different when the moon is eclipsed than on other
This shews that the number
occasions when full moon occurs without an eclipse.
of the corpuscules which are stopped by bodies of the size and mass of the
earth, and even the sun, is very small compared with the number which pass
To
straight through the earth or the sun without striking a single molecule.

with the eye will be

the streams of

corpuscules the

earth and the

scattered in space, which present far

sun are mere systems of atoms

more openings than obstacles to their

recti-

linear flight.

Such

is

the

ingenious doctrine of

explain universal gravitation.


tinual

Le

Sage,

by which he endeavours

bombardment of ultramundane corpuscules which

sides of us.

to

Let us try to form some estimate of this conis

being kept up on

all

ATOM.

We

have seen

that the sun stops

puscules which enter

proportion

thickness

1 lb.

but a very small fraction of

the

cor-

The earth, being a smaller body, stops a still smaller


The proportion of those which are stopped by a small
must be smaller still in an enormous degree, because its

it.

them.

of

body, say a

475

shot,

exceedingly small compared with that of the earth.

is

Now, the weight

of the ball, or

tendency towards the earth,

its

is

produced,

according to this theory, by the excess of the impacts of the corpuscules which

come from above over the impacts of those which come from below, and have
through the earth.

passed

fraction of the

momentum

the ball in a second,


equivalent to

Either of these quantities


of the whole

and

their

difference

weight of a

the

number
is

an exceedingly small

is

of corpuscules which pass through

a small fraction of either, and yet

The velocity of the corpuscules


must be enormously greater than that of any of the heavenly bodies, otherwise, as may easily be shewn, they would act as a resisting medium opposing
the motion of the planets.
Now, the energy of a moving system is half the
it

is

product of

its

momentum

pound.

into its velocity.

which by their impacts on the

ball

Hence the energy of the

during one second urge

it

must be a number of foot-pounds equal to the number of


corpuscule travels in a second, that

But

this

upon

ball receive

feet

over which

to say, not less than thousands of millions.

is

only a small fraction of the energy of

is

atoms of the

corpuscules,

towards the earth,

all

the impacts which the

from the innumerable streams of corpuscules which

fall

in all directions.

it

Hence the
to maintain

rate at

which the energy of the corpuscules

the gravitating property of a single pound,

is

is

spent in order

at least

millions

of

millions of foot-pounds per second.

What
before,

they will

But

regions.

in

becomes of this

striking the atoms,

after

if

carr\^

to

their

energy away with them into

will

be both in

by the body, and

it

may

ever be the shape of the body,

are

If the

corpuscules,

the

ultramundane

number and

field.

body

in velocity exactly equiva-

those which are prevented from proceeding in that direction

deflected

the

with a velocity equal to that which they had

off

this be the case, then the corpuscules rebounding from the

any given direction

lent

enormous quantity of energy

fly

by being

be shewn that this will be the case what-

and however many bodies may be present in


make up for those which

Thus, the rebounding corpuscules exactly

deflected

by the body, and there

will

be no excess of the impacts on any

other body in one direction or another.

602

ATOM.

476

The explanation of
are

puscules

therefore,

gravitation,

perfectly

like

ground

the

to

falls

and

spheres,

elastic

rebound

if

with a

the cor-

velocity

of

on the other hand, they rebound with


between the bodies will no doubt
attraction
of
effect
a smaller velocity, the
what
becomes of the energy which
find
to
have
we
then
but
be produced,
the molecules have brought with them but have not carried away.
any appreciable fraction of this energy is communicated to the body in

separation equal to that of approach.

If,

amount of heat so generated would in a few seconds


manner the whole material universe, to a white heat.
has been suggested by Sir W. Thomson that the corpuscules may be

the form of
raise

it,

It
so

in

like

constructed as to carry off their energy with them,


kinetic energy

their

to

the

heat,

and

systems,

vibration.

not mere

which are set

atoms,

or

rotation

energy of

material

transformed,

is

For

state

of

provided that

purpose the corpuscules must be

this

vibration

suggests

that

impact,

at

they are vortex

and go

of

part

losing

its

of

the

vibratory

by communion

with a
has also

its

swiftness

and

with

its

kindred

cor-

it

seems

corpuscule regaining

vortex

agitation

off

He

smaller velocity of translation, but in a state of violent vibration.

suggested the possibility

part of

from energy of translation

impact,

Thomson

points.

into

during

puscules in mfinite space.

We
because

have devoted more space to this


it

is

and

ingenious,

because

it

than

theory
is

the only theory of

to

the

deserve,

cause of

gravitation which has been so far developed as to be capable of being attacked

and

defended.

perature

of

It

bodies

does

not

remaining

appear to us that

can account for the tem-

it

moderate while their atoms are exposed to the

The temperature of bodies must tend to approach that at


bombardment.
which the average kinetic energy of a molecule of the body would be equal
to the average kinetic energy of an ultramundane corpuscule.
Now, suppose a plane surface to exist which stops all the corpuscules.
The pressure on
puscule,

this

plane will be

p = NMu'^

the number in unit of volume,

where

and u

its

is

the mass of a cor-

velocity

normal to the

Now, we know that the very greatest pressure existing in the universe
must be much less than the pressure i^, which would be exerted against a body
We are also tolerably certain that N, the
which stops all the corpuscules.
plane.

number
small

Hence,

of

corpuscules

compared
Mu'^

with

which are at any one time within unit of volume, is,


value of
for the molecules of ordmary bodies.

the

must be enomious compared with the corresponding quantity

for

477

ATOM.
ordinary bodies, and
all

to

bodies

a magnificent illustration

the scene of

fundamental principle of

nature,

all

may

is

of

the

in

reality

observe

also

that according

accustomed to regard as

are

conservation

energy as the

of

maintained in working order

by an enormous expenditure of external power, which would be nothing


if the supply were drawn from anywhere else than from the

only
less

We

which we

theory the habitable universe,

this

impact of the corpuscules would raise

that the

follows

it

enormous temperature.

an

to

than ruinous

infinitude of space,

and which,

most eminent mathe-

the contrivances of the

if

moment

should be found in any respect defective, might at any

maticians

tear

the whole universe atom from atom.

We

must now leave these speculations about the nature of molecules and
made up of

the cause of gravitation, and contemplate the material universe as

Every

molecules.

number

of

molecule,

The

species.

known

senting

the

Several

of these have

may

so
list

species

we know,

far

as

of

chemical

which

have

may

examined

been

one

belongs to

elements

of a

definite

be taken as reprein

the

laboratories.

been discovered by means of the spectroscope, and more

The spectroscope has also


stars, and some of

the same way.

yet remain to be discovered in

been applied to analyse the Hght of the sun, the brighter


the

and

nebulae

molecules, and in

trial

In

certain

rays.

traced

between

and

comets,

emitted by these bodies

this

the

is

shewn

has

similar

character

the

that

some

in

of

the

light

that emitted by terres-

to

cases

others to light from which the molecules have absorbed

way a

systems

number

considerable
of

belonging

lines

coincidences have been

of

to

particular

terrestrial

sub-

stances and con-esponding lines in the spectra of the heavenly bodies.

The value of the evidence furnished by such coincidences may be estimated


by considering the degree of accuracy with which one such coincidence may be
The interval between the two lines which form Fraunhofer's line D
observed.
is about the five hundredth part of the interval between B and G on Kirch
A discordance between the positions of two lines amounting to
hoff's scale.
tenth

the

part

the length

of

of

this

interval,

a spectroscope of moderate
scope

to

be

the

contained in the
the case

is

number

We

powder.

of

to

say,

will

may

be about
n

five

thousandth part of

be very perceptible in

power of the spectro-

smallest measurable

Let us denote

spectrum.

spectrum of the sun contains

the

would

define the

which the

times

length of the visible

we have supposed p

If the

that

the bright part of the spectrum,

this

inten.'al

by

79.

is

In

5000.
lines

of a certain degree of inten-

ATOM.

478

the probability that any one line of the spectrum of a gas will coincide

sity,

with one of these n

lines is

--

and when

n,

becomes

this

with a line in the solar spectrum

coincide

is

pare the results of two hypotheses.

we have the

the sun,

the solar spectrum.

the

n observed

small.

The

If there

are

we

shaU coincide with the


find

all

we have

lines,

Hence,
to

com-

all

the r lines in

not exist, the probability that r lines out of

does

it

we have very

spectrum,
sun.

If a large amount of the gas exists in

strongest reason for expecting to find

If

lines

then,

If,

nearly

approximately

the case of a gas whose spectrum contains several

in

if

+ &c.

7^

spectrum of the gas, the probability that each and every one

r lines in the
shall

compared with

large

is

=-

the

lines

in

the

gas

exceedingly

lines

of

their

proper places in the solar

is

strong grounds for believing that the gas exists in the

probability that the

gas

exists

in

the sun

is

greatly strengthened

the character of the lines as to relative intensity and breadth

is

found to

correspond in the two spectra.

The absence of one


to weaken the

of the gas

lines

probability,

in the solar spectrum tends

but the amount to be deducted from the

on what we know of the


when the temperature and the

must depend

probability

intensity

of the lines

made

vary.

to

more

or

of course

Coincidences observed,

in

the

case

of

several

variation

in

pressure

terrestrial

the relative

of the gas

substances,

are

with

systems of lines in the spectra of the heavenly bodies, tend to increase


the evidence for the doctrine that terrestrial substances exist in the heavenly
several

bodies, while

the discovery of particular lines in a celestial spectrum which do

not

with

coincide

any

line

in

terrestrial

spectrum

does

not

much weaken

the general argument, but rather indicates either that a substance exists in the

heavenly body not yet detected by chemists on earth, or that the temperature
of

the heavenly body

methods,

is

there

is

split

such

up

into

some

that

substance,

undecomposable

by our

components unknown to us in their separate

state.

We
universe

are

thus led to believe

molecules

exist

of

that

various

in

kinds,

widely-separated parts of the visible

the molecules of each kind having

ATOM.
various periodf?

their

molecules are alike


for

sufficient

that of

say

of vibration either identical, or so nearly identical that our

We

cannot distinguish them.

spectroscopes

479

in

other respects,

all

as,

might argue from


instance,

for

that these

this

But

mass.

in

it

our present purpose to observe that the same kind

of

hydrogen, has the same set of

whether

procure the hydrogen from

from

water,

periods

of

vibration,

from meteoric

or

coal,

iron,

is

molecule,
^^e

and that

having the same set of periods of vibration, comes to us from the sun,

light,

from Sirlus, and from Arcturus.

The same kind

the sun and stars,

in

all

The

leads us to believe

also

may have

probability,

for

shall

have,

to

the

same

set

When,

instead

periods

of

two

of

such

of

vibration,

systems

are

we

systems,

Admitting, then, that there

We

may

conceive

of

tending to assimilate them.


other

if

is

what

Two

independent

have

of

innumerable

But even

if

are

other.

multitudes

all

immensely strengthened.

is

action

may

be.

between

clocks, for instance,

one
will

body and another

keep time with each

connected by a wooden rod, though they have different rates

were disconnected.

we

each

a real relation between any two molecules

this relation

mutual

very small that

so

is

not

having the same set of periods, the argument


of hydrogen, let us consider

modern spectroscopic measure-

of accuracy of

periods

that the two

believe

to

origin.

that two material systems, quite independent of each

the degree

other,

forced

its

therefore,

ments,

that the molecules of hydrogen


For a material system capable of
of vibration any set of values whatever.

common

these bodies had a

vibration

which led us to believe that hydrogen exists

of reasoning

in

if

thev

the properties of a molecule were as capable

no physical connection of a

suffi-

There are also methods by which a large number of bodies differing

froni

of modification
cient kind

each other

as

those

of a clock,

between Sirius and

may

be sorted into

resemble each other.

there

is

ArctuiTis.

sets,

so

that those

in

each

In the manufacture of small shot this

set
is

more or

less

done by making

down an inclined plane. The largest specimens acquire the greatest


and are projected farther than the smaller ones.
In this way the
various pellets, which differ both in size and in roundness, are sorted into
the shot

roll

velocities,

kinds, those belonging to each kind being nearly of the same size,
and those which are not tolerably spherical being rejected altogether.
If the molecules were originally as various as these leaden pellets, and
were afterwards sorted into kinds, we should have to account for the disdifferent

ATOM.

480
appearance of

number

the molecules which did not

known

us

to

and to get

the number of

exceeding by far

bodies,

It

defined with more

species,

or

less

between one species and another.


generation of individuals

from

and

accordingly as

ment.

Hence,

of organisms
destruction.

of

of indestructible

all

the

recognised

more or

during

individual

im-

or

difficult

adapted

less

to

the

its

life

species,

circumstances

undergoing

is

or

of

dies

early,

environ-

is

it

has been found possible to frame a theory of the distribution

its

species by means of generation, variation, and discriminative


But a theory of evolution of this kind cannot be appHed to the

into

we

the individual molecules neither are born nor

for

offepring,

and

so

far

the

of

iron

untold

meteorite,

same

they

while

ages,

kind,

hydrogen,

say of

compounded with carbon and

been

and

die,

from being modified by their en-

two molecules of the

that

find

buried in the earth as coal for


in

is

whole

its

and propagates

have the same properties, though one has


"

it

it

of molecules,

vironment,

and that

precision,

In the case of living beings, however, the

survives

either

it

have neither parents nor

cluded

molecules

always going on, each individual differing more or

is

Each

parents.

its

modification,

case

the

number

of a

of individuals forming the links of a continuous chain

to find a series

possible

less

under one of the very limited

fall

rid

would be one of the severest labours ever proposed to a cosmogonist.


is well known that living beings may be grouped into a certain number

kinds,

of

all

of kinds

after

the

other

been " oc-

has

unknown wanderings

the

in

heavens has at last fallen into the hands of some terrestrial chemist.

The process by which the molecules become distributed


is

we know any

not one of which

we have

instances

into distinct species

going on at present,

form any mental representation.

or

of which

we suppose
that the molecules known to us are built up each of some moderate number
of atoms, these atoms being all of them exactly alike, then we may attribute
the limited number of molecular species to the limited number of ways in
which the primitive atoms may be combined so as to form a permanent system.
But though this hypothesis gets rid of the difficulty of accounting for the
as

yet been able to

independent origin of different species of molecules,


culty from the

come

to

be

all

known
alike

assuming any value


If
is

molecules to the
in

those

primitive

properties

it

If

merely transfers the

atoms.

How

diffi-

did the atoms

which axe in themselves

capable

of

we adopt the theory

a mere centre of

force,

of Boscovich,

and

assert

that the primitive atom

having a certain definite mass,

we may

get over the

ATOM.

which

own nature

of that

quantities

surable

medium.

experiment,

increase

or

diminution,

We

an

be

but that

atom being the

have no evidence that

incommensurable

it

quantity,

is

atomic,

is

of

perfect

but

models,

it

its

masses

incommen-

the

a continuous

in

it

unfitted

is

other respects

in

in

is

all

as

not a

possible for the

for

and therefore discontinuous,

geometrical

is

and

unit,

down

it

mass

that

geometry are supposed to be traced out

in

matter

If

construction

for

may

it

functions.

its

fulfil

by

unit.

to

atoms by laying

all

disproved

of continuous

two masses

of

be

discontinuous, like number, the

being multiples

the

cannot

capable

quantity

ratio

mass of

about the equality of the

difficulty

a doctrine

481

But even

we adopt

if

makes the equality of the mass

a theory js'hich

of

atoms a result depending on the nature of mass rather than on any

different

quantitative adjustment, the correspondence of the periods of vibration of actual

molecules

a fact of a different order.

is

"We know that radiations exist having periods of vibration of every value
between those corresponding to the limits of the

beyond these

far

both

on

limits

visible spectrum, and probably


The most powerful spectroscope can

sides.

gap or discontinuity in the spectrum of the light emitted by incan-

detect no

descent lime.

The period of
in

vibration of a luminous particle

capable

itself is

of assuming

mathematically continuous,

is

any one of a

therefore a quantity which

is

of

series

values,

each other by less than the ten thousandth part of either.

nothing

the

in

nature of

time

relation
force

the

period

of restitution thereby

is

different

any particular kind

is,

therefore,

observable values.

of vibration

called

is

the

placed have
in

not,

not

play,

relation

involving

able

in

constants of

We

all

molecules of

have seen that the very

which different molecules of the same kind have been

many

the values of these constants.

been
11.

to consider.

even in the course of

nature to which these molecules

VOL.

into

of mass.

we have next

different circumstances in

difference

as

the equality of these space- and time-constants for

the same kind which

have

from

prevent the period of vibration of a

many thousand
of

There

not

if

differ

which subsists between the corresponding type of displacement and the

space and time as well


It

to

itself

molecule from assuming any one of

That which determines

which,

such that consecutive observed values

all

that

have
time

been
to

If,

produced

ages,

then,

subjected

produce

any appreciable

the various
since

the

processes

world

any appreciable

of

began

difference

61

482

ATOM.

between the constants of one


to

conclude

that

molecule and

those of

we

another,

are

forced

not to the operation of any of these processes that the

is

it

uniformity of the constants

is

due.

The formation of the molecule is therefore an event not belonging to that


order of nature under which we live.
It is an operation of a kind which is
far

as

we

now

or

since

so

not,

either

aware,

are

going on on earth or in the sun

these bodies began to be formed.

It

the stars,

or

must be

referred to

the epoch, not of the formation of the earth or of the solar system, but of
the establishment of the existing order of nature, and till not only these
worlds and systems, but the very order of nature itself is dissolved, we have

no reason to expect the occurrence of any operation of a similar kind.


In the present state of science, therefore, we have strong reasons for believing that in a molecule, or if not in a molecule, in one of its component

we have something which

atoms,

has existed either from eternity or at least

from times anterior to the existing order of nature.

But

besides

atom,

this

there are immense numbers of other atoms of the same kind, and the constants
of

each of these atoms

Each
Whether

action.

eternity

are

to

are

incapable

of

physically independent of

or not the

in

is

when we

is

adjustment by any process now in


the others.

all

conception of a multitude of beings existing from

itself self-contradictory,

attribute a relation

the conception

of quantitative

becomes

equality to

these beings.

all

all

palpably absurd

"We

then forced to look beyond them to some common cause or common origin
explain

why

of the infinite

this

number

singular relation of

equality

exists,

rather than any one

of possible relations of inequality.

incompetent

to reason upon the creation of matter itself out


have reached the utmost limit of our thinking faculties when
we have admitted that, because matter cannot be eternal and self-existent, it

Science

of nothing.

is

We

must have been

created.

but the form in which

which

it

It is only
it

when we contemplate not matter

actually exists,

that

our

mind

finds

in itself,

something on

can lay hold.

That matter, as such, should have certain fundamental


should have a continuous existence in space and time, that
be between

properties,
all

action

that

it

should

two portions of matter, and so on, are truths which may, for
aught we know, be of the kind which metaphysicians call necessaiy. We may
use our knowledge of such truths for purposes of deduction, but we have no
data for speculating on their origin.

483

ATOM.

But the equality

the

of

molecules

the

constants of

is

a very

a fact of

It arises from a particular distribution of matter, a collocation.


different order.
of Dr Chalmers, of things which we have no difficulty in
expression
the
use
to

But many

imagining to have been arranged otherwise.

own

their

adjustments of constants, which

are

of collocation

but

nature,

of

instances

are

benevolent

design,

it

the

growth

and

conducive

not

which are

to

to

beneficial
is

only arbitrary

not

occur;

actually

variations

adjustments

these

pointed out that


therefore

which

in

of the ordinary instances

are

living

replied

that

multiplication

when

and

and

beings,

those
of

it

in
is

are

variations

living

beings

tend to their destruction, and to the removal thereby of the evidence of any

adjustment not

The

we can

beneficial.

of an

constitution

independent of

judge,

all

such as to render

is

dangers

the

reasons may, no

Plausible

existence.

atom, however,

doubt,

arising

from

it,

the

so

far

as

struggle for

be assigned for believing

that

if

the constants had varied from atom to atom through any sensible range, the
bodies formed by aggregates of such atoms would not have been so well fitted
But as
for the construction of the world as the bodies which actually exist.
we have no experience of bodies formed of such variable atoms this must remain

a bare conjecture.

Atoms have been compared by Sir J. Herschel to manufactured articles,


The uniformity of manufactured articles may
on account of their uniformity.
be

very

to

traced

certain

cases

diflerent

motives

found to be

is

it

on

the

expensive

less

part
as

of

manufacturer.

the

regards

trouble,

as

well

In
as

adapt each to its


cost, to make a great many objects exactly alike than to
numbers without
large
in
Thus, shoes for soldiers are made
special requirements.

any designed adaptation to the


cases the
article

uniformity

more valuable.

of sizes, so that
fitted

to

its

it

is

feet

intentional,

of

and

particular
is

is

lost,

another

men.

In

another

clai>s

of

make the manufactured


made in a certain number

designed to

Whitworth's bolts are

Thus,

one bolt

if

may be got

at once,

and accurately

The identity of the arrangement of the words in the


a document or book is a matter of great practical importance,

place.

different copies of

and

is

more perfectly secured by the process of printing than

by that of

manuscript copying.

In a third
arises

from

its

belong to this

class

exact
class,

not a part only but the whole of the value of the object
Weights and measures
conformity to a given standard.

and the existence of many well-adjusted material standards

612

484

ATOM.

of weight and

a system

measure in any country furnishes evidence of the existence of

of law regulating the

transactions

of

the inhabitants,

measures a conforaiity to the national standard.


There are thus three kinds of usefulness in manufactured

and enjoining

in all professed

ness,

to

serviceableness,

and

the mind of Sir J.

at least

as

likely

quantitative

Herschel

to have

accuracy.

we cannot now

been the

last

as

the

Which

of

positively
first,

articles

cheap-

these was

present

affirm,

though

it

but

it

was

seems more

probable that he meant to assert that a number of exactly similar things


cannot
be each of them eternal and self-existent, and must therefore have
been made,
and that he used the phrase "manufactured article" to suggest the idea
of
their being

made

in great

numbers.

[From the

Eiicyclopcedia Britannica.

LXXIV.
That
tions

the

different

a matter

is

of a material system

parts

of daily

to distinguish

of action at a distance,

continuous

trace

them from those

is

bring the bodies nearer, or to prevent them from separating,

When

or attraction.

approaching,
are

it

is

it

called pressure or repulsion.

used when the action

of a material system

the

more

parts

of

change

We

may

be

in

mo-

call

these

which we can

is

it

called tension

The names tension and

seen to take place through a medium.

is

for

cases of action at a distance.

The

pressure

Attraction
configuration

can always be defined in terms of the mutual distances

Any

the system.

of

these

other's

tends to separate the bodies, or to prevent them from

and repulsion are reserved


of

each

bond of union between the bodies. The mutual


When the mutual action tends to
called stress.

material

between two bodies

action

influence

In some cases we cannot discover any

observation.

connection extending from the one body to the other.

material
cases

Attraction.

Hence

distances.

resolved into

the system whose distance

is

change of configuration must alter one or


force which produces or resists such a

the

attractions

or

repulsions

between those parts of

altered.

There has been a great deal of speculation as to the cause of such forces,
being supposed

one of them, namely, the pressure between bodies in contact,

Many attempts
be more easily conceived than any other kind of stress.
have therefore been made to resolve cases of apparent attraction and repulsion

to

At one time the

possibility of attraction

at

a distance into cases of pressure.

at

a distance was supposed to be refuted by asserting that a body cannot act

between different portions of


was replied that we have no
evidence that real contact ever takes place between two bodies, and that, in
other and in apparent contact, we
fact, when bodies are pressed against each
where

matter

it

is

must

not,

and

that

be by direct

therefore

contact.

all

To

action

this

it

486

ATTRACTION.

may sometimes
of glass

measure the distance between them, as when one piece

actually

on

laid

is

another, in

bring the

which case a considerable pressure must be apenough to shew the black spot of Newton's

plied

to

rings,

which indicates a distance of about a ten thousandth of a millimetre.

order

in

get rid

to

the

of

idea

medium through which the

terial

to

is

surfaces near

substitute

smaller

for

action

is

transmitted,

all

a single action at a great distance

between

distances

of action at a distance,

the parts of

If,

we imagine a mathat we have done

a series of actions at

the medium, so that

we cannot even

thus get rid of action at a distance.

The study of the mutual


has,

modem

in

times,

of the

energy of the system.

amount

of

work which

action between

the parts of a

system

material

been greatly simplified by the introduction of the idea

The energy

system

of the

is

measured by the

can do in overcoming external resistances.

It depends
on the present configuration and motion of the system, and not on the manner
in which the system has acquired that configuration and motion. A complete
knowledge of the manner in which the energy of the system depends on its
it

and motion,

configuration

is

the parts of the system.

and

if

sufficient to

For instance,

if

all

the forces acting between

the system consists of two bodies,

the energy depends on the distance between them,

when the

increases

and

bodies,

if

distance

a distance

increases,

the energy diminishes

be repulsion between them.


at

determine

r,

there

must be

when the

then

if

energy

the

attraction between the

distance increases,

there must

In the case of two gravitating masses

the part of the energy which depends on r

and m'

71X11%

is

We

may

therefore express the fact that there is attraction between the two bodies
by saying that the energy of the system consisting of the two bodies increases
when their distance increases. The question, therefore, Why do the two bodies

each

attract

other

may be

expressed

in

different

energy of the system increase when the distance increases

Why

form.

does the

But we must bear in mind that the scientific or science-producing value of


made to answer these old standing questions is not to be measured
by the prospect they afford us of ultimately obtaining a solution, but by their
To propose a
effect in stimulating men to a thorough investigation of nature.
the efforts

scientific

exercise

that a

question

presupposes

scientific

knowledge,

men's minds in the present state of science


little

and

may

the

questions

which

very likely be such

more knowledge would shew us that no answer

is

possible.

The


ATTRACTION.
value

scientific

tance

of the

to be

is

How

question,

487

do bodies act on one another at a

found in the stimulus

it

dis-

has given to investigations into the

properties of the intervening, medium.

Newton,

deduces from the observed motions of the hea-

Principia,

his

in

venly bodies the fact that they attract one another according to a definite law.

This he gives as a result of

how not

dynamical reasoning, and by

strict

the more conspicuous phenomena,

only

but

he shews

it

the apparent irregu-

all

motions are the calculable results of a single principle.

larities

of the

In

Principia he confines himself to the demonstration and development of

l\is

celestial

He

great step in the science of the mutual action of bodies.

this

there about the

mind did not

means by which bodies gravitate towards each


at

rest

this

We

point.

know

says nothing

But

other.

that he did not

believe in

his

the

direct action of bodies at a distance.


"It is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something els*'
which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact, as it must do
and inherent in

in the sense of Epicurus be essential

if gi-avitation

and

inherent,

so that one

to matter,

essential

vacuum, without the mediation of anything


conveyed from one to another,

to

is

me

else,

it... That

an absurdity, that

so great

And we

also

know

that

he sought

medium

for

difi*used

" It appears, from his letters to Boyle, that this


it

sooner

vation,

In

give a satisfactory account of this

Optical

his

medium

is

less

this

ages.

the mechanism of gravitation in the


over the universe.
was

his opinion early,

medium and

of

indeed,

Queries,

bodies

pressure

is

the

manner of

he

inequality
left

inversely as

and

if

he did not publish

its

operation in producing

shews

that

if

the pressure of this

other,

and that

if

the

the distance from the dense body the

The next step, as he points out, is


medium and as he was not

of pressure in the

to account
able to do

the explanation of the cause of gravity as a problem to succeeding

As regards

problem

he

wUl be drawn towards each

law will be that of gravitation.

this,

in

the neighbourhood of dense bodies than at great distances

in

them, dense

diminution

for

who has

Letter to Bentley.

phenomena of nature*."

the chief

from

it."

proceeded from hence only, that he found he was not able, from experiment and obser-

it

to

believe no man,

philosophical matters a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into

properties of an sethereal

gravity should be innate,

body can act upon another at a distance, through a


by and through which their action and force may be

since

the

progress made towards the solution of the


Newton has been almost imperceptible. Faraday

gravitation the

time

of

* Maclaurin's account of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries.

ATTRACTION.

488

shewed that the transmission of

phenomena occurring
Hnes

of

through the medium

force

and magnetic

electric

forces

is

accompanied

He

every part of the intervening medium.

in

by-

traced the

and he ascribed to them a tendency to

shorten themselves and to separate from their neighbours, thus introducing the

medium

idea of stress in the

whereas

for,

Faraday's
all

Newton's

was

By shewing

normal directions.

made

force is

pressure

in

every direction,

combined with a pressure in

that the plane of polarisation of a ray of

medium

passing through a transparent

light

hydrostatic

along the lines of force,

a tension

is

form from that suggested by Newton

in a different

stress

the direction of the magnetic

in

to rotate, Faraday not only demonstrated the action of magnetism

light, but by using light to reveal the state of magnetisation of the medium,
he " illuminated," to use his own phrase, " the lines of magnetic force."

on

From

Thomson

phenomenon

this

afterwards

proved,

that the transmission of magnetic force

reasoning,

He

motion of the small parts of the medium.

is

by

dynamical

strict

associated with a rotatory

shewed, at the same time,

how

the centrifugal force due to this motion would account for magnetic attraction.

Electricity

that the

medium

of

and

force

to

in

is

pressure

tension and the

the

the

a state of stress,
in

all

case

of

to

is

due to

force

lines of

this

force

we

at

field

the given point,* the observed

ourselves

avail

We

of Thomson's

In

deduction

assume that the small parts of the


force.

The

centrifugal

rotation produces the excess of pressure perpendicular to the

of electrostatic

there can be no doubt that a path

the action of a

angles to the lines of force,

about axes parallel to the lines of

The explanation

force.

we assume

account for this state of stress in the medium.

electromagnetic

are rotating

if

of tension along the lines

forces will be completely accounted for.

from Faraday's discovery stated above.

medium

there shewn that,

consisting

at right

directions

and electromagnetic

The next step

in greater detail in Clerk Maxwell's


is

pressure being equal in numerical value and proportional

square of the intensity of the

electrostatic

the

is worked out
and Magnetism. It

theory of this kind

Treatise on

medium

all

forces

is

stress

is

less

satisfactory,

now open by which we may

which,

like

trace

but
to

the electric and magnetic forces,

vary inversely as the square of the distance, and are attractive between bodies
of different names,

The
but

it

force

differs

and repulsive between bodies of the same names.

of gravitation

from the

between which

it

acts

electric

is

also

inversely

and magnetic

as

the square of

the distance,

forces in this respect, that the bodies

cannot be divided into two opposite kinds, one positive

ATTRACTION.

and the other negative, but are


and that the

respect of gravitation

in

between them

force

480
all

of the

same kind,

To account

every case attractive.

in

is

for

such a force by means of stress in an intervening medium, on the plan adopted


for

and magnetic

electric

from
the

that

direction

we must assume a stress of an opposite kind


must suppose that there is a pressure in

We

combined with a tension

the lines of force,

of

angles to

right

at

forces,

already mentioned.

Such a

the lines of force.

in

We

account for the

observed effects of gravitation.

able hitherto

imagine any physical cause for such a state of

to

directions

all

no doubt,

state of stress would,

have not, however,

been
It

stress.

is

easy to calculate the amount of this stress which would be required to account

the actual effects of gravity at the surface of the earth.

for

pressure

of

tons weight on the

37,000

combined with a tension of the same numerical value

The

of stress,

state

medium,

It

in all horizontal directions.

which we must suppose to exist

therefore,

in

3000 times greater than that which the strongest

is

would require

square inch in a vertical direction,

the invisible

steel could sup-

port.

Another
attributes

theory

mechanism of gravitation, that of Le Sage, who

of the

impact of

the

to

it

"ultramundane corpuscles,"

has

been

already

discussed in the article Atom, supra, p. 473.

William Thomson''" has shewn that

Sir

uniform

bodies

incompressible

flowing off to infinity,

fluid

the

annihilating
either

of these

inversely

and

if

we

fluid,

cases,

or

we suppose

space

all

filled

with \

the

deficiency

there

the

that material bodies are always absorbing and


flowing

would be an

the square of the distance.

as

if

further suppose either that material

generating and emitting this fluid at a constant rate,

always

are

fluid,

in

from

attraction

space,

infinite

then,

in

any two bodies

between

however, one of the bodies were

If,

a generator of the fluid and the other an absorber of

it,

the bodies would repel

each other.

we have a hydrodynamical

Here, then,

which

so

is

attract each

far

promising that

other.

body without

any

of

so

escape,

which

it

is

is

an

it

illustration of action

But the conception of a


supply

fluid

constantly flowing out of a

from without, or flowing into

contradictory

to

at a distance,

shews how bodies of the same kind may

all

our

essential part, cannot be called

experience,

it

without any way

that an hypothesis,

of gravitation.
* Proceedings

VOL.

II.

of

the

of

an explanation of the phenomenon

Royal Society of Ediiiburgh, 7th Feb. 1870.

G2

ATTRACTION.

490

Dr Robert Hooke,
voured

man

singular

of

gravitation

the cause of

trace

to

to

inventive power,

in

waves propagated

1671

in

endea-

a medium.

found that bodies floating on water agitated by waves were drawn towards

He

the centre of
this

He

agitation'"'.

however,

does not appear,

way

observation in such a

to

have followed up

as to determine completely the action of

waves

on an immersed body.

in

the

has investigated the mathematical theory of the effect of

Challis

Professor

waves

condensation and rarefaction in an

of

He

fluid.

found the

difficulties of

he has not been able to arrive at numerical


that the
of
is

of such waves

effect

or

agitation,

repel

to

it

fluid

elastic

the

on bodies immersed
to be so great that

investigation

He

results.

however,

concludes,

would be to attract the body towards the centre


from that centre, according as the wave's length

very large or very small compared with the dimensions of the body.

bach, Guthrie,

Prac-

the effect of such waves have been given by Guyot, Schell-

tical illustrations of

and Thomson t.

tuning-fork

The body

tuning-fork

is

placed near

it.

itself

and brought near a delicately suspended

set in vibration,

is

light body.

is

immediately attracted towards the tuning-fork.

suspended,

it

is

seen to

towards

be attracted

If the

any body

W. Thomson

has shewn that this action can in all cases be explained


by the general principle that in fluid motion the average pressure is least
where the average energy of motion is greatest. Now, the wave-motion is
and the
greatest nearest the tuning-fork, the pressure is therefore least there
Sir

suspended body being pressed unequally on opposite


of greater

He

has

lighter

It

pressure to the side of less pressure, that

succeeded

also

in

producing

repulsion

sides,
is

in

moves from the

side

towards the tuning-fork.

the case of a small body

than the surrounding medium.


is

remarkable that of the three hypotheses, which go some way towards

a physical explanation of gravitation, every one involves a constant expenditure

Le Sage's hypothesis of ultramundane corpuscles does so, as we have


That of the generation or absorption of fluid
the article Atom.
requires, not only constant expenditure of work in emitting fluid under pressure,
That of waves requires some
but actual creation and destruction of matter.

of work.

shewn

in

agent in a remote part of the universe capable of generating the waves.


*

Posthumous Works, edited by R. Waller,

Philosophical Magazine, June, 1871.

pp. xiv.

and 184

^^1

ATTRACTION.
Accoixling
as

to

illustrations

instances

in

to

the

we must regard

great principle of

the

the processes of nature not

conservation

of energy,

hut

as

hy a nice adjustment of powerful agencies not subject to


an apparent conservation of energy is maintained. Hence, we are

which,

this principle,

forced

such hypotheses

of

conclude that the explanation of the cause of

gravitation

is

not to

be found in any of these hypotheses.

62

[Fi-om CairMHdge Philosophical Society's Proceedings, Vol.

LXXV.

0}i

Bows method

use of Diagrams

The

so powerful

is

diagram

attempt

is

made

is

from

Peaucellier's linkage.

a particular instance of that method of sjrmbols

an aid in the advancement of

differs

187G.]

of drawing diagrams in graphical statics uith

illustrations

which

ii.

from a picture

in

this

science.

respect,

that

in

diagram

no

to represent those features of the actual material system which

are not the special objects of our study.

Thus when we are studying the

internal

equilibrium of a particular piece

we require to know its shape and


may often be made easier by means

of a structure or a machine,

the specification of these

dimensions, and
of a drawing of

tlie piece.

But when we

are

studying the

equilibrium

of a

framework composed

of

such pieces jointed together, in which each piece acts only by tension or by
pressure between its extremities, it is not necessary to know whether a particular
piece

is

straight

therefore, to

or

curved or what

exhibit the structure

may

be the form of

its section.

In order,

of the frame in the most elementary

manner

which the different joints are connected by


we may draw it as a
pressure
of each piece may be indicated on such
or
tension
The
lines.
straio-ht
skeleton

in

a diagram by numbers attached to the line which represents that piece in the
The stresses in the frame would thus be indicated in a way which
diagram.
is

geometrical as regards the position and direction of the forces, but arithmetical

as regards their magnitude.

But a purely geometrical representation of a force has been made use of


from the earliest beginnings of mechanics as a science. The force is represented
by a straight hne drawn from the point of application of the force, in the
direction

of

the force,

and containing as many units

of

length

as

there

are

BOWS METHOD OF DRAWING DIAGRAMS

GRAPHICAL

IX

493

STATICS.

units of force

in the force.
The end of the hne is marked by an arrow-head
which direction the force acts.
According to this method each force is dra n in its proi)er position in
the diagram wliicli represents the configuration of the system.
Such a diagram

to

shew

in

might be useful as a record of the results of calculation of the magnitude of


the forces, but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness
of the calculation.
It would be of less use than the diagram in which the
magnitudes of the

forces were indicated by numbers.


But we have a geometrical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
of forces acting at a point by drawing in series a set of lines parallel and

proportional
are

in

to

these forces.

equilibrium.

We

each joint of the frame.

drawing the

line

If

these

But

in

so

also

representing a force from

its

point

of application, for

same point as the

represent every stress twice over, for

it

if

one for

we can arrange the polygons

in

all

the

forces do.

appears as a side of both

the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which

But

forces,

doing we give up the principle of always

sides of a polygon cannot pass through the

We

form a closed polygon the forces

lines

might thus form a set of polygons of

it

acts.

such a way that the sides of any

two polygons which represent the same

force coincide with each other,

form a diagram in which every stress

represented in direction and magnitude,

is

we mav

in position, by a single line, which is the common boundary of the


two polygons which represent the points of concourse of the pieces of the frame.
Here we have a pure diagram of forces, in which no attempt is made to
represent the configuration of the material system, and in which every Ibrce
is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight line, but the
equilibrium of the forces is manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine
whether each polygon is closed or not.
The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress

though not

are as follows

To every

piece

which represents

To every
and the

in

joint

in

the frame corresponds a line

magnitude and direction the


of the

is

the diagram of stress

frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagmm,

forces acting at that joint are represented

taken in a certain cyclical order.


polygons

in

stress acting on that piece.

such that their

going round the tAvo polygons.

The

common

by the

sides of the polygon

cyclical order of the sides of

side

is

traced

in

opposite

two adjacent
directions

in

bow's method of drawing diagrams in graphical statics.

4'J4

When

every point of concourse of the

to

lines

the diagram of stress

in

corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of the

frame,

the two diagrams

are said to be reciprocal.

The
than

extensions

first

that

the

of

the

of

funicular

method of diagrams of forces


were given by Eankine

other

to

polygon

in

cases

Applied

his

Mechanics (1857).

The method was independently applied

Mr W.
tractor

P. Taylor, a

Mr

Cochrane.

B.

J.

practical

draughtsman
I

pointed

to
in

office

the

out

number

large

the

of

by

cases

of the well-known conproperties

reciprocal

of

the

1870 shewed the relations of this method to Airy's

diagram in 1864, and in

function of stress and other mathematical methods.

Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the method

Prof.

to practice. Trans. R, S. E., Vol.

xxv.

Cremona"'" has deduced the construction of the reciprocal figures from the

theory of the two linear components of a wrench.

Culmann

his

in

Oraphische Statik makes great use of diagrams of

forces,

some of which, however, are not reciprocal.


M. Maurice Levy in his Statique GmpUqm (Paris, 1874) has treated the
whole subject in an elementary and complete manner.
Mr E. H. Bow, C.E., F.R.S.E., in a recent work On the Economics of
Construction

in

relation

Framed

to

Structures

(Spon,

1873),

the process of drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal

simplified

has
to.

materially

a given frame

acted on by any system of equilibrating external forces.

Instead of lettering the joints of the frame as


pieces

of the

frame as was

the polygonal areas

enclosed

my own
by the

custom,
pieces

he

generally done,

is

places

of the frame,

letter

and

also

the divisions of the surrounding space as separated by the lines

in
in

or

the

each

of

each of

of action

of

the external forces.

When

one piece of the frame crosses another,

the point of intersection

is

and the stresses of each of the intersecting


pieces are represented twdce in the diagram of stress, as the opposite sides of the
Thus
parallelogram which represents the forces at the point of intersection.
the point V in figures 1 and 3, p. 495, is represented by the parallelogram
treated as

BDCE

in

if

it

were a

figure

parallelogram

2,

PRQS

real joint,

and

the

in figures 1

* Le figure

point

and

in

figure

is

represented

3.

reciprocity nella statlca grafica (Milano,

1872).

by

the

405

bow's method of drawing diagrams in (iRAPHICAL STATICS.


PeauceUier's

rhombus

PQRS

linkage consists of
togetlier with

two

the four equal

exjual

arms

OS

pieces

forming

the

jointed

and OH.

Fuf 1

When
is

these

arras

said to be positive;

When
.S.

longer

than the sides of the rhombus


are shorter the linkage

is

tlie

hnkagc

said to be negative.

employed as a machine it is acted on by


O, and the two tracing poles
applied respectively at the fulcrum

PeauceUier's linkage

three forces,

Q and

are

when they
is

bow's method of drawing diagrams in graphical statics.

496

These three

may

which

forces,

if

some point

in

new

pieces

We

T.

OT, QT, ST,

complete the frame.

will

Let us suppose that both

OS

must meet

equilibrium,

in

suppose them to be stresses in three

therefore

PT

intersects

and

outside

are

rhombus, and

the

that

the point V, and let us apply Bow's method to construct

in

the diagram of stress reciprocal to this frame.

we

If

letter the areas as follows,

diagram of

then, in the

meet

in

lines

EA

and

AD

for

the triangle

for

the

for the

Also since

TQS,

SPV

DBA

FEA,

the

line,

OR

pieces

BEFD

are

equal,

and therefore

are equal,

straight

and

and

and the corresponding angles

are equal,

one

in

is

rhombus

the stresses of the four sides of the

the

lines

the

parallel,

BA

AF

and

line.

frame

the

in

therefore,

If,

PSV,
OTV,
quadrilateral ORPV,
quadrilateral QSVT,

be in one

will

and therefore the quadrilateral


the angles

rhombus PEQS,

for the space outside the frame,

stress,

a straight

will also be in

PSV

for the

for the triangle

A, and since the opposite sides of the rhombus are

will

ORP,

D
E
F

and

putting

OS are equal, the


FDA, ABE must be

can be inscribed in a

circle,

and the corresponding angles

PT

is

diagonal

angles
equal,

and therefore
in

the frame

equal to QT.
of

the

rhombus,

must be

the

in

other diagonal.

The diagram

DC

of stress

BE, and

parallel to

completed

is

joining

EC

by drawing

This diagram therefore consists of a parallelogram

a point

in

the

circle

parallel

to

BD, and

FC.

passing through

FBD, and

BDCE,

a diagonal

four lines

ED,

drawn from

to the angles of the parallelogram.


If

we now

begin with the diagram of stress, and proceed to construct a

frame reciprocal to
cyclical

direction in

in

the one case

in

fig.

1,

in

the

it,

the form of the frame will be different according to the

which the sides of the rhombus

we have the
other

and

points

will

and

both

PRQS
outside

are

the

lettered.

If

rhombus as

both be within the rhombus as in

fig.

3.

BOWS METHOD OF DRAWING DIAGRAMS


The

stresses

If in
pieces

the corresponding pieces of

in

they are equal

in

and

fig.

TP

cross

points 0, P, Q, R, S,

in

fig.

joined by nine

2^-3

the form of the figure

is

lines

and

one another at

a plane are joined by

of the

arm

of the

or

the figure

equal

all

arm

consider

is

if

stiff,

that

simply

For

OR

lines,

that

we have

general

in

determined by the lengths of the

h the length of either


if

we

'A,

Now

lines.

other eight are given.

TQ, then

fig.

iC

the
six

points in
is

to

say

and there are

lines.

linkage the length of any

Peaucellier's

rhombus,

TP

are

fig.

without intersecting,

no necessary relations between the lengths of the

But in
when those

and

497

STATICS.

any pair of them.

the frames represented

OS

GRAPHICAL

IN

if

line,

as

the

is

or OS, c

OT,

the

is

determined

length of a side
length of either

OT=d,
d'

= h' + c--a\

Hence

if any one of the nine pieces of the linkage be removed, the motion
remaining eight will be the same as before, and a given stress in any
one of the nine will produce stresses in each of the other eight which are

of the

detenninate in magnitude

when the

configuration of the linkage

is

given, though

they alter during the motion of the linkage.

VOL. XL

63

[From the Proceedings of

On

LXXVI.

the

the

Cambridge Philosophical

attacked by Kirchofi" in

first

ii.,

1876.]

Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.

The thermodynamical problem


was

Society, Vol.

of the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances

1855,

who

studied the properties of mixtures

and the density of the vapour in equilibrium with


His method has recently been adopted by C. Neumann in his

of sulphuric acid with water,

the mixture.
Vorlesungen

iiber

of these writers,

die mechanische

Thermodynamics, namely, the


It

is

Theorie der

Wdrme

(Leipzig,

1875).

Neither

however, makes use of two of the most valuable concepts in


intrinsic

energy and the entropy of the substance.

probably for this reason that their methods do not readily give an

explanation of those states of equilibrium which are stable in themselves,

which the contact of certain substances may render unstable.


I therefore wish to point out to the Society the methods
Professor J.
the

Willard Gibbs

Academy of

light

of

Yale

College,

published in the

of Connecticut, which seem to

Sciences

me

to

adopted

but

by

Transactions of

throw a new

on Thermodynamics.

He considers the intrinsic energy (e) of a homogeneous mass consisting of


n kinds of component matter to be a function of n + 2 variables, namely, the
volume

of

the

mass

v,

its

entropy

t},

and the n masses, m m^...m^, of

its

component substances.

Each of these
for

variables represents a physical quantity, the value of which,

a material system,

By

is

the

sum

of

its

values for the parts of the system.

energy with respect to each of these variables (considered as independent), we obtain a set of n + 2 differential coefficients which
Thus,
represent the intensity of various properties of the substance.
differentiating the

EQUILIBRIUM OF HETEROGENEOUS SUBSTANCES.

= p^
-~

0,

where

is

where 6

is

the temperature on the thermodynamic scale

where

/Lii,

the pressure of the substance

the

is

/i,

499

potential

component

of the

with respect to

(??i,)

-J

the

compound mass.
Each of the component substances has therefore a
to the

with respect

potential

whole mass.

The idea of the


His definition

is

potential

as follows

of a

substance

is,

any homogeneous mass we suppose an

If to

due to

I believe,

Prof. Gibbs.

quantity of any

infinitesimal

substance to be added, the mass remaining homogeneous, and

its entropy and


volume remaining unchanged, the increase of the energy of the mass, divided
by the mass of the substance added, is the potential of that substance in the

mass considered.

The condition

of the

equilibrium

stable

Gibbs in either of the two following w^ays


the

Fo7'

I.

in

that

equilibrium of any isolated system

all possible

variations

energy, the variation of

For

II.

its

the

mass

of the

is

expressed by Prof.

the

state

is

it

necessary

and

sufficient

system which do not alter

of
of
entropy shall either vanish or be negative.

the equilibrium of

any

isolated system

is

it

necessary

and

sufficient

of the state of the system which do not alter


entropy, the variation of the energy shall either vanish or be positive.
that

in

all possible

The

variations

matter through any


It

values

follows
in

all

variations

finite distance.

of

the mass.

For

higher to places of lower temperature,

for

is

lower,

if it

Hence

Prof.

6,

not,

if

the

places of higher to places of low^er pressure,

substances will pass from places where


it

its

here spoken of must not involve the transportation of any

from this that the quantities


parts

its

its

p,

/Xi.../in

heat will

mass

as

niust

flow

a whole

have the same


from

will

places

of

move from

and each of the several component


potential

is

higher to places where

can do so continuously.

Gibbs shews that

if 0,

a given phase of the compound, and

P,
if

3/i...J/ are the values of 6,]),

fti--/A,.

the quantity

A'= 0r; + Pf Mjn^ kc. Mjn^,

G3

EQUILIBRIUM OF HETEROGENEOUS SUBSTANCES.

500

zero for the given fluid, and is positive for every other phase of the same
components, the condition of the given fluid will be stable.
If this condition holds for all variations of the variables the fluid will be

is

but if it holds only for small variations but not for certain
then the fluid will be stable when not in contact with matter
is positive, but if matter in any one of
in any of those phases for which
equiUbrium will be destroyed, and a
its
it,
with
Contact
in
is
phases
these
absolutely

stable,

variations,

finite

portion will pass into the phase of the substance with which

Thus

in Professor F.

is

in contact.

was cooled to a temperature somewhat below - 37*

per cent,

of 37

it

Guthrie's experiments, a solution of chloride of calcium


C. without

solidification.

In this

fluid,

state,

however, the contact of three different sohds determines three

kinds of soHdification.

diflerent

of cryohydrate from the fluid, and the anhydrous

anhydrous

slightly from

from the

salt causes

a precipitation of

salt.

The phase of the


its

widely

certain

ice to separate

of ice causes

piece

piece of the cryohydrate of chloride of calcium determines the formation

fluid

own

phase,

different

is

such that

and

phases,

its

is

positive

equilibrium

namely,

ice,

is

for all

therefore

and

cryohydrate

phases differing

but

stable,

anhydrous

for
salt,

negative.

is

If none

therefore

the fluid
ditions

equal

of these

substances are in contact with the

fluid,

phase without a transport of matter through a

in

alter

stable
is

but

if

any one of them

all

in

contact with the

enabled to pass into a phase in which

of consistent phases
for

is

phases

are

the fluid cannot

finite .distance,

that the values of

K
6,

is

p,

fluid,

negative.
tii.-.fJin,

and

The

and

is

part of
con-

are

which can coexist in equilibrium, the surface of contact

being plane.

This was illustrated

by

Mr

Main's

mixtures of chloroform, alcohol and water.

experiments

on

co-existent

phases

of

[From Nature,

LXXVIL
The

Vol. xiv.]

Diffusion of Gases through Ahsorhing Substances.

importance of the exact "study of the motions of gases, not only as

a method of distinguishing one gas from another, but as likely to increase our

knowledge of the dynamical theory of gases, was pointed out by Thomas Graham.

Graham

himself studied the most important phenomena, and distinguished from

each other those in which the principal effect

is

due to different properties of

gases.

The motion of large masses of the gas approximates to that of a perfect


having the same density and pressure as the gas. This is the case with
the motion of a single gas when it flows through a large hole in a thin
The result
plate from one vessel into another in which the pressure is less.
fluid

in

case

this

is

found to be in accordance with the principles of the dynamics

This was approximately estabUshed by Graham, and the more accurate

of fluids.

which the thermodynamic

properties

of

the

gas

are

taken

formula,

in

account,

has been verified by the experiments of Joule and Thomson.

R.

S.,

May, 1856.)

When
of
are

into

{Proc.

the

orifice

is

exceedingly small,

may

gases that the total discharge

two currents

being the same

in

opposite

it

appears from the molecular theor}-

be calculated

directions,

the

by supposing that there

quantity flowing

had been discharged into a vacuum.


gases the volume discharged in a given

in

each

current

as if it

For different

standard pressure and temperature,

is

time,

reduced

to

proportional to

-=

where

is

the actual pressure,

reckoned from

274'C.

is

the specific gravity, and

the temperature


DIFFUSION OF GASES THROUGH

502

ABSORBING SUBSTANCES.

the gases in the two vessels are

When

different,

each gas

is

discharged

according to this law independently of the other.


These phenomena, however, can be observed only when the thickness of the

and the diameter of the aperture are very

l)late

AVhen

this

is

the case, the distance

is

small.

very small between a point in the

where the mixed gas has a certain compoBition, and a point in the
second vessel where the mixed gas has a quite different composition, so that
the velocity of diffusion through the hole between these two points is large
first

vessel

compared with the velocity of flow of the mixed gas arising from the difference
of the total pressures in the two vessels.
When the hole is of sensible magnitude this distance is larger, because
the reo-ion of mixed gases extends further from the hole, and the effects of
diffusion

become completely masked by the

in mass, arising from the difference of the

effect

total

of

current

the

pressures in the

of

the

two

gas

vessels.

In this latter case the discharge depends only on the nature of the gas in
the vessel of greater pressure, and on the resultant pressures in the two vessels.
It consists entirely of the gas of the first vessel, and there is no appreciable
counter current of the gas of the other vessel.
Hence the experiments on the double current must be

made

either through

a single very small aperture, as in Graham's first experiment with a glass vessel
accidentally cracked, or through a great number of apertures, as in Graham's
later

experiments with porous septa of plaster of Paris or of plumbago.

With

such septa the following phenomena are observed

When the gases on the two sides of the septum are different, but have the
same pressure, the reduced volumes of the gases diffused in opposite directions
through the septum are inversely as the square roots of their specific gravities.
If one

or both

of the

vessels

is

of invariable volume, the interchange of

inequality of pressure, the pressure becoming greater in the

cause an
which contains the heavier gas.
If a vessel contains a mixture of gases, the gas diffused from the vessel through
a porous septum will contain a larger proportion of the lighter gas, and the pro-

icas

will

vessel

portion of the heavier gas remaining in the vessel will increase during the process.

The
viscosity

rate
or

of flow of a gas through a long capillary tube depends

internal

specific gravity.

friction

of the

gas,

a property

quite

upon the

independent

of

its

DIFFUSION OF GASES THI10U(JII

ABSORBING SUBSTANCES.

504

The phenomena of diffusion studied by Dr v. WroblewskI are quite distinct


The septum througli which the giis is observed to pass is
apparently quite free from pores, and Ls hideed quite impervious to certain
from any of these.

gases, while it allows others to pass.

was the opinion of Graham that the substance of the septum is capable
into a more or less intimate combination with the substance of the
that on the side where the gas has greatest pressure the process of

It

of entering

gas;

combination
the gas

is

septum

that of the
are

richer

always going on

is

that at the other side, where the pressure of

smaller, the substance of the gas

the

in

while

in

substance

the

of the

gas

always becoming dissociated from

is

interior

are

septum

the

of

communicating

those

parts

wlncli

to

those

which

it

are poorer.

The

rate at which this diffusion takes place depends therefore on the power

of the gas to

be

rapidly

combine with the substance of the septum.

of water

film

or

a soap-bubble,

those gases

will

which are most readily absorbed by water, but

caoutchouc the order of the gases

will

be

Thus

pass
if

the

The

different.

if

the septum

through

most

it

septum

be

of

discovered by

fact

St Claire-Deville and Troost that certain gases can pass through plates of red-

Graham

hot metals, was explained by

Franz Exner'" has studied the


finds

the rate of diffusion

is

in the

directly

and inversely as the square root of the


Stefan

in his

of this form

is

to

paper on the

first

same manner.

diffusion of gases

as

the

through soap-bubbles, and

absorption-coefficient

of

the

gas,

specific gravity.
diflfusion

of gases has shewn that a law

be expected, but he says that he will not go further into

the problem of the motion of gases in absorbing medium, as

it

ought to form

the subject of a separate investigation.

Dr

V.

Wroblewski has confined himself

to the investigation of the relation

between the rate of diffusion and the pressure of the diffusing gas on the two
The membrane was of caoutchouc, 0'0034 cm. thick.
sides of the membrane.

was almost completely impervious to air. The rate at which carbonic acid
through the membrane was proportional to the pressure of that gas,
and was independent of the pressure of the air on the other side of the
It

diffused

Pogg. Ann., Bd. 155.


t

1871.

Ueber das Gleichgewicht

u.

d.

DiJ'union von Gasgemengrn.

Sitzb.

dor

k.

Akad. (Wien). Jan.

5,

DIFFUSION OF GASES THROUGH ABSORBING SUBSTANCES.

504

The connexion between


membrane, provided this air was from carbonic acid.
and Henry's law of absorption is pointed out.

this result

The time

of diffusion of hydrogen through caoutchouc

an equal volume of carbonic

acid.

carbonic acid takes place as

if

The

diffusion

each gas

diffused

hope that Dr

v.

Wroblewski

will

3 '6

independently

at a rate proportional to the part of the pressure which

We

is

continue

is

his

the

of

due to that
researches,

a complete investigation of the phenomena of diffusion through


stances.

times that of

of a mixture of hydrogen and

other

gas.

and make

absorbing

sub-

[From the Kensington Museum Handbook;

LXXVIII.

21.]

our control,

and

in

observe and interpret natural phenomena.


for

example, those of astronomy

conditions,

various

powerful method of investigation

that

every

Experiment, like

we can make

the study of these

When, however, we
we are in

the method of Observation.

be repeated under

Apparatus.

Experiments.

The aim of Physical Science is to


Of natural phenomena, some as,

An

General coiisidemtiojis concerning Scientific

1.

subject to

pp.

are

use

only

not
of

can cause the phenomenon to


possession

of

much more

of Experiment.

other

event

which takes

place,

is

a natural

a Scientific Experiment the circumstances are so arranged


that the relations between a particular set of phenomena may be studied to

phenomenon; but

in

the best advantage.

In designing an Experiment the agents and phenomena to be studied are


All
regarded as the Field of Investigation.
all others and
phenomena not included within this field are called Disturbing
and the experiment must be so arranged
Agents, and their effects Disturbances
that the effects of these disturbing agents on the phenomena to be investigated

marked

off

from

agents and

shall

be as small as possible.

We

may

afterwards

change

the

field

of

our

investigation,

and

include

phenomena which in our former investigation we regarded as


The experiments must now be designed so as to bring into
disturbances.
prominence the phenomena which we formerly tried to get rid of When we
have in this way ascertained the laws of the disturbances, we sliall be better
prepared to make a more thorough investigation of what we began by regarding
within

it

those

as the principal

VOL.

II.

phenomena.
64

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

506
Thus,

Friction

we endeavour

experiments where

in

by observing the

motion

which

to detect

produces

it

in

or to measure a force

a movable

we

body,

regard

and we arrange the experiment so that the


be observed may be impeded as little as possible by friction.
a disturbing agent,

as

motion to

2.

Everything which

is

required

Apparatus.
in

make an experiment

order to

called

is

Apparatus.

A
is

piece of apparatus constructed specially for the performance of experiments

an Instrument.

called

Apparatus may be designed to produce and exhibit a particular phenomenon,


to

eliminate the effects of disturbing agents, to regulate the physical conditions

of the phenomenon, or to measure the magnitude of the

many

In

experiments, special apparatus

phenomenon

required for

is

all

itself

these purposes,

but certain pieces of apparatus are used in a great variety of experiments, and

whole classes of insti-uments which

there are

Thus,

have

certain

principles

of

con-

common.

struction in

in

instruments in which motion

all

is

to

be

produced

must

there

be a prime mover or driving power, and a train of mechanism to connect the

prime mover with the body to be moved


is

necessary

such

as

and

in

many

cases additional apparatus

a break to destroy the superfluous energy of the prime

mover, or a reservoir to store up

its

energy when not required

and we may

have special apparatus to measure the force transmitted, the velocity produced,
or the

work done,

We may

or to regulate

make a somewhat

them by automatic governors.


similar classification of the functions of apparatus

belonging to other physical sciences

3.

such

as Electricity, Heat, Light, Sound, &c.

General Principle of the Construction of Apparatus.

There are

certain

primary requisites, however, which

are

common

to

all

instruments, and which therefore are to be carefully considered in designing or

them.

selecting

The fundamental

principle

is,

instrument should be adapted to the use that


particular, that

displaced

that
is

to

the

be

of

it,

the

of

construction

made

and

in

the parts intended to be fixed should not be liable to become

that those which

ought to be movable should not stick

fast

that

SCIENTIFU

CON'CERNING

which have to be observed should not be covered

parts
(lark

507

Al'l'ARATUS.

and

or

uj)

kept

intended to liave a definite form shoukl not

that pieces

in

the

disfigured

l>e

hy warping, straining, or wearing.


It

we

therefore desirable, before

is

according to the phenomena with

enter on the classification of instruments

which they are

few of the principles which must be attended to in

Each

solid piece of

and to have

other forces, but

it

not only diminish

We

alter

its

of an

we have

observations

shape.

figure,

It

is

by

acted on

and

for

for these

changes

unexpected

their

in

strain,

pieces of an

of securing for the fixed parts a determinate

and of ensuring that the movable parts

move

shall

yet without

freely,

shake.

we may do by attending to the well-known


Body has Six Degrees of Freedom."

This

body

rigid

ments are

is

one whose form does not vary.

but not

solid,

the

make.

to

instrument from unnecessary

lliGiD

may be much

produce disturbance or confusion

experiment,

out

weight, and

stresses,

purposes

scientific

may, by

own

its

have, therefore, to consider the methods of relieving the

position,

"

intended to be either fixed or movable,

but (what

strength,

its

course

the

is

point

to

instruments.

all

ought not to be subjected to unnecessary

more injurious) they


during

an instrument

a certain definite

connected,

hut such change of form

They

rigid.
is

fact

The

in

kinematics

" A

pieces of our instru-

are liable to change of form under stress,

not desirable, except in certain special parts, such

as springs.

Hence,

a solid piece

if

internal

subject to

stress,

constrained

is

and

will

in

more than

become strained or

six

ways

distorted,

it

will

be

and

this

in

manner which, without the most exact micrometrical measurements,

it

would

be impossible to specify.

In instruments which are exposed to rough


advisable

to

and jamming

secure a piece from


it

becoming

but in apparatus

for

usage

accurate

it

work

it

bearings of every piece should be properly defined, both in

4.

When
base

it

may sometimes

be

even at the risk of straining

loose,

is

essential

number and

that

the

in position.

Methods of placing an Instrument

in

a Definite Position.

intended to stand

in

a definite position on a fixed

an instrument

must have

six

is

bearings,

so

arranged that

if

one of the bearings were

642

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

508

removed the direction


be

left

in

which the corresponding point of the instrument would

move by the other bearings must be

to

free

nearly

as

as

possible

normal to the tangent plane at the bearing.


(This condition implies that, of the normals to the tangent planes at the

point or are
parallel,

or,

meet

no three are in one plane, and either

no two coincide;

bearings,

one plane,

parallel; no
more generally, belomg to

four are

The

hyperboloid of one sheet.

in

meet

or

in

same system of generators

the

and

conditions for five normals

in

a point, or

are

an

of

for six are

more

complicated.)'"

These conditions are

fixed base three

meet

directions

bears

foot

is,

of 120".

at angles

in a point

the end of each

by the well-known method of forming on the


and whose

satisfied

grooves, whose sides are inclined 45" to the base,

The instrument has three

roughly speaking, conical, but so rounded

against the two sides

of clay,

is

hole,

like that

stands in the

bearings in

each of the three feet

any but the proper

groove

is

in

of

differently

hole, and has


two bearings; and

the triangular

groove, and has

the

base,

method of three

foot into the hole

5.

cut in a direction passing

is

and has one bearing.

This method, though

all.

large a margin of stability as the

that as

plane

on the horizontal
six

feet of the instrument are all rounded,

The longest stands

three bearings; the second

There are thus

The three

hole.

but of different lengths.


the third stands

subject,

formed by pressing an angle of a cube into a mass

formed in the base, and a

through the centre of the

this

arrangement in some of his instruments.

different

it

and cannot reach the bottom. The


and is kept in its place by its weight,

without being subjected to any unnecessary strain.


Sir William Thomson, who has bestowed much attention on

triangular

feet;

that

groove,

of the

instrument has thus six solid bearings,

has adopted a somewhat

off

it

does not give so

grooves, has this advantage,

formed,

it

is

impossible

to

put

without detecting the mistake.

Bearings of Mirrors,

In mounting mirrors it is especially important to attend to the number


and position of their bearings, for any stress on the mirror spoils its figure,
and renders it useless for accurate work.
* See Ball

on the Theory of Screws.

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


For small mirrors
three

bearings,

solid

its

own

When

of the

face

contact

in

it

mirror rest against

by three

these

witli

prevent any displacement of the mirror out of

will

bearings against
in

make one

best to

is

spring

exactly opposite to them against the other face of the mirror.

bearings placed

These

it

and to keep

509

the edges of the mirror, by which

it

it

The

j)roper plane.

prevented from phifting

is

plane, are, in the case of small mirrors, of less importance.

the mirror

is

as

large,

the

in

the

of

case

speculum

of

large

number of bearings is required to prevent the mirror from


becoming strained by its own weight
but in all cases the number of Jijced
bearings at the back of the mirror must be three and only three, otherwise
telescope, a greater

any warping of the framework

6.

It

is

will entirely spoil the figure of the surface.

Bearings of Standards of Length.

The box
is

in

standard measure of length, by

greatest importance that the

of the

which the national unit of length

is

defined, should not be exposed to strain.

which the standard yard

is

kept

the Exchequer Chamber

in

provided with bearings, the positions of which have been arranged so that

the bar

may

rest

on them with as

consistent with the fact that

7.

it

is

On the Bearings

Rotation round an axis

(3)

Screw motion,

definite

in

which a

(2)

with

definite

For one degree of freedom

one

degree

of

Motion of translation without

motion of translation along that

dition being supplied

substance as

its

is

of Movable Parts.

The most important kinds of motion


(1)

throughout

strain

little

a heavy body.

five

rotation

freedom
rotation

are,

and

about an axis corresponds to a

axis.

solid

bearings are

required, the sLxth con-

by that part of the instrument which regulates the motion

of the piece.

The

construction

of

pieces

capable

of

rotation

about

an

axis

is

better

understood than any other department of mechanism.


In astronomical instruments, four of the bearings are supplied by the twt
Y's

on which the cylindrical end-pieces of the axle rest, and the fifth by the
of a bearing against one end of the axle, or a shoulder

longitudinal pressure

formed upon

it.

The weight

of the

instrument

is

generally

sufficient

to

keep

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

510
it

contact

ill

with

but when the

bearings;

its

pressure on the bearings

likely to injure

is

weight

is

so

great

the

that

them, the greater part of the weight

supported by auxiliary bearings, the pressure of which is regulated by counterpressure to be borne by the true
l)oises or springs, leaving only a moderate

is

bearings.

Translation.

8.

Motion of translation

in a fixed direction,

This kind of motion

is

pieces,

as the verniers

without rotation.

required for pieces which slide along straight fixed

and microscopes of measuring apparatus, such as catheto-

meters and micrometers, the slide-rests of lathes, the pistons of steam-engines

and pumps, &c.

When
plane,

of its

feet

have a motion of

to

is

may be made

to

slide

in

this

kind

groove,

in

horizontal

while the third

on the horizontal plane.

rests

When
to

a tripod stand

two

a cylindrical rod

bear against two fixed

by

axis

is

Y's,

a bearing, connected

to have a longitudinal motion,

and must be

prevented

from

it

must be made

rotating

on

either with the cylinder or the fixed piece,

its

which

on a surface whose plane passes through the axis of the cylinder.


as in cathetometers and other measuring apparatus, a piece has to
sUde along a bar, the five bearings of the piece may be arranged so that
three of them form a triangle on one face of the bar, while the two others

slides

When,

an adjacent face of the bar, the line joining these two being in
the direction of motion. These bearings may be kept tight, without the possisides of the bar.
liility of jamming, by means of spring bearings against the other
rest against

9.

In

these

all

considerable waste
little

Parallel Motion by Linkwork.

methods

guiding a piece

of

of energy

by

moment, compared with the

of the guiding

surfaces,

arising

errors

by

In many

friction.

sliding
cases,

contact,

however,

there
this

is

is

a
of

depending on the necessary imperfection

not only from original defects of workmanship

hut from straining and wearing during use.


It

is

true that great

Whitworth,

in the art of

advances have been made, and notably by Sir J.


forming truly plane and cyUndric surfaces; but even

511

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


are

these

to

liable

become

not only by

altered,

of temperature, so that

inequalities

it

wear

by

Ijut

and

strain

by

never safe to depend upon the perfect

is

accuracy of the fitting of a large bearing surface, except when the pressure

is

very great.

mutual bearing

their

extent of

is

of

any two

pieces

The

one of pure rotation about a well-turned axle.

surfaces

sliding

tlie

the relative motion

on the other hand,

In hnkwork,
at

reduced

thus

is

to

a minimum, so

that

less

and the workmanship of such bearings can be brought


much nearer to perfection than that of any other kind of fittings. Hence, in
all prime movers and other machines, in whicli waste of power by friction is
power

to

by

lost

is

friction,

be avoided, and even

desirable,

The

if

possible,

is

it

so-called

in

those

which great

in

to guide the motion

" Parallel

Motion

"

invented

accuracy

is

required,

it

i-

by linkwork.

by James Watt

attempt to guide a motion of translation by means

of linkwork

was
;

the

first

though

but

very nearly rectilinear, it is not exactly >o.


is
invented since the time of Watt, as, for
have
been
Various other contrivances
the Gorgon by Mr Seaward; but all of
of
engines
the
to
fitted
that
instance,

motion

the

them

involved

contact on

that

as

thus

guided

either

true

rectilinear

from

deviation

true

rectilinear

motion,

or

sliding

was generally supposed by mathematicians


motion, guided by pure linkwork, was a geometrical

a plane surface,

and

it

impossibility.

the year 1864 that M. Peaucellier published his invention of an


motion
by pure linkwork, and thus opened up the path to a
exact parallel
very great extension of the science of mechanism, and its practical applications.
The linkwork motions constructed by M. Garcia, Mr Penrose, and others, and
It

was

in

the extensions of the theory of linkwork by

now

Sylvester,

Hart, and Kempe, are

well known, but they could not be fully described within our present

10.

limits.

Screw Motion.

of instruments are to a great extent made l)y means oi'


of levelling screws, which bear the weight of an instrucase
the
In
screws.
bearing
ment, the thread of the screw is always in contact with its proper

The adjustments

in

the nut;

but in micrometer screws

by means of a

spring.

This spring

Is

it

is

necessary to

sometimes made

of the screw, or a shoulder turned upon

it;

but

this

secure

this

contact

to bear against the

arrangement

end

causes

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

512

pressure as the screw

variable
to
is

moves forward.

mucli better arrangement

is

make the spring bear, not against the screw itself, but against a nut which
free to move on the screw, but which is prevented from turning round by a

proper

This movable nut always remains at the same distance from

bearing.

the fixed one,

that the

so

the spring remains

of

pressure

the arrangement of the micrometer screws in Sir

many

In

instruments there

motion of which

with respect to the force which acts upon


of a

body,

force

we

an attractive or repulsive

or

investigating, the

are

is

a movable part or indicator, the position or

is

some conclusion

to be observed in order to deduce therefrom

is

This

constant.

Thomson's electrometers.

securing Freedom of Motion.

On Contrivances for

11.

W.

resistance

any kind

of

force

may

This force

it.

Friction

called

be the weight

but,

the

besides

always acting as a

is

disturbing force.
If the

magnitude and direction of the

of friction were

force

accurately known, this would be of less consequence


to

liable

is

sudden

alterations,

at

times

all

but the amount of

friction

to causes which we can often neither


way in which we can make any approach
much as possible the effect of friction. The
Whenever there is sliding
are of two kinds.

owing

suspect nor detect, so that the only

accuracy is by diminishing as
modes by which this is effected
and wherever there is complete freedom of motion
contact, there is friction
there must be sliding contact; but by making the extent of the sliding motion

to

small compared with the motion of the indicating part,

we may reduce the

effect

of friction to a very small part of the whole effect.

This

is

done in rotating parts by diminishing the

by supporting

it

on friction-wheels

and

in

obliquely,

balanced on a fine point,

as

in

Hooke's

teeth.*

very small force applied to either end of the needle

In

all

and the extent of the bearing

these instances the

of friction

effect

is

is

compass
is

and

axle,

by keeping the
or more perfectly

bearings of the teeth as near as possible to the line of centres,

by cutting the teeth

the

of

size

wheels

toothed

sufiicient to

needle

small

so

turn

it

that

is

round.

reduced by diminishing the

extent of the sliding motion.

In balances and other levers the bearing of the lever


prism,

a
*

called

Communicated

knife-edge, having

to the

is

in

the form of

an angle of about 120"; the edge of

Royal Society in 1666.

See Willis's Principles of Mecluinism, 1870,

this

p. 53.

513

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


prism

is

accurately

ground to a straight

line,

and

rests

on a plane horizontal

surface of agate.

The

relative motion in this case is one of rolling contact.


In another class of instruments sliding and rolling are entirely done away

and

with,

freedom of

sufficient

motion

secured by the pliability of

is

certain

solid parts.

Thus many pendulums are hung, not on knife-edges, but on pieces of


watch-spring, and torsion balances are suspended by metallic wires or by silk
The motion of the piece is then affected by the elastic force of the
fibres.
suspension
friction,

but this force

apparatus,

and

effects

its

is

much more

regular

can be accurately taken account

of,

in

its

than

action

and a proper

cor-

rection applied to the observed result.

12.

The balance
in

The Torsion Rod, or Balance of

of torsion

has been of the greatest benefit to modern science

the measurement of small forces.

The

first

constructed by the Rev. John Michell, formerly


at

Cambridge, in order to observe the


lead

large

balance.

of the

the

experiment,

Wollaston,

on a

balls

rod

and

was

and

pair

of smaller

Michell,
his

Torsion.

effect

balls

instrument of the kind was that

Woodwardian
of

the

Professor of Geology

attraction

of a

pair

hung from the extremities

of

of

the

however, died before he had opportunity to make

apparatus came into the hands of Professor F.

transmitted

greatly improved the apparatus,'"

J.

H.

Cavendish
by him to Henry Cavendish.
and successfully measured the attraction of the

and thus determined the density of the earth.f


The experiment has since been repeated by Reich and Baily. In the meantime, however, independently of Michell, and before Cavendish had actually
used the instrument, Coulomb | had invented a torsion balance, by which he
balls,

established

the laws of the attraction and repulsion of electrified and magnetic

bodies.
* Cavendish's apparatus

now

t Philosophical Transactions,
*

VOL. n.

Mhn.

belongs to the Royal Institution,


1798.

de VAcademie, 1784, kc.

65

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

514

BiFiLAR Suspension.

13.

The

elastic

of friction,

force

force
is

of torsion of a wire, though

much more

alterations arising from hitherto

to

suhject

regular than the

unknown

but probably depending on facts in the previous history of the wire,

causes,

such as

having been subjected to twists and other strains before it was hung up.
Hence it is sometimes better to employ another mode of suspension, in which

its

the force of restitution depends principally on the weight of the suspended parts.
The body is suspended by two wires or fibres, which are close together
vertical, and are so connected by a pulley that their tensions are
The body is in equilibrium when the two fibres are in the same plane.
When the body is turned about a vertical axis, the tension of the fibres produces
a force tending to turn the body back towards its position of equilibrium; and
this force is very regular in its action, and may be accurately determined by

and nearly
equal.

proper experiments.

This arrangement,

Gauss and Weber

for

which

is

Bally in his experiments on the

14.

The observed

position

called

magnetic

their

the Bifilar suspension, was invented by


apparatus.

It

was afterwards used by

attraction of balls.

Methods of Reading.

of the

indicating part

of an

instrument

is

recorded

To ascertain the position of the indicating part of the


instrument various methods have been adopted. The commonest method is to
make the indicating part in the form of a light needle, the point of which
The position of the needle is estimated by
moves near a graduated circle.

as

the

"Beading."

observing the position of

By

its

point with respect to the divisions of the scale.

giving the needle two points

at

opposite

observing the position of both points,

we may

the want of

coincidence

extremities

of a

diameter,

and

eliminate the errors arising from

between the centre of the graduated

circle

and the

axis of motion of the needle.

As it is
This is the method adopted in ordinary magnetic compasses.
necessary for freedom of motion that the point of the needle should not be in
actual

contact with the graduated limb,

the reading will

change in the position of the eye of the observer.

The

be

afiected

by any

error thus introduced

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


called

is

made through an

eye-hole

place a plane mirror

to

In some instruments, therefore, the observation

the error of Parallax.

is

under the needle, and

their

in

we may suppose
this

axis,

through the

vertical.

and

so

so

across

indicating

the

piece

of view

field

any division of the

The
optical

error

^s

scale

to

scale

by

telescope,

at

its

middle

is

entirely

images whose relative position

point

in

is

passes

observed

the plane of distinct vision.

may

got rid of by this method,


is

is

which

the

with the vertical wire of the telescope

of parallax

axis,

its

image of the scale passes


and the coincidence of the image of

axis,

its

small plane mirror

about

reflexion in the mirror

vertical wire

turns about

A
it

placed so as to be perpendicular

is

the

of this scale

of the

by Poggendorff, and used

turn with

to

divided scale

by means of a telescope having a

As the

is

reflexion in the mirror.

that invented

is

that a normal

The image

axis.

own

magnetic observations.

attached to the indicating piece,

to

its

better plan, however,

taking the reading to place

in

Spiegel- Ablesung, or Mirror-Reading.

more accurate method

still

by Gauss and Weber

a definite position.

in

the eye so that the needle appears to cover

15.

515

be observed.
for

the two

observed are in the same plane.

Another method of using the mirror

is

to reverse the direction of the rays

by removing the eye-piece of the telescope, and putting the flame of


lamp
in
its place.
The light emerging from the object-glass falls on the
a
mirror, and is reflected so as to form on the scale a somewhat confused image
The reading
of the flame, with a distinct image of the vertical wire crossing it.
of light

is

made by observing the position on the scale of the image of the vertical
In many instruments the telescope is dispensed with, and the mirror is

wire.

a concave one, as in Thomson's reflecting galvanometer.

Some German

writers distinguish this

method of using the mirror and

with a lamp as the objective method, the method

in

through the telescope being called the subjective method.


is

scale

which the observer looks

The

objective

method

the only one adapted for the photographic registration of the readings.

IG.

To
line

ascertain

Ramsden's Ghost.

the exact position of an instrument with respect to a pluml)-

without touching the

line,

Ramsden

fixed a convex

lens

to

a part of his

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

516

and placed a wire

instrument,

when the instrument was

that

so

in its proper

image of the plumb-line formed by the lens exactly coincided with


By moving the instrument till this coincidence was observed,
the fixed wire.
the instrument was adjusted to its proper position. This contrivance was long
position the

known

"Eamsden's Ghost."

as

and there

microscope;

suspended object

is

It

is,

in

a simple

fact,

is

exactly in

its

form

reading

the

of

ascertaining that

no better method of

a delicately-

proper place.

COLLIMATING TELESCOPE.

17.

two telescopes are made to face one another, and if the cross-wires of
as seen through the second, appear to coincide with the cross-wires
This mode
of the second, the optic axes of the two instruments are parallel.
method
the
called
is
and
of ascertaining parallelism is used in practical astronomy,
If

the

first,

of coUimating telescopes, or of collimators.


It

and

is

used in the Kew portable magnetometer. The magnet is hollow,


a lens at one end and a scale at the other, at the principal focus
The magnet is thus a coUimating telescope, and is observed by

also

carries

of the lens.

The disadvantage of this


means of a telescope mounted on a divided circle.
soon passes out of the
scale
the
method is, that when the magnet is deflected,
in order to get a
his
telescope,
shift
has
to
observer
field of view, and the

new

reading.

Three Classes of

18.

We
method

may, in

fact,

JIeadings.
three

arrange instruments in

classes,

to

the

itself,

and

according

of reading them.

In the self-recording

class

the observer leaves the instrument to

examines the record at his own convenience.


In those which depend on eye obsei-vations

alone,

the

observer

must be

there to look at the indicator of the instrument, but he does not touch it.
In the third class, which depend on eye and hand, the observer, before

taking the reading, must

make some adjustment

19.

of the instrument.

Functions of Instruments.

The foregoing remarks apply

to the constituent parts of instruments, without

reference to the special department of science to

which they belong.

517

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.

The
those

classification of special

belonging

functions
in

to

instruments

department

each

will

be best understood

science

of

according

we arrange

if

resj)ective

their

to

to

some of these functions having instruments corresponding

them

several departments of science, while others are pecuUar to one department.

the physical sciences relate to the passage of energy, under

All

various

its

body to another; but Optics and Acoustics are often representee!


These two sciences, in fact,
as relating to the sensations of sight and hearing.
therefore some parts of
and
aspect,
physical
well
as
a
have a physiological as
forms, from one

them have
The

less

most

analogy with the purely dynamical sciences.


important

1.

is

not,

The energy involved

in

the apparatus at a particular place, which

the phenomenon

we

we may

of energy, which carry

The channels

3.

The

4.

The

5.

Apparatus

6.

Begulators for equalising the rate at which work

7.

Indicators, or

8.

Fixed

it

of

or

of course, produced from nothing, but

2.

where

elements

instruments,

to

The Source of energy.


are studying

belonging

functions

instruments, are as follows

or distributors

enters

the Source.

call
it

it

to the

places

required to do work.

is

restraints,

which prevent

it

from

doing

work when

it

is

not

required.
reservoirs in

which energy

is

for allowing superfluous

movable

pieces,

stored

up

till

it

is

required.

energy to escape.
done.

is

which are acted on by the

forces

under

investigation.

Thus

scales

in solid

on which the position of the indicator

is

read

off.

machinery we have

1.

Prime movers.

2.

Trains of mechanism.

3.

Fixed framework.

4.

Fly-wheels, springs, weights raised.

5.

Friction breaks.

7.

Governors, pendulums, balance springs in watches.


Dynamometers, Strophometers, Watt's indicator, chronographs, &c.

8.

Scales

G.

for

these

indicators.

nomical standard of time.

Standards of length

and mass.

Astro-

GENEILVL CONSIDERATIONS

518

For the phenomena depending on


1.

Pumps, condensing and

2.

Pipes and tubes.

3.

Packing,

fluid pressure

we have

rarifjing syringes, Orsted's Piezometer, Andrews's

apparatus for high pressure.

washers,

4.

caoutchouc tubes,

making

metliods of

paraffin joints

and other

fusion

joints tight.

Air chambers, water reservoirs, vacuum chambers.

5.

Safety valves.

G.

Governors by Siemens and others, Cavaillc^-Col's regulator

organ

for

blast.
7.

Pressure-gauges, barometers, manometers, sphygmographs, &c.

and
8.

specific gravity bottles

areometers,

current meters, gas meters.

Scales for these gauges.

For thermal phenomena


1.

Furnaces, blow-pipe flames, freezing mixtures, solar and electric heat.

2.

Hot water

3.

Non-conducting

pipes, copper conductors.

packing,

cements,

clothing,

steam-jackets,

&c.;

and

ice-jackets.
4.

Regenerators, heaters, &c.

5.

Condensers and safety valves.

G.

Thermostats, (1) by regulation of gas

(2)

by

boiling a liquid of

known

composition.
7.

Thermometers.

thermometer
8.

For
1.

Pyrometers,
;

Standard temperatures
electric

Thermoelectric

Pile,

Siemens'

resistance

Calorimeters.
:

as those of melting

ice,

boiling water, &c.

phenomena

Electric

machines, frictional

machine,

electrophorus,

Holtz'

machine;

voltaic batteries, thermo-electric batteries, magneto-electric machines.


2.

Wires and other metallic conductors; armatures of magnets.

3.

Insulators.

4.

Leyden

jars

polarization

and other
;

" condensers

"

secondary batteries or

magnets, and electro- magnets.

5.

Ptheostats, lightning conductors, &c.

G.

Guthrie's voltastat, regulators of electric lamps, &c.

cells

of

519

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


7.

Electroscopes and electrometers, Coulomb's torsion balance, voltameters,

8.

Standards of resistance, capacity, electro-motive

galvanometers and electrodynamometers, magnetometers.


the Olun,

force, &c., as

the microfarad, L. Clark's voltaic constant cell

From the

physical,

distinguished

as

from the physiological point of view,

the science of Acoustics relates to the excitement of vibrations and the propagation of waves in solids, liquids, and gases, and that of Optics to the excitement

and the propagation of

of vibrations,

From
are

the

radiation, in the luminiferous

excite in us the sensation of Sound, though

considered which

medium.

point of view, only those waves in ordinary matter

physiological

waves which

do not excite this sensation can be detected and studied by appropriate methods.
In the physiological treatment of Optics, only those radiations are considered
excite in us the sensation of Light, though other radiations can be

which

detected and studied by their thermal, chemical, and even mechanical

effects.

Vibrations and Waves.

Physical Aspect of Acoustics.


1.

Vibrations of various bodies.

Sources.

Organ

Air

pipes,

resonators and other

wind instruments.

Reed instruments.
The Siren.
Harp, &c.

Strings

Membranes

Drum,

Rods
2.

&c.

Gong, &c.

Plates

Tuning-fork, &c.

Distributors.

3.

Pugging of

4.

Reservoirs.

Speaking tubes, stethoscopes, &c.

Air

Wood,

Sounding

Metal,

Wires.

floors,

rods.

&c.

Resonators, Organ Pipes, Sounding-boards.

5.

Dampers

6.

Regulators.

7.

Detectors, the ear; Sensitive Flames, Membranes, Phonautographs, &c.

8.

Tuning-forks, pitch-pipes, and musical scales.

of pianofortes.

Organ

Swell.


general considerations

520

Hearing.
Physiological Aspect of Acoustics.
Aj)paratus for determining the conditions
1.
'2.

;>.

4.
5.
(5.

Of
Of
Of
Of
Of
Of

the audibility of sounds.


the perception of the distinction of sounds.

the harmony or discord of simultaneous sounds.


the melodious succession of sounds.
the timbre of sounds, and of the distinction of vowel sounds.
the time required for the perception of the sensation of sound.

Eadiation.

Physical Aspect of Optics.


1.

Heated bodies, solid, liquid, and gaseous.


Heated by a blow-pipe as in the oxy-hydrogen limelight.
Heated by their own combustion, as in the magnesium light

Sources of Radiation,
Solid.

and glowing
Heated by an

coals.

electric

as

current,

the carbon electrodes of

the electric lamp.

Heated by concentrated radiation from other sources,


the phenomenon called Culescence.
Liquid, as in hot fused metals and other bodies.
Heated by their own combustion, as in flames.
Gaseous.
Heated by a Bunsen burner, as the sodium light.

2.

Heated by the voltaic arc.


Heated by the induction spark.
Burning mirrors and lenses, condensing
Distributors.
microscopes,

magic

lanterns,

lighthouse

&c.,

lenses

apparatus

as

for

in

solar

telescopes,

microscopes, &c.
:>.

Selectors.

Absorbing media and

and spectroscopes,
and other

coloured

ruled gratings,

polarizers.

&c.

bodies

in

tourmalines,

general,

prisms

Nicol's

prisms,


521

CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.


4.

Phosphorescent, fluorescent, and calescent bodies.

5.

Opaque

6.

Regulators.

7.

Photometers,

diaphragms, and sHts.

screens,

The

iris

of the eye.

photographic apparatus, actinometer,

thermo|>ile,

Bunsen

and Roscoe's photometer, selenium photometer, Crookes' radiometer,


and other instruments.
8.

Fraunhofer's lines of reference, and

maps

of the spectrum.

sperm candle, burning 120 grains of sperm per

Standard

liour.

li

Sight.

Physiological Aspect of Optics.


Apparatus
1.

2.
3.

The

for

determining the conditions of

\dsibility of objects,

with respect to

illumination, &c.

size,

perception of the distinction of objects.

The
The perception of
light

as

colour,

coming from the

depending

on

the

composition

of

the

object.

Apparatus for comparing the intensity of luminous impressions, as depending


on the intensity of the exciting cause and on the time during which it has
acted, and for tracing the course of the development of a luminous impression
from

its

first

excitation to its final decay

Ophthalmometers,
its

motions

and

for

for ascertaining the

Ophthalmoscopes,

and extinction.

measuring the dimensions of the eye and determining

for illuminating

two

limits of distinct vision.

and observing the

interior of the eye.

Biological Apparatus.

2.

egesta, and weight of living beings.


For testing the strength of animals and measuring the work done

3.

by them.
For measuring the heat which they generate.

4.

For determining the conditions of fatigue of muscles.

1.

5.

VOL.

For measuring the ingesta,

For investigating thg phenomena of the propagation of impulses through


the nerves, and of the excitement of muscular action.,
II.

^^


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.

522
6.

For tracing and registering the rhythmic action of the circulatory and
cardiographs, sphygmographs, stethoscopes, &c.
respiratory operations

7.

8.

Marey's apparatus for registering the paces of men,


the actions of birds and insects during flight.

Instruments
living

for

body

illuminating and

ophthalmoscopes,

for transmitting light


9.

Instruments
coils,

10.

for

rendering

visible

laryngoscopes, &c.

horses, &c.,

and

within

the

parts

and

arrangements

through parts of the living body.

varying the electrical

state

of the

body

induction

&c.

Instruments

for

determining

the

electric

state

of

living

galvanometers with proper electrodes, electrometers, &c.

organs

[From the Kensington Museum Hand

LXXIX.
In countries where
increased

by

Book."]

Instruments connected with Fluids.

the

fertility

artificial irrigation,

of

the

soil

the attention of

all

is

capable

of being

ingenious persons

is

greatly
naturally

means whereby *he labour of raising water may be diminished.


Hence we find that in China and in India, but especially in Eg}7>t, great
progress was made in the art of producing and guiding the motion of water.
The first pump worked by a piston of which we have any account seems

directed to devising

by Ctesibius of Alexandria, about 130 B.C.


The construction of this pump, as described by Vitruvius, resembles that
It had two barrels, which discharged the water
the modern fire-engine.

to be that invented

of

alternately

into

a closed vessel,

the upper part of which contained

air-chamber acted as a reservoir of

energy,

and equalised the

which the water was emitted from the discharge

air.

This

pressure

under

pipe.

Hero, a scholar of Ctesibius, invented a number of ingenious machines.


delighted

in

curious combinations of siphons,

play under unusual circumstances.


to

call

us they have no longer any scientific value,

the
to

"We should

by which fountains were made

first

instances

of apparatus

constructed

He
to

such machines toys, but though

we must

regard them as

among

not in order to minister directly

man's necessities or luxuries, but to excite or to satisfy his curiosity with

respect to the

more unusual phenomena of nature.

From the time

of Ctesibius and

Hero

to that of Galileo (1600)

constructed chiefly for useful, as distinguished from


siderable

skill

was developed

in

scientific,

pumps were

purposes, and con-

the art of forming the barrel and

piston

so

as to work with a certain degree of accuracy.


Galileo shewed that the reason why water ascends in a sucking pump is
not that Nature abhors a vacuum, but that the pressure of the atmosphere
acts

on

the

free

surface

of

the water, and that this pressure will force the

662

INSTRUMENTS CONNECTED WITH FLUIDS.

524

water only to a height of 34 feet; for when this height is reached, the water
rises no further, and this shews either that the pressure of the atmosphere is
balanced by that of the column of water, or else that Nature has become
reconciled to a vacuum.

From

time the production of a vacuum became the

this

aimed at by a

made the

1642,

number

gi-eat

greatest

step

of inventors.
in

Torricelli,

direction,

this

by

filling

scientific

pupil

the

object

of Galileo,

in

with mercury a tube

its open end in a vessel


was long enough the mercury fell, leaving an empty
The vacuum obtained by filling a vessel with
space at the top of the tube.
mercury and removing the mercury without admitting any other matter is hence
Torricelli, therefore, gave us at once the mercurycalled the Torricellian vacuum.
the subsequent history of these two instruments
though
barometer,
pump and the

closed

one end and then inverting the tube with

at

If the tube

of mercury.

is

very different.

little

principle

1654 Otto Von Guericke, of Magdeburg, first applied the


common pump to the production of a vacuum. The fitting of
the pumps of those days, however, though sufiiciently water-tight,

before

of the

the pistons of

was by no means

air-tight.

He

therefore began

by

filling

a vessel with water

In his experiments he met


and then removing the water by a water-pump.
with many failures, but he continued to improve his apparatus till he could

most of the phenomena now shewn in exhausted receivers,


he had discovered the reason of the imperfection of the vacuum when

not only exhibit

but

till

water was used to keep the

pump

air-tight.

"In the year 1658 Hooke finished an air-pump for Boyle, in whose laboratory
he was an assistant it was more convenient than Guericke's, but the vacuum
yet Boyle's numerous and judicious experiments gave to
was not so perfect
the exhausted receiver of the air-pump the name of the Boylean vacuum, by
;

Hooke's air-pump
was long known in the greatest part of Europe.
it
remained in use
Hauksbee
improvements
by
with
some
and
had two barrels,
until the introduction of Smeaton's pump, which, however, has not wholly

which

it

superseded

The

it"'."

history

of

the

air-pump

trivances for insuring the

remaining

air

is

no longer

after

working
sufficient

of
to

this

the

time relates chiefly to the con-

valves

efiect

it,

when the
and

* Thomas Young's Lectures on Nat. Phil (1807).

to

pressure

of

the

methods of rendering

Lecture xxx.

INSTRUMENTS CONNECTED WITU FLUIDS.

525

the working parts air-tight witliout introducing substances the vapour of which

would continue to
There
all

fill

the otherwise empty space.

one form of air-pumj), however, which we must notice, as

is

packing and lubricating substances are dispensed with.

constructed by M. Deleuil, of Paris


length,

of considerable

*,

the

wliich

in

and are not made

to

Ls

contains

air,

but the internal


it

friction

leaks

of the air in this narrow space

pump

comparable with the rate at which the

of air

has been shewn by the present writer that the

It

receiver.
is

exhausting the

is

not diminished even

this reason that this

when

pump works

density

its

is

up

satisfactorily

air

is

not

from the

internal

reduced.

greatly

easily

barrel

so great

is

the exhausted part of the barrel

into

it

the barrels of the

in

pump. No grease or lubricating substance is used, and the pistons work


The space between the piston and the
and smoothly in the barrels.
that the rate at which

in

the air-pumj>

sohd cylinders

pistons are

tightly

fit

This

friction

It

is

for

to a very considerable degree

of exhaustion.

Pumps

type already described are

of the

but since the physical

of larore vessels,

still

properties

used
of

for

the rapid exhaustion

extremely rarefied

gases

have become the object of scientific research, the original method of TorriceUi
has been revived under various forms.
Thus we have one set of mercury-pumps in which the mercury is alternately
made to fill a certain chamber completely and to drive out whatever gas may
be in

and then to flow back leaving the chamber empty.


pump is the type of the other set. The working part

it,

Sprengel's

tube longer than the

glass

height

small portion of mercury placed in

the whole section of the tube.

the

of
it

is

barometer,

compelled by

The mercury

is

is

a vertical

and so narrow that a


its

surface-tension to

fill

introduced into this tube from

a funnel at the top through a small India-rubber tube regulated by a pinchcock, so that the mercury falls in small detached portions, each of which drives
before

it

any

which may be

air

in

the

tube

till

it

escapes

into

mercury-

trough, into which the bottom of the tube dips.

The
side

in

vessel to

be exhausted

is

connected to a tube

of the vertical tube near the top.

portions

of

vacuum

which

or other gas

enters

at

the

which may be

left

in

the vertical tube between suc-

is

driven

next portion of mercury into the mercury- trough,


*

air

the falling mercury, and

the vessel expands into the

cessive

Any

Comptes Rendus, t

Ix.

p.

571.

where

down the tube by


may be collected.

it

Carl's Repertorium.

the

INSTRUMENTS CONNECTED WITH FLUIDS.

526

As long
air

which

as

is

of

sort

as

the rarefaction of

tlie

air

increases

but as the rarefaction

buflfer,

quantity of

very great the

not

is

included between successive portions of mercury

the

is

suflacient

of

portions

to act

mercury

come together more abruptly, and produce a sound which becomes sharper as
the vacuum becomes more perfect.
After the mercury-pump has been in action for some hours the quantity
If the tubes have been joined
of matter remaining in the vessel is very small.

by means of caoutchouc connections there


by the caoutchouc.
desii-ed, to

make

It

all

is

therefore

is

a trace of gaseous matter emitted

when

necessary,

a very perfect

the joints " hermetical " by fusing the glass.


of mercury

The vapour

there remains a trace of matter.

is,

By

passing a

little

both

vapours

strong sulphuric acid through the


of

mercury and

of

water

may

pump
be

is

however,

of course, present,

and the sides of the glass vessel retain water very strongly, and
it very slowly, when all other matter is removed.
mercury,

vacuum

Still,

part

with

along with the


great

in

measure

removed.

MM. Kundt

and Warburg have got

substance by heating the vessel

to

rid of

an additional quantity of wateras the glass wiU

high a temperature

as

pump was kept in action.


method which has been long in use

bear while the

A
in

place

for

getting a good

the vessel a stick of fused potash, and to

fill

it

vacuum

with carbonic

is

to

acid,

much as possible, to seal up the vessel. The potash


cold, most of the remaining
when
it has again become
and

and, after exhausting as


is

then heated,

carbonic acid has combined with the potash.

Another method, employed by Professor Dewar, is to place in a compartof the vessel a piece of freshly heated cocoa-nut charcoal, and to heat
strongly during the last stages of the exhaustion by the mercury-pump.

ment
it

The

vessel is then

sealed up,

and

as

the charcoal cools

proportion of the gases remaining in the vessel.


The interior of the vessel, after exhaustion,

is

it

absorbs a very large

found to

be

possessed

of

very remarkable properties.

One

of these

the exhaustion.

properties furnishes a convenient test of the completeness of

The

vessel

is

provided with two metallic electrodes, the ends

When
of which within the vessel are within a quarter of an inch of each other.
electromotive
considerable
a
pressure
ordinary
air
at
the
contains
vessel
the
force

is

required to produce

an

electric

discharge across this interval.

As the

INSTRUMENTS CONNECTED WITH FLUIDS.


exhaustion proceeds
is

reduced to

exhaustion

is

resistance

tlie

that

ahout

of

made very

perfect

to

in

inches of air

the empty vessel.

of

the discharge
vessel,

vacuum, therefore,

is

till

the pressure

When, however, the


cannot be made to take place
mercury.

and the

the vessel before

outside

dlscliarge diminishes

millimetre

between the electrodes within the


several

the

527

it

Bj)ark

will

actually passes through


leap

the

small

inter\'al

a stronger insulator of electricity

than any other medium.

MM. Kundt

and Warburg have experimented on the viscosity of the air


and on its conductivity for heat.
They find that

remaining after exhaustion,


it

only

is

when the exhaustion

ductivity begin sensibly to

experimented on

is

very

is

diminish,

perfect

that

even when the

the

viscosity

stratum

of

the

and

con-

medium

very thin.

But the most remarkable phenomenon hitherto observed in an empty space


is that discovered by Mr Crookes.
A light body is delicately suspended in an
exhausted vessel, and the radiation from the sun, or any other source of light
or heat, is allowed to fall on it.
The body is apparently repelled and moves
away from the side on which the radiation falls.
This action is the more energetic the greater the perfection of the vacuum.
When the pressure amounts to a millimetre or two the repulsion becomes very
feeble,

ever,
in a

and at greater pressures an apparent attraction takes

place,

which, how-

cannot be compared either in regularity or in intensity to the repulsion

good vacuum.

From
be looked

these instances
for

in

we may

see

what important

scientific

discoveries

may

consequence of improvements in the methods of obtaining a

[From Nature,

Vol. xiv.]

WhewelVs Writings and Correspondence.

LXXX.

"We frequently hear the complaint that as the boundaries of science are
widened its cultivators become less of philosophers and more of specialists, each
confining himself with increasing exclusiveness to the area with which he is
This

familiar.

of the

whole,

probably an inevitable result of the development of science,

is

which has made

impossible for any one

it

while each of

work of a

occupation for the useful


are

in

what

field

of science

is

of science only in so far as they bear

we

that

find

enough to afford

large

ablest cultivators of science

of his powers, should

make the most

these powers are most available, and that he

should then confine his investigations to this

Accordingly

now

The

lifetime.

agreed that the student, in order to

ascertain

to acquire a thorough knowledge

man

sub-divisions

its

upon

field,

making use

of other parts

his special subject.

Dr Whewell,

in

his

article

in the Encyclojp(2dia

Metropolitana, on "Archimedes and Greek Mathematics," says of Eratosthenes,

who, like

was

himself,

philologer,

geometer,

astronomer,

poet,

and

antiquary:

seldom that one person attempts to master so many subjects without


incurring the charge and perhaps the danger of being superficial."
It is probably on account of the number and diversity of the kinds of

"It

is

intellectual

work

widely known.
of the

in

Of

Inductive

which Dr Whewell attained eminence that his name is most


his actual performances the "History" and the "Philosophy

Sciences" are

the

most

characteristic,

and

this

because

practical acquaintance with a certain part of his great subject enabled


books,
better to deal with those parts which he had studied only in

describe their relations

in

a more intelligent manner than

have devoted themselves entirely to the general aspect of


without being actual workers in any particular department of

his

him the
and to

authors who
human knowledge

those

it.

WHEWELLS WRITINGS AND CORRESPONDENCE.

529

But the chief characteristic of Dr Whewell's intellectual life seems to have


been the energy and perseverance with which he pursued the development of
each of the great ideas which had in the course of his life presented itself to

Of

him.

these ideas some might be greater than others, but

The

special

and

tion

the

were

all

pursuit, therefore, to which he devoted himself

expression

the

of

appropriate

ideas

to

large.

was the elaborabranches

different

of

The discovery of a new fact, the invention of a theory, the solution


of a problem, the filling up of a gap in an existing science, were interesting
to him not so much for their own sake as additions to the general stock of
knowledge.

knowledge,

as

their

for

processes by which

To

the

w^atch

own mind

in his

and

appropriate

in

as

as

either

words

in which the idea might be expressed, and then


which the idea should be largely developed and the

copiously

exemplified

such

seems to have been


it

the

natural

overflowed.

When

great works had reached this stage he prepared himself for

his

other labour,

and

if

the

of

was developed

it

channel of his intellectual activity in whatever direction

any of

instances

characteristic

developed.

the writings of the founders of the sciences, to frame

scientific

appropriate words

is

germ of an appropriate idea

first

or

construct a treatise in

to

value

illustrative

human knowledge

all

new

editions

work were

of his

called

for,

some

the alterations

which he introduced often rather tended to destroy than to complete the unity
of the original plan.

Mr
and

Todhunter has given us an exhaustive account of Dr Whewell's writings

scientific

work, and in this w^e

may

he successively inculcated as a writer.


that

it

only as a writer that he

is

hoped that the promised account of

can only share

appears
his

trace the

easily

We

in

this

complete

life

leading ideas

Mr

and

book,

it

is

man may

as a

which

Todhunter's regret
be

to

enable us

to form a fuller conception of the individuality and unity of his character, which
it

hard to gather from the multifarious

is

Dr Whewell
on

text-books
interest

first

in

in

us

position

of his books.

collection

as

author

the

as

University education,

in

of

tinguishes

VOL.

all

II.

his

writings.

It

is

of his

than would otherwise have

the

study

the

of

to spend

he

of

series

may have induced him

the prefaces to

and educational value

long

and the

tutor

the introductory chapters of each treatise,

intellectual

of

College,

in the composition of elementary treatises

been congenial to him, but


as

before

His

Mechanics.

which he took

more time

appears

manifest from his

difierent

shews
first

writings,

well

of

the

which

dis-

that

the

sense

principles

other

as

editions,

that

67

"

whewell's writings and correspondence.

530

composition of these text-books, involving as

fundamental

was

Dynamics,

of

science

study of the

did a thorough

it

most

training

appropriate

his

for

subsequent labours in the survey of the sciences in their widest extent.

Mr

to me," says

"It has always appeared

Todhunter, "that

Mr Whewell

would have been of

great benefit to students if he had undertaken a critical revision of the technical language of Mechanics.
This language was formed to a great extent by the early writers at an epoch when the subject was

Gradually

and many terms were used without well-defined meanings.


it is still open to objection."

imperfectly understood,

the

language has been improved, but

In

we

recognised,

when

years,

after

Faraday,

find

systems
treatises,

"Is
" in

and others applying to


their discoveries, and receiving

Lyell,

widely

for appropriate

in

reply

technical

but are gradually becoming familiar to the ordinary reader.


it

not true,"

it

asks in his Address to the Geological Society,

Dr Whewell

that a technical phraseology

others,

all

real

is

new term

for

new

felt it

less

idea than

induce scientific

to

difficult

wealth,

puts in our hands a vast treasure of foregone generalisations

Perhaps, however, he
a

him

terms which have not only held their place in

scientific

our science as in

because

terminology was

scientific

in

subject-matter of

expressions for the


of

authority

his

men

to adopt

the students and teachers of a

to persuade

University to alter the phraseology of a time-honoured study.

But even

in

the elementary treatment

we cannot

text-books of different dates,

Those by Dr Whewell were


logical

of

fail

Dynamics,

we compare the

if

a marked

recognise

to

progress.

advance of any former text-books as regards


accuracy, and if many of those which have been

far in

coherence and scientific

published since have fallen behind in these respects,

most of them have

intro-

duced some slight improvement in terminology which has not been allowed to
be

lost.

Dr Whewell's
doctrines

opinion

of mechanics

is

with

respect

that experiment was necessary in

but that the doctrine when once


it

as strictly true,

the

to

evidence

the

the

of

order to
fairly

fundamental

He

repeatedly inculcated in his writings.

considered

suggest these truths to the mind,

set before the

accuracy of the doctrine

mind

being

in

is

apprehended by

no way dependent

on the accuracy of observation of the result of the experiment.

He

therefore

regarded experiments

experiments, meant to

make us

on

the

laws of motion

as

illustrative

familiar with the general aspect of certain

phe-

nomena, and not as experiments of research from which the results are to be

deduced by careful measurement and calculation.

WHEWELLS WRITINGS AND CORRESPONDENCE.


Thus experiments on the

may

of bodies

fall

We

be regarded as experiments of

measurements of times
and distances that the intensity of the force of gravity is the same whatever
be the motion of the body on which it acts. We also ascertain the direction
and magnitude of this force on different bodies and in different places.
All
research

this

into

the laws of gravity.

find

by

531

careful

can only be done by careful measurement, and the results are affected by

we are liable.
The same experiments may be also taken as illustrations of the laws of
The performance of the experiments tends to make us familiar with
motion.
these laws, and to impress them on our minds.
But the laws of motion cannot
be proved to be accurate by a comparison of the observations which we make,
for it is only by taking the laws for granted that we have any basis for our
calculations.
We may ascertain, no doubt, by experiment, that the acceleration
of a body acted on by gravity is the same whatever be the motion of that

all

the errors of observation to which

body, but this does not prove that a constant force produces a constant acceleration,

but only that gravity

is

a force, the intensity of which does not depend

on the velocity of the body on which

The truth

of

Dr Whewell's

which he persistently contradicted


sophical

is

curiously

illustrated

Dr Whewell conceived

He was

matter must be heavy.

well

of

his Philosophy

that he had proved, a

knew

that

is

the

j^J'iori,

was only by

it

experiments and observations that Newton ascertained that the

on two equal masses

in

of

that

acquainted with the history of the

establishment of the law of gravitation, and

tation

by a case

In a paper communicated to the Philo-

it.

Society of Cambridge, and reprinted at the end

the Inductive Sciences,


all

acts.

it

principle

same whatever be

the bodies, but in spite of this he maintained that

it

the
is

chemical

careful

of gravi-

effect

nature of

contrary not only to

observation but tc reason, that any body should be repelled instead of attracted

that any

two bodies

seems to be that, finding the word w-eight employed

in ordinary

by another, whereas

when they
The

it

is

matter

of

daily

experience,

are brought near enough, repel each other.

fact

language to denote the quantity of matter in a body, though

in scientific

language

body to move do\vnwards, and at the same


word
mass
in its scientific sense was not yet sufficiently
that
the
time supposing
it

denotes the tendency of that

used without danger in ordinary language, Dr Whewell endeavoured to make the word weight carry the meaning of the word mass. Thus
he tells us that " the weight of the whole compound must be equal to the
established to be

weights of the separate elements."

672

whewell's writings and correspondence.

532

On
"Of

Mr

this

Todhunter very properly observes

course there

is

no

practical uncertainty as to this principle; but

Dr Whewell

seems to allow

the same nature as the axiom that 'two straight lines cannot
however, a wide difference between them, depending on a fact which

his readers to imagine that it is of

inclose

space.'

There

is,

has himself recognised in another place (see vol. I. p. 224). The truth is, that strictly
speaking the weight of the whole compound is not equal to the weight of the separate elements;
for the weight depends upon the position of the compound particles, and in general by altering

Dr Whewell

the resultant effect which "we call weight

the position of the particles,

altered,

is

though

it

ma^

be to an inappreciable extent."

It is evident that

what Dr Whewell should have

the whole compound must be equal to the


elements."
single

This statement

experiment

has

all

ever

sum

would admit to be
been

made

in

said

was

"

The mass

of

of the masses of the separate


strictly true,

order

to verify

it.

and yet not a


All chemical

measurements are made by comparing the weights of bodies, and not by comparing the forces required to produce given changes of motion in the bodies

and as we have just been reminded by Mr Todhunter, the method of comparing


quantities of matter by weighing them is not strictly correct.
Thus, then, we are led by experiments which are not only liable to error,
but which are to a certain extent erroneous in principle, to a statement which
is

universally acknowledged to be strictly true.

Our

conviction of its truth

must

therefore rest on some deeper foundation than the experiments which suggested
The belief in and the search for such foundations is, I think,
it to our minds.

the most characteristic feature of

all

Dr Whewell's

work.

[From the British Association Report,

LXXXI.
The
who were

On Ohms Law.

rendered to electrical science by Dr G.

service

when we compare the language

rightly estimated

ignorant

and adopted

187G.]

of

Ohm

S.

can only be

of those writers

Ohm's law with that of those who

on electricity

have understood

it.

By the former, electric currents are said to vary as regards both their
"quantity" and their "intensity," two qualities the nature of which was very
by tedious and vague

imperfectly explained

In the

writings

of the latter,

after

expositions.

the elementary terms

"Electromotive

and "Electric Resistance" have been defined,


the whole doctrine of currents becomes distinct and plain.
Ohm's law may be stated thus
The electromotive force which must act on a homogeneous conductor in
"Strength

Force,"

of Current,"

order

maintain a given steady current through

to

it,

is

numerically equal

t<

the product of the resistance of the conductor into the strength of the current

through
of the

the
that

strength
is,

that

we

therefore,

If,

it.

numerical

value

of the
its

define

the

of

the resistance of a conductor as the ratio

electromotive

Ohm's law

current.

force

asserts

to

the numerical value of

that this ratio

is

constant

value does not depend on that of the electromotive force or

of the current.

The
conductor,

but

one.

resistance,

and on

as

thus

its

physical

Ohm's law is true,


Ohm's law must, at

if

No

attempt

been successful

to

it

defined,

depends on the nature and form of the

condition

regards temperature,

as

strain,

&c.

does not depend on the strength of the current.


at

least

deduce

it

present,

fi-om

pure

be

considered

dynamiciil

purely empirical

principles

has

as

yet

indeed Weber's latest theoretical investigations* on this subject

have led him to suspect that Ohm's law

is

not true, but that, as

Pogg. Ann, 1875.

tlie

electro-

ON OHMS LAW.

534
motive
so

without

Increases

force

that

the

as

"resistance,"

electromotive

On

force.

the

the current increases slower and slower,

limit,

by Ohm's law, would

defined

with the

increase

Schuster* has described experiments

other hand,

suspect a deviation from Ohm's law, but in the opposite

which lead him to

direction, the resistance being smaller for great currents

than

for small ones.

Lorentzt, of Leyden, has also proposed a theory according to which Ohm's


The rapidity of
law would cease to be true for rapidly varying currents.
variation, however, which, as he supposes, would cause a perceptible deviation

Ohm's law, must be comparable with the rate of vibration of light, so


would be impossible by any experiments other than optical ones to
it

from
that

test this theory.

The conduction of

electricity

which part of the energy of an


tion,

spent

is

we

which

agitation

imparting

in

call

constitution

molecular

of

through a resisting medium


electric

the

to

molecules

dynamical

the

of

only by experiment that

of

in

definite

medium

the

a process in

is

To calculate from any hypothesis


medium
at what rate the energy
the
would require a

theory of bodies

we can

direc-

that irregular

heat.

current would be spent in this way,

ledge

flowing

current,

as
of

to

more perfect know-

far

than we at present possess.

ascertain the

the

a given

It

laws of processes of which

is

we

do not understand the dynamical theory.

We

therefore

numerical
cuiTent,

value

Thus

if

conductor

to

conductor,

and

if

the

as

the

resistance

of

force

to

electromotive

conductor,

that

the

of

the

ratio

is

of the

strength of the

and we have to determine by experiment the conditions which

the value of this

and

define,

of

affect

ratio.

denotes the electromotive force acting from one electrode of the

the

the

equivalent of heat,

other,

the

strength

of the current flowing

the resistance of the current,

heat

generated

we have by

in

the time

we have

t,

and

if

through the

by definition

is

the dynamical

the principle of conservation of energy

JH=ECt = ROt = ^t.


* Report of British Association, 1874.
t Over de Terugkaatsing en Breking van het Licht.

Leiden, 1875.

ON OHMS LAW.
The quantity

we have

which

R,

defined

be determined only by experiment.

can

we know, be affected by each and


conductor may be subjected.
Thus we know that the

The question which


one

not

is

and

resistance;

Let
given

us

the

of

therefore

of

is

assume
a

by mechanical

that

function

conductor

us

before

is

any thing

by a change of the tempeand by magnetization.

whether the current

is

may

affect

the

itself

value

the

of

resistance

or

the

a given conductor at a

strength of the

same

same

the

for

Since the

current.

current

in

whichever

the current flows, the expression for the resistance can contain

direction

is

of

decide except by experiment.

of the

the

conductor,

for

strain

which

conditions

therefore,

physical conditions to which the

altered

is

resistance of the

may

value

of the

all

we cannot

this question

temperature

resistance

now

is

physical

the

as

Its

resistance

rature of the conductor, and also

535

only

even powers of the current.

Let us suppose,

and unit section

therefore, that the resistance of a conductor of unit length

is

r(l+5c'-f 5V + &C.),

where
c

is

the

corresponding

resistance

be determined by experiment.

from Ohm's law.


e

is

an

to

the current through unit of section, and

is

If

The
Ohm's law is

coefficients

accurate,

infinitely

s,

s\

5,

s',

small

current,

and

&c. are small coeflBcients to


&c.

represent the deviations

these coefficients are zero;

also if

the electromotive force acting on this conductor,


e

Now
is
L

us consider

let

= rc(l+5c' + 5V + &c.).

another conductor

and whose section

is

then

if

of the

is

same substance whose length


the electromotive force on this

conductor, and e that on unit of length.

Also

if

be the current through the conductor and

area,

C=Ac.
Hence the

resistance of this conductor will be

^=c=-aV^a^^a^^^V

that

through unit of

ON OHMS LAW.

536

Now

us

let

two

suppose

conductors

same

the

of

but of different

material

diniensions arranged in series

and the same current passed through both

where

to

the

indicate

suflSxes

ratio of the resistances

which

conductor

the

quantities

The

belong.

is

t4i-{-^^=(i:.-i^-}Hence

Ohm's law

if

not true, and

is

therefore,

if,

any of the quantities 5, s',


depend on the strength

&c. have sensible values, the ratio of the resistances will

of the current.

Now

the

two

of

ratio

resistances

may be measured with

great accuracy

by means of Wheatstone's bridge.

We
much

arrange the bridge so that one branch of the current passes

therefore

through

first

very

fine

wire

few centimetres long, and then through a

longer and thicker wire of about the same resistance.

of the current passes through two resistances,

than

greater

current

the

two,

other

so

that very

equal to

little

The other branch

each other,

but much

of the heating-effect of the

produced in these auxiliary resistances.

is

The bridge

is

formed by connecting the electrodes of a galvanometer, one

the junction of the fine wire and the thick one, and the other to a point

to

between the other two

We
fine

have

thus

resistances.

method

of

wire to that of the thick one

times

feeble

the ratio of the resistances of the

testing
;

and by passing through the bridge some-

and sometimes a powerful one, we might ascertain

current

if

the ratio differed in the two cases.

But
generates
thin
of

this

dii'ect

heat,

method

which

wire most rapidly

strong

and

temperature.

weak

is

raises
;

rendered useless by the fact that the

current

the temperature of both wires, but that of the

and

currents

this

makes

through

it

impossible

conductor

to

at

compare the
one

and

the

effects

same

ON OHMS LAW.
It

is

useless

also

work with weak

to

and

square of the current,

the

is

so

537

currents,

small

as

to

as

the effect depends on

have escaped observation

in

ordinary experiments.

all

Again,
short

we were to use a single very strong current acting


we should not be able to observe the galvanometer

lasted

In fact

manner.

factory

for

for

if

time,

was found

it

in

in

a very
a

satis-

the experiment that currents which

a sixtieth part of a second produced a heating-effect which interfered

The experiment was therefore arranged so that a


weak one were passed through the bridge alternately
and when the bridge was so arranged that the galvanometer was in equilibrium, the direction of the weaker current was reversed. If Ohm's law were
with

the

not

true,

from

that

and a

condition

the

weaker

for

would be

there
of

measurements.

current

strong

weaker

the

no

equilibrium for strong currents would be different

of

so

ones,

longer

did

currents

that

when the weak

equilibrium.

not

affect

Since,

the

in

currents

were reversed

point of fact,

equilibrium,

it

the reversal

follows

that the

bridge was in equilibrium for the weaker currents as well as for the stronger

and therefore

ones,
is

to

true
[*

The mode

error ascertained
fessor of

the

conditions

were

the

same

for

both,

and Ohm's law

within the limits of error of the experiment''.


in

are

whicli

the

described

in

actual

the

strength of the currents -was measured and the limits of


Report which follows the above by Mr Chrystal, now Pro-

Mathematics at Edinburgh University.]

VOL.

II.

68

[From Nature, Vol.

LXXXII.
Most

of tliose

xiv.]

from

0)1 the protection of huildings

who have given

conductors have paid great

directions for the

attention

to

lightning.

construction of lightning-

upper and lower

the

of

extremities

They recommend that the upper extremity of the conductor


should extend somewhat above the highest part of the building to be protected,
the conductor.

and that

it

should terminate in a sharp point, and that the lower extremity

should be carried as far as possible into

the

conducting strata of the ground,

so as to "

call

"a

The

make " what telegraph engineers

gathering

by

charge

such

of

electrical effect

facilitating

good earth."

arrangement

an

to

is

discharge

quiet

as

tap,

between

the

it

the

were,

atmospheric

The erection of the conductor will cause a somewhat greater number of discharges to occur at the place than would have
occurred if it had not been erected
but each of these discharges will be

accumulation and the earth.

smaller than
probable,

those which would have

occurred

that fewer discharges will

also,

without

the

conductor.

occur in the region

It

surrounding

is

the

conductor.

me

appears to

It

an accumulation of
the conductor

that these

arrangements

are

calculated

rather

for

the

surrounding countiy and for the relief of clouds labouring under

of the

benefit

is

What we

than

electricity,

for the

protection of the building on which

erected.

really

wish

is

to prevent the

possibility of

an

electric discharge

taking place within a certain region, say in the inside of a gunpowder manuIf this

factory.
is

is

An

electric

laid

down

as

our object, the method of securing

it

discharge cannot occur between two bodies, unless the difference

of their potentials
If,

clearly

equally clear.

therefore,

equal,

or

is sufficiently

we can keep the

nearly

equal,

great,

compared with the distance between them.

potentials

of all

no discharge will take

bodies
place

within a certain region

between them.

We

may

ON THE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS FROM LIGHTNING.


secure

this

by connecting

these bodies by means of good conductors, such

all

but

copper wire ropes,

as

539

it

not necessary to do

is

for

so,

it

may

be shewn

by experiment that if every part of the surface surrounding a certain region


is at the same potential, every point within that region must be at the same
potential, provided no charged body is placed within the region.
would,

It

ducting

sheathe

to

and then no

copper,

mio-ht even place


as

insulate

to

and ground-floor with thick sheet


it on account of any

walls,

roof,

its

electrical

occur within

could

eff'ect

We

There would be no need of any earth connection.

thunderstorm outside.

so

be sufficient to surround our powder-mill with a con-

therefore,

material,

a layer of asphalte between the copper


If the

the building.

floor

and the ground,

were then struck with lightning,

mill

some time, and a person standing on the ground


outside and touching the wall might receive a shock, but no electrical efl"ect
would be perceived inside, even on the most delicate electrometer. The potenit

would remain charged

tial

or

for

everything inside with respect to the earth would be suddenly raised

of

lowered as the case might

be,

but

electric

potential

is

not a physical con-

but only a mathematical conception, so that no physical

dition,

would be

efiect

perceived.
It

is

engines,

therefore

tanks,

&c.,

not
to

connect

necessary to

the walls,

if

large

masses

of

metal

such as

they are entirely within the building.

If,

however, any conductor, such as a telegraph wire or a metallic supply-pipe for

water or gas comes into the building from without, the potential of this conductor may be different from that of the building, unless it is connected with
the conducting- shell of the building.

Hence the water

or gas supply

pipes, if

any enter the building, must be connected to the system of lightning conductors, and since to connect a telegraph wire with the conductor would render
the telegraph useless, no telegraph from without should be allowed to enter
a powder-mill, though there may be electric bells and other telegraphic apparatus entirely within the building.

have supposed the powder-mill

however,

copper.

This,

sensible

electrical

It

is

quite

sufficient

ing substance.
diameter),
corners

effect

is

by no

to

means

be entirely sheathed

taking place within

to inclose the building

For instance,

were carried round

if

it,

supposing

the foundation
ridges,

it

in

to

thick

sheet

prevent

any

struck by lightning.

with a network of a good conduct-

a copper wire, say No.

and gables and along the

order

necessary in

this

of

the

4,

B.W.G. (0-238 inches


up each of the

house,

would probably be

a sufficient

682

ON THE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS FROM LIGHTNING.

540
protection

for

an ordinary building against any thunderstorm

The copper wire may be

built into

connected to any outside metal such as lead or zinc on the


rain-water pipes.

in

In the case of a powder-mill

it

this

climate.

but should

the wall to prevent theft,

roof,

be

and to metal

might be advisable to make

the network closer by carrying one or two additional wires over the roof and

down the
pipes

If

there

are water

which enter the building from without, these

must

be

walls

to the

wire at the foundation.

the system of conducting-wires, but

with distant points,

it

is

not

or

gas-

connected with

there are no such metallic connections

if

take

necessary to

any pains to

facilitate

the

escape of the electricity into the earth.


Still less

is

it

advisable to

erect

tall

conductor with a sharp

point in

order to relieve the thunder-clouds of their charge.


It

is

hardly necessary to add, that

storm, to stand
outside

it

is

not advisable, during a thunder-

on the roof of a house so protected, or to stand on the ground

and lean against the

wall.

[From the Encydopoedia Bntannica.]

LXXXIII.

A
ends,

the bore of which

TUBE,

(capilla), is
is

called

is

a capQlary tube.

placed vertically with

Capillarij Action.

so

that

small

When

only admit

will

it

hair

such a tube of glass, open at both

lower end immersed in water, the water

its

is

obsen^ed to rise in the tube, and to stand within the tube at a higher level

The

than the water outside.


has been called

action between

Capillary Action,

the capillary tube and the water

and the name has been extended

depend

other phenomena which have been found to

on

properties

many

to

liquids

of

to those which cause water to rise in capillary tubes.


which are concerned in these phenomena are those which act
between neighbouring parts of the same substance, and which are called forces
of cohesion, and those which act between portions of matter of different kinds,
which are called forces of adhesion. These forces are quite insensible between

and

solids

The

similar

forces

two portions of matter separated by any distance which we can directly measure.
It is only when the distance becomes exceedingly small that these forces become

perceptible.

Quincke'"'

has made experiments to determine

distance at which the effect of these forces

is

sensible,

and he

the

greatest

finds for

various

substances distances about the twenty-thousandth part of a millimetre.

Poggendorfft
discoverer

The
plates

tells

us that Leonardo da Vinci J must be considered as the

of capillary phenomena.
first

accurate observations

were made by Hauksbee.

tween the glass and the

liquid.

of

the

capillary

He ascribes
He observed

action

of tubes

and

that the effect was the same in

and concluded that only those particles of the


which are very near the surface have any influence on the phenomenon.

thick tubes as

in

thin,

* Pogg. Ann., cxxxvil. p. 402.


Phi/sico-MecIuinical

t Pogg. Ann., ci. p. 551.

Experinmits, London, 1709, pp.

glass

the action to an attraction be-

139169; and

glass

X I>ied 1519.

Phil. Trans.,

1711 and 1712.

CAPILLARY ACTION.

542

Dr Jurin* shewed

that

height

the

which

at

the

liquid

depends on the section of the tube at the surface of the

due to

is

" the

attraction

and

is

inde-

He

considered that the

of the

periphery or section

pendent of the form of the lower part of the tube.


suspension of the liquid

suspended

is

liquid,

of the surface of the tube to which the upper surface of the water is contiguous and coheres." From this he shews that the rise of the liquid in tubes
of the

same substance

inversely proportional to their radii.

is

query in

31st

Ne^vton devotes the

the

edition

last

of

Opticks

his

to

molecular forces, and instances several examples of the cohesion of liquids, such
as

more than

the suspension of mercury in a barometer tube at

height at which

it

This arises from

usually stands.

its

the

double

adhesion to the tube,

and the upper part of the mercury sustains a considerable tension, or negative
.

without the separation of

pressure,

nomena

its

He

parts.

be of the same kind, but his explanation

to

capillary phe-

considers the

not sufficiently explicit

is

with respect to the nature and the limits of the action of the attractive
It

is

to

be observed that, while these early speculators

nomena

to

sensible

only at insensible distances,

directly

measure the force

attraction,

not

they do

is

distinctly

and that

altogether

assert
for

calculation

of the

path of a light-corpuscle when

explain

the

phenomena.

distance at which the

first

to

does

attraction

not,

fluid

itself

however, recognise

sensible

is

a dense body.

shew the necessity of taking

between the parts of the

He

is

we can

The idea of such forces,


who gave the first example

enters or leaves

it

Clairautf appears to have been the

account of the attraction

attraction

this

of such forces in his theorem on the alteration

of the

effect

that

distances which

insensible.

however, had been distinctly formed by Newton,


of the

all

force.

the phe-

ascribe

is

not

order

in

to

the fact that the

only small

but

altogether

insensible.

Segner | introduced the very important idea of the surface-tension of liquids,

which he ascribed to attractive

"ut

nullo

of this

forces,

the sphere of whose action

adhuc s6nsu percipi potuerit."

is

so small

In attempting to calculate the

effect

surface-tension in determining the form of a drop of the liquid, Segner

took account of the curvature of a meridian section of the drop, but neglected
the effect of the curvature in a plane at right angles to this section.
Phil. Trails.,

1718, No. 355,

p.

739, and 1719, Ko. 363,

p.

+ Clairaut, Theorie de la Figure de la Terre, Paris, 1808, pp.


X Segner,

Comment.

Soc. Reg.

Gotthxg.,

i.

(1751), p. 301.

1083.
105, 128.

CAPILLARY ACTION.

543

But the idea of surface-tension introduced by Segner had a most important

by experiment

physical

fact

established

elasticity

of

soHd bodies.

We

portions of a liquid

finite

may

laws of

by

only

the

way

regard

of

which act

forces

as a

it

the laws

as

the

between

way as we investigate the forces which


The experiments oa solids lead to certain

the same

in

expressed in terms of

elasticity

determined

the same

in

investigate

act between finite portions of a solid.

be

We may

on the subsequent development of the theory.

effect

experiments

coefficients,

on

each

the values of

particular

which can

Various
attempts have also been made to deduce these laws from particular hypotheses
as to the action between the molecules of the elastic substance.
We may
regard the theory of elasticity as consisting of two parts.

therefore

laws of the elasticity of a

establishes the

part

jected

The second
portion

finite

portion of the

and the

a liquid

of

a body subjected

forces

to

any

directions,

all

secondary

capillary

is

to

constitution

importance
it

action.

deduce

affords

this

of the

of
or

displace-

this

physical

This

is

similar

and prove that

that

to

step

con-

the

of

step

from

an

its

promises into the molecular

suggestion of experiments by which

constitution

we may

the

phenomena

The

next

to

and of the bodies that surround


to be measured by the degree

is

of

it.

of

real

only

and from

all

as

depends

form,

investigation.

hypothesis

membrane

of

tension

this

we may deduce

principle

one

surface-tension
liquid

its

ascertain the general fact that the

a state of tension

on the nature and temperature of the liquid and not on

of

and

forces

acting between them.

may by experiment

in

is

stretched equally in

as

first

sub-

endeavours to deduce the facts of the elasticity of a

pai-t

In like manner we

this

The
solid

the substance from hypotheses as to the motion of

of

stituent molecules

surface

finite

a homogeneous strain, and deduces from these laws the equations of

to

the equilibrium and motion of


ments.

substance.

the

step

molecular

The

scientific

which

insight

bodies

by the

discriminate between rival molecular

theories.

In
if

1756 Leidenfrost* shewed that a soap-bubble tends to contract, so that

the tube with which

in size

buted
but to

and

will

it

was blown

is

left

open

the

expel through the tube the air which

bubble will
it

contains.

diminish

He

attri-

any general property of the surfaces of liquids,


the fatty part of the soap which he supposed to separate itself from

this force, however, not to

De

aqucB

communis nonnullis qualitatlbus

tractatics,

Duisburg.

544

CAPILLARY ACTION.

the other constituents of the

solution,

and to form a thin skin on the outer

face of the bubble.

Monge*

In 1787

asserted that

the adherence of the par-

"by supposing

have a sensible effect only at the surface itself and in the


the curvature of the
direction of the surface it would be easy to determine
which contain
boundaries
solid
the
of
surfaces of fluids in the neighbourhood
constant
tension,
the
which
of
lintearioe
be
would
them; that these surfaces
particles,
two
of
adherence
the
to
equal
everywhere
be
would
all directions,

ticles

of a

fluid

to

in

could
and the phenomena of capiUary tubes would then present nothing which
surface-tension
of
not be determined by analysis." He applied this principle
between bodies
to the explanation of the apparent attractions and repulsions
floating

on a

liquid.

In 1802 LesUet gave the


in a tube by considering the

thm stratum
speculators,

the surface of the

make
this

it

attraction of the soUd on the very

of the

suppose this attraction to

the pressure

explanation of the rise of a liquid

correct

of the liquid in contact with

He

support the fluid directly.


to

first

effect

of the stratum of

pressure

if

in

does not,

an upward

shews that the attraction

The dbect

solid.

greater than the

act

He

it.

effect

of

is

is

to

cause

this

to

a^

so

everywhere normal

the attraction

is

increase

to

the fluid in contact with the soHd, so


fluid.

The

stratum to spread

itself

pressure in the interior of the

unopposed

the earher

like

direction

to

as

result

of

over the

soHd as a drop of water is observed to do when placed on a


clean horizontal glass plate, and this even when gravity opposes the action, as
when the drop is placed on the under surface of the plate. Hence a glass
tube plunged into water would become wet all over were it not that the

surface

of the

ascending liquid film carries up a quantity of other Uquid which coheres to it,
column
so that when it has ascended to a certain height the weight of the
balances the force

by which the

film

spreads itself

over the glass.

This ex-

Gauss
planation of the action
afterwards suppHed the defect of the theory of Laplace, except that, not being
expressed in terms of mathematical symbols, it does not indicate the matheof

matical relation
result.

Leslie's

the

between the
theory was

solid

is

attraction

afterwards

equivalent

of

to

individual

treated

that

by which

particles

according

to

and

matical methods by James Ivory in the article on capillary, action,


* Memoires de VAcad. des Sciences, 1787, p. 506.
t Philosophical Magazine, 1802, Vol. xiv. p. 193.

the

Laplace's

final

mathe-

under the

CAPILLARY ACTION.
heading "Fluids, Elevation

of,"

545

supplement to the fourth edition of the

in the

EncyclopcBclia BHtannica, published in 1819.

Thomas Young* founded the theory

1804

In

He

the principle of surface-tension.

to

principles

a liquid surface with a

of

of contact

solid,

by Laplace, but

his

of mathematical symbols.

act

by

scrupulous

his

Having applied the secondary

deduce this surface-tension from ulterior


another with

on one

of

attractive force

angle

His essay contains the

action.

principle

cohesion,

two

different

extends

those to which the repulsive force

to
is

He

principles.

kinds of
at

particles

confined.

He

avoidance

of

Young

the various particular cases of capillary action.

tension to

phenomena on

number of cases, including most of those afterwards solved


methods of demonstration, though always correct, and often

extremely elegant, are sometimes rendered obscure

to

capillary

and shewed how from these two

deduce the phenomena of capillary

of a great

solution

of

observed the constancy of the

also

surface-

proceeds

to

supposes the particles

forces,

one of which, the

greater

further

than

distance

supposes that the

is constant throughout the minute distance to which it extends,


but that the repulsive force increases rapidly as the distance diminishes. He
thus shews that at a curved part of the surface, a superficial particle would

attractive force

be urged towards the centre of curvature of the surface, and he gives reasons
concluding that this force is proportional to the sum of the curvatures of
the surface in two normal planes at right angles to each other.

for

The

was next taken up by Laplace t.

subject

His

results

are

manv

in

with those of Young, but his methods of arriving at them


are very different, being conducted entirely by mathematical calculations.
The
respects

identical

form into which he has thrown his investigation seems to have deterred many
able physicists from the inquiry into the ulterior cause of capillary phenomena,

and induced them to

But

tension.
it

rest content

those

who wish

with deriving them from the


to study the molecular

fact

of surface-

constitution of bodies

necessary to study the effect of forces which are sensible only at insen-

is

sible

for

distances; and

of this

Laplace has furnished us with an example of the method


study which has never been surpassed. Laplace investigates the force

acting

on the

surface

of the

fluid
fluid

contained
arising

in

an

from the

infinitely

attraction

slender
of the

canal
parts

normal

of the

Essaj on the "Cohesion of Fluids," Philosophical Transactions, 1805,


Celeste, supplement to the tenth book, published in 1806.

p.

to

fluid

65.

t Mecanique

VOL.

II.

69

the
out-

CAPILLARY ACTION.

546

He

the canal.

side

thus finds for the pressure at a point in the interior of

the fluid an expression of the form

where

however, does not

a constant pressure, probably very large, which,

is

phenomena, and therefore cannot be determined from observais another constant on which all capillary phenomena
tion of such phenomena
are the radii of curvature of any two normal sections
depend and R and
influence capillary

of the surface at right angles to each other.

In the

first

we

interpretation

investigation

find

that an accurate knowledge of the physical

shall

symbols

of these

In the Supplement

subject.

we

own

of our

part

used by Laplace, as

necessary for the further investigation of the

is

the

to

symbols

shall adhere to the

Theory of Capillary Action, Laplace deduces

the equation of the surface of the fluid from the condition that the resultant
His explaforce on a particle at the surface must be normal to the surface.
nation, however, of the

he has nowhere

this

given

many important

gives

a liquid in a tube

rise of

is

based on the assumption

constancy of the angle of contact for the same solid and

of the

satisfactory

applications of the theory,

fluid,

In this supplement

proof.

and compares the

and of
Laplace

results

with

the experiments of Gay-Lussac.

The next great step


The

principle

in the treatment of the subject

which he adopts

is

that of

under his hands was gradually transforming


the principle of the conservation of energy.

and magnitude of the resultant


of neighbouring particles,

of

all

force

he forms a

virtual

itself into

now known

is

first

called

as

on each particle arising from the action


single

expression which

is

the

aggregate

the potentials arising from the mutual action between pairs of

now

the

what

Instead of calculating the direction

This expression has been called the force-function.


is

was made by Gauss*.


a principle which

velocities,

the potential energy of the system.

With
It

its

consists

particles.

sign reversed
of three

it

parts,

depending on the action of gravity, the second on the mutual action


fluid, and the third on the action between the

between the particles of the


particles of the fluid

The

condition

and the
of

particles of a solid or fluid in contact with

equilibrium

the sake of distinctness

call

is

that this

expression

(which

the potential energy) shall be a

it.

we may

minimum.

for

This

* Principia generaZia Theories Figvrce Fluidorum in statu JEquilibrii (Gottingen, 1830), or Werke,
V.

29 (Gottingen, 1867).

CAPILLARY ACTION.

when worked out

condition

not only the equation of the free surface

gives

form already established by Laplace, but

the

547

the

conditions

angle

the

of

in

of

contact of this surface with the surface of a solid.

Gauss thus supplied the principal

He

must make with respect

the

in

work

great

the law of action of the

to

He

with observed phenomena.

consistent

of particular

planation

He

defect

of

particles

we
be

order to

in

did not, however, enter into the ex-

phenomena, as this had been done already by Laplace.


advantages of the method of Segner

points out, however, to physicists the

the dimen-

and Gay-Lussac, afterwards carried out by Quincke, of measuring


of

sions

drops

large

and those

of

of

mercury on

bubbles of

large

air

horizontal

transparent

in

1831

In

published

Poisson

maintains that there

his

Nouvelle

concave

slightly

or

the

liquid.

r Action

de

Theorie

surface,

against

resting

liquids

under side of a horizontal plate of a substance wetted by the

He

Laplaxje.

pointed out more distinctly the nature of the assumptions which

also

Capillaire.

a rapid variation of density near the surface of a

is

and he gives very strong reasons, which have been only strengthened

liquid,

by subsequent
ceeds

an

to

discoveries,

believing that

this

the equilibrium

of

for

of

investigation

He

the case.

is

then

pro-

a fluid on the hypothesis of

uniform density, and he arrives at the conclusion that on this hypothesis none
of

observed

the

Laplace's
cient but

which

in

Laplace's

in

point

of

fact

which he concludes this


has

would
is

is

theory,

itself

raised

assumption

question,

carry

is

The

against
of

uniform

density be

and Poisson has done good


different
result,

is

therefore,

that,

not only

insuffi-

assumes

its

is

very large,

equilibrium from

that

molecules

method

fall

to

physically
service

from that in the interior of the

of

the

the

liquid

extends

to

Gauss,

that

so

the

ground.

But whether

very different

correct

science

to

is

in

shewing

how

density very near

to

the

fluid.

however, of Poisson's investigation

the same,

of

these assumptions his results are certainly

them by Poisson

that already obtained by Laplace.


surface

On

of

on the investigation on the hypothesis that the

surface

is

theory

that

equation

Laplace

attraction

and are confirmed by the independent

objections

and

place,

on

the

defective.

the

though insensible distance.

right,

the

which

and

very small, but

uniform density, and that

finite

take

supposed uniform,

In particular he maintains that the constant pressure K,

erroneous.

occurs

must be

phenomena
the density

capillary

theory, in which

is

practically

equivalent to

In both theories the equation of the liquid

involving a constant

H, which can be determined only by

692

CAPILLARY ACTION.

548

The only

experiment.

difference

the manner in

in

is

which this quantity

depends on the law of the molecular forces and the law of density near the
surface of the fluid, and as these laws are unknown to us we cannot obtain

any

between the two

test to discriminate

We

during

action

now

have

its

phenomena of
of

density

who has

the effects of

mixture.

of the

then,

surface

made the

most

study of the

elaborate

has adopted the following method of getting rid

He forms
He then

a mixture of

water of the

and

alcohol

quantity of

introduces

into

oil

the

by means of

rings

of iron-wire,

disks,

the surface of

f^he

and other contrivances,


The free portions
oil.

then assume new forms depending on the equilibrium of surfa<;emany of the forms of equilibrium

In this way he has produced a great

tension.

liquid

under the action of surface-tension alone, and compared them with


mathematical investigation.

the results of

study of liquid
will

variation

'".

himself

the form of certain parts of

alters

of a

oil.

account

the

of

assumes the form of a sphere under the action of surface-tension

It

He

alone.

gravity
olive

as

method of

the

modem

surface-tension,

same density

theory of capillary

the

of

of

take

doctrine of the conservation of energy

M. Plateau t,

forms

more recent times

In

language has been translated in terms of the

Gauss has been modified so as to


near the surface, and

theories.

principal

development.

earlier

its

the

described

last

for

by shewing how

films

not

is

diminished

has also

form a

twenty-four

twelve or even for

owes to M. Plateau

He

to

the films

fact

that,

these beautiful phenomena, he has never himself seen them.

which

of

The debt which

hours.

by the

greatly facilitated the

liquid,

science

while

investigating

He

lost his sight

long ago in the pursuit of science, and has ever since been obliged to depend

on the eyes and the hands of others.

M. Van der Mensbrugghe


illustrations of the

phenomena

with the experiments of

Mr

has also devised a great number of beautiful

of surface-tension,

and has shewn

their connection

Tomlinson on the figures formed by

oils

dropped

on the clean surface of water.


* See

Prof.

Betti,

Teoria della

Caplllaritct:

Xiiovo

Cimento,

"Uebev einige Punckte in der Theorie der Capillarersclieinungen,"


and M. Van der Waal's Over de Continuiteit van den Gas- en
find

a good

account

of

the

subject

from

mathematical

"Report on the Theory of Capillary Attraction," Brit.


t M. Plateau, Statique experimentcde et theorique des
X Mem. de I'Acad. Boy. de Belgique, xxxvii. (1873).

Ass.

1867;

point

of

Report,

liquides.

a memoir

by M.

Stahl,

Fogg. Ann., cxxxix. p. 239 (1870);


The scudent will
Vloeistoftoestand.

view in
iv.

p.

Professor

253 (1834).

Challis's

CAPILLARY ACTION.

of

549

M. Dupr^ in his 5th, 6th, and 7 th Memoirs on the Mechanical Theory


Heat (Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, 1866 to 1868) has done much to-

wards applying the

principles

thermodynamics

of

to

capillary

the experiments of his son are exceedingly ingenious and


the influence of surface-tension in a great

number

and deducing from independent methods the

phenomena, and

well devised, tracing

of very different circumstances,

numerical

value

of

the

surface-

The experimental evidence which M. Dupr^ has obtained bearing on


the molecular structure of liquids must be very valuable, even if many of our
tension.

present opinions on this subject should turn out to be erroneous.

M. Quincke '^ has made a most elaborate

series of

of the surfaces separating one liquid from another

M. Liidtget has experimented on


of a liquid of high surface-tension

is

liquid

experiments on the tension

and from

air.

and has shewn how a

films,

film

replaced by a film of lower surface-tension.

He

has also experimented on the effects of the thickness of the film, and has
come to the conclusion that the thinner a film is, the greater is its tension.
This result, however, has been tested by M. Van der Mensbrugghe, who finds
that the tension is the same for the same liquid whatever be the thickness,
as long as the film does not burst.
The phenomena of very thin liquid films
deserve the most careful study, for it is in this way that we are most likely

to obtain evidence

by which we may

test the theories of the molecular structure

of liquids.
Sir

W. Thomson J

has

on

the

thermal

it.

He

surface

of

a liquid

vapour

in

contact with

on the
the

sufficient

to

effect

the

of

between

curvature

the

liquid

of

the

and

the

has also calculated the effect of surface-tension

velocity of a wave,

disturb

the

equilibrium

waves on the surface of a

propagation of

minimum

investigated

liquid, and has determined


and the velocity of the wind when it is just

the surface of

water .

still

Theory of Capillary Action.

When
into

two

different

fluids

are

each other or remain separate.

limited

placed in contact,

they

extent, after which the resulting mixtures do not


*

Poffr/.

Ann., cxxxix. (1870),

X Proceedings R.

S.,

may

either

diffuse

In some cases diffusion takes place to a

p.

t Ibid.

1.

Edinburgh, February

Philosophical Magazine, NovemV^er, 1871.

7,

1870.

p.

mix with each


620.

other.

CAPILLARY ACTION.

550

The same substance may be


temperature and pressure,
tained

same

the

in

when water and


The

vessel.

mechanical equilibrium of two

two physical

states

All that

dynamics.

two

in

exist

able to

as

fluids,

we have

to

which

the

are

con-

thermal

and

two mixtures, or the same substance

contact with each other,

in

tbe same

at

vapour

saturated

under

conditions

states

different

its

observe

present

at

that,

is

the

in

in

thermo-

belong to

possible

is

cases

in

do not mix of themselves, the potential energy of the system


must be greater when the fluids are mixed than when they are separate.
It is found by experiment that it is only very close to the bounding
surface of a liquid that the forces arising from the mutual action of its parts

which the

fluids

have any resultant effect on one of its particles. The experiments of Quincke
and others seem to shew that the extreme range of the forces which produce
capillary action lies between a thousandth and a twenty thousandth part of
a mOlimetre.

We

use the symbol

shall

be regarded

as

constant except within a distance


of the

the interior

sensibly

is

p,

fluid

it

has

the

range,

If

insensible.

energy of unit of mass of the substance, we

potential

density,

denote this extreme

to

may

the action of these forces

may

treat

Hence
is

if

uniform

equal to the constant

the volume of a mass

is

^^ sensibly

of the bounding surface of the

value

Xo-

quantity

^^^
which

In
p^,

in the interior of the liquid, except within a distance e of the

area

beyond which
x denotes the

M of

liquid

fluid.

manner
is

its

bounding

In
the

value

surface.

bounded by a surface whose

S, the integral

3I=jjjpdxdydz

(1),

where the integration is to be extended throughout the volume V, may be


divided into two parts by considering separately the thin shell or skin extending from the outer surface to a depth e, within which the density and other
properties

of the

liquid within

Since

the mass of

liquid

which
is

its

vary with the depth, and the interior portion of the

properties are constant.

a line of insensible magnitude compared with the dimensions of


and the principal radii of curvature of its surface, the

liquid

volume of the sheU whose surface


of the interior space will be
If
into

we

suppose a normal v

the liquid,

we may

is

and thickness

will

be Se, and that

VSe.
less

divide the

than

shell

into

to

be

drawn from the surface S


whose thick-

elementary shells

551

CAPILLARY ACTION.
ness

is

in

dv,

each

the liquid

other properties of

density and

which the

of

will be constant.

The volume

of

will

one of these shells

The mass of the whole

We

part of the liquid (V-Se)p,.

mass

Its

will

be Spdv.

and that of the

therefore be S\ pdv,

will

shell

be Sdv.

thus find for the whole mass of the liquid

M=Vp,-S^\p,-p)dv
To

we have

find the potential energy

(2).

to integrate

E = ^^^XP<-'^xdydz
Substituting

x/>

for 9 in the process

we have

(3).

just gone through,

we

E=Vx^.-s\^\x.p,-XP)dv
Multiplying equation (2) by

and subtracting

Xo,

it

In this expression

and

the

of

Xo

are

equation

from

(4),

(^)-

both constant, so that the variation ot


the same as that of the energy E,

is

and expresses that part of the energy which depends on the area
bounding surface of the liquid. We may call this the surface energy.

The symbol x expresses the energy of unit of mass


depth V within the bounding
rare

medium, such as

its

and the surface energy


energy,

is

surface.

own vapour
positive.

find

(4).

E-Mx. = X^s\^\x-X:)pd^
the right hand side

interior

When
or

By

the liquid

any other
the

gas,

principle

any displacement of the liquid by which

its

of

contact

in

is

with a

greater than

is

the

energy

the

the liquid at

of

is

of

conservation

Xo.

of

diminished will

Hence if the energy is the greater, the greater


itself.
exposed surface, the liquid will tend to move in such a way
as to diminish the area of the exposed surface, or in other words, the exposed
surface will tend to diminish if it can do so consistently with the other

tend to take place of


the

area

of the

conditions.

This tendency of the surface to contract

itself is called

the surface-

tension of liquids.

M. Dupr^ has
a liquid film

may

described an

be illustrated.

arrangement by which

the

surface-tension

of

CAPILLARY ACTION.

552

A
slip

of sheet metal

piece

of metal

on

laid

is

is

in

it

out

cut

by a
on

Let
surface
its

the

area
slip

be

is

BB

the

be ST.
its

If,

energy

pulled towards

l).

very fine

dipped into

is

however, tends to contract

film,

and the loose strip of metal BB will,


be drawn up towards A A, provided

surface-energy per

will

S = ah, and
is

go,

(fig.

the whole

M. Plateau's glycerine mixture.


AACC is filled up

or

This

liquid film.

let

BB, and

taken out the rectangle

sufficiently light

'

of area

is

itself,

is

^'

it

AA

the form

soap,

a solution of

When

in

the position

is

it
is

and smooth.
unit

of

Tab.

Hence

then

area;

in the rectangle

energy of

the

AACC, AA=a, and CC=h,

if

the force

is

by which

A A,
F=ifTah=Ta

or

if
it

(6),

the force arising from the surface-tension acting on a length a of the strip
Ta, so that T represents the surface-tension acting transversely on every

Hence

unit of length of the periphery of the liquid surface.

if

we

write

T = \[{x-X:)pdv
we may

define

surface-tension

either

per

unit

as

of

the

(7),

surface-energy

contour,

for

the

per

unit

numerical

of

area,

values

of

as

the

these

two

or

quantities are equal.

If the liquid is bounded by a dense substance, whether liquid or solid, the


value of X '^^1 te different from its value when the liquid has a free surface.
quantities
If the liquid is in contact with another liquid, let us distinguish

belonging to the two liquids by suffixes.

We

shall

then have

^,-3f,Xo. = 'S^|\a-Xo.)pA

Adding these
for

expressions,

and dividing the second member by

(9).

S,

we

obtain

the tension of the surface of contact of the two liquids

r:,=|^Xi-XoO/'A+|^x.-Xo.)pA

(10).

553

CAPILLARY ACTION.
quantity

If this

and the liquids

remain

distinct.

If,

contact

of

surface

the

positive,

is

will

however,

will

tend to contract,

were negative, the

it

dis-

placement of the liquids which tends to enlarge the surface of contact would
be aided by the molecular forces, so that the liquids, if not kept separate by

No

would at length become thoroughly mixed.

gravity,

for

by the

which

of themselves do so

of dilQfusion,

process

liowever,

instance,

those

a phenomenon of this kind has been discovered,

liquids

motion,

a molecular

is

and not by the spontaneous puckering and replication of the bounding


as would be the case if T were negative.
It

however,

probable,

is

belonging to the less dense fluid

can

demonstrate

often

surface

of the

to the surface-tension.

This shews that

this;

so

solid,

although in so doing

it

for

is

Thus

liquid

tends

to

spread

itself

obliged to

increase

the free

surface

in

opposition

w^ater spreads itself out on a clean surface of glass.


glass.

Tension of Liquid Films.

The method already given


all whose dimensions

such as a soap-bubble.

we

over the

with
{x~Xo)p^^^ "^^^^ ^ negative for water in contact

liquid,

may

the

which the integral

in

If the denser body be solid

negative.

is

cases

surface,

as to increase the area of the surface of contact, even

Ox THE

eC

many

that there are

of

which mix

for

the

are

sensible,

In such a film

of

investigation

it

is

fails

the

surface-tension

of

the case of a liquid film,

in

possible that no part of the Hquid

be so far from the surface as to have the

potential

and density

corre-

sponding to what we have called the interior of a liquid mass, and measurements
of the tension of the film when drawn out to different degrees of thinness

may

uniform.

such

lead

possibly

least of the

to

an estimate of the range of the molecular

depth within a liquid mass, at which

We

shall

therefore

its

forces,

or at

properties become sensibly

a method of investigating the tension of

indicate

films.

Let

be the area of

the film,

mass, and e the energy of unit of area

M=Sa
E = Se
VOL. IL

its

mass,

and

its

energy;

a-

then
(11),
(12).

70

the

554

of

CAPILLARY ACTION.
Let us now suppose that by some change in the form of the boundary
its area is changed from S to S + dS.
If its tension is T the

the film

work required

to effect

of surface

increase

this

of the film will be increased

by

will

be TdS,

and the energy

Hence

amount.

this

TdS=dE
= Sde-\-edS
But

since

(13).

constant,

is

d3I=Sda--\-a-dS=0
Eliminating

dS

from equations (13) and

(14).

and dividing by

(14),

S,

^=^-4:
In this expression
(f

we

find

('5)-

denotes the mass of

unit of

area of

the

and

film,

the energy of unit of area.

we take the

If

axis

of curvature of which

ness

and

c,

if

is

of z normal to

we suppose

the density, and

either

surface of the film, the radius

be very great compared with

to

its

thick-

^^^ energy of unit of mass at depth

z,

then
cr

= j[pd^

(16),

= |V^2

(17).

and

Both p and x

when
2e,

there

is

will

^i'

functions

substituted for

be a stratum

within which the values of

on either side of this


depth,

will

be the

of

of

z,

the values of

If the

z.

which remain the same

thickness of the film

thickness

2e

p and x "^^ ^^

in

the

is

middle

greater than
of

the

film,

^^^ Xo* ^^ ^^ ^^^ strata


the law, according to which p and x depend on the

same as in a

liquid

Po

mass of large dimensions.

Hence

this case

a={c-2e)p, + 2jpdu

= (c-2e)xo/>o + 2|^'x/jc//^

(18),

(19),

in

CAPILLARY ACTION.
d(r_
d~c~P"

r=

555

de _

de

5c~^"^"

xP^lu
j

- 2xo

'(T^"^"'

pdi^,
I

= '^j\x-X:}pdHence the tension


two

its

surfaces

uniform

we

density

exceeds

that

find

shall

film

is

equal to the

(equation

calculated

this

7).

true

is

sum

of the tensions of

On

the

defined

^s

as

knowledge of the absolute

every expression in which


however, in which
substance

occurs

it

of
it

energy

this

under

is

we have experimental

either liquid

is

rounded by similar
bounding

not

is

form

the

It

is

since

required,

^^^^^

X""X"'

The only cases,


when the

quantity are

of this

and

similar liquid, or gaseous

impossible to

make

of the substance within

iu
^^^

^^

direct

sur-

measurements of the
distance

the insensible

of the

surface.

When
p'

if

values

and surrounded by

gas.

of particles

properties

then

of

thickness

energy of unit of mass of the substance.

the

value

the difference between the energy in two different states.

say,

hypothesis

whose

films

for

c.

The symbol x

thick

of a

already

as

(20).

a liquid

and

x'

thermal and dynamical equilibrium with

in

is

^^re

the values of p and ^

vapour,

its

vapour, and

"the

^^^'

p^

and

X"

those for the liquid,

,-_,=/i_(i-i)
where

the dynamical equivalent of heat,

is

mass of the vapour, and


its

surface

it

is

is

probable that

the pressure.

^^

very near the surface of the liquid


this

has not as yet

been

deavour to apply to this

where these

fail

us

we

shall

the

have

is

At

the

latent

^o)

^^rid

probable that x
experimentally.

'^^

We

recourse

to

used
the

in

points in the

at

is

methods

heat of unit of

points in the liquid very near

greater than
it

ascertained
subject

(.,),

^^^^

shall

gas

^'j

but

therefore

en-

than

Thermodynamics, and

hypotheses

of

molecular

physics.

702

CAPILLARY ACTION.

556

We

have next to determine the value of x ^^ terms of the action between


Let us suppose that the force between two particles

one particle and another.

m and

m' at the distance

is

F=mm(<f>{f)+^^
when the

being reckoned positive


the

part from

the

to

shew that a

force subject to this


in

therefore,

shall,

what

The actual

attractive.

is

is

law would not account

inversely

is

C
mm ^^.

expressed by

between

force

mutual gravitation, which

This force

square of the distance.

as

We

in

arises

particles

force

their

(22),

It

easy

is

for capillary action.

follows, consider only that part of the force

which

depends on ^ (/), where ^ (/) is a function of / which is insensible for al 1


sensible values of /, but which becomes sensible and even enormously great

when

If

exceedingly small.

is

we next

introduce a

new

function

of/ and

write

/%(/)#=n(/)

(23),

then mwiTl (/) will represent (1) the work done by the attractive force on
the particle m, whUe it is brought from an infinite distance from m' to the
distance

from m'

or

(2)

the attraction of a particle

rod being at a distance

from m, and the other at an

mass of unit of length of the rod being on.


sensible

values

sensible

for

sensible

and even very

If

we next

on a narrow straight

but

of /,

distance,

infinite

The function

for insensible

values

of

n (/)

it

is

infinitely
(2)

is

the
in-

great.

write

then 2TTmcn^{z) will represent

also

may become

|yn(/)rf/=,/,(z)

a particle

of the

one extremity

rod resolved in the direction of the length of the rod,

brought

thin stratum of

from

the work done by the attractive force while

(l)

an

infinite

the substance

the attraction of a particle

of an infinite solid

whose density

(24),

is

distance

to

placed at a distance
cr.

distance

whose mass per


z

unit

of

from

area

is

an
<r

from the plane surface

CAPILLARY ACTION.
Let us examine the case in which

whose principal

Let

(fig.

Let the

surface.

of the

be

2)

o>

Then

if

plane

of

curvature

PB

of the

are

the

of

paper be

the centre of curvature

paper, and

in

the

to

normal section

making an

with the section whose radius of curvature


is

is

sub-

R^ and R^.

a nonnal

the stratum at the point B,

of

surface

angle

radii

the particle and

the particle

placed at a distance z jfrom a curved stratum


stance,

557

R^.

is

the plane of the

Fig. 2.

BO = u,
cos

sm""

CO

(t)

(25).

R,

R,

POQ = e, PO = r, PQ=f, BP =

Let

z,

f' = u- + r' 2ur coaO

The element

of the stratum at

Q may

dO dco,

cm' sin
or expressing

dO

in

terms of df by

(26).

be expressed by

(26),

u
cr

Multiplying this by
attraction of this element

- fdfdco.

and by Uf, we obtain for the work done by the


m is brought from an infinite distance to P

when

mcT'^n{f)dfdco.
Integrating with respect to

f=z

from

great compared with the extreme range

compared with either of the

to

f=a, where a

is

a line very

of the molecular force, but very small

radii of curvature,

we

obtain for the work

mcT-{xlj{z)-xp{a)}dco,

and

since \p{a)

is

an insensible quantity we may omit

We may

it.

also write

-=l + - + &c.,
r

since z
(25),

is

we

very small compared with

u,

and expressing

in

terras

of

find

/;.^(,{i..p^-%^ij.)}..=2.,<^(=){i.i.g_+^j}.

by

CAPILLARY ACTION.

558

when a

This then expresses the work done by the attractive forces

is

brought from an

a stratum whose surface-density


are

JR^

and

To

is

when

the work done

find

and whose principal

cr,

2'rrm

irm (;d-

we must suppose p a

general,

particle

distance z

from

curvature

of

radii

gives

distance to the

(l)

normal to

the

P,

point

length of the column being

or

pdz,

cr

particle

(2)

the neigh-

depth v

to integrate

z.

This expression,

while

it

long

the attraction on a
at

P,

the

when

brought from

is

mass

slender
unit

of

of

In the form of the theory given by Laplace,

m.

Hence

the density of the liquid was supposed to be uniform.

K=27r\

and

in

of the

P^^{^) ^^>

d" )

and terminating

surface

a function

is

function of

the work done on a

integrated,

column

dz

pxp (z)

an

infinite

brought to the point

is

body, the density of which

solid

below the surface, we have only to write instead of

in

at

R^.

bourhood of a

where,

point

distance to the

infinite

xp{z)dz,

H=27r(

we

if

write

zylj{z)dz,

the pressure of a column of the fluid itself terminating at the surface will be

and the work done by the attractive forces when a particle


the surface of the fluid from an infinite distance will be

mp
If

we

is

brought to

{-^Hh&-

write
^l,{z)dz=^{),

/:

then 2iTmpO{z)

particle

surface

is

of a

function

[z)

may become
e{o)=K.

will

mass
is

work done

express the

brought from an
of

the

insensible

sensible,

but

substance
for
it

by the

infinite distance

all

of

density p

finite

forces,

while

distance z from the plane

and

infinitely

thick.

The

For insensible values it


even when 2 = 0, in which case

sensible values of

must remain

attractive

to a

z.

CAPILLARY ACTION.
If

is

the potential energy of unit of mass of the substance

then at a distance

At the

55i>

in

vapour,

from the plane surface of the liquid

surface

X = x'-27rp^(0).

At a distance

;:

within the surface

X = x-477/)^(0) + 27r/)^(2).
If the liquid forms a stratum of thickness

X = x' - 477/3(9 (0) + lirpd

The
area

of

surface-density

{z)

stratum

this

then

c,

+ 27rpe

is

(r

iz)

dz

{z

= cp.

- c).
The

energy per

unit

of

is

= cp{x- ^TTpO (0)} + 27rp-^ r


Since the two
equal,

sides

of the

stratum

are

+ 277/)= r e{c-z) dz.

similar

the

last

two

and
e

= cp

[x

- 477/3(9 (0)} + 47rp-

Diiferentiating with respect to

c,

we

(z) dz.

find

da-

dp

Hence the

surface-tension

de

da

= iTTp'U' e(z)dz-ce{A.
Integrating the

first

term within brackets by

c^(c)-0(9(0)-r

de
dz

parts, it
,

becomes

terms

art-

CAPILLARY ACTION.

560

Remembering that 6

(O) is

and that -^

finite quantity,

xp

(z),

we

find

T^iTTp' l\xlj{z)dz.

When

than

c is greater

this

is

equivalent to

Hence the tension is the same for


molecular forces.
For thinner films

Hence

Now

if

t/(c)

side the

is

the range of the

e,

the tension and the thickness will increase together.

Now, the

c.

on the whole,

should

in the equation of Laplace.

represents the attraction between a particle

surface

certainly,
it

positive,

2H

thicker than

films

of an infinite mass of the liquid,

surface

is

2Trmp\lj(c)

all

be

force

attractive

repulsive,

then

films

for

and the

particle

any two

between

if

and the plane

distance of the particle out-

between the

but

when the

whose thickness

lies

values the tension will increase as the thickness diminishes,

liquid

values

small

between

but

for

is

of

these

all

other

cases the tension will diminish as the thickness diminishes.

We
place

have given several examples in which the

density

is

assumed to be

because Poisson has asserted that capillary phenomena would not take

uniform,

unless

though

in

his

density does actually vary, he was probably right.

may

which we

In this assertion we

the density varied rapidly near the surface.

think he was mathematically wrong,

call

with

Van

own

In

hypothesis

Waals the molecular

der

that

the

the quantity ^nrp'K,

fact,

pressure,

so

is

great

for most
(5000 atmospheres for water), that in the parts near the surface, where the molecular pressure varies rapidly, we may expect considerable

liquids

variation

of

density,

even when

we take

into

account

the

smallness

of

the

compressibility of liquids.

The pressure
pressure

at

mutual attraction of

two causes, the external


and the pressure arising from the
If we suppose that the number of molecules

any point of the

to which the liquid


its

is

molecules.

liquid arises from

subjected,

within the range of the attraction of a given molecule


of the

pressure

the number of
density.

arising

from attraction will

molecules

in

unit

of

be

is

very large, the part

proportional

volume, that

is,

to

to

the

the

square

square

of

Hence we may write


i5

= P + ^/>=

(1)-

of

the

CAPILLARY ACTION.
where

is

constant.

b.

But by the equations

561

of equilibrium of the liquid

dp=-pdx
a^d
where

(3)^
(4),

another constant.

is

Near the plane


have then

(2).

pdx = ^Apdp
x-x = 2Ap-2B

Hence

we may assume p a

surface of a liquid

for the value of

^^ the point where

X'-X = 27r

function of

r' p{z)^l,{z-c)dz
J

We

z.

= c,

(5),

c-e

where e is the range beyond which the attraction of a mass of liquid bounded
by a plane surface becomes insensible. The value of x depends, therefore, on
those values only of p which correspond to strata for which z is nearly equal
to

c.

We

may, therefore, expand p

where the

suffix

(c)

differentiation, z is to

in

terms of

c,

or writing

(U.n./*^
c.

We

may now

it

is

vanishes

if

But

if

we

is

\ff

(x)

+ x and - x.

has equal values for

applied after

write

+ ^''(S)(,)^|'^''^('^)'^^ + '^'
The function

c,
().

denotes that in the quantity to which

be made equal to

for z

Hence

('')

x^xji

(x)

dx

odd.

write
r+'

K=tt\

^=

\}j

{x) dx,

r+'

L = -v\

x'\lf{x)dx,

2^.4 ""jZ ^'^ (^^ "^^^

^''

x'-x = 2^P + 2zg + 2i/^ + &c.


This

is

the expression for x on the hypothesis that the value of p can


z-c within the limits z-e and z + e. It

be expanded in a series of powers of


VOL. IL

7i

CAPILLARY ACTION.

562

when the

only

is

point

within the distance

is

of the surface of the liquid

that this ceases to be possible.


If

we now

substitute for
2J/D

;(

?i,,

The

n^,

n^ are

coefficient

(4),

^ + 2if ^ +

the solution of which

p,

we

obtain

&c.,

is

the roots of the equation

than cL, where

less

is

M very

Hence we may consider

force.

n..,

value from equation

- 25 = 2Zp + 2X

a linear differential equation in

where

its

the range of the attractive

is

small compared with

we

neglect

L.

If

call

a the average

altogether,

If

we assume

a quantity a such that cv'K=2L,

range of the molecular forces.


h the modulus of the variation of

Our calculation
when compared with

and

also

the density

take

h,

we may

so that

hn=\, we may

in that case

::

AK

is in general
But it appears from experiments on liquids that
when compared with K, and sometimes very large. Hence we conclude,

the

that

hypothesis

phenomena
variation

calculation

is

finite

incorrect,

and,

secondly,

that the principal

part

In the following table,

Ap

both expressed in atmospheres (the

of the

is

half the

atmosphere being one million


p

is

the density,

molecular action,

and K.

large
first,

the

of the force

range of the molecular action.

the molecular pressure,

of an

that

do not in any very great degree depend on the

of density near the surface, but

below, p. 589).

our

of capillary action

depends on the

Kp

of

call

near the surface.

made on the hypothesis that a is smaU


A
K.
we have found that a' If

has been

hitherto
h,

we

as

in

cubical

elasticity of the liquid,

and

absolute value

centimetre-gramme-second

measure, see

the surface-tension, and a the average range

calculated

by Van der Waals from the values of

563

CAPILLARY ACTION.

The unit
millionth

ia

which a

is

expressed

is

1cm. xlO"'; a

part of a centimetre for mercury, the

is

therefore the twenty-

thirty-millionth

for

water,

and

Quincke, however, found by direct experithe forty-millionth part for alcohol.


were sensible at a distance of a twoactions
molecular
ment that certain
so that we cannot regard any of these
centimetre,
part
of
a
hundred-thousandth

numbers

as accurate.

564

CAPILLAKY ACTION.

capillary

action

also

The

vanislies.

on capillary action

early writers

supposed

that the diminution of capillary action was due simply to the change of density

corresponding to the rise of temperature, and, therefore, assuming the surfacetension to

vary as the square of the density, they deduced

the observed dilatation of the liquid by heat.

not appear to be verified by the


rise of
3.

variations from

its

This assumption, however, does

experiments of

Brunner and Wolff on

the

water in tubes at different temperatures.

The tension

the surface separating two liquids

of

known method from the

cannot be deduced by any


of the liquids

When

when

separately in contact with

the surface

is

which

tensions

air.

the effect of the surface-tension

curved,

the pressure on the concave side exceed the pressure on

^f d"+"^)' "where

the

is

do not mix
the surfaces

of

intensity of the

surface-tension

to

is

make

convex side by

the

and R^, R^

are

the radii of curvature of any two sections normal to the surface and to each
other.

which do not mix are in contact with each other, the three

If three fluids

meet

surfaces of separation

Let

(fig.

plane of the paper


line

at the

point

are

The

0.

ah

of

to

as
c

the

and

h,

if

completely determined by the tensions

For

if

in

the

triangle

ahc the

a given scale
the fluids a

the other sides he and ca are taken so

and a

respectively,

then the condition of equilibrium at

the corresponding tensions R, P, and

supplement of ahc,

angles at which the

POQ

surfaces

of hca,

meet, their tensions are equal,

The

froth

of small films which

of

and,

of separation

the line of concourse of the three

each other.

the

on the same scale the tensions of the surfaces between h and

represent

and between

for

and

the

separation at

the tension of the surface of contact of


Fig. 8.

let

between

angles

three

taken so as to represent on

is

or curved.

and

line,

three surfaces

of the three surfaces.


side

this

supposed to be normal to the

be

tangent planes to the


the point

in a line, straight

be a point in

3)

fluids.

and,

that the angle

is

therefore,

QOR

of

ROF
cah.

meet are the same at

When

therefore,

all

shall

be

Thus the
parts

of

three films of the same liquid

they make angles of 120* with

soap-suds or beat-up

meet each other at angles of

eggs
120".

consists

of

a multitude

565

CAPILLARY ACTION.

meet in a point 0, and if a tetrahedron A BCD


AB represents the tension of the surface of contact
of the liquids a and b, BC that of b and c, and so on; then if we place
to the
this tetrahedron so that the face ABC is normal to the tangent at
normal
ia
AB
edge
the
that
so
it
turn
and
fluids
the
abc,
line of concourse of
If four

is

fluids,

a,

formed so that

its

d,

c,

b,

edge

to the surface of contact of the fluids a and b,


the tangent plane at
then the other three faces of the tetrahedron will be normal to the tangents
to the other three lines of concourse of the liquids, and the other five
at
to the
edges of the tetrahedron will be normal to the tangent planes at

to

other five surfaces of contact.

hedron

the same liquid meet in a point the corresponding tetrait meets the others, has

of

films

If six

a regular tetrahedron, and each film, where

is

an angle whose

cosine

Hence

-^.

is

we

if

take

two

with

wire

of

nets

hexagonal meshes, and place one on the other so that the point of concourse
of three hexagons of one net coincides with the middle of a hexagon of the
other,

and

if

w^e

and

horizontally,

then,

gently

after
raise

plane laminae arranged as the

system of films

When

upper

walls

and

We

honeycomb.

them

dipping
the

must not, however,


will become unstable.

a drop of one liquid, B,

we

floors

raise

Plateau's

in

one,

the

shall

of the cells

upper

net

them

system of

are

arranged in a

too

much, or

placed on the surface

is

place

liquid,

develop

of

another,

the

A,

the phenomena which take place depend on the relative magnitude of the three
B
surface-tensions corresponding to the surface between A and air, between

and between

and

air,

the

sum

of the other

angles which the

and B.

two, the

If no

drop

one of these tensions

will

upper and lower surfaces

is

greater than

assume

the

form

the

lens

make with

of

of

lens,

the

the free

and with each other being equal to the external angles of the
Such lenses are often seen formed by drops of fat floating
on the surface of hot water, soup, or gravy. But when the surface-tension of

surface

triangle

of

of forces.

exceeds the

sum

with air
of the surfaces of contact of
construct the triangle of forces, so that equi-

of the tensions

impossible

and with ^, it is
librium becomes impossible.

to

The edge of the drop is drawn out by the surfacewith a force greater than the sum of the tensions of the two
The drop, therefore, spreads itself out, with great velocity,
surfaces of the drop.
over the surface of A tiU it covers an enormous area, and is reduced to such

tension

of

extreme tenuity that

it

is

not probable that

it

retains

the same

properties of

CAPILLARY ACTION.

566

which

surface-tension

spread

has

it

Thus a drop of

a large mass.

in

over the surface of the sea

itself

train

oil

shews the colours of thin

it

till

will

plates.

These rapidly descend in Newton's scale and at last disappear, shewing that
the thickness of the film is less than the tenth part of the length of a wave

But even when thus attenuated, the

of light.
since

sent,

the surface-tension of the liquid

may

This

pure water.

lens

flat

what

with a

of the surfaces separating

very

extensive

Mensbrugghe has

be proved to be pre-

oil

from

first

edge,

air

than

less

that* of

on the surface.

but will take the form of

shewing that

now

is

drop,

oil

the

surface-tension

of

than the sum of the tensions

and water.

of drops on the surface of a liquid has formed the subject

The spreading
of

circular

distinct

apparently pure water

still

is

may

be shewn by placing another drop of

This drop will not spread out like the

film

considerably less

is

series

experiments

of

by Mr Tomlinson. M. Van der


memoir on this subject*.
contact with two fluids, the surface

also written a very complete

When
of the

a solid body

is

cannot alter

solid

in

its

form,

but

the

angle

which

at

the

meets the surface of the solid


depends on the values of the three surface-tensions. If a and h
are the two fluids and c the solid then the equilibrium of the
surface of contact of the

tensions at

Q
.

parallel

surface

angle

ROQ

denoted by

4)

(fig.

are
at

fluids

depends only on that of thin components

the point

the surface,

to

two

because the surface-tensions normal to the

balanced by the resistance of the

which the surface

of

contact

OP

Hence

solid.

meets

the

if

solid

the
is

a,

whence
cos a
^ab

As an experiment on the
surface-tensions
It

is

at the

theoretically

angle

solid

probable

of contact

surface,

that

only gives us the diflerence of the

we cannot determine

their

they are often negative, and

actual

may

be

value.
called

surface-pressures.

The constancy
a solid was

first

of the

pointed

angle of contact between the surface of a fluid and

out

by Dr Young, who states that


Quincke makes
is about 140".

contact between mercury and glass

* Sur la Tension Superjicielle des Liquides, Bruxelles, 1873.

the
it

angle

128 52'.

of

CAPILLARY ACTION.

sum

other two tensions,

of the

but

equilibrium,

between the

of the surface

tension

If the

ceeds the

towards

be dragged

will

the quantity of the

solid

the

on the surface of the solid without wetting

it.

fluid

small

is

will spread

it

angle of contact of the


If a

drop of

made

alcohol be

it

and wet the

oil

is

second

If the quantity of the

surface

is

touch one side of a drop

to

tension

stand in a drop

will

and that of the second

fluid is 180"

fii-st

small

the alcohol will appear to chase the

plate,

glass

over the

itself

fluids ex-

which the

on

side

is

first

and one of the

the point of contact will not be in

fluid

If

greatest.

567

solid.

The

zero.

of

over the plate,

oil

and

on a
if

drop of water and a drop of bisulphide of carbon be placed in contact in a


horizontal capillary tube, the bisulphide of carbon will chase the water along

In both cases the liquids move in the direction in which the surface-

the tube.

pressure at the solid

least.

is

On the
Let a tube

(fig.

whose internal radius

5)

be dipped into a liquid

with the solid

liquid

that

implies

the solid c

is

liquid

a.

tension

All

this

with the liquid

free

of the

surface

a with the

edge

tension

is

for

c,

this

of

The

that the

so

27rrTco3 a
Fig. 5.

Hence

liquid.
till

the

a tension

vertical.

force

the weight of the vertical column between

level of the liquid in the vessel balances the resultant

The upper

surface-tension.

is

2n}\

is

upwards on the

and the

of a solid substance

Now

a.

edge there

the liquid will rise in the tube


the

made

that of the surface

its

the

r,

This

surface

the free surface of

round

acting vertically

free

of

acting at an angle

of

the

greater than

circumference of
resultant

an acute angle.

the tension of
is

is

Let us suppose that the angle of contact

a.

of contact of the solid

consider the

Eise of a Liquid in a Tube.

surface

of this

column

is

not

level,

so

that

the height of the column cannot be directly measured, but let us assume that

is

the

of equal

the top

mean height
weight,
of the

of the

but with a
column,

column,
flat

top.

that

is

Then

to
if

say,
?'

is

the height of a column


the radius of the tube at

the volume of the suspended columu

is

irr/i,

and

its

CAPILLARY ACTION.

568

when p is its density and g


-rrpgy^h,
is
Equating this force with the resultant of the tension

weight

Trpgr^h
,

Hence the mean height


the

tube.

For water

which

is

in

to which the

Hence when a

fluid

rises

is

pendicular to

parallel

plates

and

glass tube

are

zero,

is

pgr
contact

is

128

the

52',

cosine

of

dipped into a vessel of mercury,

is

EisE OF A Liquid between

When two

the radius of

inversely as

the mercury within the tube stands at a lower level than outside

between them.

gravity.

pgr

a glass tube the angle of

negative.

of

2Tcosa

in a clean glass tube the angle of contact

fi

For mercury

intensity

= 2'n-rrcos a,

n=

or

the

Two

it.

Plates.

placed vertically in a liquid the liquid rises

we now suppose fig. 5 to represent a vertical section


the plates, we may calculate the rise of the liquid. Let

per-

If

be

the breadth of the plates measured perpendicularly to the plane of the paper,

then the length of the


plates

inside

a to the

is

vertical.

for

line

which bounds the wet and the dry parts of the

each surface, and on this the tension

Hence the

resultant

of the

the distance between the inner surfaces of the plates

height of the film of fluid which rises between them


raised

is

pghla.

h=

whence

that instead of

is
is

a,
h,

acts at an angle
is

and

2ZJ'cos
if

the

a.

If

mean

the weight of fluid

Equating the forces


pghla

This expression

surface-tension

is
r,

= 2lT COB a,
2^008 a
pga

the same as that for the rise of a liquid in a tube, except


the radius of the tube,

we have a

the distance of the plates.


CAPILLARY ACTION.

Form of the Capillary


The form of the
mined
surface

of the

zontal,

as

surfaces

it

liquid

is

the

solid

which

solids

acted on by gravity

part considered

with that of the

when the

Surface:.

the

the

near a

instance,

it

is

This will

lines.

If

solids

parallel

to

hori-

bounded by

are

be

we suppose

generating lines to be normal to the plane of the paper then


the

and

straight

liquid

plate dipped into the liquid.

flat

deter-

easily

is

of contact of the

line

bounding

constrain

formed by horizontal and parallel generating

for

case,

of a Hquid

surface

we assume that near

if

5G9

all

the
these

sections

plane will be equal and similar to each other,

this

the section of the surface of the liquid will be of the same form for

all

of

and
such

sections.

Let us consider the portion of the liquid between


one unit of length. Let P^, P^ (fig. 6) be

two

parallel

sections

distant

two points of the surface;


the

surface

to the

heights of P^

the inclination of

0,,

and P, above the

distance from

at a

6^,

horizon at P^ and

all

level

is

y^,

of the

y,_

The pressure

at
is

negative unless another fluid as, for instance, the


presses on the upper surface, but

two equal pressures on opposite

We
where p

may, therefore, write

is

it

only the

is

we have

ence of pressures with which

the

liquid

above this level

solid bodies.

any point of the liquid which

P^;

air,

difierFig.

to do, because

sides of the surface produce no eSect.

for the pressure at

the density of the liquid, or

if

a height y

there are two

fluids

the excess of

the density of the lower fluid over that of the upper one.

The
zontal

forces

pressures,

acting on the portion

^pgyi

and

Pi and P, in directions inclined

we

6^

of

liquid

second,

:P9y^

and

6^

P.PJl^^

the

are

first,

surface-tension

to the horizon,

the

Resolving horizontally

find

T (cos e, - COS e,) + Igp (y/ - y,^) = 0,


whence
VOL.

cos
II.

e,

= cos

e,

hori-

acting at

9P
- ypy,' + i^y.
72

CAPILLARY ACTION

570
or if

we suppose P,

fixed

and P^

we may

variable,

cos ^ =

1^

write

^^ + constant.

Resolving vertically

must be equal to
P^P^^i multiplied by

level

we

The form

gp.

the

to

weight of the liquid raised above the.

find that the

T (sin 6^ - sin 6^,

curve

the

of

This equation gives a relation between tbe inclination


horizon and the height above the level of the liquid.

this is therefore equal to

and

of the

capillary surface

is

the area

identical with

that of the "elastic curve," or the curve formed by a uniform spring originally
straight, when its ends are acted on by equal and opposite forces applied either
to

the

themselves

ends

to

or

attached

pieces

solid

them.

to

the different forms of the curve

Thomson and
p.

Tait's

Natural

We

7.

Drawings of
be found in
Vol.

Philosophy,

shall

next consider

the

rise

of

different materials for

and

a^

between the plates being

a small quantity.

the plates are very near one another

a,

we may use the

a.^,

following

liquid

which

the distance

the angles of contact are

the surface as an approximation

i.

455.

between two plates of


Fig.

may

Since

equation

of

y =h, + Ax + Baf

\ = h^-\-Aa + Ba\
whence
cot 0.^=
cot Oj

T (cos Oi + cos a,) = pga

A-\{Ji^

2Ba

+\Aa + \BA%

whence we obtain

L=

^ + cos a,)

(cos a,

pga ^

-''

+- (2 cot Oj cot a,),


6

''

cot a^).
K = pga (cos a,
^ + cos ou) + 6 (2 cot a,
Let

plate to

'''

77 ^

'

be the force which must be applied in a horizontal direction to either

keep

it

from approaching the other, then the forces acting on the

first

CAPILLARY
are

plate

direction.

T-\-X

the

in

ACTTION.

571

negative direction, and

sina,

+ ^/jV

the positive

in

Hence

X = ^gph:-T(l-sma,).
For the second plate

X=^gph,'-T{l-sina,).

X = lgp

Hence

substituting the values of

or,

+ h,') - T { 1 - i

(h,'

A,

and

(sin a,

+ sin a,)},

hj,

TX = ^ pga
;(cosai + cosa2)'-r{l - ^ (sin

Oi

sin a,)

when a

the remaining terms being negligible

is

(cos Oi

other words an attraction,

in

The

small.

which the two plates are drawn together consists

+ cos a,) (cot c^ +

first

cota,)},

force, therefore,

of a positive

with

part,

or

varying inversely as the square of the distance,

and second, of a negative part or repulsion independent of the distance. Hence


all cases except that in which the angles ctj and a, are supplementary to

in

each other, the force

and

cos

cu,

are

is

and depressed by the

when a is small enough, but when cos a^


when the liquid is raised by one plate,
first term may be so small that the repulsion

attractive

of different

signs,

other, the

as

by the second term comes

indicated

smaller

distance

was

observations of the

deduced

Abb^

The

into play.

which repel one another at a certain distance

may

by Laplace from

fact

that a pair of plates

attract

theory,

one

and

another

verified

at a

by the

Haiiy.

Drop between Two Plates.

If a small quantity of a liquid which wets glass be introduced between


two glass plates slightly inclined to each other, it will run towards that part
where the glass plates are nearest together. When the liquid is in equilibrium
it

forms a thin

If

is

film,

atmospheric pressure,

and

if

the outer edge of which

is

the distance between the plates at the

is

the pressure

of

the

liquid

all

of

the

same thickness.
and

edge of the film


in

the

the area of the film between the plates and

film

is

its

IT

-^^

circumference,

the plates will be pressed together with a force

2^rcosa
"1

the

sm a,
nl

722

CAPILLARY ACTION.

572

The force thus


this, whether the atmosphere exerts any pressure or not.
produced by the introduction of a drop of water between two plates is enormous,
and is often sufficient to press certain parts of the plates together so power-

and

as to bruise

fully

them

When two

them.

or break

blocks

of

which melts

water

superfluous

are

ice

placed

them may

from

together so that the


drain away, the remaining water draws the blocks together with a force
cient to cause the blocks to adhere by the process called Kegelation.

loosely

suffi-

many experiments bodies are floated on the surface of water in order


may be free to move under the action of slight horizontal forces.
Thus Newton placed a magnet in a floating vessel and a piece of iron in
another in order to observe their mutual action, and Ampere floated a voltaic
In

that they

wire in

battery with a coil of

its

in

circuit

the

order to observe

When

the earth's magnetism on the electric circuit.

effects

of

such floating bodies come

near the edge of the vessel they are drawn up to it, and are apt to stick
There are two ways of avoiding this inconvenience. One is to grease
fast to it.
the float round

its

water-line

so

that the water

however, often produces a worse disturbing


spreads over
is

to

fill

the water and increases

the vessel with water

higher than the rim of the vessel.

edge of the

Such

vessel.

floats,

its

the

till

The

depressed round

is

effect,

surface-viscosity.

float

the

of

level

This,

it.

because a thin film of grease

The other method

water

stands

little

then be repelled from the

will

however, should always be made so that the

section taken at the level of the water

is

as small as possible.

Phenomena arising from the Variation of the Surface-tension.


Pure water has a higher surface-tension than that of any other substance
Hence any other liquid if
at ordinary temperatures except mercury.

liquid

mixed with water diminishes


alcohol be placed

from

80,

its

For

surface-tension.

example,

on the surface of water, the surface-tension

the value for pure water, to

25,

the

value

for

will

pure

if

drop of

be diminished
alcohol.

The

no longer be in equilibrium, and a current


surface
will be formed at and near the surface from the alcohol to the surrounding
water, and this current will go on as long as there is more alcohol at one
of the

part of the

liquid

surface

will

therefore

than at another.

If the vessel

be balanced by counter currents below them, but

is

if

deep, these currents will

the depth of

the water

57^

CAPILLARY ACTION.
is

leaving

water,

phenomenon was

who

first

explained a

also

sweep away the whole


This
was dropped in.
by Professor James Thomson,

or three millimetres, the surface-current will

only two

of the

dry spot

described

where the

alcohol

and explained

phenomenon, the converse of

called

this,

" tears

the

of

strong wine."

the

If a

wine glass

side

of the

be

glass

half-filled

with port wine the liquid

rises

little

The wine, however, contains

other liquids do.

as

up

alcohol

and water, both of which evaporate, but the alcohol faster than the water, so
In the middle of the vessel
that the superficial layer becomes more watery.
the

recovers

layer

superficial

adhering to the side

its

the

of

strength by diffusion from below, but the film

glass

becomes more watery, and therefore has a


It therefore creeps

liigher surface-tension than the surface of the stronger wine.

up the
till

side

of the

dragging the strong wane after

glass

it,

and

this goes

the quantity of fluid dragged up collects into a drop and runs

on

down

the

from

the

side of the glass.

The motion

pieces of

of small

gradual solution of the camphor.


of the

piece

camphor

on water

floating

arises

more rapidly on one side


the surface-tension becomes

If this takes place

camphor than on the other side,


is most camphor in solution, and the lump, being pulled

of

weaker where there

unequally by the surface-tensions,

If a

moves

off"

drop of ether

and
away from under the drop

in every direction

If

we

place
it

the direction of the strongest


is

dissolved.

held near the surface of water the vapour of ether

is

condenses on the surface of the water,

one side of

in

towards the side on which least camphor

tension, namely,

surface-currents

are

a small floating body in a shallow vessel of

with alcohol or ether,

it

will

formed flowing

of ether.

move

off"

water and wet

with great velocity and

skim about on the surface of the water, the part wet with alcohol being always
the stern.

state

The surface-tension of mercury is greatly altered by slight changes in the


The surface-tension of pure mercury is so great that it
of the surface.

is

very

it

at once.

difficult

to

keep

it

clean, for

But the most remarkable


duced by what
of the

surface

electromotive

is

called

of contact
force

acting

efiects

every kind of

oil

or

grease spreads over

of change of surface-tension are those pro-

the electric polarization of the surface.


of mercury and

dilute

The tension

sulphuric acid depends on the

between the mercury and the

acid.

If

the

electro-

CAPILLABY ACTION.

574
motive force
it

from the acid to the mercury the surface-tension increases;


the acid, it diminishes. Faraday observed that

is

from the mercury to

is

changes

its

bottom of a vessel containing dilute


form in a remarkable way when connected with one of the

large drop of mercury, resting on the


acid,

if

flat

a battery, the other electrode being placed in the acid. When


when il^
the mercury is made positive it becomes dull and spreads itself out
LippM.
bright
again.
becomes
and
together
itself
gathers
it
negative
is made
of

electrodes

maim, who has made a


the surface-tension.
30-4

from

of one Darnell's

effect

He

constructed

has

of electric potential less than

differences

subject,

the electromotive force produce

The

40-6.

to

investigation of the

careful

small variations of

ingly

O'Ol

cell

is

that exceed-

to increase

electrometer

capillary

of

finds

sensible

that of

changes

in

the tension

by

which

a Daniell's cell can

be detected by the difference of the pressure required to force the mercury to


He has also constructed an apparatus
fine capillary tube.

a given point of a
in

which

this

a machine.

variation

He

in

the surface-tension

has also found

area of the surface

of

that

contact of

this

is

made

action

is

to do

work and drive


for when the

reversible,

the acid and mercury

is

made

to

increase,

the mercury to the acid, the amount of elecbeing


tricity which passes while the surface increases by one square centimetre
sufi&cient to decompose '000013 grammes of water.

an electric current

On the Forms

passes from

of Liquid Films which are Figures of Eevolution.

Spherical Soap-huhhle.

soap-bubble is simply a small quantity of soap-suds spread out so as


a large surface to the air. The bubble, in fact, has two surfaces,
expose
to
an outer and an inner surface, both exposed to air. It has, therefore, a certam

depending on the area of these two surfaces. Smce


approximately equal,
in the case of thin films the outer and inner surfaces are
of them, and
either
representing
film
as
the
we shall consider the area of

amount

shall

of surface-energy

use the symbol

liquid,
air

to denote the energy of unit of area of the film,

being taken together.

surfaces

into

the

energy of the fihn

the inside

of

the

is

bubble

both

the energy of a single surface of the


21'.
When by means of a tube we blow

If T'

is

we

increase

its

volume

and therefore

its

CAPILLARY ACTTON.

and at the same time we do work

surface,

in

575
forcing

air

into

and

it,

thus

increase the energy of the bubble.

That the bubble has energy may be shewn by leav-ing the end of the tube
The bubble will contract, forcing the air out, and the current of air

open.

blown through the tube


bubble

may

be made to deflect the flame of a candle.

If the

the form of a sphere of radius r this material surface will have

in

is

an area
>S=47rr
If

(1).

be the energy corresponding to unit of area of the film the surface-energy

of the whole bubble will be

ST=iTTfT
The increment of
r to r-\-dr

is

this

(2).

energy corresponding to an increase of the radius from

therefore

TdS=S'nrTdr

Now

this

increase

greater than

(3).

obtained by forcing

energy was

of

the atmospheric pressure,

in

air

pressure

at

and thus increasing the volume of the

bubble.

Let

be

the

within the bubble.

atmospheric pressure and


The volume of the sphere is

U+p

the pressure

of

v=i^>'
and the increment of volume

if

we suppose a quantity

done in forcing
energy

it

into

(4),

is

pdV.

therefore,

of the

surfaces

Tl+p, the work

Hence the equation

of

work and

is

pdV=Tds

(6),

4'nprdr = S7n^drT

(7),

P = ^^l
that

(5).

of air already at the pressure

the bubble

or

This,

air

is

dV=inrdr

Now

the

is

the excess of the pressure of the air within the bubble over

external

of the

(8).

air,

bubble.

and

We

it

may

is

due to the action of the inner and outer

conceive this pressure to arise from the ten-

dency which the bubble has to contract, or in other words from the surfacetension of the bubble.

CAPILLARY ACTION.

576
If

to

the

surface

must tend

work,

the surface requires the expenditure of

the area of

increase

the surface must resist extension, and

the bubble in contracting can do work,

if

The

to contract.

must

surface

like a sheet

therefore act

of india-rubber when extended both in length and breadth, that is, it must
The tension of the sheet of india-rubber, however, deexert surface-tension.

pends on the extent to which

it

and may be

stretched,

is

different in different

whereas the tension of the surface of a liquid remains the same


however much the film is extended, and the tension at any point is the same
directions,

in all directions.

The
exerts

intensity

across

of

this

a line of

surface-tension

unit length.

is

by the

measured

Let us measure

it

stress

the

in

which

case

of

it

the

spherical soap-bubble by considering the stress exerted by one hemisphere of


This stress
the bubble on the other, across the circumference of a great circle.
circle:
great
same
the
of
area
over
the
is balanced by the pressure p acting
it

is

therefore

equal to

irt^p.

intensity of the surface-tension

To determine the

quantity by the length of the line across which it acts,


which is in this case the circumference of a great circle 27rr. Dividing -rrr'p
by this length we obtain ^pr as the value of the intensity of the surfaceHence the
tension, and it is plain from equation 8 that this is equal to T.

we have

to divide this

numerical value of the intensity of the surface-tension

We

value of the surface-energy per unit of surface.

is

equal to the numerical

must remember that

the film has two surfaces the surface-tension of the fihn


of the surface of the liquid of which it

To determine the

is

since

double the tension

formed.

relation

the pressure which balances


is

is

it

between the surface-tension and


when the form of the surface

not spherical, let us consider the following case


Let fig. 8 represent a section through the axis Cc of a
:

soap-bubble in the form of a figure

of revolution

bounded by

AB

and ah, and having the meridian section


two circular disks
imaginary section normal to the axis.
an
APa. Let PQ be
section PR be y, and let PT, the
this
of
radius
Let the
tangent at P, make an angle a with the

axis.

Let us consider the stresses which are exerted across this


If
imaginary section by the lower part on the upper part.
by
pressure
external
the
p,
the internal pressure exceeds
Fig. 8.

there

is

in the

first

place a force

iry^p

acting upwards arising

^"^7

CAPILLARY ACTION.
from the pressure

across

with

vertical,

is

^ny, and

downwards, but at an
itself, whose circumference

downward

disk

Now these forces are


ACB, which we may

force

is

therefore

2mjT cos a.

balanced by the external force

the portion included between

Hence equating the

F.

call

ACB

and

CR =

same, the

remaining the
quantities will

take as our

be

independent

27r

of

common

the

on
act

on

of

length

(9).

will

change,

variations
s

bubble of course

shape of the

vary, the

y and

the

variable

forces

acts

which

-F

In studying these

of

the

but

we may
meridian

equation 9 with respect to

Differentiating

as a

to

values

constant.

reckoned from A.
dividing by

and suppose

z,

which

PRQ

Try-p-27ri/Tcosa=

we make

is

the

the circular section of the bubble

the

If

angle

acting

surface-tension

the

next place, there

In the

over the area of the section.

we

if

the

other

we

please

section

AP

obtain, after

factor

w|-^-4+^^-^l=

<^">-

^^^^'

Now

Th^^^"'

The radius of curvature of the meridian

section

R,= -'^

is

(12).

da

The radius

of curvature

the meridian section

which

is

normal section of the surface at right angles to


equal to the part of the normal cut off by the axis,
of a

is

R
Hence dividing equation 10 by

?/

sin a,

PN=-y
cos a
we

(13).

find

^=^(s/i}

<^^'-

radii of curvaThis equation, which gives the pressure in terms of the principal
of revolution, must be
ture, though here proved only in the case of a surface
For the curvature of any surface at a given point may
true of all surfaces.

VOL.

II.

^^

578

CAPILLAEY ACTION.

be completely defined in terms of the positions of

and their

principal normal sections

its

radii of curvature.

Before going further we may deduce from equation 9 the nature of all
the figures of revolution which a liquid film can assume.
Let us first determine the nature of a curve, such that if it is rolled on the axis its origin
will trace out the meridian section of the bubble.
Since at any instant the

curve

rolling

drawn

firom

direction

NP
to

is

this

rotating

about the point of

contact with the axis, the line


the tracing point must be normal to the

point of contact to

of motion of the tracing point.

Hence

must be normal to the traced curve.

the rolling curve,

point

PR

the ordinate

on the tangent.

Hence the

is

Also,

the

relation

if

^V

is

since

the point of contact,

the

axis

between the

a tangent

is

perpendicular fi-om

the

radius

tracing

vector

and

the perpendicular on the tangent of the rolling curve must be identical with
the relation between the normal
and the ordinate
of the traced curve.
If we write r for PX, then y=r cos a, and equation 9 becomes

PX

PR

_F

"('f,-)

TTp-

This relation between y and r is identical with the relation between the perpendicidar firom the focus of a conic section on the tangent at a given point
and the focal distance of that point, provided the transverse and conjugate axes
of the conic are 2a and 26 respectively, where
a

and

b-

P
Hence the meridian
a

section

conic, if the conic is

On the
(1)

series

When

of waves,

tractions as

unduloid.

of the film

made

F
^

may be

traced

by the

focus

of

such

to roll on the axis.

Differen't Forms of the Meeidiax Line.

the conic

and the

is

film

represented in

an

figs.

the meridian line is in the form of a


has a series of alternate swellings and con-

ellipse

itself

and

9.

This form of the film

is

called

the

579

CAPILLABY ACnON.

When

(la.)

the

ellip&e

paraUel to

straight line

the

becomes
axis,

and

the

circle,

the

film

meridian
into

passes

becomes a

line

the

form

of

cylinder of revolution.

degenerates into the straight line joining its foci, the


narrower, till at last the figure becomes
contracted parts of the unduloid become

As the

(1 b.)

ellipse

a series of spheres in contact.

In

all

these

cases the internal pressure exceeds the external

by

2T

where

The resultant of the internal presconic.


the semi-transverse axis of the
equivalent to a tension along the axis, and the
sure and the surface-tension is
to the force due to the action of this
numerical value of this tension is equal
equal to the conjugate axis of the
is
pressure on a circle whose diameter

is

ellipse.

(2)

When

the conic

the internal pressure


the axis is equal to

is

is

a parabola the meridian Hne

equal to the external

2nTm where m

is

pressure,

the distance

is

a catenary

and

of

(fig.

10),

the tension along

the vertex from the

focus.

Fie.

(3)

When

a looped curve
nodoid.

The

Fij. i<i.-C>,^oii.

9.-Cnaoloid.

ll.-Sodoid.

form of
hyperbola the meridian line is in the
the
caUed
is
fihn
the
The corresponding figure of
11).
is equivasurface-tension
the
and
of the internal pressure

the conic
(fig.

Fig.

is

resultant

a pressure
along the axis equal to that due to
hyperbola.
the
of
axis
conjugate
on a circle whose diameter is the
lent

to

pressure

p actmg

made smaUer and smaUer


conjugate axis of the hyperbola is
more to the series of spheres touching
the nodoid approximates more and
withWhen the conjugate axis of the hyperbola increases
other along the axis.
each
and
another,
one
on
crowded
are
out Umit, the loops of the nodoid
reachmg
ever
however,
-ithout,
section,
becomes more nearly a ring of circular
series is the sphere.
The onlv closed surface belonging to the
this form.
73

When

the

CAPILLARY ACTION.

580

These figures of revolution have been studied mathematically by Poisson*,


Lindelof and MoignoJ, Delaunayll, Lamarle, Beer^, and Mannheim**, and have been produced experimentally by Plateautt in the two different
Goldschmidtt,

ways already

The

described.
stability of these figures

limiting conditions of the

both mathematically and

experimentally.

We

have been studied


only two

notice

shall

of

them,

the cylinder and the catenoid.

Stability of the Cylinder.

The

cylinder

becomes a
equation

is

of

This

small.

is

meridian

the
is

when the

the limiting form of the unduloid

When

circle.

the ellipse differs


line

rolling ellipse

from

infinitely .little

the

circle,

becomes approximately y = a + c sin- where

is

a simple harmonic wave-line, whose mean distance fi:om the axis


The internal presis 27ra, and whose amplitude is c.

whose wave-length

a,

corresponding

sure

to

this

unduloid

portion of a cylindric film of length x terminated

and containing a

certain

volume of

of these disks

approach the other by a small


film

will

out

swell

unduloid, having
A

A,

C,

Cj

Bj

consider

the

into

be made to

The

quantity dx.

convex

its largest section

part

of

an

midway between

the disks, and


J,.

Now

by two equal disks of radius r

Let one

air.

p=-

before

aS

is

we have

to

determine whether the

internal pressure will be greater or less than before.

j2

If

and

(fig.

12)

are

the disks, and

if

x the

* Noxivelle theorie de Faction capillaire (1831),


t Determinatio sriperficiei minimce rotatione curves data duo puncta jungentis circa datum axem
ortce

(Gottingen, 1831).
X Legons de calcul des variations (Paris, 1861).

"Sur la surface de revolution dont la courbm-e moyenne est constante," Liouville's Journal, vi.
"Theorie geometrique des rayons et centres de courbure," Bullet, de V Acad, de Belgique, 1857.

II

Tractatus de Theoria Matliematica

II

Phcmom&norum

vatorum (Bonn, 1857).


** Journal Vlnstitut, No. 1260.
ft Statique experimentale

et

theorique des liquides.

in Liquidis actione gravitatis detractis obser-

581

CAPILLAKY ACTION.
between the disks

ilistance

the disks will

curve,

equal to

is

from the axis, and the

produced beyond the disks

Hence

greater than

them

increased

approach

to

the

will

other,
is

(7,,

reach

be less

mean

its

the

than

internal

will

dis-

will there-

Hence

be

so that the

The mean distance

less

the axis.

and the pressure

r,

are

the curve must

irr,

distance from

the curve will

ttt,

reaches the disks.

C,

pressure

if

one

will

be

than half the circumference

and the pressure will be diminished if the distance is greater than


In the same way we may shew that if the distance between

of either,

quantity.

this

the disks

increased, the

is

as the distance

Now

it

the distance between the disks

if

than

distance

If A^,

before.

than

mean

its

less

and the pressure

r,

be made

the disks

of

is

greater than

is

from the axis before


be greater than

fore

distance

as
less

is

at

is

it

mean

its

on the other hand, the disks are at A^ and

between them

distance

tance

If,

mean

the

case

this

in

befor^i

at

is

be

therefore

pressure will

the disks, so that the distance between

be

half the wave-length of the harmonic

-rrr

be at the points where the curve

let

is

less or

pressure will be diminished or

more than half the circumference of

according

increased
either.

us consider a cylindric film contained between two equal fixed disks

and B, and

let a third disk, C,

displaced towards A.

If

AC

and

be placed midway between.

CB

Let

be slightly

are each less than half the circumference

A and diminish on
wiU therefore tend to oppose the
The equilibrium of
displacement and to bring C back to its original position.
placed in any
had
been
if
C
that
shew
to
is
easy
It
therefore
stable.
C is
Hence
other position than the middle, Its equilibrium would have been stable.
of a

the

the pressure on

disk

side

the film
regards

is

The

B.

of

stable

as

will

increase

resultant force

on

regards longitudinal

displacements

transverse

to

the

on the side of

displacements.
axis,

for

the

It

is

also

film

is

in

stable

as

state

of

tension, and any lateral displacement of its middle parts would produce a reHence if the
sultant force tending to restore the film to its original position.
in
stable equiis
it
circumference,
its
than
less
is
length of the cylindric film

librium.

and
to

But

if

the length of the cylindric film

is

greater than

its

circumference,

we suppose the disk C to be placed midway between A and B, and


be moved towards A, the pressure on the side next A will diminish, and
if

that on

the side

next

will

increase,

so

that the resultant force will tend to

CAPILLARY ACTION.

582

the displacement, and the equilibrium of the disk C is therefore unHence the equilibrium of a cylindric film whose length is greater than
its
circumference is unstable.
Such a film, if ever so little disturbed, will
begin to contract at one section and to expand at another, till its form ceases
increase

stable.

to

resemble a cylinder,

ultimately portions

if

it

does not break up into two parts which

Instability of

When

a Hquid flows out of

bottom of the
its

a Jet of

diameter gradually diminishes from the


of the

liquid.

Liquid.

a vessel through a

the form of the stream

vessel,

increasing velocity

is

at

Of

faster

disturbance

in

the

liquid

after

it

air,

leaves

and

the vessel

its

own

is

surface-

these gravity has no

drawing asunder

moving

opening

nearly cylindrical though

downwards on account of the

orifice

But the

circular

first

subject to no forces except gravity, the pressure of the


tension.

become

of spheres.

parts

its

in

effect on the form of the stream except in


a vertical direction, because the lower parts are

than the upper


the

until

velocity

parts.

The

becomes

resistance

of the air produces little

But the surface-tension,


acting on a cylindric column of liquid whose length exceeds the hmit of stability,
begins to produce enlargements and contractions in the stream as soon as
the
liquid has left the orifice, and these inequalities in the figure of the
column
go on increasing

broken up into elongated fragments.

it is

till

very great.

These fragments
the air continue to be acted on by surface-tension.
themselves, and after a series of oscillations in which

as they are falling through

ITiey therefore shorten

they become alternately elongated and flattened, settle down into the form of
spherical

drops.

This process,
portion

of the

tances from the


as

it

descends,

series

of

drops,

and

which we have followed as it takes place on an individual


liquid, goes through its several phases at different dis-

falling

orifice,

we

contractions
so on

till

that

so

shall

find

and

if

we examine

next

the

orifice

enlargements, then

the drops become spherical.

different

the

portions

unbroken

elongated

drops,

of the stream

column,

then a

then flattened

583

CAPILLARY ACTION.

Stability of the Catenoid.

When

the

surface

catenary about

when the

only
at

its

considered

let

this,

us

very great.

be

will

-B

first

and

minimum

between

and

ing through

them has

its directrix

Now

let

and

Since the

know that the

at

A.

at

to

increase

infinity

of a straight line.

the

as

Hence

for

tension there are two catenaries passis

by the height above


Every catenary
and every catenary lying beyond
measured

same

higher,

surfaces

directrix.

formed by this system of


two catenaries of equal tension.

of revolution

catenaries revolving about the directrix

We

tension

peg

the process be continued the tension

afterwards

tension

directrix

its

the

over a

in

of

chain

the

lower than that of the two catenaries.

consider the

us

if

will

minimum

the

of equilibrium

Suppose

B.

Let the chain be hauled

two catenaries have the

them has

lying between

and

approaches to the form

and B.

these

directrix

very great length, then

be of

to

value

every tension greater than

the

catenary

the

to

catenary as the form


points

fixed

the tension will diminish, but

reach a

chain

stable equilibrium

in

is

such that the tangents

is

surface

the catenoid formed by the revolution of

consider the

hanging between

will

The only

zero.

is

forms a

the film

external,

extremities intersect before they reach the directrix.

To prove

At

is

the

to

every point

at

This catenoid, however,

directrix.

its

portion

a chain suspended between two

or

equal

is

mean curvature

having this property

of revolution

pressure

internal

of which the

of the

radius of curvature of a surface of revolution in the plane

normal to the meridian plane

is

the portion of the

normal intercepted by the

equal

and opposite to the por-

axis of revolution.

The radius

of curvature

normal

of the

tion

of

catenary

by the

intercepted

is

directrix

of

the

catenary.

Hence

catenoid whose directrix coincides with the axis of revolution has at every point
its

principal

of the surface

The
the

radii
is

of curvature equal and opposite,

catenaries which

axis

of

revolution

towards the axis in


curvature.
axis.

The

so that the

mean curvature

zero.

The mean
catenaries

lie

between the two whose

generate

the meridian

surfaces

plane

whose
is

less

curvature of these surfaces

which

lie

is

direction

radius

than

of

the

coincides

with

curvature

convex

of

concave

radius

therefore convex towards the

beyond the two generate surfaces whose radius

CAPILLARY ACTION.

584

convex towards the axis in the

of curvature

the radius
therefore,

concave towards the

Now

if

the pressure

curvature

is

zero,

catenoids.

equal on both

is

will

till

is

it

is

This

the

the form of

in

contained

the

mean

its

the two
film

move

will

it

concave towards the axis the

if

film

nearest the axis

in

is

form

the

in

be displaced towards the

the catenoid

axis,

will
is

further

Hence the

are

with solid

closed

the

film

as

to

tend to

will

which

catenoid

move

tend to

will

it

film

the

of

is

further

film in the form of the catenoid

under the condition that

unstable equiUbrium

between these disks and


criterion

if

with

axis

If,

however, the circular

the film

determinate,

is

whether any given catenoid

is

volume

the

that

so

disks,

may

in stable equilibrium hov/ever large a portion of the catenary it

The

is,

the catenoid which

is

exposed to equal pressures within and without.

ends of

surfaces

film,

the case

is

towards

convex

is

film

towards the axis and will collapse.


is

than

greater

reaches the other catenoid.

it

mean curvature
approach the axis. Hence

which

these

ever so slightly displaced from the axis

If the

nearest the axis

is

of

Hquid

sides of a

be in equilibrium.

axis.

nearest the axis

plane

axis.

mean curvature
Hence if a

the

If

move from the


from the axis

it

meridian

The mean curvature

concave curvature.

of

stable

be

consist of

may

not

or

of air
vviU

be

obtained as follows.

Let

PABQ

and

ApqB

(fig.

13)

trix

be two catenaries having the same direc-

and intersecting

Qq touching both

in

and B.

catenaries,

Draw

Pj? and

and

Qq

Pp

intersect at T, a point in the directrix

any catenary with


of

directrix

other the

common
and

and

must pass through

the

centre

its

directrix

any other catenary with

to

j)
j9

its

is

a similar figure
directrix,

if

the

one coincides with that of the

the

centre

of

directrix.

similitude

Also,

since

must
the

the

lie

on the

curves at

are

equally

are

corresponding points and the line

of similitude.

will

for since

inclined

Similarly

to

Qq must

directrix,

P
P
Pp

pass through

the centre of similitude.

Hence T, the point of intersection of Pj) and Qq,


must be the centre of similitude and must be on the common directrix. Hence

the

tangents

directrix,

at

and

and the tangents at

to

the upper catenary must intersect above the

and

to

the lower catenary must intersect

CAPILLARY ACTION.

The condition of

below the directrix.

the tangents at the extremities of

its

585

of a

stability

catenoid

that

therefore

is

generating catenary must intersect before

they reach the directrix.

Stability of a Plane Surface.

We
in

next consider the limiting conditions of stability of the horizontal

shall

which separates a heavier

surface

an experiment of M.

mouth downwards

its

the mixture

and

Alcohol

than the

the

surface

equilibrium

fluids

oil

placed with

is

and water,

alcohol

separation

is

established

till

is

would now be unstable

if

not for the tension of the surface which separates them, and which,
of the

orifice

vessel

is

this

in

of

becomes

it

Thus,

below.

fluid

of

very gradually to the mixture

The equilibrium of the

oil.

The

oil.

that

so

stable,

then added

is

than the

a vessel containing olive

a vessel containing a mixture of

being denser

horizontal

case

in

above from a lighter

fluid

Duprez*,

itself

lighter

were

it

when the

not too large, continues to preserve the stability of the

equilibrium.

When

the heavier descending in the


to

ascending in one part of the

fluid

is

surface

and downward

in

is

The simplest
the sides being a and

in another.

a horizontal plane,

upward

case

is

in

one part of the

that of a rectangular

h.

Let the surface of separation be originally in the plane of the


let

and

surface

one which does not alter the volume

the vessel, and which therefore

liquid

of equiliorifice

Hence the displacement of the

other.

which we must direct our attention

of the

orifice in

the destruction

the equilibrium at last becomes unstable,

brium takes place by the lighter

orifice,

and

the co-ordinates x and y be measured from one corner parallel to the sides
Then if p be the
and h respectively, and let z be measured upwards.

density of the upper liquid, and

cr

displacement

z,

the

pressure

above

the original

surface receives

an upward

that of the lower liquid, and

pressure at the surface of separation, then


it

when the

will

be

F pgz,

be P-(T(jz, so that the surface will be acted on by an

Now

if

planes

the displacement

parallel

to

xz

be

and yz

* "Sur un cas particulier de

everywhere
d'z

will

be

the

curvature

d^z
-y-,

I'equilibre des liquides," par F.

it

II.

the

in

respectively;

and

if

Duprez, Nouveaitx

Mem.

de VAcad.

de Befgique, 1851 et 1854.

VOL.

will

upward pressure {p-a)gz.

very small,

-^ and

and that below

74

is

CAPILLARY ACTION.

586

the surface-tension the whole upward force will be

If this quantity

is

of the same sign as

z,

the displacement will be increased,

If it is of the opposite sign from 2,


and the equilibrium will be unstable.
the equilibrium wiU be stable. The limiting condition may be found by putting it equal to zero. One form of the solution of the equation, and that

which

is

applicable to the case of a rectangular orifice,

Substituting in the equation

we

is

find the condition


!-!-''

stable.

neutral.

-*" unstable.

That the surface may coincide with the edge of the


whose sides are a and h, we must have

orifice,

which

is

rectangle,

pa = mir,
when

and n are

displacement

be constant.

even number.

will

is

>

Also,

if

and n are both unity, the

We

where a

liquid

That the volume may be constant, either n or

will

must

not

an

be

have, therefore, to consider the conditions under which

Under

these conditions the equilibrium

small displacements of the surface.

+^

= mr,

be entirely positive, and the volume of the

cannot be made negative.


all

numbers.

integral

qh

is

is

stable for

The smallest admissible value of t?

the longer side of the rectangle.

Hence the condition

^,

of

stability is that

is

a positive quantity.

a may be unlimited.

When

the breadth b

is

less

than

tt'T

the length

CAPILLARY ACTION.

When
where

the

orifice

circular

of radius a, the limiting value of a

is

2,

the least root of the equation

is

The

is

587

2'

2*

z^

A) = 1 - 27-4 + 2:4\6 ~ 2:4r6\^ +

'^^'

= ^

least root of this equation is


2

If h

is

= 3-83171.

the height to which the

liquid

will

unit radius, then the diameter of the largest orifice

rise

in

capillary

tulje

of

is

2a = 3-8317 n/2A

= 5-4188
M. Duprez found from

his experiments

2a

= 5-485 y/i.

Effect of Surface-tension on the Velocity of

When

waves are propagated on the surface

a series of

surface-tension

has the effect of

waves and diminishing


tion of the surface

Waves

increasing the

in the troughs.

it

of

pressure at the

If the

wave-length

^''.

liquid,

the

of

the

crests

is

X,

the equa-

is

The pressure due

This

waves

pressure
will

to the surface-tension

must be added

be propagated as

instead of g.

Now

it

is

if

to

half the radius of the circle

is

the pressure due to gravity

gpij.

Hence the

the intensity of gravity had been

shewn

gation of waves in deep water

is

in

hydrodynamics that the velocity of propa-

that acquired by a heavy body falUng through

whose circumference

is

the wave-length, or

/A
27r

V27r
* See Sir

W. Thomson,

"

'

kp
\p

Hydrokinetic Solutions and Observations," Phil Mag., Nov. 1S71.

742

CAPILLARY ACTION.

588
This velocity

is

minimum when
X

and the minimum value

= 27r./^.

M gp

is

./4^

.=

For waves whose length from


length
Sir

concerned in the motion

force

cipal

less

is

crest

to

crest

than X the principal force concerned

William Thomson proposes to distinguish the

name

greater

is

is

that

latter

than

X,

the

prin-

For waves whose

that of gravitation.

is

of

surface-tension.

kind of waves by the

of ripples.

When a small body is partly immersed in a liquid originally at rest, and


moves horizontally with constant velocity V, waves are propagated through the
liquid with various velocities according to their respective wave-lengths.

of

the body the

where the

fluid

relative
is

velocity

of

the fluid

and

the

In front

body varies from

at rest, to zero at the cutwater on the front surface of the

The waves produced by the body will travel forwards faster than the
body till they reach a distance from it at which the relative velocity of the
body and the fluid is equal to the velocity of propagation corresponding to the
The waves then travel along with the body at a constant diswave-length.
tance in front of it. Hence at a certain distance in front of the body there
body.

is

Of these,
wave nearest to the front
wave the surface is compara-

a series of waves which are stationary with respect to the body.

minimum

the waves of

velocity form a

stationary

Between the body and this first


Then comes the stationary wave of minimum velocity, which is
the most marked of the series. In front of this is a double series of stationary
waves, the gravitation waves forming a series increasing in wave-length with
their distance in front of the body, and the surface-tension waves or ripples
diminishing in wave-length with their distance from the body, and both sets
of the body.

tively

smooth.

of waves rapidly diminishing in amplitude with their distance from the body.
If the
origin
IV,

is

xjj,

current-function

of

the

water referred

the crest of which travels along with the body,


dxjj

where ds

is

to

the

body considered as

then the equation of the form of the crest of a wave of velocity


is

= wds

an element of the length of the

crest.

To integrate

this equation


589

CAPILLARY ACTION.
for

a solid of given form

some distance on either


the crest of the wave
of

probably

is

will

wave and

is

but

it

is

easy to
is

see

that at

sensibly at rest,

approximate to an asymptote inclined to the path

body at an angle whose sine

the

difficult,

of the body, where the liquid

side

is

^^,

where

is

the

velocity

of

the

that of the body.

of the different kinds of waves will therefore appear to diverge


from the body, and the waves themselves will be less and
further
as they get
But those whose wave-length is near to that of the wave of
less perceptible.

The

crests

than any of the others, so that the most


marked feature at a distance from the body will be the two long lines of
If the angle between these is 20, the velocity
ripples of minunum velocity.

minimum

of the

velocity will diverge

body

is

wsecd, where

less

tv

for

water

is

about 23 centimetres per second.

Tables of Surface-tension.
In the following tables the units of length, mass, and time are the centiwhich if
metre, the gramme, and the second, and the unit of force is that
it

acted on one

gramme

one centimetre per second

for
:

Table of Si

one second would communicate to

it

a velocity of

CAPILLARY ACTION.

590

their

Quincke has determined the surface-tension of a great many substances near


His method was that of observing the
point of fusion or solidification.

form of a large drop standing on a plane surface.


flat

surface

vertical,

of the drop,

If

and k that of the point where

is

its

the height of the

tangent plane

then

T.=\{K-krgp.
Surface-Tensions of Liquids at their Point of Solidification.

Substance.

Platinum
Gold
Zinc
Tin

Mercury
Lead
Silver
Bisravith

Potassium

Sodium
Antimony
Borax
Carbonate of Soda
Chloride of Sodium

Water
Selenium
Sulphur
Phosphorus

Wax

Temperature of
Solidification.

From

Quincke.

is

CAPILLARY ACTION.

591

Relation of Surface-tension to Temperature.


appears from the experiments of Brunner and of Wolff

It

on the ascent

of water in tubes that at the temperature f centigrade

r=75'20 (1-0-001870;

= 76-08 (1-0-002 + 0-00000415'), for a tube 02346 cm. diameter


= 77-34(1 -0-001810, for a tube 03098cm. diameter (Wolff).
Sir

W. Thomson

mine the thermal


of a liquid,

has applied the

principles

effects of increasing or

and has shewn that

in

of

(Wolff);

Thermodynamics to deter-

diminishing the area of the free surface

order

to

keep

the

temperature

constant

while the area of the surface increases by unity, an amount of heat must be
supplied to the liquid which
absolute

temperature.
It

is

dynamically equivalent to the product of the

temperature into the decrement

We

may

call

this

of

the

surface-tension

per

appears from the experiments of Brunner and Wolff that

temperatures the latent heat of extension of the surface of water


equivalent
extension.

to

degree of

the latent heat of surface-extension.

is

at

ordinar}'

dynamically

about half the mechanical work done in producing the surface-

[From Nature,

LXXXIV.

Vol. xv.]

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand

made by Helmholtz
psychology, and aesthetics, are well known
Most of those who have risen
subjects.

The

contributions

Helmholtz.

mathematics, physics, physiology,

to

to

all

clusively, so that it

is

to

various

these

any one

in

have done so by devoting their whole attention

sciences

of

cultivators

eminence

to

that

these

of

ex-

science

only rarely that the cultivators of different branches can

be of service to each other by contributing to one science the

they have

skill

acquired by the study of another.

Hence the ordinary growth of human knowledge is by accumulation round


a number of distinct centres. The time, however, must sooner or later arrive
when two or more departments of knowledge can no longer remain independent
But though men
of each other, but must be fused into a consistent whole.
is

profoundly convinced of the necessity of such a fusion, the


For though the phenomena of nature
a most arduous one.

consistent

with each other, we have to deal not only with these, but

of science

may be

operation itself
are

all

with the hypotheses which have been invented to systematise them; and
by no means follows that because one set of observers have laboured with
sincerity

to

reduce

they have formed

order

to
will

be

one

group

consistent

of

with

it

all

phenomena, the hypotheses which


those

by which

second

set

of

observers have explained a different set of phenomena. Each science may appear
tolerably consistent within itself, but before they can be combined into one,
each must be stripped of the daubing of untempered mortar by which its parts

have been prematurely made to cohere.


Hence the operation of fusing two sciences into one generally involves much
criticism

of established

knowledge which may

methods, and the explosion of

have been long held in

Most of those physical


either

sciences

undergone this fusion or are

the form which each finally assumes

is

many

pieces

of

which deal with things without


in

fancied

scientific reputation.

fair

state

life

of preparation for

that of a branch of dynamics.

it,

have

and

ci^re/^ym/i^/py:^^-^.

^oy

e/^/i^^^^

7-na{a/t/e<^^ fc^s-^^-^^z^ A^^^^z^oy <_x^<?!^'^^^

HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND HELMHOLTZ.

Many

the

of

cultivators

biological

593

have been impressed with the

sciences

conviction that for an adequate study of their subject a thorough knowledge


But the manner in which some of them have
of dynamical science is essential.

cut and pared at the facts


of

their

in

tended

dynamics, has

phenomena within the range

order to bring the

throw

to

on

discredit

attempts

all

apply

to

dynamical methods to biology.

We

purpose to make a few remarks on a portion of the scientific work


of Helmholtz, who is himself the most illustrious example not merely of extensive acquaintance with science combined with thoroughness, but of a thoroughitself demands the mastery of many sciences, and in so doing
mark on each.
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz was born August 31, 1821, at
Potsdam, where his father, Ferdinand Helmholtz, was Professor of the Gymnasium.

ness

which of

makes

its

was of an emigrated English

Penn,

His mother, Caroline

His

family.

otherwise

studying science

than

as

father's

medical

means would not admit


He therefore became a military surgeon, and continued in that posistudent.
tion till the end of 1848, when he was appointed Assistant of the Anatomical
of his

and Teacher of Anatomy at the Academy of Arts. In the


went to Konigsberg, in Prussia, as Professor of Physiology.
In 1856 he became Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of
Bonn; in 1859, Professor of Physiology at the University of Heidelberg; and,

Museum

of BerUn,

following year he

in 1871, Professor of

It

was during

Natural Philosophy to the University of Berhn.

his

a military

career as

surgeon that he pubhshed his

cele-

brated essay on The Conservation of Energy.

The

science

to

But

be made.

deal

age

is

in

senses

are

its

long

so

established,

that

it

dynamics to actual bodies a great

for

the

men

of science of the

to extend our knowledge of the motion of matter


which we can see and measure the motion to those

unable to trace

of the

it.

as

For
are

hardly

is

fundamental principles should yet remain

The great work

such principles of dynamics


nature

been

in the application of pure

remains to be done.

instances

sent

of dynamics has

that any addition to

conceivable

this

purpose

applicable

to

we must
cases

in

motion cannot be directly observed, and we

avail

which

must

from
in

pre-

those

which our

ourselves

the
also

of

precise

discover

methods of observation by which effects which indicate the nature of the unIt is unnecessary here to refer to the labours
seen motion may be measured.
of the

different

VOL.

II.

men

of

science

who, each

in

his

own way, have

contributed

75

HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND HELMHOLTZ.

594

by experiment,
was

impulse

communicated
a matter of

as

to

but there can be no doubt that a very great


this

research

Ueber die Erhaltiuig der

Helmholtz's essay
correctly,

the establishment of the principle

speculation, to

calculation, or

conservation of energy

of the

Conservation of Energy,

translate

science)

by the publication in 1847, of


which we must now (and

Kraft,

though in

the translation which appeared in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, the word Kraft

was translated Force

in

with

accordance

ordinary literary usage

the

of

that

time.

In this essay Helmholtz shewed that

the forces acting between material

if

bodies were equivalent to attractions or repulsions between the particles of these

the intensity of which

bodies,

depends

only on

the

distance,

and motion of any material system would

figuration

when expressed

which,

equation,

in

words,

is

be

then

the

con-

subject to a certain

the principle of the conservation

of energy.

Whether

this equation applies to actual material systems

experiment alone can decide, but the search

motion has been carried on

for so long,

for

what was

and always

is

a matter which

called the perpetual

in vain, that

we may now

appeal to the united experience of a large number of most ingenious men, any

one

whom,

of

have turned
Besides
processes
binations,

it

if

to

this,

had once discovered a

he

most
if

the principle were in

any degree

incorrect,

on as they are incessantly and in

of nature,

carried

would be

certain

now and then

to

produce

phenomena, arising from the accumulated

startling

the principle, would

of

violation

profitable account.

all

the

observable

effects

of

any

ordinary

possible com-

and

even
diver-

slight

gence from the principle of conservation.

But the

scientific

importance of the principle of the conservation of energy

does not depend merely on

its

accuracy as a statement of

the remarkable conclusions which

methods founded on

of the

Whether our work


or

is

be deduced from

it,

to form

a science by the colligation of


obscure phenomena

science
It

as

also

must

us a

be.

scheme

instances

indicates

How

nor even on
fertility

by which

we may arrange

the

of the transformation of energy from

that in the study of any

known

facts,

by devising a course of

experiments, the principle of the conservation of energy


It gives

fact,

but on the

this principle.

seek for an explanation of

to

may

is

our unfailing guide.

facts

of

any physical

one form to another.

new phenomenon our

first

inquiry

can this phenomenon be explained as a transformation of energy

HERMANN LUDWIO FERDINAND HELMHOLTZ.

What

the original form of the energy

is

are the conditions of transformation

To appreciate the
in

full

we should have

subject,

to

it

value of

scientific

and What

Helmholtz's

essay on

little

whom we owe the greatest


modem physics, how many

ask those to

and how often during

over,

form

final

its

is

thermodynamics and other branches of

have read

What

595

this

discoveries

times they

weighty

their researches they felt the

statements of Helmholtz acting on their minds like an irresistible driving-power.

We

come next

to

his

on the eye and

researches

given in his book on Physiological

on

they are

as

vision,

Every modern

Optics.

admit

will

oculist

that the ophthalmoscope, the original form of which was invented by Helmholtz,

has substituted observation for conjecture


inner parts

of the

in

the diagnosis

and has enabled operations on

eye,

of

made

be

to

the

of

diseases

eye

the

with greater certainty.

But though the ophthalmoscope


knowledge of

he

information

of which

object

were

optical

principles is

an indispensable aid to

is

of

oculist,

optical

had was formerly obtained from text-books, the only practical


seemed to be to explain the construction of telescopes. They

of very inelegant mathematics,

full

the

Whatever

greater importance.

still

and most of the

results

were

quite

inapplicable to the eye.

The importance

the physiologist and the physician of a thorough know-

to

ledge of physical principles has


principles

are

plex structures of

Helmholtz,

often

been insisted on, but unless the physical

presented in a form which can be directly applied to the


the living body, they are of

Bonders,

and

Listing,

by the

very

application

theory of the cardinal points of an instrument, have


a

competent

knowledge

of

the

optical

little

effects

of

to

made
the

use

the
it

eye

to

eye

him
of

com;

but

Grauss's

possible to acquire

by a

few

direct

observations.

But perhaps the most important service conferred on science by this great
work consists in the way in which the study of the eye and vision is made
and of voluntary motion. In no department of research is the combined and concentrated light of all the sciences
more necessary than in the investigation of sensation.
The purely subjective

to illustrate the conditions of sensation

school of

psychologists

used

to

assert

that

a sensation can exist nowhere except in

method

for

for

the

analysis

man carries within


our own consciousness,

apparatus was required except what every

of

sensation

no

himself, for, since

the only possible

the study of sensations must be an unbiased contemplation of our

752

HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND UELMHOLTZ.

596

own frame
is

Others might study the conditions under which an impulse

of mind.

propagated along a nerve, and might suppose that while doing so they were
a

but though such

studying sensations,

procedure

leaves

out

of

account

the

and treats a fact of consciousness as if it


were an electric current, the methods which it has suggested have been more
fertile in results than the method of self-contemplation has ever been.
But the best results are obtained when we employ all the resources of
physical science so as to vary the nature and intensity of the external stimulus,

very essence of

the phenomenon,

and then consult consciousness as to the variation of the resulting sensation.


It was by this method that Johannes Miiller established the great principle
that the difference in the sensations due to different senses does not depend
upon the actions which excite them, but upon the various nervous arrange-

Hence the sensation due

ments which receive them.

to

a particular nerve

may

vary in intensity, but not in quality, and therefore the analysis of the infinitely
various

number and nature


each in

consciousness

any

of sensation of which

states

ing the

its

we

of those

own

are

conscious must consist in ascertain-

simple sensations which,

by entering into

the

of feeling

degree, constitute

actual

state

at

instant.
If,

after

this

analysis

of

sensation

itself,

we

should find

by anatomy an

apparatus of nerves arranged in natural groups corresponding in number to the


elements of sensation, this would be a strong confirmation of the correctness
of our

each

analysis,

pai-ticular

and

if

we

could devise the means of stimulating or deadening

nerve in our

own

bodies,

we might even make

the investigation

physiologically complete.

The two great works

of

Helmholtz

on

Physiological

Optics

and

on

the

Sensations of Tone, form a splendid example of this method of analysis applied


to the two kinds of sensation which furnish the largest proportion of the raw
materials

for

thought.

of these works the colour-sensation is investigated and shewn


depend upon three variables or elementary sensations. Another investigation,
in which exceedingly refined methods are employed, is that of the motions of
Each eye has six muscles by the combined action of which its
the eyes.

In the

first

to

angular position

may

be varied in each

of

its

three

components, namely, in

altitude and azimuth as regards the optic axis, and rotation about that axis.
There is no material connection between these muscles or their nerves which
would cause the motion of one to be accompanied by the motion of any other,

HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND UELMHOLTZ.

597

that the three motions of one eye are mechanically independent of the three

80

Yet

motions of the other eye.


eye

one

of

always

are

it

is

known

well

that

tlie

by corresponding

accompanied

motions of the axis

motions

the

of

other.

when we cover one eye with the fingers. We feel the


cornea of the shut eye rolling under our fingers as we roll the open eye up
and indeed we are quite unable to move one
or down, or to left or right
This takes place even

eye without a corresponding motion of the other.

Now

though the upward and downward motions are

muscles for both eyes,

the motions to right and

duced by the inner muscle of one eye along


other,

and yet the combined motion

quite

freely while

the

regular, that

so

is

with

some point

shall

following.

Besides this, the motion of each eye about

intersect

at

to be connected in a remarkable
in

way with

which Helmholtz

the

of

moving

in a given

muscle

pro-

of

the

we can move our

eyes

whose motions we are

discusses

these

manner any organ which

is

axis

optic

its

the motion of the axis

command over the motions


those who are conscious of no

of

attention

being

so,

outer

object

the conditions of our


the

by corresponding

not

maintaining during the whole motion the condition that the

optic axes

The mode

effected

are

left

phenomena, and

of our

bodies,

limitation

of

is

found

itself.

illustrates

well

is

their

worth

power of

capable of that kind of motion.

In his other great work on the Sensation of Tone as a Physiological Basis


for the Theory of Music, he illustrates the conditions under which our senses
are
p.

trained

"Now
usually
are

"We

quote from

Mr

translation,

Ellis's

practice

inclined

to

and experience play a far greater part in the use of our senses than we are
and since, as just remarked, our sensations derived from the senses

assume,

of importance only for enabling us to form a correct conception of the world withour practice in the observation of these sensations usually does not extend in the slightest

primarily

out us,
degree
to

a yet clearer manner.

in

95:

beyond what

believe

that

is

necessary

for

purpose.

this

we must be immediately

conscious

We
of

all

are

certainly

that

we

feel

only far too

and of

all

much

disposed

that enters into

our sensations.
This natural belief, however, is founded only on the fact that we are always
immediately conscious, without taking any special trouble, of everything necessaiy for the practical
purpose of forming a correct acquaintance with external nature, because during our whole life wthave been daily and hourly using our organs of sense and collecting results of experience for this
precise object."

Want of space compels us to leave out of consideration that paper on


Vortex Motion, in which he estabUshes principles in pure hydrodynamics which
had escaped the penetrative power of all the mathematicians who preceded him,
including

Lagrange

himself;

and

those

papers

on

electrodynamics

where

he

HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND HELMHOLTZ.

598

reduces to an intelligible and systematic form the


vestigations

of several

laborious

and

intricate

in-

independent theorists, so as to compare them with each

other and with experiment.

But we must not dwell on isolated papers, each of which might have been
taken for the work of a specialist, though few, if any, specialists could have
treated

them

so

in

manner.

able

We

prefer

to

Ilelmholtz

regard

author of the two great books on Vision and Hearing, and

now

that

as

the

we

are

no longer under the sway of that irresistible power which has been bearing
us along through the depths of mathematics, anatomy, and music, we may
from

venture to observe
giant

as

he

each pursues
"I

me
iri

its

distance

safe

lofty

cliff

the

whole figure of the intellectual

watching the waves, great and small, as

independent course on the surface of the sea below.

must own," he

" that whenever I

says,

attentively observe

this

spectacle,

it

awakens

in

a peculiar kind of intellectual pleasure, because here is laid open before the bodily eye what,
the case of the waves of the invisible atmospheric ocean, can' be rendered intelligible only to

the eye

of

the

understanding,

[Toiiem^ndungen,

Helmholtz
in

on some

sits

his

and by the help of

a long seiies of

complicated propositions."

p. 42.)
is

now

in

splendid laboratory.

Berlin,

directing the labours

Let us hope that from

of able

men

of science

his present position

he

will

again take a comprehensive view of the waves and ripples of our intellectual
progress,

and give us from time to time

his idea of the

meaning of

it all.

[From the Proceedings of

LXXXV.

On a Paradox

Let A,A be a straight


in

the Cainbridge Philosophical Society, Vol. in.

line,

Pa

1877.]

Theory of Attraction.

in the

point in the same,

A'l,

X, corresponding

points

the segments PA^, PA.

measured

Let the distances of these points from the origin


A^

A'a

X^

in

the positive

direction be

between

a^,

a.,,

and

a'j

x.

2^,

and

x.^

let

the equation of correspondence

1111

x^p
If Xi

and

respectively,

^2,

^i,

be

a-ij^

(!)

^i

<^2

vary simultaneously,
dx^

dx.2
,('2).

ip-x.^'"

(x.-pY
Hence

x^

and

move

x.,

corresponding elements

in

opposite

and

directions,

and dx, (considered both

cZx,

lengths

the

positive) are

as

the

of

the

squares

of their respective distances from the point P.


If therefore

square

of

the

AB

particle at the point

Now
a

uniform

is

distance,

the

will

of

x^,

of values

A^P on
same

we might

a particle at

particle.

is

the

inversely

attracting

as

th^^

corresponding elements on

varying continuously from


of

x.,,

varying from

corresponding pair of elements dx^ and dx,

on a particle at P,

matter
of

be equal and opposite.

by giving values to

corresponding series

rod

attractions

exert

equal

a^ to

a to

p,

we may

obtain

p, and since every

and opposite attractions

conclude that the attraction

of

the whole segment

equal and opposite to that of the segment

AP on

tli*^

ON A PARADOX IN THE THEORY OF ATTRACTION.

600

But
and

it

we

if

is

still

more evident that

Pa = PA^

cut off

be equal and opposite.

will

by the

attraction

that of

PA^ by a

of

AP

is

But the

the part aA^,

the greater of the two segments,

Pa and PA^

the attractions of

attraction

the

therefore

quantity, contrary to our

finite

of

on the

PA^

of

attraction

first

particle at

exceeds that of

PA^

Pa

exceeds

conclusion.

Hence our first conclusion is wrong, and for this reason.


The attractions
two corresponding segments A^X^ and A^^ are exactly equal, but
however near the corresponding points X^ and X, approach to P, the attraction
of each of the parts X^P and X^P on P is infinite, but that of XJ^ exceeds
that of X^P by a constant quantity, equal to the attraction of A^a on P.
of

any

This method of corresponding elements leads to a very simple investigation


of the

and

on straight

distribution

and

lines, circular

elliptic disks

ellipsoids of fluids repelling according to

any power of the

The problem has been already solved

by

Green*

in

and

solid spheres

distance.
far

more general

manner, but at the same time by a far more intricate method.

We

have, as before, for corresponding values of Xj and x^

^=-^--i-i
x.^p
x^p a^p

1111
p

rp

imnsposmff

'

^ip

=
p ^i p ^i

h-

(1).

ai

,v
(2).

ciip

Multiplying
(x,-a,){x -a,)

If

we

we

write

Let

be

Pi

/3i,

* George Green.

?/i^

(4),

(a,-x,){x,-a,) =

2j,'

(5),

1833.

(^^i

" =i^

densities

X^

.^.

and

X^,

and

and

s^,

let

(G).

s,

the

sections

of

the

rod

at

the

the repulsion of the matter of the

" Mathematical Investigations concerning the laws of the Equilibrium of Fluids

analogous to the electric


Society,

the

points

^i)

~-x.;}

{p-x,Y(a,-p){p-a.;)

:) =

(<*i

find from equation (3)

corresponding

{a,-x.^{a,

(x,-pY{a,-p)(p-a,)

fluid,

(Read Nov.

with other similar reseai-ches."

12, 1832.)

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical

Ferrers' Edition of Green's Papers, p. 119.

601

ON A PARADOX IN THE THEORY OF ATTRACTION.


rod vary inversely as

the

n'^

equUibrium of a particle at

power of the distance, then the condition of


under the action of the elements dx, and -dx, is

p,s,dx,(x,-2y)"'=

-pM-^Ap-^^Y"

EUrainating dx, and dx, by means of equation

we

(2),

('')

find

pA('^i-p)"'' = PA(p-'r.r"

and from

by means of equation

this

PyVjr''
as the condition of equilibrium

is

ma mg
p<?y^-

In

uniform

rod

is

= PM^""'

71

= 2,

(^)'

therefore satisfied for every pair of elements

= constant = C
so

constant,

given by the equation

If

obtain

between the elements.

The condition of equilibrium


^y

we

(6)

(S)'

(10).

the distribution of density

that

is

^_^

as in the case of electricity, the

density

is

uniform.

not
have already shewn that when the density is uniform a particle
hand
other
the
on
but
at the middle of the rod cannot be in equilibrium,
with
any finite deviation from uniformity of density would be inconsistent

We

We

equilibrium.
in

equilibrium

rod,

is

may

therefore

assert

that the distribution of the fluid

not absolutely uniform,

but

at

least

is

the

while at the same time the deviation from uniformity

is

middle
less

when

of

the

than any

assignable quantity.
If the force

is

independent of the distance,


P

or if r

is

the distance from the middle

?i

and

= Cr-

(12),

of the rod, 2l being the length of the rod,

C
P

If

were

finite,

fluid in

the rod

at the

two ends of the

VOL.

is finite

the whole
it

= F^'

mass would be

.(13).

infinite.

Hence

if

the mass of

must be concentrated into two equal masses and placed

rod.

"^
II.

ON A PARADOX IN THE THEORY OF ATTRACTION.

602

at

Let US next consider a disk on which two chords are drawn intersecting
at a small angle 6, and let corresponding elements be taken

the point

of the

two

sectors so formed.

In this case the section of either sector


the

is

proportional to the

distance of

element from the point of intersection, and therefore the two sections are

two elements.

proportional to the values of y at the

Hence

if

pif'

is

constant,

the particle at the point of intersection will be in equilibrium.


If the edge of the disk

and

and

if

if

at

any point within

the length of

is

the ellipse whose equation

i-|-s=

('')

'-|-|=^'

(i5).

it

a diameter parallel to the given

value of y for any point of the chord

p=

if

a particle
action

placed

at

of any pair

therefore

it

When

will

"Id,

then the

(17),

any point of the disk will be in equihbrium under the


formed by chords intersecting at that point, and

of sectors

be absolutely in equilibrium.

as in the case of electricity,

known law

is

(16).

Cp''~''

n=

2,

P=Q>"
the

chord

is

y=pd
Hence

is

(18).

of distribution of density.

If the repulsion were inversely as the distance, the fluid would be accumulated in the circumference of the disk, leaving the rest entirely empty.

If the

force

were inversely as the cube of the distance, the density would

be uniform over the surface of the disk.


Lastly, let us consider a solid elHpsoid, the equation of the surface being

a-

and at any point within

it

c-

let

iC

c ^

ON A PARADOX

At any

point

the value of y
If

at

is

of a

THE THEORY OF ATTRACTION.

603

clwrd drawn parallel to a diameter whose length

is

2(7

pd.

consider a double

v^e

IN

cone of

a given point, and whose axis

is

angular aperture whose vertex

small

this chord,

is

the sections at two correspond-

ing elements are in the ratio of the squares of the distances of the

elements

from the given point, and therefore in the ratio of the values of p" at these

Hence the condition

elements.

to be satisfied

is

pp*-''=C, a constant.
condition be fulfilled th^ fluid will be in equilibrium at

If this

every point

of the ellipsoid.

Ifn = 2,
is

P=Cp-''

the condition of equilibrium.

But

if

is

finite

in the ellipsoid if distributed according to this

Hence

if

on the

surface,

the whole quantity of fluid

If the

and the

force

is

is

finite it

interior will be entirely

inversely as

the

fourth

the whole mass of the fluid

law of density would be

must be accumulated

infinite.

entirely

empty, as we know already.

power of the distance the density

within the ellipsoid will be uniform.

762

[From the Proceedings of

LXXXVI.
It

is

On Approximate
often

between limits

desirable
in

cases

Cambridge Philosophical

the

iii.

1877.]

Multiple Integration betiOeen Limits by Summation.

obtain the approximate value of an integral taken

to

which, though

in

Society, Vol.

we can

quantity to be integrated for any given values of

ascertain

the

the

value

variables,

we

of

the

are

not

able to express the integral as a mathematical function of the variables.

method of deducing the

result

of

between limits

a single integration

from the values of the quantity corresponding to a series of equidistant values

independent variable was invented by Cotes in

of the

Lectures in

1709.

of Newton's

Works

1707, and given in

Newton's tract Methodus Differentialis


(1779), Vol.

i.

p.

(see

his

Horsley's edition

521) was published in 1711.

Opera Miscellanea, edited by Dr Bobert Smith,


Harmx)nia Mensurarum.
He gives the proper

Cotes' rules are given in his

and placed at the end of


of the

his

up to eleven ordinates, but he gives no


method by which he ascertained the values of these multipliers.

multipliers for the

Grauss,

in

his

ordinates

Methodus

nova

Integralium

Valores

details

per Approximationem

Inveniendi (Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1814, Sept. 26,

or

Werke,

in. 202)

shews how to calculate Cotes' multipliers, and goes on to investigate the case
in which the values of the independent variable are not supposed to be equidistant,

but are chosen so as with

given

number

of

values to obtain the

highest degree of approximation.

He

by a proper choice of the values of the variable the value


calculated to the same degree of approximation as would
be obtained by means of double the number of equidistant values.
finds that

of the integral inay be

The equation, the


is

identical

harmonic.

in

roots

of which give

the proper values of

the variable,

form with that which gives the zero values of a zonal spherical

ON APPROXIMATE MULTIPLE INTEGRATION BETWEEN LIMITS BY SUMMATION.

605

Double Integration.
There

is

a particular kind of double integration which can be

a somewhat similar manner,

treated

namely, when the quantity to be integrated

function of a linear function of the two independent variables.

Thus
where m

I=r\udxdy

if

is

a fUnction of

r,

and
r=a

let

+ bx + cy

(3),

y=i

(4),

(2/2

+ 2/1)4-^9 (y,-2/0
j

we

(2),

x-l(x^ + x,) + ^p(xt-x,)

I=^(x,-x,){y,-y,)
If

(1),

udpdq

(5).

write
r,

= a + ^b(x, + x,) + ^c{y, + y,)

(6),

^ = ib(x,-x,)

(7),

y = ^c(y,-y,)...

(8),

C=^P+yq
we may

consider

(9).

as a function of C of the form

u = A, + AX-\-A,C + &^o
j"

Now

and

if

(10),

J ^ydpdq = A, + iA,(p^ + y) + A,(i^ + i^'/ + }Y) + &c....iU).

let

i(^

be the value of u corresponding to ^ =

0,

Ui

and u\

C=

Ci,

u^

and n\

1,= ^2.

we assume
l

= (x,-x)(y,-y,){R,ii, + R,{u, + u\) + R,(u, + u\)-\rkc.}

(12),

/=(a;,-a;0(y.-2/i){(/5. + 2i?. + 2/e, + &c.)^ + (2i2,C.* + 2i2,C/ + &c.)^, + &c.}...(l3),

is

in

ON APPROXIMATE MULTIPLE INTEGRATION

606

then since the form of the function


A^,

Ai, A^,

must

&c.

be

u,

and therefore the values of the

considered

entirely

=1

E, + 2R,-\-2R,i-kc.

the

=A,

+ 2RZ^ + &c. = i/3H } /

2RX,' + 2RJU' + &c.

coefficients

equate

and (13) as follows:

coefficients of A^, &c. in equations (11)

2R,^,^

may

we

arbitrary,

=5,,

=B

= -1 y8 + yS*/ + ^Y + -f /

&c.

If

we

write S^ for the

for the

^3

sum

of

all

the values of

sum

of

all

products such as

^',

t,^,

U,

4l

ta

>

b3

>

then for r terms


B,Sr - BA.^ + B,Sr. , - &c.
B,Sr - B,Sr., + ^A-. - &c.

- )' B,^, = 0,
B,^, = 0,
( -

)'

B,^,Sr - ^.+ A-x + Br^,Sr., - &C.


a set

of r equations,

and from which we

- f B^^, = 0,

from which the quantities R^, R^ have been eliminated,

may determine

the r

quantities

S^... S^,

and the values

of ^ are then given as the roots of the equation

r - S.C"' + ^.r
Thus

if

we have

~*

- &c. - )' Sr = 0.
(

three values of ^ they should be


Co

= 0,

L= is^ + lO^y + 3/]^ [5^ + 5/]-^

Ify8 = y=l,

4 = 0,

When
variables

the quantity to be integrated

we must proceed

L=Jh
is

a perfectly general function of the

in a different manner.

BETWEEN LIMITS BY SUMMATION.

We

may

between

begin

the limits

by transforming the double

before

as

I=\'judxd>/ = ^{x,-x,){;j,-l/,)l
Let

and

j^

one

mljjdq

(l).

q,

{cin,-K), (-a,

K, W,

let

into

denote the sum of the eight values of u corresponding to the

l{iin)

following eight systems of values of

and

integral

both variables, so that

for

607

(-a.

y,

us assume that the value of the integral

I=i(x, - X,)

{y,

- 2/0{^oS

W+

is

i?.S(^0

-K);

of the form

+ &c. + Kt(n:)]

(2).

The values of the coefficients R, a and 6 are to be deduced from equations


formed by equating the sum of the terms in p"g^ in this expression with the
integral

0;Wc/m=(^^^t)Wt)
Only those terms
considered,

in

which both

Also

We
p^q^

since

equation
/3

the

will give

may
common

are

even

will

the symmetrical distribution of the values of

for

that the terms in which either a or

term in p^q^

a and

<''

expression

is

write

each term,

symmetrical vAt\v respect to

is

was obtained.

down
but

There

be

</

in

p and

q,

the

p'/.

the equations at once, leaving out the factor

writing

are

to

ensures

odd must disappear.

an equation identical with that

therefore

to

/8

require

and

a+

it

at

the

side

equations in the

= 0,
=4,

i^/

S[2i2J

p\'

tiKip^^^q:)-] =t,

to

indicate

first

how

the

group, in which

ON APPROXIMATE MULTIPLE INTEGRATION

608

a 1

Tliere are

equations in the second group, in which

F-T

S [7gp.V(Pn"-- + g."-0] =
(2a-

There

be

will

If a

a 3

odd, the

is

equations in which

number of equations

even, the whole

number

)8

1)

= 4, and

/8

= 2,

3
so

Hence

on.

if

is

is

is

(a+l)(a + 3)
4

To

these

satisfy

equations

we have

of u, three disposable quantities, R,

however,

If,

the

central

in

and

ordinate

general,

each

for

group

of

values

q.

be

selected

will

it

constitute

the

first

group, and will introduce only one disposable quantity, namely B.


Also,

so

if

ordinates lying on the axes of

or of

contain only two disposable quantities,

formed

be chosen, the groups

g'

one

of

the ordinates being

q=p,

so

that for these also

zero.

Also

for

ordinates

lying

on

the

diagonals,

there are only two disposable quantities.

Thus

if

a=

3,

the number of equations

ordinate, giving

central

two

^ = 6

and

if

we

select

the

one disposable quantity, a group of four points on the

axes,

giving

three

disposable quantities,

to

is

disposable

we

quantities,
shall

and

a group

of

eight points giving

be able to satisfy the six equations, and

form an expression for the integral which will be correct

for

any function

not exceeding the seventh degree.

We

assume

ILudpdq =

Pu, + Qt(u,^o) + Rt{u^,r)

(4).

609

BETWEEN LIMITS BY SUMMATION.


The equations

are

Qp*+2R(q* + r^) = l
Qp' + 2R((f + 7^)

=h

2R<fr' = ^,

The

solution of these equations gives

p= T6ll>
The

p=

0-5855571,

q=
r=

0-57969554,

0-9294971,

Q=^>

positions of the thirteen points are given in the

annexed

figure.

610

ON APPROXIMATE MULTIPLE INTEGRATION.

if we endeavour to determine twenty-seven sets


of values of x,
y
with a corresponding set of multipliers, so as to express the value
of
the triple integral in the form

Thus

and

z,

where

= ^^^{^^o + P^{Up) + Q%{u^) + m{u^)}

]-] J^^^y^^

u^ denotes the value of

t(u

denotes the

sum

u when x = y = z=0;

of the six values of

x=

pa,

y=0,
z

t{ug) denotes the

sum

for

0,

0,

pd,

0,

0,

pc

=0,

qa, qa,

0,

= qh,

0,

qc,

qc,

qb,
;

and t{u,) denotes the sum of the eight values of u

x=

ra,

y=

rb,

may be taken

The equations
for

any

to

fiinction of x,

which

of the twelve values of u for which

x=

where the signs

(1),

in

any

for

which

rc,
order.

be satisfied in order that equation (1) may be satisfied


z of not more than seven dimensions are

y and

+ 6P +12Q+^R

=8,

2Pp^ + 8^^+8i2r^ = |,
2Pp* + ^Qq*+%R7^ = ^,

2Pp'+8Qq'-h8Er^ = S.,
iQq* + 8Er' = i,

iQ^ + 8Rr' = ^,
8Et' = ^.

BETWEEN LIMITS BY SUMMATION.


The

solution of these equations gives

First System.

two systems of values


Second System.

i+(A)*.
P.'

',

9i

= f[2-(H)'].

^ = *[2 + (H)']-

9.

611

[From the Proceedings of

LXXXVII.

to

On

the

Cavendish published only two papers relating


some of the principal Phaenomena of
Fluid"

Attempts

to

196

1776,

of

manuscript

pp.

by

placed

Trans.

{Phil.

imitate the

for

was sent

to

[Works of

to

my

W.

Torpedo by Electricity"

and

experimental

Vol.

Society,

but

London,

i,

have

not

Duke

of

Devonshire

in

1874,

contents."

their

hi^ Life of

they

This

Cavendish

was afterwards

It

whether

learn

to

were

however,

and

the

in

have made "an

to

able

were

These

Devonshire,

1851).

been

The Cavendish manuscripts,

existence.

Trans.

(Phil.

electricity.

Burlington,

Harris,

S.

by the

hands

"An

and

attempt

by Means of an
account of some

behind him, howevfer, some twenty packets

left

of

"An

electricity,

now Duke of
William Snow Harris, who appears

Earl

Cavendish

the

in

still

677),

Pt. in.]

iii.

Henry Cavendish.

Electricity

them with a commentary of great value on


Dr George Wilson when he was preparing

returned to Sir
is

He

584

pp.

of the

mathematical

then

hands of the late Sir


abstract of

1771,

Effects

225).

on

the

Vol,

Society.

Unpublished Electrical Papers of the Hon.

explain

Elastic

it

Cambridge Philosophical

the

are

placed

in

now almost

ready for publication.

They may be divided


Mathematical

(A)
1771,
clear

into three classes

ideas

of

Some

treatment

of

electricity

in

paper of

the

of these are important as shewing the

Cavendish with respect to what we now

and the capacity of a conductor


matical

intended to follow those

propositions,

and numbered accordingly.

call

charge,

potential,

but the great improvements in the


since

the

time

of

Cavendish

have

matherendered

others superfluous.

We

come next

to

an account of the

matical theory was founded.

and

since

it

refers to

This

is

experiments

on

which the mathe-

a manuscript fully prepared for the press,

the second part of the published paper of 1771 as "the

THE ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS OF HENRY CAVENDISH.


part of this

second
book,

along

refers

to

Work,"

with

must have been intended to be published

it

of

reprint

613

that

experiments which we

paper.

know were made

in

as a

no dates, but as

contains

It

1773,

it

it

must have been

written after that time, but I do not think later than 1775.

on

It forms a scientifically arranged treatise

"Thoughts concerning
this

for

treatise,

it

seems

electricity"

to

electricity.

form

kind

manuscript entitled
of

introduction

to

contains several important definitions and hypotheses which

are not afterwards repeated.

Next comes the fundamental experiment,

which

in

it

is

proved that a

conducting sphere insulated within a hollow conducting sphere does not become
charged when the hollow sphere is charged and the inner sphere is made to

communicate with

it.

if this is the case, the law of force must be that


also that if the index instead of being 2 had
and
of the inverse square,
been 2 + ^^^, his method would have detected the charge on the inner sphere.
The experiment has been repeated this summer by Mr MacAlister of St

Cavendish proves that

with

John's

College

charge

many thousand

electrometer,

so

that

delicate

quadrant

w^e

may now

that

assert

by the millionth of a unit.


The second experiment is a repetition
another instead of the two spheres.

fall

electrometer

capable

of

detecting

times smaller than Cavendish could detect by his straw


the

index

cannot

exceed

or

short of 2

He

then

bodies, or, as

He

describes

we should

his

comparing

for

3)

that

the charge,

nected to another body at a great distance

is

charges

of

different

communicated to a body confine wire, does not depend

by a

on the form of the wire, or on the point w^here

Exp. 4

the

say, their capacities.

shews (Exp.

first

apparatus

of this, using one parallelopiped within

it

touches the body.

on the capacities of bodies of the same shape and

size

but of

different substances.

Exp.

compares the capacity of two

circles

with that of another of twice

the diameter.

Exp. 6 compares the capacity of two short wires with that of a long one.
Exp. 7 compares the capacities of bodies of different forms, the most important of which are a disk and a sphere.

Exp.

compares the charge of the

that of the outer plates

middle of three parallel

plates

with

THE ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS OF HENRY CAVENDISH.

614

In the next part of his

researches he investigates the

formed of plates of different

densers

coated with disks of

He

ductors.

beyond the

that

finds

and how

this spreading,

the

also

electricity

wax,

of

air

spreads

on

the

he finds that

&c.

con-

flat

the

of

surface

con-

shellac,

between two

of plates

plate

the extent of

carefully

depends on the strength of the

it

After correcting for the spreading,

of

capacities

rosin,

and he investigates most

coatings,

tinfoil

and

tinfoil,

kinds of glass,

electrification.

coated plates of the

for

same substance the observed capacity is proportional to the computed capacity,


but it is always several times greater than the computed capacity, except in
the case of plates of
of

the

Cavendish thus anticipated Faraday

air.

inductive

specific

capacity

of

dielectrics,

and

the

in

in the discovery

measurement

of

this quantity for different substances.

For

experiments

these

with

plates

capacities

Cavendish

constructed

large

number of coated

arranged that by combining them he could measure

so

the capacity of any conductor from a sphere 12"1 inches diameter to his large
battery of 49

Ley den

what he

''inches

calls

He

jars.

the

expressed

of electricity,"

that

is

capacity of

to say

any

conductor

in

the diameter of a sphere

of equal capacity expressed in inches.

The

and

details

experiments

the

dates of

to

referred

contained in three volumes of experiments in the years

this

in

1771,

in

a separate collection of ''Measurements'' and in a paper entitled

in

which the experiments of

there

are

The

difierent days are

compares

the

from saturation to
the temperature

of

rises.

He

some time
I

have

compared

Cavendish
of

also

He
for

those

on

Results,''

treatise.

the electric re-

of solutions

of

sea

of various

salt

strengths

compares the resistance of solutions of sea

finds

fresh

equivalents of

chemical

other

salts

in

as
salt

the

the resistance of distilled water to be very


distilled

water than

for distilled

water kept

in a glass bottle.

Cavendish's

Kohlrausch, and find them

velocity

'^

Besides these

and measures the diminution of resistance

containing

same quantity of water.


great, and much greater

are

are

which were continued to the year 1781.

20000,

in

experiments

these

resistance

with that of solutions

for

compared together.

experiments of other kinds which are not described in the

most important

sistance of different substances,

He

work

1772 and 1773,

the

also

all

investigates

current,

and

results

with

those

within 10 per cent, and


the

finds

obtained

by

nearer.

between the resistance and the


power of the velocity to be by dif-

relation

the

recently

many much

THE ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTS OF HENRY CAVENDISH.


r08,

experiments

ferent

the

resistancfc

is

the

as

1*03,

and

0*970

1,

power of the

first

and

he

velocity,

finally

thus

G15

concludes

that

Ohm'H

anticipating

Law,

The general accuracy of these results


the method by which they were

is

the

more remarkable when we

obtained,

consider

forty

years

the

before

invention of the galvanometer.

Every comparison of two

resistances

was made by Cavendish by connecting

with the external coatings of a set of equally


one end of each
charged Leyden jars and touching the jars in succession with a piece of metal
held in one hand, while with a piece of metal in the other hand he touched
He thus compared the sensation
alternately the ends of the two resistances.
resistance-tube

shock

the

of

felt

when the one

the

or

other

resistance

in

addition

enormous number of shocks passed through

The

he

that

when

taken

sensibly

which he thus acquired

skill

gi-eat

is

probably

through

greater than

repeating,

to

long

direct.

determine whether the

The experiment

intensification

of

the

is

large

any case compensate

But

for

physiological

coil

in

obtaining this result.

more self-induction than the other,


coil of large self-induction.

Indeed

on

was

worth
effect

would

the weakening effect of the resistance of the

have not hitherto succeeded

paring the shock through two coils of equal resistance,

the

reel

certainly

so

shock

the

that

on account of the oscillatory character of the discharge through


in

by an

the discrimination of shocks was

when he tells us
copper wire wound on a

thin

results

own body.

even

accurate

when taken

in

his

the

to

His
resistance of his body was placed in the path of the discharge.
produced
sensations
the
of
comparison
therefore are derived from the

coil.

com-

one of w^hich had far

found the shock sensibly feebler through

[From the Encydopoedia Bntannica.]

LXXXVIII.
The

question whether the smallest parts of which bodies are composed are

number, or whether, on the other hand, bodies are

in

rinite

relates

Constitution of Bodies.

and

the ultimate constitution of bodies,

to

is

infinitely divisible,

treated of in the article

Atom.

The mode
stances

is

which elementary substances combine to form compound sub-

in

chemical

the

called

constitution

of

and

bodies,

treated

is

of

in

Chemistry.

The mode

which sensible quantities of matter, whether

in

compound, are aggregated together

so as to

elementary or

form a mass having certain observed

properties, is called the physical constitution of bodies.

Bodies

may

be classed

sidering the effects

body can exist

of

in

When

a body

at every, point

is

is

be

such that

uniform in

There are certain

in

physical

their

changing their

it

it is

not uniform

the stress

said to be fluid.

any portion of which, however small, is capable


to fill any vessel, however large.
These are

so

as

remains in a collected mass at the bottom, even

fill

the vessel uniformly, but

when

the pressure

large

that

is

removed.

fluids are called liquids.

When
part of
into

is

by con-

When

There are other flmds, a small portion of which, when placed in

called gases.

it,

liquid

is

is

placed

in

vessel

so

it

only

occupies

part of the liquid begins to evaporate, or in other words

the state of a gas,

liquid

which

cannot be in equilibrium unless

a large vessel, does not at once expand so as to

These

stress

constitution

dimensions.

solid.

all directions,

fluids,

of expanding indefinitely,

stress

under the action of a

in equilibrium

in all directions it is said to

to

relation

internal

evaporated, or

and
till

this

the

it

passes

process goes on either tiQ the whole of the

density of the gaseous part of

the substance

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

The

has reached a certain limit.

then

stance are

and the gaseous portions of the subvolume of the vessel be now made

liquid

If the

equilibrium.

in

condensed as a

smaller, part of the gas will be

617

liquid,

and

be made larger,

if it

part of the liquid will be evaporated as a gas.

The

evaporation

of

processes

and

by which

condensation,

substance

the

passes from the liquid to the gaseous, and from the gaseous to the liquid state,

discontinuous processes,

are

that

is

to say, the properties

of the

substance are

But

very different just before and just after the change has been effected.

takes

to

and Cagniard de

place,

such as

stances,

temperature

made

Tour

1822*

in

bisulphide

high,

sufficiently

much

ordinary gaseous state as


since t

la

alcohol,

ether,

as

of

shewed that several sub-

first

and water, when

carbon,

which

pass

into

from

the

liquid

the

properties

a complete investigation

of

this

which the change

difference is less in all respects the higher the temperature at

state

state.

of

heated

from

the

Dr Andrews

has

difiers

carbonic acid both

below and above the temperature at which the phenomena of condensation and
evaporation

take place,

cease to

and has thus explored

as

well

established

as

the continuity of the liquid and gaseous states of matter.

For carbonic acid at a temperature, say of


atmosphere,

of the

is

a gas.

0'

C, and

at the ordinary pressure

be compressed tiU the pressure

gas

If the

to about 40 atmospheres, condensation takes place, that

is

rises

to say, the substance

passes in successive portions from the gaseous to the liquid condition.


If

the

we examine the substance when


carbonic acid

liquid

a liquid, and

is

at the

part of

it

is

condensed,

bottom of the vessel has

all

we

find

that

the properties of

separated by a distinct surface from the gaseous carbonic acid

which occupies the upper part of the

vessel.

acid

But we may transform gaseous carbonic acid at 0*" C. into liquid carbonic
at 0" C without any abrupt change, by first raising the temperature of

the

gas

above

pressure to

30".92 C.

which

is

the

critical

temperature,

then

about 80 atmospheres, and then cooling the substance,

raising the
still

at high

pressure, to zero.

During the whole of


geneous.

There

is

this

process

the

substance

remains

perfectly

homo-

no surface of separation between two forms of the substance,

nor can any sudden change be observed like that which takes place when the
gas

is

condensed into a liquid at low temperatures


* Annates de Chimie,

t Phil. Tram. 1869,

VOL. n.

2''

p.

s^rie, xxi.

but at the

end

of

et xxii.

575.

78

the

(J

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

18

process the substance

undoubtedly in the liquid

is

the pressure to somewhat less than

state, for if

we now

diminish

40 atmospheres the substance will exhibit

the ordinary distinction between the liquid and the gaseous state, that is to
say, part of it will evaporate, leaving the rest at the bottom of the vessel,

with a distinct surface of separation between the gaseous and the liquid parts.
The passage of a substance between the liquid and the solid state takes place
with various degrees of abruptness. Some substances, such as some of the more
crystalline metals, seem to pass from a completely fluid to a completely solid

thicker before

comes

that of

still

cases

but this

solidifies,

it

being formed in the


like

some

In

very suddenly.

state

the

may

melted

liquid mass, so that the

a mixture of

matter

appears

to

become

from a multitude of solid crystals

arise

sand and water,

consistency of the mass betill

the

melted

matter

which the crystals are swimming becomes all solid.


There are other substances, most of them colloidal, such that when
melted substance cools it becomes more and more viscous, passing into
solid state

with hardly any

The theory
stress

the

the

the case with pitch.

is

of the consistency of solid bodies will be discussed in the article

but

Elasticity,

This

discontinuity.

in

furnishes

the

manner

in

which

solid

us with a system of names of

behaves

different

when
degrees

acted

on

by

and kinds of

solidity.

A
all

fluid,

as

we have

seen, can support

directions, that is to say,

when

it is

a stress only

when

it

is

uniform in

of the nature of a hydrostatic pressure.

There are a great many substances which so far correspond to this definistress
tion of a fluid that they cannot remain in permanent equilibrium if the
within them is not uniform in all directions.
In all existing fluids, however, when their motion is such that the shape
uniform
of any small portion is continually changing, the internal stress is not
in

all

directions,

but

is

of such a kind as to tend to check the relative motion

of the parts of the fluid.

This capacity of having inequality of stress called into play by inequality


All real fluids are viscous, from treacle and tar
is called viscosity.

of motion
to

water and ether and

When
and

the viscosity

air
is

and hydrogen.
very small the

fluid

is

said to be mobile, like water

ether.

When
though

it

the viscosity is so great that a considerable inequality of stress,


produces a continuously increasing displacement, produces it so slowly

OF BODIES.

CONSTITUTION

we can hardly

that

and even a hard


great that the

yet

if

it

inclined

often

are

Thus the

of

viscosity

a sufficient time

for

to

cold

call

the substance a solid,

pitch

asphalt

of

or

therefore,

fluid till its surface

we

define

produced by

stress

becomes

is

so

remain

to

its

own

in

weight,

level.

substance

as

fluid

found unable

be

will

it

under the slight inequality of

but will flow like a


If,

we

it,

substance will break rather than yield to any sudden blow, and

left

is

equilibrium

see

solid.

619

which

remain

cannot

in

permanent equilibrium under a stress not equal in all directions, we must call
these substances fluids, though they are so viscous that we can walk on them
without leaving any footprints.
body, after having

If a
to

recover

be

elastic.

The

its

ratio

its

form

original

form altered by the application of

when the

the strain to the stress

it
is

is

called

caUed the

the

strains or

of

tends

said

is

to

the numerical value of

and the

elasticity,

ratio of

of pliability.

coefficients

as

there

are

kinds of stress

components of strains produced by them.

then, the values of the coefficients of elasticity were to increase without

If,

limit,

coefficient

coefficient

There are as many kinds of these

stress,

removed, the body

is

numerical value of the stress to

of the

the strain produced by

and of

stress

the body would approximate to the condition of a rigid body.

We
isinglass

may form an
in

hot water

body of great pliability by dissolving gelatine or


and allowing the solution to cool into a jelly.
By

elastic

diminishing the proportion of gelatine

may be

diminished,

so

the coefficient of

that a very small force

is

elasticity

of

the jelly

required to produce a large

change of form in the substance.

When

the deformation of an

depending on the nature


is

removed

it

of

the

elastic

body

substance,

does not return exactly to

manently deformed.

it

its

is

is

pushed beyond certain limits


found that when the stress

original

shape,

but remains per-

These limits of the different kinds of strain are called the

limits of perfect elasticity.

There are other limits which


tenacity, such

that

may be

when the deformation

called

the limits

of

cohesion

or

body breaks, tears asunder, or otherwise gives way, and the continuity of
substance

A
or

is

of

of the body reaches these limits the


its

destroyed.

body which can have

break taking place

is

its

called

form permanently changed without


mild.

When

the force

required

is

any

flaA\-

small the

782

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

620

body

said

is

be

to

soft

when

it

is

great the body

body which becomes flawed or broken before


called

is

When

brittle.

the force required

great

is

said

is

be tough.

to

permanently deformed

can be

it

body

the

is

said

be

to

hard.

The

a body

of

stiffness

measured by the force required to

is

produce

given amount of deformation.


Its strength

We

may

measured by the

is

force required to

break or crush

it.

conceive a solid body to approximate to the condition

of a fluid

in several different ways.

we knead

If

fine

the mixture become


subsiding through

clay with

till

at

last

This

it.

is

we add

water, the more water

we have water with

an instance of a mechanical

But

we mix

or

with turpentine, we may form permanent mixtures

rosin

themselves.

and so pass from the

softness,

solid

if

slowly

the

con-

bees -wax with

of which

of

clay

mixture

stituents

separate

the softer does


of

particles

oil,

of

all

degrees of

to the fluid state through

all

degrees of

viscosity.

We

may also begin with an elastic and somewhat brittle substance like
and add more and more water till we form a very weak jelly which

gelatine,

opposes a very feeble resistance to the motion of a solid body, such as a spoon,

through

But even such a weak

it.

be able to withstand a very small

mote

If a small

different from

bottom.

If

or

seed

is

may

not be a true

does not do so

it

we

fluid,

for

it

may

such as the weight of a small mote.

enclosed in the jelly, and

that of the jelly,


it

jelly
force,

wiU tend

to

specific

its

if

gravity

is

the top or sink to the

rise to

conclude that the jelly

not a fluid but

is

a solid body, very weak, indeed, but able to sustain the force with which the

mote tends to move.


It

may

appears,

that

therefore,

be conceived to take
of

coefficient

rigidity,

or

place

of

by the diminution of the


till

is

the

passage from

the

viscosity.

But whereas the body

not a true solid as long as the viscosity

however, which

limit

either

of the

the ultimate strength against rupture, as well as

the ultimate strength, or the coefficient of rigidity,

Solids,

the fluid state

to

solid

by the diminution without

are

is

not

is

is

not a true

fluid

reduced to zero,

it

infinite.

not viscous in the sense

of

being

capable

of

an unlimited amount of change of form, are yet subject to alterations depending on the time
stress

at

during which stress has acted on them.

any given instant depends, not only on the

In other words, the

strain

at

that

instant,

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

Thus

but on the previous history of the body.

when the
is

not a permanent

when

weeks

after the

body

may be observed

Ann. Bd. 131,

to

somewhat greater
and if the strain

is

which, however,

set,

back

go

to

does not at once

itself,

towards

on

original

its

and

hours

for

even

itself.

by Weber and Kohlrausch

{Po(j(j.

119 and 128), and have been described by 0. E. Meyer

(Po(j(j.

Phenomena
54,

is left

to

left

the body slowly creeps

for

motion which

shape

Ann. Bd.

set,

stress

tlie

diminishing,

is

it

but appears to have taken a

shape,

to its original

with a

of

than when

increasing

is

continued for a long time, the body,

return
is

strain

G21

of this kind were pointed out

108),

and by Maxwell

{Phil. Trans.

the phenomena has been proposed

by Dr

1866,

p.

Boltzmann

L.

and a theory

249),

{Wiener

Sitzung.s-

8th October 1874).

herichte,

The German

writers

by the name of " elastische


if the word reaction

the phenomena

to

refer

Nachwirkung," which might be translated "elastic reaction"


were not already used in a different sense.

W. Thomson

Sir

speaks

the

of

viscosity of elastic bodies.

The phenomena

are most easily observed

by

a fine wdre suspended

tw^isting

from a fixed support, and having a small mirror suspended from the lower end,
the

scope and

If

scale.

angle not too great,

the lower end of

and then

may be

extent of which

more rapidly than

way by means

can be observed in the usual

of which

position

if

read

to

left

off

the wire
itself,

on the

is

turned

round

of a

tele-

through an

the mirror makes oscillations, the

These

scale.

decay mucli

oscillations

the only retarding force were the resistance of

the

air,

shewing that the force of torsion in the wire must be greater when the twist
is

by

when it is diminishing. This is the phenomenon described


But
Thomson
under the name of the viscosity of elastic solids.
W.

increasing than
Sir

we may

ascertain

also

the middle point of

temporary equilibrium when the

oscillations

these

oscillations,

or

the point of

have subsided, and trace the

varia-

tions of its position.

If

we

begin by keeping

and then leave


displaced

equilibrium
itself,

to

itself,

the

we

wire twisted,

find

say for a minute or an hour,

that the point of temporary equilibrium

the direction of twisting, and that this displacement

in

longer the

it

wire has been kept twisted.


is

creeps

But

This slow motion

its

original

position,

has been observed by the

is

greater the

this displacement of the point of

not of the nature of a permanent

back towards

is

set,

for

the wire,

if

left

to

but always slower and slower.

writer going on

for

more than a

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

622

week, and he also found that

if

was

the wire

the point of equilibrium was more rapid than

We

may

in

set

produce a very complicated series of

motions of

of the

wire by previously subjecting the wire to a series

stance,

we may

first

twist

a day, then in the negative direction for an


direction

increases
positive,

the wire

the lower end


twists.

and then

hour,
to

left

is

in vibration.

it

For

the

in

in-

twisted for
positive

the displacement, at

itself

becomes negative in a few seconds, and this negative displacement

positive,

first

When

a minute.

for

of

the positive direction, and keep

in

it

motion of

vibration the

when the wire was not

some

for

and

time.

It

then

and

diminishes,

the

lasts a longer time, till it too finally dies

The phenomena

are

some respects

in

analogous

displacement

becomes

away.
to

the

variations

the

of

temperature of a very large ball of iron which has been heated in a


furnace for a day, then placed in melting ice for an hour, then in boiling
surface

water

a minute, and then exposed to the

for

may

analogy

air

but

be found in the variations of potential

has been charged positively for a

of

negatively for an hour,

day,

more

still

perfect

a Ley den jar

which

and positively

again for a minute*.

The

efiects

of successive magnetization on iron and steel are also in

respects analogous to those of strain

and
The method proposed by Boltzmann

matically
strain,
all

is

^(^j,

but of the strains to

previous

is

which the

of the form
L, =

is

in

i;^

tune.

His equation

where o

such phenomena matheterms not only of the actual


body has been subjected during

for representing

express the actual stress,

to

many

electrification f.

Kd^-{

xIj(co)0,.

the interval of time reckoned backwards from the actual time

the time t-o),

when the

strain

existed,

df.^

and

xjj

{(o)

is

some

function

to

of

that interval.

We
vious

may

states

describe
as

this

method of deducing the actual

the historical method, because

previous history of the body.


* See

March

Dr Hopkinson, "On

tlie

But

this

Wiedemann's Galvaniamus,

Residual Charge of

vol.

ii.

p.

involves

state from the pre-

a knowledge of the

method may be transformed

30, 1876.

t See

it

567.

the

Leyden Jar," Proc. R.

into another,

S.

xxiv

408

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

which the present state

in

has ceased

and

if

we

For

to exist.

not regarded as influenced

is

we expand

if

G23

by any
by Taylor's theorem,

^^_

state

whicli

also write

A=\

^=

xp {(o) d(t),

then equation

(l)

^^

^=

(w) f^^j

jo

Jo

T~^ ^

(<^) <^(^,

&C.

'-^

becomes

where no symbols of time are subscribed, because

the

all

quantities

refer

to

the present time.

This expression of

yet

India-rubber,

may

Gelatine also

to express the

fails

that

several

physical

w^hicli,

such

substances,

be permanently stretched

though

phenomenon

when

as

and

cold,

to a certain temperature they recover their original

be dried when in a state of

strain,

and may recover

form by absorbing water.

We
liquids

know

that the molecules

the motion

is

of

such that there

passing from any part of the mass to

suppose that some, at

mean

position,

figuration
it

any sense

not in

is

merely a mathematical formula

may

&c.,

when afterwards heated

form.

is

Now we know

permanent deformation.

of

gutta-percha.

its

it

some of the observed phenomena,

represents

it

however,

Boltzmann's,

theory of the phenomena

is

so

least,

that,

if

of

we

all
is

bodies

are

motion.

in

In gases and

nothing to prevent any molecule from

any other part

but in

solids

we must

the molecules merely oscillate about a certain

consider a

certain

group

of

molecules,

its

con-

never very different from a certain stable configuration, about which

oscillates.

This will be the case even

when the

solid

is

in

state

of

strain,

pro-

vided the amplitude of the oscillations does not exceed a certain limit, but
it

exceeds this limit the group

ration,

in

but begins to

which

is

oscillate

does not tend to return to

about a new configuration of

its

if

former configu-

stability, the strain

either zero, or at least less than in the orio-inal conficruration.

The condition
on the amplitude

of this

of

breaking up of a configuration must depend partly

the oscillations,

the original configuration

and partly on the amount of

and we may suppose that

different

strain

in

groups of mole-

CONSTITUTION OF BODIES.

624

even in a homogeneous

cules,

are

solid,

not

circumstances

similar

in

in

this

respect.

Thus we may suppose that


agitation

of the

molecules

in

liable

is

number

a certain

groups

of

much

to accumulate so

the

ordinarj^

that every

now and

then the configuration of one of the groups breaks up, and this whether
in

We

a state of strain or not.

may

assume that

in this case

it

a certain proportion of these groups break up, and assume configurations


responding to a strain uniform in
If

But we may suppose that there


is

medium would be a

viscous fluid.

are other groups, the configuration of which

that they will not break up under the ordinary agitation of the

stable

so

cor-

all directions.

the groups were of this kind, the

all

is

in every second

molecules unless the average

strain

may

exceeds a certain limit, and this limit

be different for different systems of these groups.

Now
be a

such groups of greater stability are disseminated through the sub-

if

such abundance as to build up a solid framework, the substance will

stance in

which

solid,

But
of the

not be permanently deformed except by a stress greater

will

than a certain given

stress.

the solid also contains groups of smaller stability and also groups

if

first

kind which break up of themselves, then when a strain

the resistance to

gradually diminish

will

it

break up, and this will go on

more permanent groups.


return to

original

its

If the

form,

till

the stress

body

is

now

groups

the

as
is

is

the

of

reduced to that due


to

left

itself,

it

will

but will only do so when the groups of the

This view of the constitution of a

some of which are

explain the state of


to

in

different

but

configurations,

retain

their

original

it

is

less stable

configurations, so

of temperature, increase

again

had before

assert
its

others,

their

sway,

deformation.

and tend

of groups

violent

to

first

also

of mole-

helps

been

to

given

groups have broken up and assumed

sets

of moisture,

the

strain.

consisting of groups

more

stable,

that the form of the body

the breaking up of the less stable groups

may

as

quite possible that others,

by the equihbrium between these two


rise

solid,

circumstances from

the solid after a permanent deformation has

In this case some of the

it.

new

kind

to

not at once

kind have broken up so often as to get back to their original state of

cules

applied

first

is

but

vibration,

facilitated,

restore

if,

is

on

may

still

determined
account

of

or any other cause,

the more stable groups

the body to the

shape

it

[From the

Some

liquids,

such

as

each other do not mix at

Encr/clopcedia Brttannica.]

LXXXIX.

Diffusion.

mercury and

water,

all,

when placed

contact

in

but the surface of separation remains

with

distinct,

and exhibits the phenomena described under Capillary Action. Other pairs
of liquids, such as chloroform and water, mix, but only in certain proportions.

The chloroform takes up a little water, and the water a little chloroform;
but the two mixed liquids will not mix with each other, but remain in conThe two hquids are
tact separated by a surface shewing capillary phenomena.
then

The conditions of the equiby Professor J.

a state of equiUbrium with each other.

in

librium

heterogeneous

of

have

substances

been

investigated

Willard Gibbs in a series of papers published in the Transactions of the Connecticut

Academy of Arts and


and all gases, mix in

of liquids,

When two
with

librium

of mixture

process
is

attained,

other;

in

in.

part

i.

p.

Other pairs

108.

mixed, they cannot remain in equi-

they are placed in

if

contact with

and goes on till the


the case of fluids which mix in

begins of

which,

Vol.

all proportions.

are capable of being

fluids

each

Sciences,

itself,

each other the

state
all

of

equihbrium

proportions,

is

state of uniform mixture.

This process of mixture

taking

coloured
as

salt,

jar

half

is

full

called

of

such as sulphate of copper, through

the process of

of the

It may be easily observed by


and pouring a strong solution of a

difiusion.

water

occupy the lower part of the

to

trace

glass

dififusion

for

jar.

long-stemmed funnel,

If the jar

is

not disturbed

so

we may

weeks, months, or years, by the gradual

rise

colour into the upper part of the jar, and the weakening of the colour

in the lower part.

This,

of the

however,

composition

VOL.

II.

is

not a method

of the

capable

of

giving accurate

Hquid at difierent depths in the

measurements

vessel.

For more
79

626

DIFFUSION.

we may draw

exact determinations

mixed

gravity,

specific

its

and determine

liquid,

a portion from a given stratum of the

off

composition either by chemical methods or by

its

any other property from which

or

its

may

composition

be

deduced.

But

as

the

it

any stratum of the


purpose Sir

removing

of

act

process of diffusion,

desirable

is

mixture without

W. Thomson

portion of the

to

fluid

interferes

with the

be able to ascertain the composition of

removing

places in the jar a

from

it

number

the

vessel.

For

this

of glass beads of different

which indicate the densities of the strata in which they are observed

densities,

The principal objection to this method is, that if the liquids contain
any other gas, bubbles are apt to form on the glass beads, so as to
make them float in a stratum of less density than that marked on them.
to

float.

air

or

M. Voit has observed the


ray of plane-polarized

light

diffusion

horizontally

of

cane-sugar

through

the

the angle through which the plane of polarization


This method

of sugar.

is

in

water by passing a

vessel,

turned

and determining

by the

solution

of course appHcable only to those substances which

is

cause rotation of the plane of polarized light.

Another method

to

is

with

its

light

passing through the

refracting

edge

place

vertical,

prism

the diffusing liquids in a hollow glass prism,

and to determine the deviation of a ray of


different depths.
The ray is bent down-

at

wards on account of the variable density of the mixture, as well as towards


the thicker part of the prism; but by making it pass as near the edge of
the prism as possible, the vertical component of the refraction may be made
very small; and by placing the prism within a vessel of water having parallel
sides

able

of glass,
to

we can get

rid

use a prism of large

diffusing

substance.

of the constant part of the deviation, and are


angle,

so

as

to

increase

At the same time we can more

the

part

easily control

due to the

and

register

the temperature.

The laws of

diffusion

gases has recently been


of liquids

by Fick and by

were

first

investigated by Graham.

The

diffusion of

observed with great accuracy by Loschmidt, and that


Voit.

Diffusion as a Molecular Motion.


If we
we cannot

observe
follow

the process of diffusion with our most powerful microscopes,


the

motion of any individual

portions

of

the

fluids.

We

C27

DIFFUSION.

cannot point out one place in which the lower fluid is ascending, and another
There are no currents visible to us,
in which the upper fluid is descending.
the

and the motion of

substances

material

on

goes

must be distinguished from those motions of

fusion

the

imperceptibly as

as

Hence the motion which

conduction of heat or of electricity.

fluids

constitutes

which we can

dif-

trax^e

by means of floating motes. It may be described as a motion of the fluids,


not in mass but by molecules.
When we reason upon the hypothesis that a fluid is a continuous homogeneous substance, it is comparatively easy to define its density and velocity;

we admit

but when

must

that

may

it

revise our definitions.

We

medium which

that part of the

consist

of

we

molecules of different kinds,

therefore define these quantities by considering


at

a given instant

within a certain

is

small

must be so small that the


properties of the medium as a whole are sensibly the same throughout the
region, and yet it must be so large as to include a large number of molesurrounding

region

We

cides.

mass

region

This

point.

then define the density of the medium at the given point as the
medium within this region divided by its volume, and the
the

of

divided by
If

given

the

of

velocity

its

we

medium

as

momentum

the

this

of

portion

of the

medium

mass.

consider the

motion of the medium relative to an imaginary surface

supposed to exist within the region occupied by the medium, and if we define
the flow of the medium through the surface as the mass of the medium

which in unit of time


follows from
in

the

above

If

city as the fluid,

we suppose
and

in the

Having thus defined the


whole,

the velocity of the

or,

as

the fluids

it

is

which

that of the

medium

velocity,

the

The

mass, and

the velocity of diffusion which

may now

define

of this fluid

velocity relative

we have

no flow through

it

veloit.

and flow of the medium

medium, and

its

then

resolved

move with the same

"in mass," we

velocity

surface,

medium

equal to the flow divided by

direction, there will be

density,

constitute

in

is

the surface itself to

same

the

area of

unit of

sometimes expressed,

and flow in the same way.

is

that

the direction of the normal to the surface

the density.

of

through

passes

definitions

its

density,

may be

as

consider one
velocity,

different

to that of the

from

medium

to study.

792

DIFFUSION.

628

Diffusion of Gases according

the Kinetic

to

TheorTj.

So many of the phenomena of gases are found to be explained

manner by the

sistent

in

diffusion

We

gases.

gas,

we

behave pretty much as

elastic

energy were lost in their

diffusion

with

constitutes

the

in

light

a collection of particles or mole-

is

and which, when they encounter each


such

bodies,

as

billiard

Each molecule

collisions.

and another,

distance between one encounter


altering its

which

moti^in

con-

in a

describe

consider diffusion in liquids.

rapid motion,

in

of

consider gaseous

according to the kinetic theory,

which are

we may

that

kind

the

therefore

shall

of the kinetic theory before

cules

of gases,

correctness

of

probability

considerable

theory

kinetic

would

balls,

but

travels

so that it is every

do

other,
if

no

very small

now and then

both in direction and magnitude, and that in an exceed-

velocity

ingly irregular manner.

The result is that the velocity of any molecule may be considered as compounded of two velocities, one of which, called the velocity of the medium,
is the same for all the molecules, while the other, called the velocity of agitation, is irregular both in magnitude and in direction, though the average
magnitude of the velocity may be calculated, and any one direction is just as
likely as

The

any other.
of

result

will

pass from the

and

for

crowded
gravity.

region

the

of density

part

than

second

of

medium the

the

more molecules

region,

the reverse direction,

in

gas will tend to become equal in

the

in

so

action

molecules

the
is

any

in

neighbouring

except

by

of

a gas

in

if

of the
it,

direction

motion

the

Since

to

density

containing

one

towards

equalization

in

first

the vessel

that

is,

numerous than

reason the

this

of

parts

motion

this

molecules are more

far

of

an

is

very

a very rapid one,

external

its

such

as

process

of

force

the

swift,

velocity

all

may be

the molecules

as

of propaga-

tion through the gas being that of sound.

Let us now consider two gases in the same


gases being different

molecules of the
places

gas
part

is

where

it

first

in

gas

is

the

the

agitation

of

vessel,

the proportion of the

the vessel, but the


the

molecules

from places

pass

to

of

where

will

that

pressure

being

cause

more

still

gas

than in the opposite direction, but since

rare

dense where

travelling

The

same.

everywhere the

parts

different

in

first

one

opposite

is

rare,

direction.

its

molecules will

Hence

the

is

dense

the

to

second

be for the most

molecules

of

the

two


629

DIFFUSION.

encounter each other, and every encounter will

will

gases

a check to

as

act

the process of equalization of the density of each gas throughout the mixture.

The
though

of two

interdiffusion

process than

gases

in

vessel

density of

the

appears from the theory that the

it

each gas

by which

that

is

result

becomes

slower

equalized,

the same, and that

is

through the vessel in precisely the same way as

distributed

and

had been present,

other gas

final

gas

much

therefore

is

single

this

when we take

even

into

no

if

account the

effect of gravity.

If

we apply the ordinary language about


we may distinguish the forces which

mixture,

as follows

an

single

gas of

the

element of volume

external force, such as gravity or electricity.


difference of the pressure of the j^cirticidar gas on opposite sides

The

2nd.
of the

on

Any

1st.

to

fluids

act

[The pressure

element of volume.

due

to

other

gases

is

to

be con-

sidered of no account.]

The

3rd.

resistance

from the

arising

percolation

of

the

gas through the

other gases which are moving with different velocity.

The

due to encounters with the molecules of any other gas

resistance

to

proportional

the

velocity

product of their densities,


of the

the

of

first

and to a

coefficient

and on the temperature.

gases

gas

relative

to

the

which depends

second,

on

is

the

to

nature

the

The equations of motion of one gas

of

a mixture are therefore of the form

Pi

-^'

-^

- X,p, +

C,.ji,p.lu,

- u,) +

C,,p,plii,

where the symbol of operation


that

quantity at

prefixed to

of

which

distinguished by the suffix


h,

_d

ht

In the state of ultimate

dt

any quantity denotes the time-

point which moves along with that

variation
is

- u.;) + &c. = 0,

d), or

\lx

^dy

^dz'

equilibrium

medium

more explicitly

?/,

= w, = &c. = 0, and

the

equation

is

reduced to

which

Is

the

ordinary

form of the equations of equilibrium of a

single

fluid.

DIFFUSION.

630

when the

Hence,

process

any point of the vessel


If

equation

of diffusion

is

the same as

if

complete,

the density of each gas at

no other gas were present.

the potential of the force which acts on the gas, and if in the
constant, as it is when the temperature is uniform,
is
Jc,

is

Fi

is

= kpi,
2^i

then the equation of equiUbrium .b^CDmes


dp,

the solution of which

Hence

if,

different

in

as

parts

smaller,

would be

^^

the same

is

the case of gravity,

different

for

different
is

in

dV,

gases,

of the

is

the composition of the

vessel,

for

all

mixture

gases,
will

be

but

is

different

the proportion of the heavier gases, for which

being greater at the bottom of the vessel than at the top. It


however, to obtain experimental evidence of this difference

difficult,

of composition except in a vessel more than 100 metres high, and it would
be necessary to keep the vessel free from inequalities of temperature for more
than a year, in order to allow the process of diffusion to advance to a state
The experiment might,
even half-way towards that of ultimate equilibrium.

be made in a few minutes by placing a tube, say 10 centimetres


on a w-hirling apparatus, so that one end shall be close to the axis,
while the other is moving at the rate, say, of 50 metres per second. Thus
acid were used, the proportion of
if equal volumes of hydrogen and carbonic
greater at the end of the tube
hydrogen to carbonic acid would be about

however,
long,

^h

nearest the
it

establishes

The experimental verification of the result is important, as


a method of effecting the partial separation of gases without the

axis.

selective action of chemical agents.

Let us next consider the case of diffusion in a vertical cylinder. Let m,


be the mass of the first gas in a column of unit area extending from the
bottom of the vessel to the height x, and let i\ be the volume which this
mass would occupy at unit pressure, then
kimi

dm,

dv,

P' = dx-

= v,,
dm,

dv,

P'^'^-dt-

'

DIFFUSION.

G31

and the equation of motion becomes

_1
I

h dx

(d\

dv,'

ydx" dt

di\ di\

C,2 fdv^ dv^

+ kjc\dt dx
If

add

^ve

that

affected

with

correspondmg

sensible

we

dt

equations

each

Cu destroy

in

the

currents

first

daf

k^

dx

+ &c. = 0.

dx

together

for

and that

other,

we may

In ordinary experiments

lected.

that

the

terms

the

d\ _ X dv,

_d^,dv,'\
dt- dx J

all

the

if

the

gases,

medium

we

find

is

not

term of each equation may be negalso

neglect the effect of gravity, so

get

v^-\-v.,=px,

or

where

is

the uniform pressure of the mixed medium.


dv^

dvi

dv^

dx

Hence

dvi

dx

and the equation becomes

d\ _
d3^~
an equation,

the form of which

the conduction of heat.

We

identical

is

may

write
(ivi

dt

It

is

as

_
~

called the coefficient of diffusion.

therefore varies

inversely

coefficient of resistance,

the

product

kjc.,,

C^^,
i.e.,

as
is

as

dvj^

(7,2

kjc^ dt

'

with the well-known equation

j^

d\
dx^

It

is

equal to

the total pressure of the medium,

independent of the temperature,


the

square of the

probable, however, that the effect of temperature

make

it.

for

it

absolute
is

it

and

if

the

varies directly

temperature.

It

is

not so great as this would

DIFFUSION.

632
In liquids

probably depends on the proportion of the ingredients of the

mixed medium as well as on the temperature. The dimensions of D are DT~\


where L is the unit of length and T the unit of time.
The values of the coefficients of diffusion of several pairs of gases have
been determined by Loschmidt'"'. They are referred in the following table to
the centimetre and the second as units, for the temperature 0"C. and the
pressure of 76 centimetres of mercury.

Carbonic acid and air


Carbonic acid and hydrogen

Oxygen and hydrogen


Carbonic acid and oxygen

Carbonic acid and carbonic oxide


Carbonic acid and marsh gas
Carbonic acid and nitrous oxide

Sulphurous acid and hydrogen

Oxygen and

carbonic oxide

Carbonic oxide and hydrogen

633

DIFFUSION.

The

coeflBcient

on

as depending

must therefore be considered

of Interdiffusion of two liquids

according to laws

mxiture

of the

properties

the physical

all

which can be ascertained only by experiment.


diffusion

Thus Fick has determined the coefficient of


water to be O'OOOOOllG, and Voit has found

that

common

for

salt

in

to

be

cane-sugar

of

0-00000365.

from

appears

It

process of

numbers

these

that

in

same

of the

vessel

number

greater

requires

liquids

of

diffusion

the

size

days to reach a

of

given stage than the process of diffusion of gases in the same vessel requires
seconds.

When we

wish to mix two

the same vessel,


will

even

that

another,

as

so

manner as

and

The

possible.

and

many

therefore

years

effect of this

would cover an immense

as

complicated a

that the t\vo liquids, which originally

is

which,

strata,

The

area.

one way, then

first

in

one above the other, are now disposed in

layers,

convoluted

excessively

mixture

the

before

the two liquids together,

stir

we move a solid body through the vessel,


to make the liquid contents eddy about

formed two thick horizontal


thin

a metre in depth, the lighter liquid

be

will

We

not sufficient to place them in

is

it

say,

is,

it

uniform.

sensibly

say,

to

is

liquids,

the vessel

if

denser,

the

above

lie

becomes

for

effect

of

if

the

they could
stirring

spread

be

out,

thus to increase

is

the area over w^hich the process of diffusion can go on, and to diminish the
and since the time required for diffusion

distance between the diffusing liquids


varies

as

amount of

moderate

stirring

the

require years

may be completed

instantaneous

is

stirring

easily

process
in

full

of

for

which cause

that by a

evident

is

would

which

That

a few seconds.

of streaks,

it

mixture

by observing that

ascertained

the mixture appears

the

some time
to

it

otherwise
is

not

after

the

process

lose

its

trans-

This arises from the different indices of refraction of different portions

parency.
of the

the square of the thickness of the layers,

mixture which have

surfaces

of separation

are

so

The
brought near each other by stirring.
drawn out and convoluted, that the whole mass

been

has a woolly appearance, for no ray of light can pass through

many
Graham observed that the
times out of

turned

through

porous

solid

pressed plumbago,
interposed,

VOL.

II.

and

bodies,

at a

this

its

rate

it

without being

path.
diffusion

such

as

not very

both of liquids and gases takes place

plugs

of

much

less

plaster

even when the solid partition

of

Paris

or

plates

than when no such body


is

amply

sufficient

of
is

to check

80

DIFFUSION.

634

on

opposite sides.

its

But there

another class of cases in which a liquid or a gas can pass

is

through a diaphragm, which

when
gas

difference of pressure

and even to sustain a considerable

ordinary currents,

all

carbonic acid gas

is

is

soap bubble

rapidly

it

absorbed at the inner surface of the bubble, and forms

carbonic acid

where

bubble,

This

water.

in
it

is

solution

strongest,

For

not, in the ordinary sense, porous.

confined in a

is

the

to

from the

diffuses

outer

inner

where

surface,

instance,

solution

surface

it

The

escapes.

in

is

of

of

the

contact

and the carbonic acid evaporates and diffuses out into the atmosphere.
It is also found that hydrogen and other gases can pass through a layer of
Graham shewed that it is not through pores, in the ordinary
caoutchouc.
the motion takes place, for the ratios are determined by the
sense, that
with

air,

chemical relations between the gases and the caoutchouc, or the liquid

According to Graham's
is,

one which

of combining,

capable

is

the Caoutchouc

theory,

other substances,

form a jelly with various proportions of

water.

of

When

crystalloid,

and

composition,

definite

a colloid body has

adtaitting

of

parts

of

different

in

Another

just
class

as

glue

will

substances,

of

distinguished from these by being always

are

not

that

temporary and very loose manner,

in a

with indeterminate proportions of certain

which Graham called

film.

a colloid substance,

is

temporary

these
its

mass

associations.

proportions

different

of water, alcohol, or solutions of crystalloid bodies^ diffusion takes place through

the colloid body, though no part of

On

the other hand,

of diffusion
tion of

and

through a poroUs

gum and

alcohol,

salt in

alcohol

will

it

can be shewn to be in the liquid state.

a solution of a colloid substance


water
be

or another

solid,
is

almost incapable

Thus,

if

a solu-

placed in contact with a solid jelly of gelatine


into

diffusi^d

be diffused into the gelatine,

is

body.

colloid

but the

the gum, and salt and water will

gum and

the

gelatine

will

not diffuse

into each other.

There are certain metals whose relations to certain gases Grallam explained

by

this

through

through

For instance, hydrogen can be made to pass through iron and

theory.

palladium

at

iron.

them

high

temperature,

The gases form


as

water

is

and

carbonic

colloidal unions

diffused

can

oxide

be

made

to

pass

with the metals, and are diffused

through a

jelly.

Root has

lately

found

that hydrogen can pass through platinum, even at ordinary temperatures.

By

taking advantage of the different velocities with which different liquids

and gases pass through parchment-paper

and

other solid

bodies,

Graham was

635

DIFFUSION,

many remarkable

enabled to effect

He

analyses.

called this

method the method

of Dialysis.

Diffusion

The

rate

liquids

evaporation of

of

of diflusion of the vapour through the

determined

is

and

Absorption.

principally

other gas which

or

air

the vapour of

the coefficient of diffusion of

Indeed,

liquid

Solution,

and Evaporation, Condensation,

by the

rate

above the

lies

a liquid through

determined in a rough but easy manner by placing a little of the


liquid in a test tube, and observing the rat at which its weight diminishes
by evaporation day by day. For at the surface of the liquid the density of

air

can be

the vapour

is

corresponding

that

the

to

pure.

nearly

temperature,

Hence,

test tube the air


vapour corresponding to the temperature, and

of the

is

evaporated in time

This method

t,

is

and diffused

not,

if

p = kp,

whereas at the mouth


be the pressure of the

and

if

into the air through a distance

to

of course, applicable

mass

the

be

A*, then

vapours which are rarer than

the superincumbent gas.

The

solution

of a salt

in a liquid goes

on

in the

same way, and

so does

the absorption of a gas by a liquid.

These processes are

all

accelerated

by

currents,

for

the reason already ex-

plained.

The
no

air

processes of evaporation

or

and condensation go on much more rapidly when

other non-condensible gas

is

present.

Hence the importance

of the

air-pump in the steam engine.

Relation hetwcen Diffusion of Mattt^r

The same motion


gases

to

diffuse

of agitation

and

Diffusion of Heat.

of the molecules of gases which

through each other

also

causes

two

portions

causes two

of the

same gas

to diffuse through each other, although we cannot observe this kind of diffusion,
because we cannot distinguish the molecules of one portion from those of the
h hhould be taken eqnal to the height of the tube above the surface of the liquid, together
with about f of the diameter of the tube. See Clerk Maxwell's Electricity, Art. 309.

802

636

DIFFUSION.

other

when they

once mixed.

are

however,

If,

the

molecules of one

portion

have any property whereby they can be distinguished from those of the other,
then that property will be communicated from one part of the medium to an

and that either by convection

adjoining part,

passing

selves

them

out

by transmission

or

one molecule to

which

different

that the

so

ference

one

of

the

into

that

that

is

by the molecules them-

carrying

other,

property with

the

by the property being communicated from


another during their encounters.
The chemical properties by
is

substances are recognized are inseparable from their molecules,

diffusion

of the

part

of

such

given direction and


molecules,

another.

Hence the

medium can take

its

but

different

but the

take

place

momentum

only

by the

trans-

of a molecule in any

may be different in
may be communicated from one molecule to
of momentum and that of energy through the

energy are also properties which

which

diffusion

place

can

properties

molecules themselves,

in

two

ways, whereas the diffusion of matter

different

can take place only in one of these ways.

In gases the great majority of the


free

and

paths,

relation

it

is

between the

of matter, the lateral

of

coefficients

is

called

transmission

of

close

quarters

by communication from
molecules themselves.
of viscosity

one

of

instant, are
is

describing

a simple numerical

diffusion,

diffusion

^the

the phenomenon

known

of energy

diffusion

as

(which

in liquids the majority of the molecules

more other molecules,

energy takes place in a

molecule

Hence the

is

and the

fluids),

with one or

momentum and

any

the three kinds of

But

the conduction of heat).

engaged at

at

shew that there

diffusion of velocity (which

the internal friction or viscosity of

are

particles,

therefore possible to

to

ratios

another,

of the

than

so

that

greater

the

degree

by convection by the

coefficient

and thermal conductivity are much smaller

far

of

diffusion

in liquids

to

those

than in gases.

Theory of the Wet Bulb Thermometer.

The temperature indicated by the wet bulb thermometer is determined in


by the relation between the coefficients of diffusion and thermal

great part

conductivity.
plied

to

it

As the water evaporates from the wet bulb heat must be supby convection, conduction, or radiation. This supply of heat will

not be sufficient to maintain the temperature constant till the temperature of


the wet bulb has sunk so far below that of the surrounding air and other

637

DIFFUSION.
of heat due

that the flow

bodies

to

the difference of temperature

is

equal

to

the latent heat of the vapour which leaves the bulb.

The use

the

of

wet

thermometer

bulb

as

means

estimating

of

the

atmosphere was employed by Hutton* and Leslief, but the

humidity of the

formula by which the dew-point is commonly deduced from the readings of the
wet and dry thermometers was first given by Dr ApjohnJ.
Dr Apjohn assumes that, when the temperature of the wet bulb is stationary, the heat required to convert the water into vapour is given out by
of

portions

the surrounding air in cooling from the temperature of the atmo-

sphere to that of the wet bulb, and that the air thus cooled becomes saturated

with the vapour which

Let

temperature,

its

6,

it

receives from the bulb.

be the mass of a portion of air at a distance from the wet bulb,


jp^

the pressure due to the aqueous vapour in

it,

and

the

whole pressure.
If

(X

is

the specific gravity of aqueous vapour (referred to

mass of water in this portion of

Let this portion of


sinks
it

to

^1,

air

communicate with the wet bulb

is

is

0^

to

air),

is

^,,

the

quantity

of

supplied by the mixed air and

the air (which will not be sensibly different

this quantity of heat

is

* Playfair's "Life of Huttx)u," Edinburgh Transactions,


t Encyc. Brit., 8th ed. Vol.

X Trans.

air is

6^.

the specific heat of

from that of dry

vapour in

is

According to Apjohn's theory, this heat


vapour in cooling from

temperature

am

the latent heat of vapour at the temperature

heat required to produce this vapour

If

its

6^.

communicated to the

of vapour which has been


,

if

till

that of the wet bulb, and the pressure of the aqueous

The quantity

then the

air is jyO-m.

rises to pi, that corresponding to the temperature

and

air),

i.

"Dissertation Fifth,"

Royal Irish Academy, 1834.

p.

"Vol.

764.

v.

p.

67, note,


DIFFUSION.

638

we

Equating the two values

obtain

The temperaHere p^ is the pressure of the vapour in the atmosphere.


is the dew-point, and p^ is the
for which this is the maxinltim pressure
maximum pressure corresponding to the temperature 0^ of the wet bulb. Hence
this formula, combined with tables of the pressure of aqueous vapour, enables
us to find the dew-point from observations of the wet and dry bulb thermo-

ture

meters.

We

may

consider the

distance to

call

the

this

convection

theory of

the

be afiected

of heat or of vapour with other portions of

comes into absolute contact with

it

consider

because

we

air.

Dr Everett has pointed out as a defect in this


explain how the air can either sink in temperature
unless

wet bulb,

and humidity of a portion of air brought from a


directly by the wet bulb without communication either

temperature

what we may

call

the

the

conduction

and

wet

that

theoiy,
or

increase

Let

bulb.

diffusion

it

does not

in

humidity

us,

therefore,

theory in calm

air,

taking into account the effects of radiation.

The steady conduction

is

determined by the conditions

at a great distance from the bulb,

6=

at the surface of the bulb,

By

V'^ =

The steady

of heat

6 = 9^

at

diffusion of

p=p

any point of the medium.


vapour

is

determined by the conditions

at a great distance from the bulb,

^^_Pi at the surface of the bulb,

V^p^O
Now,

if

the bulb

respect to the potential

at

any point of the medium.

had been an electrified conductor, the


would have been

V=0
V=Vy
^'"^"=0

at a great distance,
at the surface,
at

any point outside the bulb.

conditions

with

639

DIFFUSION'.

Hence the
For

two.

If

if

solution of the
is

electrical

problem

that

to

of

the

other

the electric charge of the conductor,

is

where the double integral is extended over the


is an element of a normal to the surface.
If

leads

the potential at any point,

is

surtace

of

the

bulb,

and

dv

the flow of heat in unit of time from the bulb.

H=-K\\~dS,
and

if

where

Jc

If

is

is
is

the flow of aqueous vapour from the bulb,

the ratio of the pressure of aqueous vapour to


the electrical capacity of the bulb,

H= AnCK{e, -

e,),

The heat which leaves the bulb by


perature

6^

may

its

density.

E=CVi,

Q=i7TCj

{p, -p,).

radiation

to

external

objects

at

tem-

be written
h = AR{d,-e,),

where

is

the surface of the bulb and

the coefficient of radiation of unit

of

surface.

When

the temperature becomes constant

FS(K^

Po

AR

\,.

''

This formula gives the result of the theory of


radiation

in a

still

..

= -p. Tz\n
+ -TZ?^^
n]^^^- ^')La-yD'^
AirCpSD]

atmosphere.

It

differs

theory only by the factor in the last term.

diff'usion,

conduction,

and

from the formula of the convection

640

DIFFUSION.

The
about

part

first

of this factor -^

certainly

is

second part

bulb

is

spherical

and of radius

r,

A = iTTr^

Hence, the larger the wet bulb, the greater


will
first

increase

If,

both conduction and

part to the

point with

and C=r,

be the ratio of the effect

diffusion,

so

as

Electrolysis

(see

separate

compound

air is

in

motion,

to increase the ratio

of

it

comparing actual observations of tbe dewhas been found that the factor should be

Eelation between Diffusion

of a

that the

By

second.

Apjohn's formula,

will

on the other hand, the

somewhat greater than unity. According to our theory


if the bulb is larger, and smaller if there is much wind.

stituents

so

^y^.

is

of radiation to that of conduction.

the

than unity, and probably

'77.

If the

this

less

article)

and

Electrolytic

is

molecular

it

ought to be greater

Conduction.

movement

the

of

con-

liquid in which, under the action of electromotive force,

one of the components travels in the positive and the other in the negative
the flow of each component, when reckoned in electrochemical equiva-

direction,
lents,

being in

all

Electrolysis

cases numerically equal to the flow of electricity.

resembles

diffusion

in

being

currents in opposite directions through the


is

of the same

or ion,

therefore,

two

as

it

is

charges of electricity.

urging an electro-chemical
called,

in a given direction

electromotive force at a given point


parable

of

the liquid

we cannot ascribe the currents to the


medium whose composition varies from one part to
diffusion, but we must ascribe it to the action of the

electromotive force on particles having definite

ponent,

movement

but since

another as in ordinary

force,

molecular

composition throughout,

molecular agitation of

The

same liquid;

with any ordinary

force.

from rising above a certain value


molecules of the ion with

other

of the

The
is

equivalent
is

electrolyte,

resistance

which

that arising from

molecules

as

of

either

com-

numerically equal to the

and

is

therefore

prevents

the

the encounters of

they struggle

forward

com-

current

the

through

the liquid, and this depends on their relative velocity, and also on the nature
of the ion, and of the liquid through which

it

has to flow.

641

DIFFUSION.

The average

velocity

of the

will

ions

therefore

the force which

increase,

till

the

resistance

urges them forward, and they will

they meet with


thus acquire a definite velocity proportional to the electric force at the point,
equal to

is

hut depending also on the nature of the


If the

the

which passes

in

liquid.

the passage of the ion

to

of the

velocity

but the quantity

strengths,

different
tricity

liquid

of the

strengths of solution,

different

the

resistance

of

ion

the same for

same

the

and therefore the quantity

it,

proportional

a given time, will be

strength of

the

to

for

of elec-

solution.

Now, Kohlrausch has determined the conductivity


in water, and he finds that for very weak

electrolytes
is

is

be

will

When

proportional to the strength.

the solution

is

of the solutions of

many

solutions the conductivity

strong the liquid through

which the ions struggle can no longer be considered sensibly the same as pure
water, and consequently this proportionality does not hold good for strong
solutions.

Kohlrausch has determined the actual velocity in centimetres per second


ions in weak solutions under an electro-motive force of unit value.

of various

these velocities he has

From

the conductivities of weak solutions of

from those of which he made use in calculating the velocity


and he finds the results consistent with direct experiments on

different

electrolytes

of the

calculated

ions,

those electrolytes.
It is manifest that we have here important information as to the resistIt is not
ance which the ion meets with in travelling through the liquid.
easv, however, to make a numerical comparison between this resistance and any
results

on the

of ordinary diffusion, for, in the first place,


diffusion

of

Many

ions.

electrolytes,

current into components, one or both

when once

these components,
ions

they

quantities
fore

are

no longer acted on by

of electricity.

incapable

separated

Some

of diffusion;

of

which

out

of

electric

we cannot make experiments

indeed,

are

the
force,

are

of

electrolyte,

or

charged

diffusion,

are

no

with

of them, as the metals, are insoluble,

others, like

by the

decomposed

capable

but

longer
definite

and there-

the gases, though soluble in the liquid

when in solution, acted on by the current.


if we accept the theory of electrolysis proposed by

electrolyte, are not,

Besides this,

Clausius,

acted on by the electro-motive force are not the whole of the


molecules which form the constituents of the electrolyte, but only those which
at a given instant are in a state of dissociation from molecules of the other

the molecules

VOL.

II.

81

642

DIFFUSION.

away from them temporarily by the

kind, being forced


If these

agitation.

the velocity of their passage through the

the mean velocity of the whole, which

On

of the whole,

medium must be much

greater than

the quantity calculated by Kohlrausch.

is

by which the Mixture and Separation of Fluids can be

Processes

in

effected

violence of the molecular

molecules form a small proportion

dissociated

physical process

is

said

be made to return from the

a Reversible Manner.
be reversible when the material system can

to

the original state under conditions

to

state

final

which at every stage of the reverse process

only infinitesimally from the

differ

conditions at the corresponding stage of the direct process.

All other processes are called irreversible.

if

Thus the passage of heat from one body to another is a reversible process
the temperature of the first body exceeds that of the second only by an
by an

bodies

infinitesimal

quantity, the heat

from the second body to the

But
by a
is

by changing the temperature

because

quantity,

infinitesimal

quantity, the passage

finite

of
to

either

flow

body

first

higher than that of the second

is

heat from the

of

first

body to the second

not a reversible process, for the temperature of one or both of

must be

by a

altered

finite

the

of

back again

first.

the temperature of the

if

may be made

quantity before

the

can

heat

be

the bodies

made

flow

to

back again.
In like manner the
process,

in order

for

to

For instance,

considerably changed.

can separate
carbonic acid

it

by quicklime

carbonic

raised to a high temperature.

for

reversible

in

processes

the condition of equilibrium

to

be

pressure of the two substances must


of each

of

conditions

acid

that

not

the gases,

we

but the absorption of

and pressures

carbonic

must be very

acid

in

an

is

from the
contact

irre-

lime

must

it

be

and Professor Gibbs has shewn


only the temperature and the

be the same, but also that the potential

the component substances must be


is

one of

is

the substances which are

complete equilibrium throughout the process

and that there

in general an irreversible

is

the

at ordinary temperatures

must be

all

gases

order to separate the

process,

In

if

two gases

from the other by means of quicklime

versible

in

of

interdiffiision

separate the two

an additional condition

the

same

in

both

which we need not here

compounds,
specify.

G43

DIFFUSION.

we may

Now,

equilibrium

complete

obtain

mixture containing carbonic acid

if

we

raise

the

between
whole

which the pressure of dissociation of the carbonic acid


equal to the pressure of

pass from the

we may

very slowly

the temperature or the pressure

By

gases.

at

cause

is

altering

acid

carbonic

to

mixture to the lime, or from the lime to the mixture, in such

a manner that the conditions of the system differ only by


tities at

the

temperature

in carbonate of lime

mixed

the

the carbonic acid in

and

quicklime

to

infinitesimal

quan-

the corresponding stages of the direct and the inverse processes.

The

same thing may be done at lower temperatures by means of potash or soda.


If one of the gases can be condensed into a liquid, and if during the
condensation the pressure

increased

is

or

that

the liquid and the mixed gases are

the

separation

and

mixture

the

of

the temperature diminished so slowly

always
can

gases

very
be

nearly

in

effected

equilibrium,

in

reversible

manner.

The same thing can be done by means of a liquid which absorbs the
we can maintain such conditions as
temperature and pressure as shall keep the system in equilibrium during the

gases in different proportions, provided that


to

whole process.
If the

separation

densities

by a

of the

reversible

two gases are

process

different,

we can

effect

which does not involve any

of

their partial

the

commonly called chemical. We place the mixed gases in a very long


tube, and we raise one end of the tube till the tube is vertical.

actions

horizontal
If this

is

done so slowly that at every stage of the process the distribution of the two
gases

is

the same as

sensibly

it

would be at the same stage of the reverse


and if the tube is long enough the

the process will be reversible,

process,

separation of the gases

may

be carried to any extent.

In the Philosophical Magazine for

1876,

Lord Rayleigh

the thermodynamics of diffusion, and has shewn that


gases

are

given

at

the

same

mixing them by a reversible

At the end
volume

of

equal

pressure

process,

to

the process the two gases


to

the

sum

of

and

investigated

has

two portions of

temperature,

obtain
are

if

certain

it

is

quantity

uniformly mixed,

the volumes they occupied

when

different

possible,

of

by

work.

and occupy a
separate,

but

the temperature and pressure of the mixture are lower than before.

The work which can be gained during the mixture is equal to that which
be gained by allowing first one gas and then the other to expand
from its original volume to the sum of the volumes and the fall of temperature
would

812

644

DIFFUSION.

and

pressure

equal

is

which would be produced

that

to

in

mixture by

the

taking away a quantity of heat equivalent to this work.


the

If

when

gases

and there

We
as

takes

diffusion

the
is

no

may

irreversible

together in a

vessel,

process,

such as goes on

no external work

is

done,

of temperature or of pressure during the process.

fall

arrive

that of Lord

by an

place

placed

are

at

this

Eayleigh,

by a method which, if not so instructive


by the use of a physical quantity

result

more

is

general,

by Clausius the Entropy of the system.


The entropy of a body in equilibrium is a quantity such that it remains
constant if no heat enters or leaves the body, and such that in general the
quantity of heat which enters the body is
called

where

the entropy, and 6 the absolute temperature.

is

(f>

The entropy

of a matenal system is the sum of the entropy of its parts.


In reversible processes the entropy of the system remains unchanged, but
in all irreversible processes the entropy of the system increases.

The
from

of entropy

increase

the system,

that

is

to

say,

involves a diminution

of

the available energy of

the total quantity of work which can be obtained

system.
This is expressed by Sir W. Thomson by saying that a
amount of energy is dissipated.
The quantity of energy which is dissipated in a given process is equal to

the

certain

where

is

(f),

process,

and

the entropy at the beginning,


0^

is

no more work can be got out of

When we

and

can

this,

determine

whereas the

increase

of the system at the beginning

The entropy
exceeds

its

of

its

if

volumes

i\

and

i\

at

the

end

ultimate state,

of

the

when

entropy

of

is

but

it

is

we can

calculate

the

sometimes difHcult to

determined by the known states

and end of the process.

a volume

entropy where

its

the ultimate temperature

of

v,

volume
i-^ 1

Hence

that

it.

amount of energy dissipated by any process;


do

<^,

the temperature of the system in

-,

is

a gas at pressure p^ and temperature 0,


v, and its temperature 0, by the quantity

log

7^

+ log - L

of tw^o gases at the

same temperature and pressure

6^5

DIFFUSION.

are

a volume i\ + Vj at the same temperature and


system increases during the process by the quantity

mixed so as to occupy

pressure, the entropy of the

Since

may

quantity

the

calculate

sum

v,

+ v,\
change during the process, we

does not

energy dissipated

of

we

entropy by the temperature, and

or the

+ v,

temperature

the

case

this

in

v,

by multiplying the gain of


dissipation

thus find for the

work which would be done by the two portions

of the

each expanded under constant temperature to the volume


It

gas

when the

greatest

is

r386j9y, where
us

of

equal

that

and

volume,

we have
the

at

movable partition between them.

till

two

gases

are

process,

the

as

the

dissipated

for

same, then

dissipated
It

it

is

in

same

a vessel two separate portions of


pressure and temperature, with a

side

of the

partition

the agitation of

partition

to

the other in

This motion of the molecules will take place whether


or different, that is to say, whether w^e can

diffusion,

two gases or

not.

this

that

amount of work

is

no longer available, but

on the other hand, the two portions of gas are


work can be gained by mixing them, and no work is

ever.

no

such

are

If,

by allowing them

appears,

which case

we can separate them by a reversible


we have just shewn, we might gain a definite amount ot
them to mix under certain conditions; and if we allow them

work by allowing
to mix by ordinary
is

in

same

the

two gases

then,

equal,

we remove the

distinguish between the properties of the


If

are

if

ultimately the two portions of gas will be thoroughly and

uniformly mixed together.


the

If

them from one

the molecules will carry

an irregular manner,

volumes

of gas

+ v^.

the pressure and v the volume of one of the portions.

is

now suppose

Let

two

v^

therefore,

to diffuse into each other.

that the process

of

diffusion

does not

involve

dis-

two gases are the same, but that it does if they can
be separated from each other by a reversible process.
Now, when we say that two gases are the same, we mean that we cannot
It is not probable,
distinguish the one from the other by any known reaction.
but it is possible, that two gases derived from different sources, but hitherto

sipation of energy if the

supposed to be the same,

may

hereafter

be found to be diflerent, and that a

DIFFUSION.

646

method may be discovered of separating them by a reversible process. If this


should happen, the process of interdiffusion which we had formerly supposed
not to be an instance

of

dissipation

of

energy would

now be

recognized as

such an instance.

foUows

It

from

this

that the idea of

hold
of

Dissipated

any desired channel.

into

of

and

at pleasure,

direct

which

molecules

we

call

dissipation

Available energy

the extent of our knowledge.

energy

is

is

Now,

depends on

we can direct
energy which we cannot lay

such as the energy

heat.

of energy

energy which

confusion,

of

the confused

like

agitation

the correlative

term

not a property of material things in themselves, but only in relation


A memorandum-book does not, provided it
to the mind which perceives them.
appear confused to an illiterate person, or to the owner who
is neatly written,

order,

is

understands

thoroughly,

it

be inextricably confused.

but to any other person able to read it appears to


notion of dissipated energy could not

Similarly the

turn any of

occur to a being

who

own

to

one who

could

right

moment.

It

seize

account,
it

or

at the

could not

is

trace the

the

energies

of

nature to his

motion of every molecule and

only to a being in the intennediate stage,

who can lay hold of some forms of energy while others elude his grasp, that
energy appears to be passing inevitably from the available to the dissipated
state.

[From the Encydopcedia Britannica.]

XC.

DIAGRAM

is

Diagrams.

drawn

figure

such

in

manner that the geometrical

relations between the parts of the figure help us to understand relations between

other objects.

few have been selected

for description in this article

on account

of their greater geometrical significance.

may

Diagi'ams

intended

to

be

be

used,

according

classed

and

manner

the

to

according

also

which they are

in

the kind of analogy which

to

we

recognize between the diagram and the thing represented.

Diagrams of
The

diagrams

to follow

in

mathematical

in

words so

that

even

himself

The

diagram

subject
is

of the

if

no
is

proposition are

figure

are intended

treatises

the mathematical reasoning.

for

Illustration.

to

help the reader

The construction of the figure is defined


were drawn the reader could draw one

good one

those features which form the

if

The accuracy

clearly represented.

of the drawing

therefore of smaller importance than its distinctness.

Metrical Diagrams.

Diagrams are
purposes
engineers

of
are

also

employed

measurement.
used

to

The

determine

in

plans

the

an

different

entirely

and

designs

value

measuring certain distances on the diagram.

of

way

drawn by

certain

real

For such purposes

namely,

for

architects

and

magnitudes
it

is

by

essential

that the drawing be as accurate as possible.

We

therefore

class

diagrams

as

diagrams

of

illustration,

suggest certain relations to the mind of the spectator,


scale,

from which measurements are intended to be made.

which

merely

and diagrams drawn to

DIAGRAMS.

648

Methods

which diagrams are used

in

measurement are

for purposes of

called

Graphical methods.

Diagrams of
of measurement

used

There

this

and

sufficiently

if

diagrams

for

accurate,

measurement,

if

may

be used for purposes

sufficiently

may be

clear,

purposes of demonstration.

for

parts

illustration,

some diagrams or schemes, however,

are

of no importance,

is

kind are

diagrams

the

in

which the form of the

provided their connections are properly shewn.


of

electrical

connections,

and those belonging

Of
to

that department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy,

and knottedness.

linkedness,

Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic.


Diagrams may

also

be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which

no symbols are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular

and mixed diagrams,


by the magnitudes of parts

which certain magnitudes are

points of the diagrams,

in

represented, not

of the

diagram, but by symbols,

such as numbers written on the diagram.

Thus in a map the height of places above the level of the sea is often
by marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding

indicated

places on the map.

There

through

number

another method in which a line called a contour line

is

all

of

map whose

the places in the


feet,

and the number

of

feet

height
is

above

the

sea

is

is

drawn

a certain

written at some point or

points

of this line.

By
places

the use of a series of contour

can

symbols.

be
Still

indicated
this

symbolical method
in

method

lines,

the height of a great number of

map by means

on a

is

of a small

number

not a purely graphical method,

of expressing the

third

of

written

but a partly

dimension of objects on

a diagram

two dimensions.

Diagrams

in Pairs.

In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the relations


involving more than two variables, we must use more than one

of magnitudes

diagram.

Thus

in

the arts of

construction

we

use plans and elevations and

DIAGRAMS.
through diiferent

sections

specify

to

planes,

G49
of objects having three

the

form

to

indicate

dimensions.

systems

such

In

marking the corresponding points

in

is

in

one

done by

generally

the different diagrams with the same

letter.

drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate


points by drawing a line from one to the other, taking care
of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for

diagrams

the

a point

that

This

corresponds to a point in another diagram.

diagram

If

we have

diagrams

of

corresponding
that this line

are

a real line in either diagram.

In the stereoscope the two

form

of bodies

diagrams,

three dimensions

hi

by the combined use

recognized,

is

of

which the

are projections of the

bodies

taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two diagrams

we

simultaneously, one with each eye,

The

method

we

which

in

identify the corresponding points intuitively.

simultaneously

two

contemplate

figures,

and

recognize

a correspondence between certain points in the one figure and certain

points

the

known

in

in

other,

and inverse

is

one of the most powerful and

Thus

science.

have led to many extensions of the

figures

methods hitherto

fertile

pure geometry the theories of

in

similar,

science.

It

is

reciprocal,

sometimes

spoken of as the method or principle of Duality.

Diagrams
The study of the motion
use

of

a material system

is

much

assisted

by the

diagrams representing the configuration, displacement, and

of

series

of

Kinematics.

in

acceleration of the parts of the system.

Diagram of
In

record

material

considering

we have a

Conjiguration.

system

of its position at

it

is

often convenient

any given instant

in the

to

suppose that

form of a diagram

of configuration.

The

position of

vector

line

or

The

position

any

from

of the

particle of the

the

particle

magnitude and direction of


VOL.

11.

origin,

or

system

is

with respect to the

this

defined

point of reference,
origin

by drawing a straight
to

the given

is

determined by the

particle.

vector.

82

DIAGRAMS.

650
If

point

parallel

of

we draw from

the diagram

ill

space

of

the

as

origin

to the vector which

vector

this

system) a

material

vector

determines the position of the


the

indicate

will

the origin (which need not be the same

the

for

the

of

position

particle

equal

and

the

end

particle,

diagram

the

in

of

configuration.

If this

done for

is

all

material system, and the

positions

of

have a system of points

shall

which corresponds to a
of any pair

positions

relative

the same as the relative

we

the particles,

the diagram of configuration, each of

of these

in

the

points will be

material particles which

the

of

particle

correspond

to them.

We

have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors

supposed to be drawn

are

one

the

for

system,

material

the

other

for

the

These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may now
diagram.
be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on
the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the system,

and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a given


This is called a diagram of configuration.

instant.

Diagram of Displacement.
Let us next consider two diagrams of configuration of the same system,
corresponding to two different instants.
We call the first the initial configuration and the second the final con-

and the passage from the one configuration to the other we call the
We do not at present consider the length of

figuration,

displacement of the system.

time during which the displacement was effected, nor the

through which

To study

this

B\

From

passed,

but

be

the points

in

the

initial

be the corresponding points in the


0,

intermediate

the

origin

of

the diagram

diagram of configuration, and

final

of

diagram of configuration.

draw a vector oa

displacement,

equal and parallel to AA', oh equal and parallel to BB', oc to

The

points,

a,

h,

c,

&c.,

displacement of b relative to
a,

b,

c,

In
that

&c., is therefore called

constructing

we know

stages

change of configuration.

change we construct a diagram of displacement.

A, B,

Let
A',

it

only the final result

the

will
a,

be such

and

so on.

that

the vector

CC, and
ab

so on.

indicates

The diagram containing the

the

points

the diagram of displacement.

diagram of displacement

we

the absolute displacements of the points

have
of

hitherto

the

assumed

system.

For

651

DIAGRAMS.

we

required

are

draw a

to

and

equal

line

of A,

do unless we know
In this diagram of displacement there
position.
a,

h,

This

an

origin,

c,

&c.,

is

necessary

o,

because

to

parallel

position

the atisolute final

AA', which we cannot

with respect to

therefore, besides

is

its

initial

the points

which represents a point absolutely fixed in space.


the two configurations do not exist at the same

and therefore to express their relative position we require to know a


point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume

time;

a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.

Assuming any point and calUng it a, draw ak parallel and equal


k draw kb parallel and equal
initial configuration, and from

in

the

in

the

configuration.

final

relative to

only w^e

such as A^B,,

observe
A.,B,

is

same by

will be the

must

It

that

in

to B^A,

to A.B^

easy to see that the position of the point h


this construction as

by the former construction,

second construction

this

which represent the relative position

we
of

use only vectors


points

both

of

which exist simultaneously, instead of vectors such as A^A,, B,B^, which express
the position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a former
instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the

two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.


It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
the first construction includes an origin o, which indicates that we have assumed
a knowledge of absolute displacements.
because

construction,

less

than

all

such

use

of displacements

Hence the diagram


nor

we

we can

ever

But no such point occurs

vectors

only as

uithout

an

origin

we can

in the second

actually

represents

know about the displacement

observe.

neither

of the

more

material

system.

Diagram of
If the

relative

the diagram of

between

the

velocities

displacement

initial

and the

of

Velocity.

the points of the system are

corresponding to an interval of
final

configuration

is

constant,

a unit

of

then
time

called a diagram of relative

velocity.

not constant, we suppose another system in


which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the
The diagram of disgiven instant and continue constant for a unit of time.
If

the

relative

velocities

are

DIAGRAMS.

652

placements for this Imaginary system

the required diagram of relative velocities

is

of the actual system at the given instant.


It

easy to see that the diagram gives the

is

relative to

any

Diagram of

By

initial

and

of changes of relative velocity from the

may

By

the

diagram

final configuration,

point

two diagrams of

displacements

of

we may form a diagram

initial

be called that of total accelerations in a

and

final velocities.

finite interval of time.

we deduced the diagram


we may deduce the diagram of rates of

the same process by which

that of displacements

one

any of them.

Acceleration.

we formed

the same process by which

from the two diagrams of


This diagram

of any

velocity

other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of

of velocities from
acceleration from

that of total acceleration.

We

mentioned

have

this

found to be

system

diagrams

of

elementary kinematics

in

when we have

to

deal

with

because

they

material

systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic theory

are

of

use

especially

The diagram of configuration then appears as a region of space


gases.
swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way in which we
can investigate it is by considering the number of such points in unit of
of

volume

in different parts of that region,

In

like

equal in

points

of points

whose

manner the diagram of

in

number but

and

calling this the density of the gas.

velocities

appears as a region containing

distributed in a different manner,

and the number

any given portion of the region expresses the number of molecules

velocities lie within given limits.

We

may speak

of this as the velocity-

density.

Path and Hodograph.

When

the number of bodies in

construct diagrams each

of which

the

system

is

not

so

great,

we

may

represents some property of the whole course

of the motion.

Thus
the

if

we

are

considering the

point on the diagram

of

motion of one particle relative to another,

configuration

which

particle will trace out a continuous line called the

On

the diagram

of velocity the

corresponds to

path of the

the

moving

particle.

point corresponding to the moving particle

will trace another continuous line called the

hodograph of the

particle.

653

DIAGRAMS.

The hodograph was Invented and used with great success by


Hamilton as a method of studying the motions of bodies.

Diagrams of
methods

Graphical

so

constant,

The most

relates

of these applications

useful

Two

structures.

The structure

diagrams

itself consists

of a

extremities.

In

together at their

made purposely

may

statical

to

because

questions,

we do not need

that

are

construct

to

stress.

number of separable
these

practice

we assume

of joints,

in

depend

structure

of the

stability

our calculations that

have

may

or

friction,

but

as

it

unsafe to

is

in

any degree upon

all

the joints are perfectly smooth,

the

stiffness

end of any link passes through the

force acting on the

and therefore that the

pieces or links jointed

joints

not pass exactly through the axis of the joint;

make the

the

of

that the force acting at the extremity of a piece

so

stiff,

plane

of

equilibrium

the

to

one called the diagram

used,

frame and the other called the diagram of

be

R.

diagrams corresponding to the successive states of the system.

series of

framed

is

W.

Stress.

applicable

peculiarly

are

the state of the system

Sir

axis of the joint.

The axes of the

of the

joints

are

structure

represented by points in the

diagram of the frame.

The

which

link

any shape, but


line joining

two

connects

the diagram

in

of

the actual structure

in

joints

the frame

it

may

be of

represented by a straight

is

the points representing the two joints.

no force acts on the link except the two forces acting through the
centres of the joints, these two forces must be equal and opposite, and their
If

direction
If

must coincide with the straight

the

acting

force

the other extremity, the stress on the link


called

a strut.

on the link

is

If

it

the centres of the joints.

line joining

on either extremity of the link

is

directed

called tension

is

called

is

pressure

in

the

and the link


of

direction

diagram of the frame, and

all

the
that

and the link

away from the other extremity, the


is

called a

straight

we have

line

to

is

a pressure or

which represents

do

is

stress

tie.

In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link


tension

directed towards

is

to

find

it

in

the

the magnitude

of this stress.

In

the

actual

structure,

gravity acts on

every part

of

the link, but in

654

DIAGllAMS.

we

the diagram

substitute

the actual weight of the different parts of the

for

two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of

link,

the link.

We

may now

treat the diagram of the frame as

weight, but loaded at each joint with

weights of
If

diagram

two

all

any
an

composed of links without

made up

a weight

of

portions

of

the

in

the

the links which meet in that joint.

we may

has more than two joints

link

imaginary

stiff

frame,

substitute

for

it

each of which has only

consisting of links,

joints.

of the frame

The diagram

by

of which are joined

pairs

is

now reduced

to

a system of points,

and each point

straight lines,

on by a weight or other force acting between

it

certain

general acted

in

is

and some point external

to

the system.

To complete the diagram we may represent these external


that
to

is

to

say, straight lines joining the points of the

the frame.

forces as

links,

frame to points external

Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the

point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.

But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the
of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with the real
frame and the links representing external forces, which join points in the one
frame to points in the other frame, make up together a complete self-strained
system in equilibrium, consisting of points connected by links acting by pressure

lines

or tension.

We

may

way reduce any

this

in

structure to

real

the case of a

system of points with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs
of these points, and keeping

The

direction

of

them

the line joining the points, so that

We

might do

in equilibrium.

each of these forces

this

by

calculation,

pressure or the tension which acts in

We

should

are represented

way

this

in

graphically

as

is

we have

indicated

sufficiently

only to determine

its

by that

of

magnitude.

and then write down on each link the

it.

obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses

regards direction and position,

but symbolically

as regards magnitude.

But we know that a force


manner by a straight line in the
units
is

of length

as

there

may

be

direction

are units of force

marked with an arrow head

to

shew

in

represented
of
in

the

the

in

force

force.

a purely graphical
containing as

The end

which direction the

many

of this line

force acts.


655

DIAGRAMS.
According
the diagram of

drawn

is

in

its

in

position

proper

Such a diagram might be useful

frame.

of the

configuration

force

the magnitude of

of

a record of the result of calculation

as
it

method each

this

to

but

the forces,

would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the calculation.


But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of

We

acting at a point.

forces

We

equilibrium.

might

draw

in

series

of

a set

If these lines form a closed

portional to these forces.

in this

and

pro-

a series of polygons of forces, one for

way form

But in so doing

each joint of the frame.

lines parallel

polygon the forces are in

give up the principle of drawing

we

from the point of application of the

force, for all


line representing
the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do.
also represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of both

a force

the

We

the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts.


But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any

two

which

polygons

may form

magnitude,

though

represent

diagram

in

not

in

same

the

which

position,

coincide

stress

every stress

by a

with each other, we

represented in direction and

is

single

line

which

is

the

the

polygons which represent the joints at

boundary of the two

common

extremities

of the corresponding piece of the frame.

We

have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is


made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which every
force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight line,
of

but the equilibrium

we have
The

the forces at any joint

is

manifest by inspection,

only to examine whether the corresponding polygon


relations

are as follows

is

for

closed or not.

between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of

stress

the frame corresponds a straight line in the diagram of


stress which represents in magnitude and direction the stress acting in that link.
To every joint in the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram,

To every

and the

forces

link

in

acting at that joint are represented

The

taken in a certain cyclical order.


adjacent polygons
in

is

such that their

cyclical

common

side

by the

sides of the polygon

order of the
is

sides

of the

two

traced in opposite directions

going round the two polygons.

The
of the

force

and due

which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction


acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the polygon,

direction

in

to that link of the frame

which corresponds

to the side.

656

DIAGRAMS.
This determines whether the stress of the
If

we know whether

Unk is a pressure or a tension.


Hnk is a pressure or a tension,

the stress of any one

this determines the cjchcal order of the sides

of the two polygons corresponding


the ends of the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons,
and the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
to

Definition of Reciprocal Diagrams.

When

every point of concourse of the lines in the

to

corresponds a closed polygon in

the skeleton

of the frame,

diagram of stress
the two diagrams

are said to be reciprocal.

The
than

extensions

first

that

of

the

of

the method of

funicular

polygon

were

diagrams

of

forces

given by Rankine

to
in

other cases
his

Applied

Mechanics (1857).

The method was independently applied to a large number


of cases by Mr W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman
in the office
of the
well-known contractor Mr J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk
Maxwell in
his lectures in King's College, London.
In the Phil. Mag. for 1864 the latter
pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
in a paper on
"Reciprocal Figures, Frames, and Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R. S.

Edinburgh,

Vol. XXVI. (1870), he

shewed the

relation

of the

method

to Airy's

function of

and to other mathematical methods.


Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications
of the method

stress

to practice (Trans. R. S. Edin., Vol. xxv.).

Cremona (Le figure reciproche


the construction

of

reciprocal

nella statica grafica, Milan,

figures

1872) has deduced


from the theory of the two components

of a wrench as developed by Mobius.

Culmann, in his Graphische Statik, makes great use of diagrams of


forces,
some of which, however, are not reciprocal.
M. Maurice Levy in his Statique Graphique (Paris, 1874) has treated
the

whole subject in an elementary but copious manner.


Mr R. H. Bow, C.E., F.R.S.E., in his work on The Economics of Construction
in relation

to

Framed

Structures,

1873, has materially simplified the process of

drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on


by a system
of equihbrating external forces.

Instead

of

lettering the

joints

Imks of the frame, as was the

of

writer's

the frame,

as

is

usually

done,

or

custom, he places a letter in each

the
of

DIAGRAMS.
the

polygonal areas

657

by the links of the frame, and

inclosed

also

each of

in

the divisions of surrounding space as separated by the lines of action

of the

external forces.

When

one

link

intersection of the

of

each
as

stress,

the

of

the

of

links

frame

the

intersecting

opposite

crosses

treated as

is

the

of

it

another,

were a

represented

are

links

sides

if

parallelogram

the

point

real joint,

twice

in

of

and the
the

apparent
stresses

diagram of

which corresponds to the

point of intersection.

Fio.

1.

Diagram of Configuration.

Fio. 2.

This method
(fig.

and the

1),

is

Diagram

of Stress.

followed in the lettering of the

diagram

of

stress

(fig.

2)

of

diagram of configuration

the linkwork

which Professor

Sylvester has called a quadruplane.

In

fig.

the real joints are distinguished from the places where one link

appears to cross another by the

The

four links

RSTV

little

form a

"

circles

0, P,

Q,

R, S, T,

V.

contraparallelogram " in which

RS=TV

and

RV=ST.
The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A fourth triangle
{TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane.
The four
VOL.

II.

83

658

DIAGRAMS.

points

P, N,

O,

equal to

n-SOR.

The

link work

POQ

form a parallelogram whose angle

The product

may

of the distances

be fixed at

0.

any

If

trace the inverse figure, but turned round

OF

and

figure

is

constant

is

OQ

is

traced

and

constant.

by P, Q

through the constant angle

will

POQ.

In the diagram forces

The

point.

make equal

Pj), Qq are balanced by the force Oo at the fixed


and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and

Pp

forces

angles with those lines.

Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the diagram
of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a point of concourse
of lines in the diagram of stress.

The stress in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is
represented in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding
to those areas.

When

a link

each part

stress

is

the

Thus

in

the

parallel lines

divided

is

in

stress

into

two

more parts by

or

same throughout the link these

i^F
HI, FG, DE, and AB.
the

figure

lines

crossing

it,

the

represented by a different line for each part, but as the

is

stress

in

is

lines

are

aU equal and

parallel.

represented by the four equal

and

two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters corto them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a straight

If

responding
line.

If,

however, a straight line were drawn between them,

and magnitude the resultant of all the stresses


are cut by any line, straight or curved, joining the two areas.
in

direction

For instance the areas


the

points

and

path from the area


areas,

and

each

in

fig.

and

in

fig.

in

fig.

would represent

in the links

which

have no common boundary, and

by a straight

are not joined

to the area

passage

it

line.

But every

passes through a series of other

from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to

a line drawn in the diagram of stress.


in

fig.

to C,

Hence the whole path from i^ to C


fig. 2 and extending
from
the stresses in the links cut by the path is

corresponds to a path formed of lines in

and the resultant of

represented by

FC

in

fig.

all

2.

Automatic Description of Diagrams.


There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates of
a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of two
related quantities.

DIAGRAMS.
If a

known

paper

of

sheet

while a

velocity,

is

made

to

tracing point

659

move, say horizontally, with a constant


is

made

to

move

in

a vertical straight

the height varying as the value of any given physical quantity, the point
a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity
will trace out
line,

at

any given time may be determined.


This principle

kinds, from

those

is

applied to the automatic registration of phenomena of

of meteorology

and

magnetism

terrestrial

to

the velocity

all

of

cannon-shot, the vibrations of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary

and involuntary, and the currents

in electric telegraphs.

Indicator-Diagram.
In Watt's indicator for steam-engines
constant velocity,

the engine,

but

its

displacement

is

the

paper

proportional

while that of the tracing point

is

does
to

not

that

proportional

to

move with a

of the

piston of

the pressure of

Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the curve traced on the


the steam.
diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the steam in the cylinder.
The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam
at each stage of the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done by the
steam in each stroke by the area inclosed by the curve traced on the diagraoL
The indicator-diagram was invented by James Watt as a method of estimating

the work done by an engine.


the theory of
his

heat,

and

this

It

was afterwards used by Clapeyron to illustrate


it was greatly developed by Rankine in

use of

work on the steam-engine.

The use

of diagrams in thermodynamics has been very completely illustrated

Gibbs {Connecticut Acad. Sci., Vol. iii.), but though his


J. Willard
light
much
on the general theory of diagrams as a method of
throw
methods
study, they belong rather to thermodynamics than to the present subject.

by Prof.

832

[From Nature,

Taifs " Thermodynamics."

XCI.

This book, as we are told in the


about that time, inserted a good

to

in

has grown out of two articles

preface,

1864 by Prof. Tait to the North British Revieiv.

contributed in

discussed

Vol. xvii.]

language,

scientific

many

articles in

which

and in which, instead of the

conciHate the unscientific reader by

This journal,

scientific subjects

usual

were

attempts

of relapses into irrelevant and

a series

incoherent writing, his attention was maintained by awakening a genuine interest


in the subject.

The attempt was

so

successful

far

that the publishers of the Review were

urged by men of science, especially engineers, to reprint these essays of Prof.


Tait,

but the Revieiv itself soon afterwards became extinct.


Prof Tait added to the two essays a mathematical sketch of the funda-

mental principles of thermodynamics, and in this form the book was published

Whether
causes,

it

In the
are

with the
reject

logy,

In

account

of

to

additions and improve-

essentially the same.

these

compare

external
this

popular

treatise,

circumstances,

book

whatever shreds

exhibited in an exceedingly

hope

provided

this

is

either

with

the

science

from

internal

so-called

popular

or

with those of a more technical kind.

way,
of the

the

that

any stronger

phrases
single

on

impossible

is

treatises or

appear,

many

In the present edition, though there are

in 1868.

ments, the form of the book

it

is

insensibly

are

allowed

to

become saturated with

scientific phraseo-

diluted with a sufficient quantity of more familiar language.

by simple
science

thought about

mental faculties

may

food,

of

and attenuated form, apparently


of the reader, though they would

difftise

it.

reading,

the

student

without having been put

The

loss implied in

may become
to

possessed

of

the

the trouble of thinking a

such an acquisition can be estimated

"thermodynamics."

tait's

who have been compelled

only by those

at length begin to learn

The

technical

of the

there

Prof

Tait

adopted

has not

men

necessary to employ the

while

of the general equations to the end

with indices and

of symbols

full

is

one ever reads them except

barm, for no

less

not a paragiaph of plain English on which the eye

is

strong meat for grown


it

do

From the establishment

every page

book,

a science that they might

to unlearn

it.

treatises

under compulsion.

GGl

for

younger

the

of

he

has

and has placed

form,

end as a bonne houche, so that the beginner may take

it

of his

science

part

call

the

of

is

it

book

devoted

is

up the

enliven the dryness

human

strong

idiosyncrasies,

the
in

it

nature

ideas, not

much

so

as

libraries,

of the

at

the

once,

and

result

at

all

or

history

the

who

author,

scientific

men

of the

thermo-

of

documents they

themselves, whether he
or

science,

us

bids

a garnish

of

of

beware

anecdotes

has enough to do to restrain the

of science, for science

of

the

to

recommends them to our reverence as masters in


of them as tainted with error.
There is no need
to

school

evident that with Prof. Tait the names of the founders

behind them in our

left

his

at his leisure.

considerable

dynamics, and here

have

up

down the mathematical

boiled

carefully

elements into the most concentrated

ruminate upon

serves

without thinking

book,

language either of the nursery or of the

students

that

rest.

He

these methods.

of

either

the beginning

at

so

suffixes,

may

is

at no

pains to

conceal

his

own

smooth down the obtrusive antinomies of a vigorous mind

to

into the featureless consistency of a conventional philosopher.

Thus,

the very

in

page

first

methods of constructing physical


as

what may have

to

does not indeed give


his

own

"it

matter,

us

force,

or

and

Aristotle's

ten categories,

and

position,

motion,

before

we have

finished

the

belong to any of these four categories, but to a


This sort of writing,
ventional

man

of

startle his thinking

its

must be

assured
fifth,

which he

of

that

tells

referred,"

heat

does

of
us,

and
not

called energj^

however unlike what we might expect from the con-

science,

is

the very thing

to

rouse

the placid reader,

and

powers into action.

Prof Tait next handles the

up

but he lays down four

conception

page we are

decisions

In the second page he

one

to

metaphysical

all

any d priori

especially

ought to have been.

evident that every distinct physical

is

then

been

he denounces

the book,

of

science,

caloric

weak points and then dismissing

theory, but
it

instead of merely

with contempt,

he

puts

shewinofresh

life

662

"thermodynamics.

tait's

by giving (in the new edition) a characteristic extract from Dr Black's


and proceeds to help the calorists out of some of their difficulties, by
generously making over to them some excellent hints of his own.
The history of thermodynamics has an especial interest as the development
into

it

lectures,

of a science,

within a short

time and by a small number of

of a vague anticipation

condition

men, from the


nature to that of a science with secure

of

foundations, clear definitions, and distinct boundaries.

The

the

part of

earlier

We

of discussion.

shall

history has already provoked a sufficient

therefore

amount

our remarks to the methods employed


for the advancement of the science by the three men who
brought the theory
to maturity.

Of the
self

three founders of theoretical thermodynamics,

the

to

extent

greatest

imagination, however, though

he imagined about
so
see

to

on

in

his

how it would work.


However intricate,
exist

to

explain

scientific

natural

use

amply luxuriant, was

of

Whatever
and atmospheres, was

strictly scientific.

there was

bodies,

Eankine availed himimagination.


His

the

practical

machinery might

the

therefore,

of

their nuclei

mind's eye, that he, as

minute parts

the

in

the

of

molecular vortices, with

imaged

clearly

confine

engineer,

be which

no

danger

phenomena by any mode of action

could

he imagined
of

of this

his

going

machinery

which was not consistent with the general laws of mechanism. Hence, though
the construction and distribution of his vortices may seem to us as complicated
and arbitrary as the Cartesian system, his final deductions are simple, necessary,

and consistent with

facts.

Certain phenomena were to be explained.

the

mechanism

engineer,

competent

he
to

by which they

succeeded

do

the

in

might

specifying

work,

and

also

be

Rankine

produced.

particular
in

set himself to

Being

an

arrangement

predicting

other

imagine

accomplished
of

mechanism

properties

of

the

mechanism which were afterwards found to be consistent with observed facts.


As long as the training of the naturalist enables him to trace the action
only of particular material systems without giving him the power of dealing
with the general properties of all such systems, he must proceed by the method
so often described in histories of science
he must imagine model after model
of hypothetical apparatus till he finds one which will do the required
work.
If this apparatus should afterwards be found capable of accounting for
many

of the

known phenomena, and not demonstrably

inconsistent with

any of them.


TAIT's

he

strongly tempted

Is

"

that

conclude

to

663

THERMODYNAMICS."
his

hypothesis

is

at

fa<;t,

least

Thus Rankine*,
until an equally good rival
founded on the
had
been
gases
of
properties
the
of
explanation
long after an
theory of the collisions of molecules, published what he supposed to be a
hypothesis

phenomena

proof that the


of continuous

The

of heat were invariably

career

due to steady closed streams

was marked by the gradual development

of Eankine

power of bringing the most

of a singular

invented.

matter.

fluid

scientific

been

has

difficult investigations

with chaos, as he swims, or sinks, or wades,


"

within the range

In his earlier papers, indeed, he appears as

of elementary methods.

And

or creeps, or

battling

if

flies,

through the palpable obscure finds out

His uncouth way

;"

but he soon begins to pave a broad and beaten way over the dark abyss, and
science,
his latest writings shew such a power of bridging over the difficulties of
diffusion
the
to
loss
great
a
as
have
been
almost
must
death
premature
his
that
of science as

was to

it

its

advancement.

The chapter on thermodynamics

in

his

published treatise on the subject, and

first

book on the steam-engine was the


is

the only

expres?'

of his \aews

addressed directly to students.

of

In this book he has disencumbered himself to a great extent of the hypothesis


molecular vortices, and builds principally on observed facts, though he, in

common with

Clausius,

makes

several

assumptions,

some

expressed

axioms,

as

self-evident.
others implied in definitions, which seem to us anything but
an example of Rankine's best style we may take the following definition

As

*'

number
are

PERFECT GAS
of

portions

enclosed,

is

separately at the

the

is

of

sum

a substance in such a condition that the total pressure exerted by any


at a given temperature, against the sides of a vessel in which they
of the pressures which each portion would exert if enclosed in the vessel

it,

same temperature."

Here we can form a distinct conception of every clause of the definition,


when we come to Rankine's Second Law of Thermodynamics we find
its actual
that though, as to literaiy form, it seems cast in the same mould,
meaning is inscrutable,
but

"On the Second Law of Thermodynamics," Phil. Mag. Oct. 1865, 12, p. 244; but in his
xxv. p. 557 [18G9], he
paper on the Thermal Energy of Molecular Vortices, Trans. R. S. Edin.
of molecules has been proved to
admits that the explanation of gaseous pressure by the impacts

be possible.


664

tait's

"thermodynamics."

' The Second Law


of Thermodynamics. 1{ the total actual heat of a homogeneous and uniformlyhot substance be conceived to be divided into any number of equal parts, the effects
of those
parts in causing work to be performed are equal."

We
to

the

find

difficult

it

actual

total

heat

enough, even in 1878, to attach any distinct meaning


of a body, and still more to conceive this heat

divided into equal parts, and to study the action of each of these parts;
but
as if our powers of deglutition were not yet sufficiently strained, Eankine
follows
this up with another statement of the same law, in which
our intuitive belief that

we have

"If the absolute temperature of any uniformly hot substance be divided into any
equal parts, the effects of those parts in causing work to be performed are equal."

to assert

number

The student who thinks that he can form any idea of the meaning of
sentence

quite

is

Mr Tennyson

capable

of

says of the great

"Whose

explaining

Duke

on

thermodynamical

principles

of

this

what

eighty winters freeze with one rebuke

All great self-seekers trampling on the right."

Clausius

Prof.
in

hot bodies.

variety

does not ask us to believe quite so

In his

first

memoir, indeed, he

much about

the heat

boldly dismisses one supposed

heat from the science.

of

Latent heat, he tells us, "is not only, as


from our perceptions, but has actually no existence;"
"it has been converted into work."

its

name

imports, hidden

But though Clausius thus gets


a body,

is

expended

quantity to remain in the

certain

rid

of

all

doing work, either

in

body as

the

heat which, after entering

exterior
heat,

or

and

interior,

he

remnant

this

allows
of

what

should have been utterly destroyed lives on in a sort of smouldering existence,


breaking out now and then with just enough vigour to mar the scientific coherence
of what might have been a well compacted system of thermodynamics.
Prof. Tait tells us

The

"

Irvine

of all this sort of speculation, which is as old as the time of Crawford and
which was countenanced to a certain extent even by Rankine is the assumption that

must contain a
condition

of the

comes
that

source

and

bodies

out,

is

certain

energy

of

quantity of

in

bodies

actual,

generally.

or

thermometric, heat.

We know how

and we know whether at entrance or exit

it

is

much

We

are

goes

in,

quite

and

ignorant

how much

in the form of heat or of work.

But

all."

If

gation

we

define

of

the

thermodynamics, as I think we

dynamical

and

thermal

properties

may now
of

do,

bodies,

as

the investi-

deduced entirely

from what are

called

665

" THERMODYNAMICS."

TAIT's

the First and Second laws of Thermodynamics, without

speculations as
any hypotheses as to the molecular constitution of bodies, all
are quite out
of
heat
the form
to how much of the energy in a body is in
of place.
Prof. Tait, however, does

sixth

not seem to have noticed that Prof Clausius, in


a
tells us what he means by the heat in

memoir*,

a footnote to his
body. In the middle of a sentence
the heat actually present in a

the vis viva of

its

we

unit

read

weight of the substance in question in other words,

molecular motions"

Thus the doctrine that heat

consists

of the vis viva of molecular motions,

does not include the potential energy of molecular configuration


and that
doctrine, if true, in molecular science is introduced in a
important
most
the
abbreviation " d.h."
footnote under cover of the unpretending German
of the kinetic theory of
founder
Prof Clausius is himself the principal
collections of molecules
of
energy
the
of
The theory of the exchanges
gases.
extent than had
greater
much
a
to
Boltzmann
was afterwards developed by
whether we
Clausius, and it appears from his investigations that
it

been done by

fixed centres or not,


suppose the molecules to be acted on by forces towards
energy, or in other words the
the condition of equilibrium of exchange of
that the average kinetic
of equality of temperature of two bodies, is

condition

in both bodies.
energy of translation of a single molecule is the same
as the average kinetic
body
of
a
temperature
We may therefore define the
a constant which
into
multiplied
molecules
its
of
one
energy of translation of
of the body as
heat
total
the
define
also
we
If
bodies.
aU
is the same for
its molecules, then the total heat
of
energy
kinetic
whole
the
of
the sum
number of molecules,
be equal to the temperature multiplied into the

must

by the

and

ratio

of

the whole kinetic energy to the energy of

translation,

and divided by the above constant.


to say about what
The kinetic theory of gases has therefore a great deal
if we suppose that
and
body,
of
a
heat
actual
the
call
Rankine and Clausius
constant in number, then we
molecules never coalesce or spUt up, but remain

may

also

heat

assert,

(as defined

* Hirst's

all

experiments

by Clausius)

translation, p.

230,

is

notwithstanding,

constant for

German

edition,

that

the

the same substance

1864,

p.

258,

real

capacity for

in all conditions.

"wirklich vorhandene Warme,

die lebendige Kraft seiner Molecularbewegungen."

VOL. IL

^^

d.h.

G66

" THERMODYNAMICS."

TAIt's

Eankine, indeed, probably biassed by the results of experiments, allowed that


of a substance might be different in different states of

the real specific heat

but

aggregation,

and that

has

Clausius

clearly

we admit any such

if

shewn

changes,

that

this

we had

admission

better give

up

is

illogical,

real

specific

heat altogether.

Statements

where

it

distinguish

of

the

kind

this

essential

is

have their legitimate place in molecular science,


dynamical condition of the system, and to

specify the

to

energy of the molecules from the potential energy of


but they have no place in thermodynamics proper, in which

kinetic

their configuration;

we deal only with

sensible masses and their sensible motions.


Both Rankine and Clausius have pointed out the importance of a certain
function, the increase or diminution of which indicates whether heat is entering
or leaving the body.
Rankine calls it the thermodynamic function, and Clausius

the

entropy.

for

this

and

entropy,

whole

bodies,

has

made

that

there

when

is

from which

it

besides

inventing

most valuable

the

the

most convenient name

developments

of the idea of
has established the most important theorem in the
heat passes from one body to another at a lower

particular

in

science,

temperature,

however,

Clausius,

function,

always an increase of the sum of the entropy of the two


follows that the entropy of the universe must always

be increasing.

He

has

and
to

its

also

of the

function

shewn

that

the

if

energy of

volume and the entropy, then

its

body

is

expressed

as

pressure (with sign reversed)

temperature are the differential coefficients of the energy with respect


the entropy respectively, thus indicating the symmetrical

the volume and


of the

relations

principal quantities in thermodynamics.


having begun by breaking up the energy of the body into
thermal and ergonal content, has gone on to break up its entropy into

But

its

five

Clausius,

the transformational value of

its thermal content and the disgregation.


Thus both the energy and the entropy, two quantities capable of direct
measurement, are broken up into four quantities, all of them quite beyond
the reach of experiment, and all this is owing to the actual heat which

Clausius, after getting rid of the latent heat, suffered to remain in the body.
Sir

William Thomson, the

does not even

consecrate

last

but not the least of the three great founders,


to denote the entropy, but he was the

symbol

first

to clearly define the intrinsic energy of a body,

the

ideas

and

the

definitions

of

the

available

and to him alone are due

energy and the dissipation of

" THERMODYNAMICS."

TAIT'S

He

energy.

has always been most

careful

667

point out

to

exact

the

extent

of

the assumptions and experimental observations on which each of his statements


is

and he avoids the introduction of quantities which

based,

of experimental measurement.

It

is

not

are

capable

be regretted that his

greatly to

therefore

memoirs on the dynamical theory of heat have not been collected and reprinted
in an accessible form, and completed by a formal treatise, in which his method
building up

of

the

science

should

exhibited

be

the

in

of

light

his

present

knowledge.

The touchstone of a

treatise

on thermodynamics

what

is

called the second

is

law.

Rankine, as we have seen, founds

but which

be true,

it

on statements which may or may not

cannot be considered as established

the

in

present

state

of science.

The second law


to found

is

introduced by Clausius and Thomson as an axiom on which

Camot's theorem that the

efficiency of a reversible engine is at least as

great as that of any other engine working between the same limits of temperature.
If an

engine of greater efficiency exists, then, by coupling this engine with


it is possible to restore to the hot body as much heat
and at the same time to do a certain amount of work.

Camot's engine reversed,


as

taken from

is

If with

it,

Carnot we suppose heat to be a substance, then this work would

be performed in direct violation of the


vation of energy.

method of

this

But

if

reductio

we

first

law

the

principle

ad ahsurdum,

for

the work

may

of the

conser-

we cannot apply

regard heat as a form of energy,

be derived from the

heat taken from the colder body.


Clausius
in

supposes

driving the second.

but heat

is

all

the work gained by the

There

is

then no

loss

or

first

engine ta be expended

heat on the whole,

gain of

taken from the cold body, and an equal quantity communicated to

the hot body, and this process might be carried on to an indefinite extent.

In order to assert the impossibility of such a process


having

sufficient

verisimilitude

to

be

received

memoir, simply says that this process

first

as

an

" contradicts

in

axiom,

a form of words
Clausius,

his

in

the general deportment

heat, which everywhere exhibits the tendency to equalize differences


temperature, and therefore to pass firom the warmer to the colder body *."

of

*
zeigt,

Und

das widerspricht denx sonstigen

Verhalten der "Warme, indem

vorkommende Temperaturdifferenzen auszugleichen und

kalteren

also

aiis

sie

iibemll

das

of

Bestreben

den warmeren Korpem

iiberzugehen.

842

in die


668
In

hypothetical

the

process,

communication

every

assert,

THERMODYNAMICS."

obvious and strict sense no axiom

its

the

in

When

the heat

which

is

time

at that

of

heat

was intended to

it

a warmer

to

colder

body.

flows into the working substance

The working substance afterwards becomes


it, but by change of volume,
and when

colder.

still

it

which

of

from

is

taken from the cold body

is

Even

can be more irrefragable.

impossibility

not by communication of heat to

hot,
it

"

TAIT's

communicates heat to the hot body


It

transferred from

it

itself still

is

hotter.

hardly correct to assert that heat has been transmitted or

therefore

is

the colder to the hotter body.

There

is

undoubtedly a transfer

but in what form this energy existed during

of energy,

middle passage

its

is

a question for molecular science, not for pure thermodynamics.

In a note added in

"that heat cannot of


in

the

"of

new

itself"

With

1864 Clausius states the principle

itself pass

of his

edition

in a modified form,

from a colder to a warmer body"* and


of Heat (1876)

TJieory

he substitutes

for the

finally,

words

the expression "without compensation f."


respect

to

the

these emendations

of

first

we must remember that

the words "of itself" are not intended to exclude the intervention of any kind

and

of self-acting machinery,
in

it

easy,

is

machine so as to take heat from


fi-iction

be

by means of an

heat from a body at 200" C, and gives

it

water at

out at
0",

and

break so as to generate heat in a body at

necessary to exclude

so

500".

It

the

a freezing

drive

freeze*

except the hot body,

bodies

all

engine which takes

100 to

and

it,

also

would therefore
and

body,

cold

the working substance, in order to exclude exceptions to the principle.

By

the introduction of the second expression,

bined with a

full

interpretation

becomes complete and exact

knowledge

previous

words of entropy, and

thermodynamics
as

the

of

it

is

of this

phrase,

" without compensation," com-

the statement of the principle

but in order to understand


theory
to

be

of

that

feared

for several generations

it

we must have a

transformation-equivalents,

before

we

shall

we can expect

or

have to

other

in

be

taught

beginners to receive

axiomatic the theory of entropy.

Thomson, in his "Third Paper on the Dynamical Theory of Heat"


R. S. Edin. xx.
* Dass

die

p.

265, read

Warme

nicht

March

von

17, 1851),

selbst

aus

(Trails.

has stated the axiom as follows

einem kalteren

in

einem warmeren

Korper

iiber-

gehen kann.
t

Ein Warmeubergang aus einem kalteren

pensation

Statt finden.

in

einem warmeren KiJrper kann nicht ohne Com-

"

TAIT's
" It

by means of inauiraate material agency,

impossible,

is

THERMODYNAMICS."

portion of matter by cooling

it

609

to derive mechunical effect

from any

below the temperature of the coldest of surrounding objects."

Without some further restriction this axiom cannot be considered as true,


by allowing air to expand we may derive mechanical effect from it by
cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of surrounding objects.
If we make it a condition that the material agency is to be left in the
for

same

eflfect

simple

re-assertion

heat engines to
It

was

at

and

first,

also

be

rendered

of Carnot's

strictly

principle,

axiomatic

as

The

it

is

extended from

agency.

first

its

law^

is

that

as

truth

the

of

first

law,

for

we have

reason

not of the same order as that of the

is

an extension to the

theory of heat of

"as per

consist of matter

The second law

definition," acted

kind

that

to

relates

call

of

energy which we

between

difference

of

those

irregular

and

molecules,

their

in

communication of

w^hereas

molecular

energy which

are

so

numerous, so

when the motions and displacements

of energy

is

called

is

only

that

the

of molecules

moving

small
all

individually,

and so

our methods of obser-

are those of visible bodies

the communication

altogether,

work.

Hence we have

only to

suppose

our

senses

sharpened to such a degree

could trace the motions of molecules as easily as


bodies,

theory the

of energy

concerned in the communication of heat

distribution, that they quite escape

of great numbers

of large

of

of communication

two kinds

consisting

we

of

bodies

real

on by forces having potentials.

According to the

work.

call

these

motions and displacements which are

that

law.

principle

if

to

believe

the transfer of heat as distinguished from another kind of communication

we

to

first

the

conservation of energy, which can be proved mathematically true

vation

back

but this brings us

true,

except that

other kinds of inanimate material

all

that though true,

are

that the

probably impossible to reduce the second law of thermodynamics

is

a form

it

not to be derived from the pressure of the hot or of the

is

the axiom will

body,

cold
to

end of the process as

at the

state

mechanical

and the

distinction

we now

trace those

between work and heat would vanish,

for

the communication of heat would be seen to be a communication of energy of


the same kind as that

which we

The second law must

either

call

work.

be founded on our actual experience in dealing

with real bodies of sensible magnitude, or else deduced from the molecular theory
of these
millions

bodies,

of

on the hypothesis that the behaviour of bodies

molecules

may

be

deduced from the

theory of

consisting

of

the encounters of

TAIT S " THERMODYNAMICS.

670

by supposing the

molecules,

of

pairs

frequency of

relative

kinds of

different

encounters to be distributed according to the laws of probability.

The truth
truth,

for

on the

therefore a statistical, not a mathematical,

is

fact

that

how

William Thomson* has shewn

Sir

of a

probable distribution
a vessel,

deal

with

of

consist

finite

number

the probability of the

to calculate

amount

occurrence within a given time of a given

in

we

the bodies

and that we never can get hold of single molecules.

of molecules,

millions

second law

of the

depends

it

of two

molecules

of

from the most

of deviation

and has given a numerical example of

different

particular

case

kinds
the

of

of gases.

diffusion

The same jnethod might be extended to the diffusion of heat by conduction,


and the diffusion of motion by internal friction, which are also processes by
which energy is dissipated in consequence of the motions and encounters of
the molecules of the system.

and encounters

The tendency of these motions


definite

state,

in

which there

is

is

in

general

towards

an equilibrium of exchanges of the molecules

and their momenta and energies between the different parts of the system.
If we restrict our attention to any one molecule of the system, we shall
find

its

If
to

motion changing at every encounter in a most irregular manner.

we go on

consider a finite

to

which they belong contains an

number

of molecules,

even

if

the system

number, the average properties of this

infinite

group, though subject to smaller variations than those of a single molecule, are

now and then

every

still

deviating very considerably from the theoretical

mean

of the whole system, because the molecules which form the group do not submit
their

procedure as individuals

the average or

mean

to

the

laws

which

prescribe

the

behaviour

of

molecule.

Hence the second law of thermodynamics is continually being violated, and


to a considerable extent, in any sufficiently small group of molecules
belonging to a real body. As the number of molecules in the group is increased,
the deviations from the mean of the whole become smaller and less frequent;
that

and when the number

is

increased

till

the group

includes

a sensible portion

of the body, the probability of a measurable variation from the


in

finite

practically
*

Vol.

"On
VIII.

p.

number

of

years

becomes

so

small

that

it

mean

may be

occurring

regarded

as

an impossibility.
the Kinetic Theory of the Dissipation of Energy," Proc. U.S. Edin., February 16, 1874,
323, also in Nature, Vol.

ix.

p.

441.

"thermodynamics."

tait's

belongs of

This calculation

thermodynamics,

but

it

short of certainty by less

falls

to

theory and

molecular

shews that we have reason

second law to be of the

the

course

671

for

not

believing

nature of a strong probability,

than any assignable quantity,

to

pure

the truth of

though

which,

it

not an absolute

is

certainty.

Several

attempts have been made to deduce the

second law from purely

dynamical principles, such as Hamilton's principle, and without the introduction


of any element

of probability.

no deduction of this kind,

If

we

right

are

however apparently

in

what has been

satisfactory,

said

above,

can be a sufficient

law.
Indeed some of them have already indicated
by leading to determinations of physical quantities which

explanation of the second


their

unsoundness

have no existence, such as the periodic time of the alternations of the volume
of particular
*
p.

Szily,

gases'"'.

Phil.

585, May, 1872;

Mag.,
J. J.

October,

1876

Clausius,

Muller, Pogg. Ann. CLii.

Pogg.
p.

105.

Ann,

cxlh.

p.

433

Pogg.

Ann.

cxlvi.

[From the Proceedings of

On

XCII.

London Mathematical

the

Society, Vol. ix.]

of a long narrow Cylinder, and of a Disk of

the Electrical Capacity

sensible Thickness.

The
breadth

distribution

of electricity

We

a uniform one.

is

equilibrium

in

may

on

straight

expect, therefore, that the

line

without

distribution on

a cylinder will approximate to uniformity as the radius of the cylinder diminishes.

Let

2l

be the length of the cylinder, and h

its radius.

let

Let X be measured along the axis from the middle point of the
y be the distance of any point from the axis.

is,

let

and

Let X be the linear density on the curved surface of the cylinder; that
\dx be the charge on the annular element dx.

Let a be the surface-density on the

flat

ends.

Then, at a point on the axis for which ^=x, the potential

the

axis,

first

integral

being extended over the

over the positive and negative


If the
for all

is

in

on

by Art.
the

equilibrium

in

the

and therefore

it

is

constant

for

cylinder.

If

curved surface, and the other two

cyHnder,
for all

144 of Electricity and Magnetism,

axis,

we suppose X and

o-

is

ends respectively.

points within the cylinder,

Also,

points

electricity

flat

(//)

constant,

all

points

must

be

constant

points on the axis.


if

within

i/

is

the

constant for
surface

of

all

the


NARROW CYLINDER,

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY OF A LONG

where /i and /, are the distances of the point


and negative edges of the curved surface.

At the middle

either end of the axis,

and f^=f, = JFTb\

^^f^

= ^

-j-^

= h,

f^

~ 7) + 27ro- =

The smallest

is

therefore

is

is

and the capacity must

lie

^''

When

{2l

limits

surface.

+ h).

= 27r6cr ( 2 log

y-

-r

is

approximately

= 27r6o-(^log-^ +-

between
2l

+b

2log^ +

and

2l

+b

-r
'^^^^

log^+^

between which Cavendish shews that the capacity


is very narrow, the upper limit is nearly double

the cylinder

that

the lower, so

= X,

that at the curv^ed edge, and

lie.

I,

by hypothesis.

E=2Trba-

!/;))

V'(.)

These are the

nearly,

end must be equal to that on the curved

potential

potential

= 2l,

just less than

is

2Trhcr

The whole charge

f^

= X log Y + 27ra-6.

Hence
or the density on the

must

l.

when ^

Just within the cylinder,

The greatest

on the axis from the positive

of the axis,

i=0,

At

($)

673

&C.

we cannot

obtain

in

this

way any approximation

to

the

true value.

To obtain an approximation, we may make use


in

which we neglect the

a hollow tube
vol* IL

effect

of the

flat

ends,

of

the following method,

and consider the cylinder

85

as

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY OF A LONG

G74

Let

NARROW CYLINDER,

be the potential energy of any arbitrary distribution of electricity

on the cylinder,

The charge

^~

is

Let us now suppose this charge


the state of equilibrium
say, to

If

t/zo,

and
is

Since

so

itself

become

as

to

uniform,

pass

and

into

equal,

Qo^^^a^-

the capacity of the conductor,

and

E==Kx}j

charge,

distribute

to

potentid will

then the

^^^'

Q,

greater,

due

energy

the potential

may be

but cannot be

charge in equilibrium, the capacity

J^=l^-

may

any

to

arbitrary

distribution

of

the

than Qq, the energy of the same


be greater, but cannot be less, than
less,

IE'
^^

2Q
This inferior limit of

maximum

r+i

the capacity

value of the potential, and,

approximation to the truth.

Thus,

is

if

greater

we

as

we

shall

than that derived from the


see, often

suppose, in

gives a very close

the case

of the cylinder,

\ to be uniform,

Q = 2\H(log'^-'(^

E=2\l,
^^'here f'^

= W + If.

For a long narrow cylinder,


I

Kq

-i'
1

To obtain a

closer

approximation, let us suppose the distribution to be of

any form, and to be expressed

The

potential

due

to

in the

any

such

form of a

distribution

expressed in terms of spherical harmonics


Spherical Harmonics, Chap. v.

series

of

the

at

of harmonics.

second

given
kind.

point

may

be

See Ferrers'

'

AND OF A DISK OF SENSIBLE TUICKNESS.

If

we

write

and

are

r,

the Hnear density

where Pi
point

(a,

where Qi

is

y8)

is

1\

is

i?^ (a)

point from the

the zonal harmonic of degree


i/,

is

i,

then the

a rational

Qi (a) vanishes

when a

is

potential

at

the given

= S^,^, (a) P, {^).

the zonal harmonic of the second kind, and

is

ends of the Hne,

expressed by

^,(a)

where

the distances of a given

where

and

if

"/^'

'*~2

G75

of the form

is

= P.(a)log^ + /?.(4

function

infinite,

of

thus

a of (i-l) degrees, and

is

such

.W = (^'-i)log^;-3a.

ftW = (|a'-|a)log^-5..|.

At a

point at a very small distance h from the

X = log

+log

line,

if

we

write

^^

the potential due to the distribution whose linear density

is

is

approximately

V'i

= ^i^i(^7J|_^- 2(^1 --"272^+

2.3.3

2.3.4.4

i-^^;j'

852

that

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY OF A LONG NARROW CYLINDER,

G76
thus,

if

K = A,
K=A
tlien

5^_Sx
2

1'

5.7

X*

I'

^'J^,^)
4

^^

'

approximately

3f

^.=-.(lf-|f)(--y>

If

we

write 2

for

log-

r^

the same degree of approximation,

or

approximately

2= logy, we

find,

to

AND OF A DISK OF SENSIBLE THICKNESS.


Determining

membering that

A,

as

so

E = 2lAg,

we

make

to

(X,,
j

+ X,)

(i//,,

c/f

\//,)

G77

and

re-

times

its

niininmni,

find

A -A

30

and we obtain as a second approximation

K>

2-1-A
36 p_l<^l
30~

Unless
diameter,
It

the

length

shews, however, that

without

of the

this approximation

Hmit,

the

is

cylinder

considerably

of

use,

when the

electric

little

exceeds

this

ratio

7*245

makes A,

infinite.

of the length to the diameter increases

ratio

density

for

becomes

more

nearly

uniform,

and

the

expression for K^ approximates to the true capacity.

We
(X<,

4- Xj

may go on

+ X,)

{xj/a

to a third approximation

+ xp2 + V'4) ^^

shall

be a minimum

A^

by determining A^ and A^
;

3373

whence

so that

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY OF A LONG

678

When

NARROW CYLINDER,

very great, the distribution of electricity

is

expressed by the

is

equation

which shews that, as the ratio of the length to the diameter increases, the
density becomes more nearly uniform, and the deviation from uniformity becomes

more confined to the parts near the ends of the

To

indicate

the character of the

cylinder.

approximation,

have calculated

and

the three terms of the denominator of K^ for different values of the ratio of
/

to

h.

When

this ratio

is

Examples
of

of

than 100, the third term

10

3-68888. 2-68888-0-43151

20

4-38203. 3-38203-0-13680

30

4-78749

50

5-29832.4-29832-0-07191

unavailable.

is

3rd term.

2nd term.

1st term.

capacities

less

3-78749-0-09775

100

5-99146

4-99146-0-05291-0-13566

1000

8-29405

7-29405-0-02818-0-00892.

the

apphcation

cyHnder

in

of

presence

method

the
of

plane

to

presence of another equal cylinder, will be given in

coming edition of Cavendish's Electrical

ments made by Cavendish

the

calculation

conducting

Resecirclies, as

the

notes

surface,

to

illustrations

the

of

and

the
in

forth-

of measure-

in 1771.

Electnc Capacity of a Disk of sensible Thickness.

We

may

apply the same method to determine the capacity of a disk of


h, h being very small compared with a.

radius a and thickness

We

may

begin by supposing that the density on the

same as when the disk

is

flat

surfaces

is

the

infinitely thin.

Let a and y8 be the elliptic co-ordinates of a given point with respect to


disk, or in other words let the greatest and least distances of the
lower
the
point from the edge of the disk be a(a-f/3) and a(a ^).

AND OF A DISK OF SENSIBLE THICKNESS.


The diatance

of the given point from the axis


r

and

we

If

then,

if

a^/ = a"

the charge

is

by the lower

of thfe

any point

disk, the density at

If A,

the charge

is

the given point due to

it

We
is

Equation

(5),

= ^,a-'('^-tan-'yj

(7).

the

becomes

between

relation

b-

p-=l-a'/3'

or

p*

be between

may

and

0,

is

and

when the given

= h.

= ay- [l ^)

and

Since the given point

the potential at

(6),

upper disk, and therefore

(2)

undisturbed,

also

= y+l

a-

have next to find


in the

W-

= ^,a"' coseC'a

we write
V;

point

2^

is
i//

if

(3\

is

lower disk,

of the

(2).

?-^

upper disk, distributed as when undisturbed

"=

or,

(l),
is

= a(a'-l)*(l-;8-y

write

A^

is

= aa^

distance from the plane of the lower disk

its

G70

(8),

(9),

= ___y + _
ay-

'a-

(10).
^
'

on the upper disk, and since h

and y between- and (-)


a
\aj

is

small,

and between those

p must

limits

we

write, as a sufficient approximation for our purpose,

We

.^[i.g)'][..e)T

(u).

have now to find the value of the surface integral of the product of

the density into the potential taken over the upper disk, or

\2nrdr(r^

= A,A,a-' (^ -

Ttan-yrZ/j)

(12).

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY OF A LONG NARROW CYLINDER, &C.

680

Substituting the value of tan~^y from (11), the integral in (12) becomes

The corresponding quantity


got by putting A^ = Ai and 6

the action of the upper disk

for

= 0, and

on

In the actual

case,

A^ = A^ = \E, when
is

is

(11)-

^y'l
lower limit of the capacity

itself

is

is

whole

the

charge;

and the

therefore

'""
;

"-a-'j'4'j
but since we

have

assumed

that h

is

very small compared with

a,

we may

express our result with sufl&cient accuracy in the form

A'=|( + ^Mogf)
or,

the capacity

of

two equal disks

is

(16).

equal to that of a single disk

circumference exceeds that of either disk by h log

whose

a
b'

If the
uf

sensible

space between the


thickness,

disks

there will

is

filled

up,

so

as

to

form a single disk

be a certain charge on the cylindric surface;

but, at the same time, the charge on the inner sides of the disks will vanish,
and that on the outer sides of the disks will be diminished, so that the capacity
of a disk of sensible thickness is very little greater than that given by (16).

the

Royal

Society, Part

in Rainfied Gases arising

from

Inequalities of Temperature.

[From the Philosophical Transactions of

On Stresses

XCIII.

In

1.

paper I have followed

this

the Dynamical Theory of Gases"

when

that
point

the same

maximum and
when

the

in

minimum

directions,

all

1867,

is

may

small enough,

1879.]

my

in

49).

p.

paper "

On

have shewn

the pressure at a given

and that the

pressure at a point

density of the gas

the

Trans.,

of temperature exist in a gas,

inequalities

not

is

method given

the

(Phil.

I.

difference

between

the

be of considerable magnitude

when

and

the

inequalities

of

temperature are produced by small* solid bodies at a higher or lower temperature

than the vessel containing the gas.


2.

The nature

of this stress

may

be thus defined

Let

the distance from

a given point, measured in a given direction, be denoted by h

then the space-

* The dimensions of the bodies must be of the same order of magnitude as a certain length
with its mean velocity during

which may be defined as the distance travelled by a molecule


the time of relaxation of the medium.
X,

at

The time of relaxation is the time in which inequalities of


which they diminish were to continue constant. Hence

stress

would disappear

if

the rate

'

\7rpJ

On
elastic"

the

hypothesis
the

spheres,

meaning, and

if

is

that

free

its

of

the

free

quantity

the

force

path
X,

VOL.

of

molecule

may be taken

between the molecules


a

between

two

successive

" rigid

encounters has a definite

value,

So that the mean path of a molecule


If

'^Vy^pp)

the encounters between the molecules resemble those between

path

mean

molecule

has

no

as

representing what

we mean by "small".

supposed to be a continuous function of the distance,


longer a definite meaning, and we must fall back on the
is

as defined above.
II.

86

'

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

682

of the temperature

variation

by

and the space- variation of

-jr,

There
is

a point moving along this line will be denoted

for

be a particular direction of the

in general,

will,

a maximum, another for which

a maximum-minimum.

and are the axes of

the

is

/u,

by

-yy-,.

(PR
line

for

which

a minimum, and a third for which

it is

principal

stress

''

where

line

-yy-,

it

is

These three directions are at right angles to each other,


the given point

at

from inequalities of temperature

stress arising

same

this quantity along the

of

coefficient

and the part of the

in each of these principal axes,

is,

p9 dh'

viscosity,

the

density,

and 6

the

absolute

temperature.
3.

Now

for

IS'C,

at

air

-^ = -0'315,

and

measure,

dry

where

jti,

is

= l*9xl0"*

centimetre-gramme-second

in

the pressure, the unit of pressure being

one dyne per square centimetre, or nearly one-millionth part of an atmosphere.


If a

than the

sphere of 2a centimetres in diameter


air

at

large

from

distances

it,

is

then,

degrees centigrade hotter

when

there

is

a steady flow

of heat, the temperature at a distance of r centimetres from the centre will be

6=0,+

and-T^ =

5-.

Hence, at a distance of r centimetres from the centre of the sphere, the


pressure
will

in

the direction

of the radius arising from inequality of temperature

be

3 0*63
4.

this

Mr

In

Crookes'

dynes per square centimetre.

experiments the pressure, p,

would be capable,

stress

if

it

existed

alone,

of

was often

so small

producing

rapid

that

motion

in a radiometer.

Indeed,

if

we were

to

immersed

consider only the

the gas, most

on

solid

Mr

Crookes could be readily explained.


5.

to

bodies

in

normal part of the stress exerted


of

the phenomena observed by

Let us take the case of two small bodies

the axis joining their centres of figure.

If both

symmetrical
bodies are

with

respect

warmer than

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.


air

axis

joining

at

centres,

their

and

temperature,

highest

from them, then, in any section perpendicular to the


the point where it cuts this line will have the

distance

the

683

there

a flow of heat outwards from

be

will

this

axis in all directions.

Hence

be positive for the axis, and

will

,,,

it

maximum

be a line of

will

pressure, so that the bodies will repel each other.

If

reversed

both bodies are colder than the

everything will be

at a distance,

air

minimum

the axis will be a line of

and the

pressure,

bodies

will

attract each other.

If

the

one body

effect

bodies,

and

hotter and the other colder

is

be

will

on

smaller,

and

will

it

than

the

depend on the

exact temperatures, whether the action

their

a distance,

at

air

relative

the

of

sizes

attractive or

is

repulsive.
6.

central

If

the bodies are two

parts

will

parallel

very

produce

temperature varies uniformly, and

any

little

7.

If

joining the

the

bodies

warmer than the

air

in

by a

ring

repulsion between

general,

each

to

the

other,

be

there

will

temperature in the gas.

encircled

are

bodies, then the

near

because between the disks the

Only near the edges

-Tn=0.

stress arising from inequality of

very

disks
effect,

may

having

its

axis

the

in

line

the two bodies, when they

are

be converted into attraction by heating

the ring so as to produce a flow of heat inwards towards the axis.

form of a cup or bowl

is

distribution of temperature in the surrounding gas

is

8.

If a

body

in the

of electric potential near a

by Sir

same as
the

W.
if

excess

Thomson.

the

air,

the distribution

to

body of the same form, which has been investigated

Near the convex surface the value of

temperature,

and

is

the radius

concave surface the variation of temperature

Hence the normal pressure


on the concave surface, and

if

will

is

to

of the

is

nearly the

where

is

Near the

sphere.

exceedingly small.

be greater

we were

-rr^

2T,

namely

the body had been a complete sphere,


of

warmer than the


similar

on

the

convex

surface

than

neglect the tangential pressures

might think this an explanation of the motion of

Mr

Crookes

cups.

862

we

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

684

Since the expressions for the stress are linear as regards the temperature,
when the cup is colder than the surrounding air.

everything will be reversed

In a spherical vessel,

9.

if

the two polar regions are

made

hotter than the

the pressure in the direction of the axis will be greater than


that parallel to the equatorial plar^e, and the reverse will be the case if the
polar regions are made colder than the equatorial zone.
zone,

equatorial

to

easier
If,

criticism.

careful

alone,

to

to give

an

stresses

however,

They

exclusion

the

elementary

we go on

to

there
to

steady,

is

is

been

have

obtained

the

of

exposition

calculate

gas in virtue of the stresses


of heat

the observed phenomena must be subjected

All such explanations of

10.

on

of

in

when the

by experiment, but

flow of heat

Consider,

11.

it

find

equilibrium.

Mr

is

satisfactory

than

on any

we

surface,

and

that

of

norqaal

much

is

the

portion

latter.

of

when the

Crookes

vessels.

it

It

us that

tells
is

the
flow

not easy

to find that the

system

here described as arising from inequalities of temperature will not,

of stresses

is

then,

steady, generate currents.

the case in which there are no currents of gas but

a steady flow of heat, the condition of which

(In the

former

no molar current or wind in his radiometer

prove this

with

the

the

considering

stresses,

the forces acting

its

these forces are

by

tangential

is

absence of external forces such as gravity,

solid

bodies does not

slide

over them,

this

is

and

if

the gas in contact

always a solution of the

and it is the only permanent solution.) In this case the equations


shew that every particle of the gas is in equilibrium under the stresses
Hence, any finite portion of the gas is also in equilibrium;
acting on it.
equations,
of motion

also,

since

the stresses are linear functions of the temperature, if we superpose


temperatures on another, we also superpose the corresponding

one system of

systems of

forces.

the system of temperatures due to a solid sphere of uniform temperature immersed in the gas, cannot of itself give rise to any force tending
Let the sphere
to move the sphere in one direction rather than in another.

Now

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.


be placed within the

any number of spheres at


to

which,

of gas

portion

finite

The equihbriuin

equihbrium.

in

not be

will

685

we have

as

said,

We

disturbed.

ah-eady

is

may

introduce

temperatures into the portion of gas, so as

difterent

form a body of any shape, heated in any manner, and when the flow of

heat has become steady the whole system will be in equilibrium.

How,

12.

between

we

are

then,

account for the observed fact that forces act

to

immersed

bodies

solid

in

we must

think

and

gases,

rarified

as inequalities of temperature are maintained

apparently,

this,

as

long

phenomenon discovered in
Kundt and
surface of a solid must slide

look for an explanation in the

the case of liquids by Helmholtz and Piotrowski", and for gases by

Warburg t,
over

it

The
a solid

the

and

surface

it

of

the boundary conditions between a gas and


diflicult if we consider that the gas
We
unknown state of condensation.
obtained by Kundt and Warburg on their

becomes more

probably in an

is

accept the results

therefore

shall

order to produce a finite tangential stress.

treatment

difficult,

is

contact wdth the

in

finite velocity in

theoretical

to

close

the fluid

that

with a

experimental evidence.

They have found that the

velocity

gas over the surface

of the

of sliding

stress varies inversely as the pressure.

due to a given tangential

The

where

centimetres,

at ordinary pressures
it

may

to

the

is

pressure

insensible,

is

on

air

for

in

was

glass

found

of an

millionths

G=

be

to

Hence

atmosphere.

Mr

but in the vessels exhausted by

Crookes

be considerable.

Hence,
acting

sliding

of

coefficient

on

to

parallel

surface

there

that surface,

the surface of a

to

close

if

also

will

that

of

solid

there

is

the

body

in

be a sliding

tangential

direction

stress

S,

parallel

the gas in contact with the

of

ST*

solid over its surface in the direction

13.

this

sliding

which there

have

not

motion,
is

no

attempted

but

it

is

to

h with a
enter

finite velocity

on the

easy to see that

if

calculation

Wioier SUzb.,

t Pogg. Ann.,

xl.

civ.

1860,
1875,

p.
p.

of

we begin with

the instantaneous efiect of

sliding,

=-

607.
337.

permission

the efiect of
the case in

being

given


STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

686
to the gas to

on the
to set

must be

slide

up currents sweeping over the

destroying the simplicity of our

When

14.

the action of

diminisli

to

without affecting the normal

surface,

external

first

of solid

surfaces

tangential

all

and

stresses,

in

course

bodies, thus

stresses

of

time

completely-

solution of the problem.

such as gravity, act on the gas, and when the

forces,

thermal phenomena produce differences of density in different parts of the vessel,


then the well-known convection currents are set up. These also interfere with
the simplicity of the problem and introduce very complicated effects. All that
we know is that the rarer the gas and the smaller the vessel the less is
the

effect

convection

the

of

so

currents,

that

in

Mr

Crookes'

experiments

they play a very small part.

We

now

proceed to the calculations

Encounter

(1)

The motion
motion

before

dynamical methods.
or vibration

of mass

in

of the

the

of

the

two

encounter,

hetiveen

is

Molecules.

depends on their

an

encounter

capable

of

being determined by purely

molecules

and

Two

after

encounter of the molecules does not cause rotation

If the

the individual molecules, then the kinetic energy of the centres

two molecules must be the same

after the encounter as it

was

before.

This

be

will

on

true

the

average,

even

if

the

molecules

are

complex

systems capable of rotation and internal vibration, provided the temperature is


however, the temperature is rising, the internal energy of the
If,
constant.
molecules

is,

on the whole, increasing, and therefore the energy of translation

of their centres of mass

The

must

reverse will be the

case

be,
if

on an average, diminishing at every encounter.


the temperature

is

falling.

But however important this consideration may be in the theory of specific


heat and that of the conduction of heat, it has only a secondary bearing on
and as it would introduce great
the question of the stresses in the medium
;

complexity and

much guesswork

gas here considered

is

into

our calculations, I shall suppose that the

one the molecules of which do not take up any sensible

amount of energy in the


have shewn that this is the

form

of internal

case with

* Pogg. Ann.,

mercury
clvii.

1876,

motion.
gas.
p.

353.

Kundt and Warburg*

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

Let

masses

the

components

^,,

and i

^,,

-^i,

molecule

the

of

rj,,

M,

be

and

Ci

and

3/,

Let

respectively.

687

velocity-

their

the

be

velocity

of

parallel

to

relative to M,.

iT/,

Before the encounter

and

V,

M^

a perpendicular 6 be drawn from

let

and direction of

and

be constant as long as the motion

will

the

in

be

will

centres

their

force

is

after

function

of

and

than the limit of molecular action.


%vith the plane through
angle
<j>

of the

the
of

distance,

undisturbed.

hV

If the

it,

but their

through an angle

force

remain

will

and therefore

as before

encounter

and

is

each other.

of mass, the product

function

magnitude

same

be turned in the plane

will

being

angle

the

if

the

of

directions

joining

line

and

constant,

The magnitude

this line.

to

Durino- the encounter the two molecules act on


acts

M^

a straight line be drawn through

let

this

20,

which vanishes for values of b greater


Let the plane through V and b make an

V,

to

parallel

x,

then

all

values of

<f>

are

equally probable.
If

be the value of

^i'

^;

When

= . +

^.^^^^

((^.

^i

after

- ^0

we

two molecules are of the same kind, TT^rq^^^' ^^^

the

is

that

the

we

find

^,

symbol

the

use

to an encounter,
so

encounter,

2 sin= ^ + K^^^

present investigation of a single gas


If

the

and

average

S(f, +

if

shall

assume

this to be the case.

we remember
(f)

that

all

and of

values of
cos'

(f)

</>

are equally probable,

zero,

is

and that of

=0

S(fx^

HW

(3)

+ ^/)=-f(^. + ^.)[3(^,-^0=-P]sin-^cos'^

these by transformation of coordinates


8(^>>7.

cos'

(2)

S(^.^+a=-[3(^.-^ir-^Tsin^^cos^^
From

^^^

S to indicate the increment of any quantity due

value of cos

we

^^

we

+ f.>7.)=-3(^,-^,){r7.-r70sin'^cos=^
+ i;n^n = - 1 [9 i^.v: + ^^ri - 3 (^,V W)
- (^x + Q (077.^7, + P)]sin^ cos'
6*

(4).

find
(5)

LvX. + LvD']^nyOcos^e

(6)

(7).

<f>

BTRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

688

[Application of Spherical Harmonics

we suppose the

If

by the

indicated

of a point

TJieory

the

the velocity

of

direction

position

to

M^

of

of Gases.

relative

on a sphere, which we

to M^ to be
may call the

sphere of reference, then the direction of the relative velocity after the encounter

PR

be indicated by a point P', the angular distance

will

the point

We
the

in a small

lies

have to calculate the

the two molecules.

being 2d,

that

so

equally probable.

is

upon

of an encounter

effect

of

velocity-components

six

every position in which

circle,

certain functions of

may

These six quantities

be expressed in terms of the three velocity-components of the centre of mass


of

two molecules (say

the

M, which we

u,

v,

M^ with

the relative velocity of

iv),

respect

and the two angular coordinates which indicate the


direction of V.
During the encounter, the quantities u, v, w and V remain the
same, but the angular coordinates are altered from those of P to those of P' on
to

V,

call

the sphere of reference.

Whatever be
consider

angular

have

form

the

expressed

it

coordinates,

only

their

determine

to

of the function of

form

the

in

the

of

effect

^i,

4,

t^j,

4j

"n-i^

4>

we may

of spherical harmonics

series

being

coefficients

the

of

functions

of u,

v,

w,

V,

of the

and we

encounter upon the value of the

spherical harmonics, for their coefficients are not changed.


1'^"^

Let

be

value

the

at

of the

surface

harmonic of order n in the

series considered.

are

the point P", and since


equally

the

probable,

corresponding

the

encounter,

the

After
at

all

positions

mean value

term becomes what F^"^ becomes


in a circle whose centre is P

of P'

of the function after the encounter

depend on the mean value of the spherical harmonic

Now
cosine of

the

the

mean

value of a spherical harmonic of order n in a

whose radius

circle multiplied

Hence,

after

is

by

the

/x,

P^"'

must

in this circle.
circle,

the

equal to the value of the harmonic at the pole of

is
(/a),

the zonal harmonic of order n, and amphtude

encounter,

F"

becomes

F">P<"^

(/a),

and

if

F^

is

/i.

the

corresponding part of the function to be considered, and 8F the increment of

arising from the encounter,

This
cos 20

/x.

is

the

The

8P = P

mean increment
rate

of increment

of
is

(P'"' (/a)- 1).

F
to

arising

from an encounter in which

be found from this by multiplying

it

FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

ARISING

by the number of encounters of each molecule per second


between /x and /x + f^/x, and integrating for all values of ^ from
This operation requires,

and

tween the molecules,

among the

general,

in

a knowledge of the

knowledge

also

the

of

When,

as in

the

present

kind,

and

both

functions

our calculations to

of the encounters

which case

will

P((/t) - 1 = |(/x^-

(2)

We

to

law

of

be-

force

velocity

of

distribution

lies

/x
1

we suppose both the molecules

investigation,

take

molecules

summation, the spherical harmonics of odd orders

effect

which

in

molecules.

be of the same

restrict

689

now abandon

our attention

will

not more

Number

of Encounters in

that

so

of a

adopt the

molecule and

single

velocity-components

if

dimensions,

three

to

final

only,

we
the
in

Unit of Time.

the dynamical method and

its

disappear,

than

the

in

depend on harmonics of the second order


1) = -f 8in^2^. Note added May, 1879.]

Instead of tracing the path


of each encounter on

of

account

into

and

on a particular element of volume,

the

the

trace

the average values of such combinations of components

for

all

effects

we

combinations,

their

and

method.

statistical

determining

changes

the

fix

in

molecules

The problem which now


which at a given instant happen to be within it.
to determine the distribution of velocities
presents itself may be stated thus
among the molecules of any element of the medium, the current-velocity and
:

the temperature of the

The only

the time.
that in

medium being given

case

in

which

this

which the medium has attained to

temperature

is

in

terms

the coordinates and

of

problem has been actually solved


its

ultimate

state,

in

which

is

the

uniform and there are no currents.

Denoting by

dN =/i (^,

7), I,

X, y,

the number of molecules of the kind

the element of volume dxdydz,


limits

^ic?^, 'q\<i'n' Ci<^^^>

z, t)

d^drjd^dxdydz

M, which

at a given

instant

are

within

and whose velocity-components lie between the


Boltzmann has shewn that the function f must

satisfy the equation

di-^^\lx-^'^^dy^^^d^.'''^di^^d-n^'^di,^
+jjjdLdrjjc.jhdbjd<i>v{ff-f:f:)=o
VOL.

II.

(8)

87

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

690
where

// denote what / becomes when in place of the velocity-comMl before the encounter we put those of M., before the encounter,
of M^ and M^ after the encounter, respectively, and the integration

/j, //,

ponents of

and those
is

extended to

all

values

of

(f>

and

and

of

the

4,

rj.,,

^.,,

velocity-com-

ponents of the second molecule M,.


It

ledge,

impossible,

is

of the functions fi,


the equation.
It

in

perform this integration without

to

general,

not only of the law of force between


fa, /', //,

know-

the

of

form

which have themselves to be found by means of

only for particular cases,

is

but

molecules,

th^^

therefore,

has

equation

the

that

hitherto

been solved.
If the

medium

is

surrounded by a surface through which no communica-

tion of energy can take place,

then one solution of the equation

is

given by

the conditions

and

which give
/;
i/zi

^1

a constant which

is

medium, but h
This

is

(9)

the potential of the force whose components are X^,

where
is

= ^,e-'^(2^-+f'^'"^-^^'^>

is

may

the same for

kind

be different for each


all

of

Fj,

molecules

Z^,

and

in

the

kinds of molecules.

the complete solution of this problem,

and

is

independent of any

hypothesis as to the manner in which the molecules act on each other during

an encounter.

mined

The quantity h which occurs

by finding

theory of gases,

the

mean value

of

in

this

i\ which

is

expression
-.

Now

may
in

the pressure, p the density,


p
constant for a given gas.
Hence
is

the kinetic

pe=p=Rpd
where

be deter-

6 the

4=^"

(10)

absolute temperature,

and

(11)-

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

We

with Boltzmann, that

suppose, however,

shall

in

691

medium

which there

in

and of velocity

are inequalities of temperature

dN=N{\+F(t'n,d)Mtr,,i)d^dridt,
where

i^

is

of

function

rational

tj,

^,

which we

terms of more than three dimensions, and f^

contain

(12)

suppose not to

shall

the same function

is

as

in equation (9).

Now

We

(3).

two

consider

and

components,

groups

of

molecules,

these two groups

Let

which

us

do

a unit of volume in the time

in

not

interfere

molecules of the

first

velocity(,)

and

encounters

and

only

<f>ld(f>.

relative

The group dN^

velocity

is

moving

and we have to

V,

find

group approach a molecule of the second group


produce an

This will be the case for every molecule of the

The number
hdbd(f> in the time 8^.
dN^Vhdhd^ht for every molecule of the second group,
that the whole number of pairs which pass each other within the given

first

so

those

ht,

are 'b\dh

the molecules acted on each other,

if

encounter of the given kind.

of

with each other's motion.

dN, with the

group

manner which would,

the
suffixes

suppose that both groups consist of mere geometrical points

first

the

how many
in

by

defined

have to estimate the nuAber of encounters of a given kind between

being considered for which the limits of h and

through

each

two groups be distinguished by the

the

let

group which passes through the area

such

molecules

is

limits is

Vhdhd<l>dN,dN,ht,

and

if

we take the time

Zt

small enough, this will be the

of the real molecules in the time

Effect of the Encounters.

(3)

We
values

vidual

have next to estimate the

of different functions of the

encounter

given in equations

on
(3),

these
(4),

efiect

functions
(5),

(6),

and

of these

encounters on the average

velocity-components.
for

(7),

SP = g
where

number of encounters

ht.

the

pair

each of which

sin'

of
is

The

effect of

molecules

an

indi-

concerned

is

of the form

^ cos' ^

are functions of the velocity-components of the

(13)

two molecules,

872


STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

692

and

we write

if

the average value of

for

sum

of volume, then taking the

for

the

molecules in unit

of the effects of the encounters

SSP = iV8P

We

(14).

thus find

^ = N ((((((((gsm^e
Now,

since ^

is

COB''

eVbdhd<f>fJM^dr,M^di,drJJL --(IS).

a function of h and V, the definite integral

vf'"! hsm'ecos'ddbd<i> = B

be a function of

will

(16)

only.

If the molecules are " rigid-elastic " spheres of diameter

s,

B = ^7rs'V
If

they

each

repel

with

other

(17).

inversely as

force

distance, so that at a distance r the force

the

fifth

power of the

Kr~\ then

is

(i)

^=(iy^where A,

the numerical quantity 1'3682.

is

The

experiments

Obermayer,

of the

absolute

this

not the case,

is

We

shall

||,

and

is

independent of V.

Kundt and Warburgt,


HolmanlT,

PulujJ,

shew that 'the

is

\iscosity had varied as the first power


would have been independent of V.
Though

shall

assume, for the sake of being able to effect the

independent of V.

find it convenient to write for

the

hydrostatic

pressure,

B,

|]

Wiener

Sitz.,

t Ibid. 1876, Bd.

1874 and 1876.

Arch, des Sci. Phys.

et

Nat., 1876,

H American Academy of Arts and


Feb., 1877.

(">

the number of molecules

Pogg. Ann., 1873, Bd. 148, p. 222.


X

of

If the

^=4
where

Von

viscosity

lower power of the absolute temperature than the

power.

we

is

In this case

Meyer*,

E.

temperature,

that

integrations,

0.

to

077

probably the

first,

of

Wiedemann

Eilhard

according

varies

air

t.

Ibid.

in

unit of

159, p. 403.

1875.

56, p. 273.

Sciences,

June

14,

1876.

Phil.

Mag.,

s.

5, vol,

3,

No.

16,

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

and

volume,

/x

new

coefficient

which

we

693

afterwards

shall

find

to

be the

coefficient of viscosity.

may now

Equation (15)

be written

^^ = ^jjjjjJQfJMdvM4Ldr],dC,
where the

integrations

are

all

between the limits

ao

(2^)

and +

oo

and

f^

and

/,

are of the form

f={l+F{lr),0}h'-7T-h-'^^-^'-^^
J^

H'

(21)

being small compared with unity.

1'

We may write F in the form


F= (2hy {ai+/3ri + yi) + 2h (^a^f + i^T + W^' + l^ni + jo-i^ + ^^^)
+ (2A)* (la'f + \^rf + i/r + ia^ySf^ + ^aVf ^ + ^P^mX

+iparC+^r<'^+irPCi+apyH)

(22)

where each combination of the symbols afiy is to be taken as a single


dependent symbol, and not as a product of the component symbols.

(4)

To
^,

of

the

-q,

mean value of any


we must multiply this

^,

-q,

t,.

function of

^,

-q,

function by

and integrate with respect

for

the molecules

all

and l

If the

it

Values of Combinations of

the

find

in the element,

to

Mean

in-

non-exponential factor of any term contains an odd power of any

variables,

contains

only

the

corresponding

part

of

the

even powers, each even power,

integral

such as

will

2n,

but

if

introduce

vanish,

will

factor

Rre^(2n-l)(2n-^)
into the corresponding part
First,

let

3-1

of the integral.

the function be

1,

then

l=|||/Jfrf,rf

(-23)

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

694
or

= l+i{a' + l3' + y)

(24)

which gives the condition


a-

+ /8= + / =

Let us next find the mean value of ^

by the symbol

molecule

what
by u + ^,
$,

wsty,

denoting the result

Remembering these
and

denote
u,

the

(26).

velocity-components

are the

lo

v,

We

each of them zero.

l3

tions of two, three,

where

a^ + ay-")]

+ ^{a^fi + ^ + /3y) =
we

conditions,

find

each

of

velocity-components of

the molecules within the element,

all

^ are

tj,

shall

w + ^,

v-{-r),

the centre of mass of


of

we

follows

in

mean values

same

$,

f=(i2^)i[a + ^(a' +
Since

(25).

in the

it

follows that the

thus obtain the equations

(27).

that the

mean

values

of combina-

four dimensions are of the forms

=(Refa'

~ff ={Rd)ia^

(29)

|^=(i2^)ta/3y.

^=
any

term

of

group

alone

of the

found

from

the

in

equation

molecules,

above

table,

(30).

Rates of Decay of these

(5)

If

'^'^-^

(20)

Mean

contains

Values.

sjnnbols belonging to

one

the corresponding term of the integral

may be

but

to

if

it

contains

symbols

belonging

both

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.


groups
it

we must

necessary

these,

to

the sextuple

consider

do

this

integral

But we

(20).

terms of not more than three

for

both groups of symbols occur, the index of one

if

695
shall

not

dimensions,

them

of

find

for

in

must

be

odd, and the integral vanishes.

We

thus find from equations

a'

(3),

(4),

(5),

(G),

and

(7)

(31)

o.'

l^ayS

=-^a;8

(32)

|a^

=i^(-2a' + a^^ + ar)

(33)

|a^^=i^(a-8a^ + ay)

(34)

(^^)-

h^y=-ll-^y
[Any

rational

homogeneous function of |

17

is

a solid harmonic, or

either

a solid harmonic multiplied by a positive integral power of

be expressed as the
If

sum

we express any one

the angular coordinates of


the spherical
If

of ^

number of terms of these

of a

of these terms

V,

molecules,

^1,

we

of

function

we can determine the

+ l;),

or

may

rate

u,

v,

u\

and

of change of each of

harmonics of the angular coordinates.

we then transform the


77,,

as

(^'-\-rj'

forms.

^,,

r},,

4.

and

expression back to its original form as a function


if

we add

the

corresponding

shall obtain an expression for the rate

functions

of change

for

of the

both

original

function.

Thus among the terms of two dimensions we have the


harmonics

l(2f-T-C--),

five

conjugate soHd

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

696

The
molecules
"

by

found

is

of these arising from

of each

of increase

rate

multiplying

modulus of the time of relaxation

+ C'

The function

i"-

Homogeneous

functions

7)-

it

by - -

"

of this

class

may

therefore

- the

call

of functions.

not changed by the encounters.

is

dimensions are

of three

the third order or solid harmonics of the


or

We

the encounters of the

either

solid

harmonics

order multiplied by

first

C'

of

+ V^ + C\

combinations of these.

V
--.

The time modulus

harmonics

solid

for

of the

third order

is

Note

added May, 1879.]

That of

7),

or

Effect

(6)

The only

effect

e + v'-^C

by

multiplied

C,

of

of external forces

is

^^.

External Foixes.
is

expressed by equations of the form

1=^
The average values of
external

^,

-q,

I,

and

their

combinations are not affected by

forces.

Variation of

(7)

Mean

Values ivithin an Element of Volume.

We

have employed the symbol 8 to denote the variation of any quantity


within an element, arising either from encounters between molecules or from
the action of external forces.

There

by

is

molecules

a third
entering

may

way, however, in which a variation


element

the

or

leaving

it,

carrying

occur,

their

namely,

properties

with them.

We

shall use the

symbol

to denote the actual variation within a specified

element.
If

MQ

is

the average value of any quantity for each

element, then the quantity


variation

of p^.

in

unit of volume

is

pQ.

molecule within the

We

have to trace the


697

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

We
ponents

begin
U,

continuity

element

with

an

W,

then

V,

by

the

performing the differentiations

If after

Let us

first

equation

make Q=l,

then,

the ordinary

Eliminating
(38)

W=

U = u, V = v,
{u,

v,

since the

mass of a molecule

is

we

+ ./^^^+^J^ + ^^) =
dzj
^\dx

(39),
^

"

dy

"equation of continuity."

by means

of

obtain the

(9)

Q = u-\-^,

this

'''l

this

the

equation

second term of the general

more convenient form

of that

equation becomes

is

stresses

(*')

+ (''f')+|;(''^)4z(''^=''^'
^,

>y,

t,

is

to

be taken as the average

combination.

Substituting their values as given in

which

(^0).

Equations of Motion.

where any combination of the symbols


value

(28)

one of the three ordinary equations of motion of a

medium

in

which

exist.

VOL. IL

the

invariable,

p'hiwi)+^w^im)-pf,

Putting

iv,

iv)

becomes
dt

equation

we make

Equation of Density.

5^

is

velocity-com-

"equation of

element moving with the velocity

(8)

which

the

of the

with

investigation

ordinary

"

equation becomes for an

the

moving

volume

of

88

698

STRESaES IN RARIFIED GASES

Terms of Two Dimensions.

(10)

Put
of

u,

zero.

V,

Q = {u + ^)\

We

Since the resulting equation

we may,

w,

shall

after differentiation,

thus

the same result which we might have obtained


and the former equations. We find

obtain

by elimination between

or

is true whatever be the values


put each of these quantities equal to

this

by substituting the mean values of these quantities from


(29)

with two other equations of similar form.

we

Similarly

obtain

+ pe[a

by putting

Q = {u + ^)(v-\-'q)

dx + '^^Ty + '^ydz+'^^T^ + ^-dy + ^y-dz

+ R [|^(p^aW + |^(p^a^) + ^^(pMr)]=--p^^


with two other equations of like form

Terms of

(11)

Putting
eliminating

Q=(uJr^* and
-j

by (41) we

in

the

for

TJiree
final

fiy

and

...(45

ya.

Dimensions.
equation

making

=c=

iv

find

"l^'-^yTx-^f^'nt^^f^^'Tz

='f'[s(''f')+^,(''f^)+lH=''sV"

W'

and


699

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

which gives

Since

may

combinations

the

of the

at this stage

third

order,

by the
mately

neglect

large

terms

coeflScient

of

when we
them,

involving

The

p//x.

small

represent

a/3y

calculation,

equation

are

numerical

quantities,

when they are multiplied


may then be written approxi-

except

3li?p0'^=^p{R0)'l^{-2a' + ap-- + ay)


Similarly,

by putting

Q = {u + i)

{v

+ rjY, we

lf-pe^ = p(Ref-P
and

in

way we

the same

(12)

From

obtain the approximate equation

-Sa^ + ay')

(49),

= p{R0)l^(o.' + a^-Say)

.(50).

{a'

Approximate Values of Terms of Three Dimensions.

equations

(48),

(49),

and

(50),

we

2p\dJ
From which by

cbc'

substitution

9f./R\^de

find

__^l^(R^dl

9iM/R\^d0

''^-'^'>^~~2p\ej dx

we

obtain
..

.,

s,.(R\^de

value
it

in

of

this

a^y

is

of

.(51).

Sf.(R\^de

-y=^y=2p[e I
The

,(48).

find

}^p0^J^

require

we

dealing with terms of the

smaller order of

Tz

magnitude, and we do not

investigation.

882

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

700

Equation of Temperature.

(13)

Adding the
taining

small

three

such as

coefficients

equations

quantities
-7-

i^

ax ax

of

two

of

we

form

the

and omitting tenns con-

(44),

and

dimensions,

products of differential

also

find

d^ d^\ 2edp
2p\dx''^df^ dzy'^zpdt

^_^_5iifdW
dt

The

first

term

member

second

the

of

^^^^*

represents the

rate

of increase

of

temperature due to conduction of heat, as in Fourier's Theory, and the second

We

term represents the increase of temperature due to increase of density.

must

remember that

the specific heats

the

gas

considered

one for which the ratio of

is

1"6.

is

(14)

Subtracting

here

one-third

of

in

Stresses

sum

the

Gas.

the

of the

three

equations from

(44),

we

obtain
^

du

dv

fdu

dw\

fji'

d'0

fji'

fd'O

d'd

d'e\

normal pressure in x above the


two terms of the second member
represent the effect of viscosity in a moving fluid, and are identical with those
given by Professor Stokes (Cambridge Transactions, Vol. viii., 1845, p. 297).
The last two terms represent the part of the stress which arises from inequality
This

mean

equation

hydrostatic

of temperature,

There
y and

are

the

gives

pressure

which

is

jp.

excess

of

The

first

the

the special subject of this paper.

two other equations of

similar

form

for

The tangential

stress

in

the plane xy

fdu

d'v\

given by the equation

is

u,^

d-6

^^=-'^U+s)+%T<tory
There
in

the normal stresses in

z.

are

two other equations of

the planes of yz and

zx.

similar

form

for

,^

..

(^^)-

the tangential stresses

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

F{7ial

(15)

(42)

701

Equations of Motion.

"We are now prepared to complete the equations of motion by inserting


the values of the quantities a\ a/3, ay, and we find for the equation in x

dp

d^u

fdhi

d?u\

dx~^ \d? ^ 5P "^


a'
9/x'
9

d
(d'O
df<P0

pd

~dx [dx'

^l^dx\Ji^dy'^

If

dy'

"^

dz)

dH
d'e\

d'-e
d'd
"*"

dw\

dv

d fdu

d?)

,,^v

dz

we write

/--^^e4>j)-iie4>a

(-)

-^^-^^
or,

the pressure

if

in

constant,

is

so

that po6-\- 9dp

(")

I0fjid$

f-a\
('')

P=P + Y0Ft
then the equation (55)

may
du

If there

equations

are

be written
dp'

fd'u

d^u

d^uX

/-^x

no external forces such as gravity, then one solution of the

is

u = v = w = 0, p' = constant,
and

if

the boundary conditions are such that this solution

is

with

consistent

become the actual solution as soon as the initial motions, if any


This will be the case if no slipping is possible between
exist, have subsided.
the gas and solid bodies in contact with it.
them,

it

But
is

cannot

will

if

such slipping

tangential

be

stress

equilibrium,

is

in

but

possible,

gas

the
the

gas

then wherever in the above solution there


at the
will

surface

of a solid

the velocity of sliding has produced a frictional resistance


to the tangential stress.

When

or liquid,

there

begin to slide over the surface

this is the case the

motion

equal and

may become

till

opposite
steady.

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

702
I

have not, however, attempted to enter into the calculation of the state

of

steady motion.
[I
in

have

the

orders

sections

to

higher.

and

(l)

expected

method of

the

applied

recently

notes

that

(5),

this

two new quantities, namely, the rates


fourth and sixth orders, but I found
required,

that
of
6

all

the

which

harmonics
of

rate
is

fi^p,

of

decay

the

fourth

harmonics,

spherical

the

carrying

as

described

approximations

two

would have involved the calculation of


of decay of spherical
that,

the

to

harmonics of the
approximation

order of

and sixth orders may be neglected, so

harmonics of the second order, the time-modulus

of

determines the rate of decay of

functions

all

of less

than

dimensions.

The equations of motion,


derivatives
I

to

find

of u,

that

w,

v,

the

in

more

approximate

the fourth derivatives of u,

The equations of motion


coefficient
fifth

i^-^pB,

of this

(equation

v,

lu,

also

with the

coefficient

with the

i^^

the

contain

55)

expression there

is
-h-

second

coefficient

fx.

a term containing

pp.

contain the third derivatives of 6 with the

Besides these terms, there

derivatives of
It

here given

as

with respect to the coordinates, with the

coefficient

is

another

set

consisting of the

fjL*-^p-j)0.

appears from the investigation that the condition of the successful use

method of approximation

differentiation

is

that

--

should be small, where

with respect to a line drawn in any direction.

the properties of the

medium must not be

sensibly

a distance of each other, comparable with the

Note added

June,

1879.]

"mean

difierent
free

-rt

denotes

In other words,
at

points within

path" of a molecule.

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

703

APPENDIX.
(Added May, 1879.)

In

the

express

sohd

paper

the

for

thought

it

it

be

One

of the

tried.

the same degree of approximation as those

be

will

the

that

previous

may

gas

velocity

this

of

tending

and

to

finite

velocity,

the

and the

fact

over

the

surface

coiTesponding

the

temperature

with

which have been already mentioned;'"

slide

of

the interior of the gas.

for

equations I have arrived at express both the

the

that

seen

investigations

inequalities

in

is

however, pointed out that it was desirable to make


and indicated several hypothetical forms of surfaces which might
have tlierefore added the following calculations, which are carried

to

force

actual conditions, especially

from the rest of the gas.

be

that

the referees,

of

attempt,

fact

to

satisfied

almost certain that the stratum of gas nearest to a solid body

is

It

made no attempt

by a gas in contact with a


very unUkely that any equations I could write
must

satisfactory representation

a very different condition

the

Royal Society,

the

to

in

which

conditions

body,

down would be a
as

sent

as

at

tangential

the surface of the

make the gas

slide

stress

solid,

are

by

affected

which give

to

rise

along the surface from colder to hotter

places.

phenomenon,

This

name

of Thermal

to

which

Transpiration,

Professor

Osborne

Reynolds

has

given

He was

was discovered entirely by him.

the
the

phenomenon of this kind was a necessary consequence


of the Kinetic Theory of Gases, and he also subjected certain actual phenomena,
of a somewhat different kind, indeed, to measurement, and reduced his measurements by a method admirably adapted to throw light on the relations between
gases and solids.
It was not till after I had read Professor Reynolds' paper that I began
to reconsider the surface conditions of a giis, so that what I have done is

first

to

point out that a

simply to
suitable for

extend

to

the

treating the

surface
interior

phenomena the method which


of the gas.

* Sect.

think

12 of iutrodiictiou.

that

this

think most

method

is,

in

some

that adopted by

better than

respects,

that his method

The method which

values

all

the

functions

certain

of

given element of the medium,

but

it

is

equations

expressed

are

admit

velocities

within a

never attempts to trace the motion of a

mean

its

path.

Hence

forms of the differential calculus,

the

in

a purely statistical one.

of the

not even so far as to estimate the length of

molecule,

of their amount.

have adopted throughout

mean

the

considers

Professor Reynolds, while

the existence of the phenomena, though

sufficient to establish

is

not to afford an estimate

It

RAMFIED GASES

STRESSES IN

704

in

which the phenomena at a given place are connected with the space variations
quantities

of certain

that

at

but in which no quantity appears which

place,

from that

explicitly involves the condition of things at a finite distance

The
those

of

and

and

two,

one,

approximately
rarified,

functions

particular

the

the

of

dimensions.

three

phenomena

principal

place.

which are here considered are


These are sufficient to determine

velocities

in

gas

which

not

is

very highly

which the space-variations within distances comparable to \ are

in

not very great.

The same method, however, can be extended to functions of higher degrees,


by a sufficient number of such functions any distribution of velocities,
however abnormal, may be expressed. The labour of such an approximation is
and

by the

considerably

diminished

indicated in

the note to

On

the

Conditions

As a
perfectly

first

elastic

to

he

use

Section

hy a

Satisfied

hypothesis,

us

let

smooth fixed

of

the method of spherical harmonics as

of the

I.

paper.

Gas

the Surface

of a Solid Body.

the surface of the body to be a

suppose

surface,

at

having the apparent shape of the scHd,

without any minute asperities.

In this case, every molecule which strikes the surface will have the normal

component

of

its

velocity

reversed,

by impact.
The rebounding molecules

while

the

other

components

will

not be

altered

will

therefore

move

as if they

an imaginary portion of gas occupying the space really


such

the

that

reflection

in

motion of every

close

to

had come from


solid, and

by the

the surface

is

the optical

that surface of the motion of a molecule of the real gas.

In this case we
as

molecule

filled

constituting

the

may speak
reflected

of the rebounding molecules close to the surface

gas.

All directed properties of the incident gas

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.


are

reflected,

that

to

is

say,

in the reflected gas

^iJ^ri'er^ecZ

sym-

the properties of the incident and the reflected gas are

say,

with respect to the tangent plane of the surface.

metrical

The
the

might

as Professor Listing

or,

705

and

incident

gas together constitute the actual gas close to

reflected

The actual

surface.

gas,

cannot exert any stress on the surface,

therefore,

except in the direction of the normal, for the ohlique components of stress in
the incident and reflected gas will destroy one another.
gases

Since

can

actually

oblique

exert

against

stress

such

surfaces,

real

surfaces cannot be represented as perfectly reflecting surfaces.

its

line

motion

of

is

rebound

velocity after

Consider,
far

whose velocity

molecule,

If

whose

given

is

may with

equal probability be in any direction.

a stratum in which fixed elastic spheres are placed so

therefore,

apart from one another that any one sphere

by any

protected

from

sphere

other

not to any sensible extent

is

impact

the

of

more of the spheres, and

let

let

the

without striking one

it

stratum of fixed spheres be spread over

this

we have been

the surface of the solid

and

molecules,

stratum be so deep that no molecule can pass through


or

and magnitude, but

direction

in

not given in position, strikes a fixed elastic sphere,

then every molecule which

considering,

comes from the gas towards the surface must strike one or more of the spheres,
after which all directions of its velocity become equally probable.

When,

at

last,

leaves

it

the stratum of spheres and returns into the gas,

velocity must of course be from the


its
particular magnitude and direction of the

surface,

but the probability of any

velocity will

be the same as in a

gas at rest with respect to the surface.

The

distribution

surface

will

portion

of

of

therefore

gas

at

velocity

be

rest,

the

among the molecules which

same

having

as

if,

instead of the

temperature of the

the

solid,

leaving the

are

there

solid,

were a

and a density

such that the number of molecules which pass from it through the surface in
a given time is equal to the number of molecules of the real gas outside

which strike the

To
of

surface.

distinguish

spheres,

collectively,

each

incident

VOL.

return

which,

into

sphere

of

are

being entangled in the stratum

we

gas,

the

so near together that a considerable

outer layer

is

shielded

molecules by the spheres which


II.

after

sun*ounding

the

shall

thera,

call

the absorbed and evaporated gas.

If the spheres

of

the molecules,

afterwards

lie

part of the surface

from the direct impact of the

next to

it,

then

if

we

call

89

that

RARIFIED GASES

STRESSES IN

706

point of each sphere which Hes furthest from the soHd the jpole of the sphere,

proportion

greater

near

spheres

molecules

of

than near

pole

its

any one of the outer layer of

strike

will

and the greater the obliquity of

equator,

its

incidence of the molecule, the greater will be the probability that

a sphere near

The

in

tangential

part

and

impact,

but

directions,

all

of

of

rebounding

the

of

direction

probability

will strike

it

pole.

its

being

velocity

its

normal

its

molecule

there

the

in

being

part

no longer be with equal

will

be

will

greater probability of the

direction

opposite

the motion before

of

normal

the

to

part

before

impact.

The condition

of

the molecules which leave the surface will therefore be

intermediate between that of evaporated gas and that of reflected gas, approach-

most

ing

nearly

If the

the

on

evaporated

to

gas

at

normal incidence and most nearly to

gas at grazing incidence.

reflected

spheres,

molecules

instead of being hard elastic bodies,

at

finite,

though small

be

still

more

might

also

consider a surface

will

We

like

reflected

and

gas,

are

supposed

difficulty

first

impact

to

treat

in

like evaporated gas.

less

surface

of

allows

the

area

them

portion

of

the

molecules incident upon

We

shall
is

absorbs

in

all

while

solid,

to

particular,

suppose that of every

the incident molecules, and afterwards

portion

begin by supposing that the surface

on that side of

it

for

are

which x

is

those which,

component of velocity negative.

perfectly

still

reflects

gas at
all

the

We

them by the suffix


distinguished by an accent.

(,).

is

the plane

yz,

and that

positive.

close
shall

by the suffix (i). For these, and these only, ^j


The rebounding molecules are those which
distinguish

consider-

it.

The incident molecules


normal

and,

surface,

evaporate with velocities corresponding to those in

to

temperature

the gas

is

direction of rebound from the

something intermediate between a perfectly reflecting

as

and a perfectly absorbing


unit

when the

eflect

such as to lead to a second or third impact, I have preferred

is

the

calculating the

act

on which there are a great number of

minute asperities of any given form, but since in this case there
able

to

they are so close

if

then the gas which leaves the

together that their spheres of action intersect,


surface

and

distances,

is

to the

surface,

have their

distinguish these molecules


negative.

We shall
^ positive.
Those which are evaporated will be further
have

OF TEMPERATURE.

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES

Symbols without any mark


evaporated,

The quantity
is

refer

to the

707

whole gas, incident,

reflected,

and

the. surface.

to

close

of gas

which

is

incident on unit of surface in unit of time,

-pi^i'

Of

quantity the

this

fraction

1-/

so

reflected,

is

that the sign of ^

is

value of | in evaporated
reversed, and the fraction / is evaporated, the mean
to unpolarized
gas being f, where the accent distinguishes symbols belonging
0',
of
temperature,
the
gas at rest relative to the surface, and having

the

solid.

Equating the quantity of ga which


surface to that which is evaporated from

on the absorbing part of the

incide.it

is

we have

it,

(60).

fp.t+fp:i.'=o

Equating the whole quantity of gas which leaves the surface to the reflected

and evaporated portions

If
7j,

we next

consider

pS={f-i)p.L+fp:L'
the momentum of the molecules

that of the incident molecules

and becomes (l-f)


the

mean value

tively to

fore

p^Lv^,

of

is

p,^,rj,.

fraction

(1-/)

(61)-

in

the direction of

of this

is

reflected

absorbed and then evaporated,

and a fraction/ of it is
now -v, namely, the velocity of the surface

being

-q

contact with

the gas in

rela-

it.

The momentum of the evaporated portion in the direction of y is thereportion, makes up the whole
-fp.'L'v, and this, together with the reflected

momentum which

is

leaving the

surface,

or
(^-)-

P.ein.={f-^)p^^^v^-fp^'^>
Eliminating

fp.'^.'

between equations (61) and

(62)

(l-/)M:^x + p.i.>?. + 4(l-/)p.^. + /'^^--l =

(63).

incident molecules

are to
The values of functions of ^, rj and C
function,
given
the
by
equation
in
(22)
expression
be found by multiplying the
and integrating with respect to ^ between the limits - oo and 0, and with
for

respect

to

-q

and

The values
surface

We

in

are

between the limits

of the

to be

same functions

the

oo
for

the molecules which are leaving the

found by integrating with respect to ^ from


that since there

to

oo

an essential discontmuity

must remember, however,


the conditions of the gas at the surface, the expression in equation (22)
is

892

is

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

708
a

much

accurate approximation to the actual distribution of velocities in

less

the gas close to the surface than

important

to

liable

the

consider

therefore,

it

is

when we

corrections

We

in the interior of the gas.

conditions at which

surface

we

arrive

in

this

must,

way

as

have discovered more powerful

shall

methods of attacking the problem.


For the present, however, we consider only terms of three dimensions or

and we

less,

find
^^^^

p{2u)-^(Ref{l+\a:)]

p.^.=

= ipROa^ - ip (277) -* Rda^^l


=
\pRd<l^ + ^p{2ir)-^ Rdo:^\
pljl.,
p,^,-n,

Substituting these expressions in equation

(63),

^^^^

and neglecting

{2-f)pRda/B-{-f{2TT)-^pR0a'^-^2f{27r)-^l+ia:)(Rdypv = O
If

we

in

a^

com

with unity, we find

parison

...{66),

write
ff

and substitute

for ayS

and

= |^(2,r)'(|>p)-(?,-l)

a-/3

(67)

their values as given in equations

(54)

and

(51),

and divide by 2 {ppf, equation (66) becomes

^Jdv

fx

d'0

fide

,^-.
(^^^-

''-^\dx-2yed^ir)^4-pddy=^^
If there

is

no inequality of temperature, this equation

is

reduced to

^=^&
K,
parallel
it

therefore,

to

gas

at

finite

distance

from

the

surface

is

mo^dng

the surface, the gas in contact with the surface will be sUding over

with the

the same as
filled

the

()

finite
if

velocity

v,

and the motion of the gas will be very nearly


G had been removed from the solid and

the stratum of depth

with the gas, there being now no slipping between the new surface of

the solid and the gas in contact with

The
name of

it.

was introduced by Helmholtz and Piotrowski under the


Gleitungs-coefficient, or coefficient of slipping.
The dimensions of G are
coefficient

ABISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.


those of a

and

line,

to

ratio

its

mean

the

I,

709

path of a molecule,

free

given

is

by the equation

^=1(7-1)'
Kundt and "Warburg found
whence we

find

f=^,

is

easy to write

If

down the

We

d
^
T
tor l-j-

ax

m,

I,

G = 2l,

G = ^l.

surface conditions for a surface of

Let the direction-cosines of the formal v be


J
dv

glass,

were half perfectly reflecting

it

were wholly absorbent,

it

with

contact

in

air

for

or the surface acts as if

and half perfectly absorbent.


It

that

(^'-

and

n,

let

any form.

us write

+ m^-+n-f-.
ay

az

then find as the surface conditions

dv

4:

pd \dx

dv^

...(71).

..443 =
In each of these equations the
of

term

first

is

which

gas in contact with the surface,

the

one of the velocity-components


is

term depends on the slipping of the gas over the


indicates

the

effect

of

of

inequalities

and shows that

surface,

temperature

supposed fixed;

of

the second

and the third term

surface,

the

gas

close

there will be a force urging the

in general

to

the

gas from

colder to hotter parts of the surface.

Let
section,
is

so

may

us

and
slow,

take
for

as

an

illustration

the

case

we

the sake of easy calculation

and the temperature

varies

so

of a capillary tube of circular


shall

suppose that the motion

gradually along the tube that

we

suppose the temperature uniform throughout any one section of the tube.

Taking the axis of the tube

for

that of

z,

we have

for

the condition of

steady motion parallel to the axis

dp
dz

/d*w

d'wX

,^^.

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES

710
Since everything

we

find as

symmetrical about the

is

axis,

if

we

write

for

r^

-=^+^1'"
If

af

2/'

the solution of this equation

(^3).

denotes the quantity, of gas which passes through a section of the

tube in unit of time

Q = 2nlpwrdr
('')

=""^i^^r,t")
At

we have

the inner surface of the tube

= a, and

4/A clz

Trpa^

8 IX clz

'

also

dw_

1 djj

(^^)-

'dv--2i,dz''

The

last

of equations (71)

may

therefore be written

Equation (77) gives the relation between the quantity of gas which passes
section of the tube, the rate of variation of pressure, and the

through any

rate of variation of temperature in passing along the axis of the tube.

If the

pressure

is

uniform there will be a flow of gas from the colder to

the hotter end of the tube, and

if

there

increase from the colder to the hotter

These

efiects

of the

variation

is

no flow of gas the pressure wiU

end of the tube.

of temperature

in a tube

have been pointed

out by Professor Osborne Reynolds as a result of the Kinetic Theory of Gases,

and have received from him the name of Thermal Transpiration


strict

name

in

analogy with the use of the word Transpiration by Graham.

But the phenomenon actually observed by Professor Reynolds in his exwas the passage of gas through a porous plate, not through a
and the passage of gases through porous plates, as was shown
capillary tube
periments

ARISING FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

by Graham,

of an entirely different kind from the passage of gases through

is

and

tubes,

capillary

711

is

more nearly analogous to the flow of a gas through a

small hole in a thin plate.

the diameter of the hole and the thickness of the plate are both

When

small compared with the length of the free path of a molecule,

Thomson has shown, any molecule which comes up

William
either
it

then,

to

as

Sir

the hole on

side will be in very little danger of encountering another molecule before

has got fairly through to the other side.


in either direction

Hence the flow of gas

very nearly in the same manner as


side

and

of the hole,

if

through the hole

there had been a

will

take place

vacuum on the other

whether the gas on the other side of the hole

this

is

of the same or of a different kind.

the

If

on

gas

the

two

of the plate

sides

is

of the same

different temperatures, a phenomenon will take place which

we may

kind but at
call

thermal

effusion.

The

velocity

of

temperature,

absolute

molecules

the

proportional to this velocity

product

more

of

the

molecules

density
will

is

proportional to

the square root of the

the quantity which passes out through the hole

and

and

the

into

pass

to the density.

from

square root of the temperature

that

side

than

is

Hence, on whichever side the

from

the

is

greatest,

other through the

and this will go on till this product is equal on both sides of the hole.
Hence the condition of equilibrium is that the density must be inversely as
the square root of the temperature, and since the pressure is as the product
hole,

of the density into the temperature,

the pressure will be directly proportional

to the square root of the absolute temperature.

The theory

of thermal

therefore a very simple one.

The
through

spond

finer
it,

to

effusion

through a small hole in

It does not involve the

thin plate

theory of viscosity at

is
all.

the pores of a porous plate, and the rarer the gas which effuses

the more nearly does the passage of gas through the plate correwhat we have called effusion, and the less does it depend on the

viscosity of the gas.

The

coarser

the

pores

of

the

plate

and the denser the

gas,

the

further

does the phenomenon depart from simple effusion, and the more nearly does

it

approach to transpiration through a capillary tube, which depends altogether on


viscosity.

712

STRESSES IN RARIFIED GASES ARISING

To

return

uniform

is

<^-tUO
By
found*
to 27"

on

experiments
the

for

When

the case of transpiration through a capillary tube.

to

the temperature

FROM INEQUALITIES OF TEMPERATURE.

capillary

value of

tubes
air

for

of

at

(^^)-

MM. Kundt

glass,

and Warburg

pressures and at from

different

17"

C,
o

G = - centimetres
P
where

^)

same as

(79)

the pressure in dynes per square centimetre, which

is

millionths

in

of an

atmosphere.

is

nearly the

For hydrogen on glass

G = centimetres
15

(80).

When

there

from

end

end.

Putting

to

is

no flow of gas in a tube in which the temperature varies

end,

the

Q=

we have

pressure

is

greater at the hot

end than at the cold

^"'^-

d&'^pdd' + iGa
The quantity
introduction,

and

6
is

is

just

therefore

double of that calculated in section (3)


C.G.S.

in

measure 0'63 x_p

for

dry

air

at

of the
15" C.

Let us suppose a = 0*01 centimetre, and the pressure 40 millimetres of mercury,


then (?= '00016 centimetre.
If

pressure

one

end

of

at

the

hot

the

tube

end

is

will

kept at 0"C.

exceed

that

at

and the other at 100" C, the


the cold end by about 1*2

millionths of an atmosphere.

bore

The difference of pressure might be increased by using a tube of smaller


and air of smaller density, but the effect is so. small that though the

theoretical proof of its existence


of

it

would be

seems

satisfactory,

difficult.

* Pogg. Ann., July, 1876.

an experimental

verification

Society's Transactions, Vol. xii.]

[From the Camhridrje Philosophical

the average distribution of energy in

On Boltzmanns Theorem on

XCIV.

a system

of maternal points.

Dr Ludwig Boltzmann,
lebendigen Kraft

Wien,

Bd.

of the

solution

number

lviii.,

Oct.

" Studien

his

in

has devoted

1868],

His method

points.

[Sitzb.

d.

Akad.

h.

third section to the general

his

energy among

problem of the equilibrium of kinetic

of material

der

Gleichgewicht

das

liber

bewegten materiellen Punkten"

zwisclien

of treatment

is

finite

ingenious, and, as

far

but I think that a problem of such primary importance


as I can
in molecular science ought to be scrutinized and examined on every side, so
satisfactory,

see,

many

that as

persons as possible

may be

and to know on what assumptions

when the assumptions

to

relate

it

degree

the

the motion of a system whose motion

Mr H. W. Watson,

in

his

enabled to follow the demonstration,

rests.

is

This

is

more

irregularity

of

especially necessary

to

be expected in

not completely known.

on the Kinetic Theory of Gases*, has

Treatise

developed with great clearness the steps of the investigation of the distribution

among a

of energy

set

of particles

only at very small distances.

such as gravity, but


particle

it

also that the

is

this

particles

is

more than one other

method of treating the

the subsequent investigation

inapplicable

to

the

supposed to act on each other

may be

of the

theory of the

acted on by external forces

that the time during which a

very small

no sensible action between

time during which a particle

of molecular action of

Now

which are
particles

expressly stipulated

encountering other

is

during which there

in

is

The

is

it

compared with the time


and
and other particles
;

simultaneously within the distance

may

particle

however necessary

question,

processes

equihbrium

be neglected.

of diffusion,

of

temperature

&c.
in

it

in

may

liquids

* Clarendon Press Series, 1876.

VOL.

II.

be

gases,

90

is

and

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

714

gation,

given

as

impossible,

to

is

are

particles

never

from

free

true that in following the steps

by Boltzmann

by "Watson,

or

it

is

the action

is

made use

We

of.

the

enabling

of

may

reader

almost say that


to

form

more

of

of the investidifficult,

where the stipulation about the shortness and the

sake

the

for

It

either

see

of the encounters
rather

the

bodies

these

in

for

solids,

neighbouring particles.

it

not

if

isolation

introduced

is

mental

definite

Be

image of the material system than as a condition of the demonstration.


this

as

may, the presence of such a stipulation

it

problem cannot

fail

leave

to

in

mind

the

of

the enunciation of the

in

the reader the

of a

impression

corresponding limitation in the generality of the solution.

In the theorem of Boltzmann which

and according
and they may

we have now

to consider there

The material points may act on each other

such limitation.
to

any law which

also

is

at all

no

is

distances,

consistent with the conservation of energy,

be acted on by any forces external to the system provided

these also are consistent with that law.

The only assumption which


system,

left

if

through every phase which

Now

it

is

is

proof

is

that the
pass

manifest that there are cases in which this does not take place.

of a

besides the

equation of energy,

which,

necessary for the direct

consistent with the equation of energy.

The motion
phases,

is

to itself in its actual state of motion, wall, sooner or later,

system not acted on by external forces

though they

so

satisfies

six equations

that the system cannot pass through those

satisfy the equation

of energy,

do not also

satisfy

these six equations.

Again, there

may

be particular laws of

to which the stress between

two

particles

them, for which the whole motion repeats


a

cases

particular

value

of

one variable

each of the other variables, so that


variables

force,

is

instance that according

as for

proportional to the distance between


itself after

corresponds

a
to

finite

time.

In such

particular value

of

phases formed by sets of values of the

which do not correspond cannot

occur,

though they may

satisfy

the

seven general equations.

But

if

we suppose

that the material particles, or some of them, occasionally

encounter a fixed obstacle such as the sides of a vessel containing the particles,
then,
will

except for
introduce a

special

forms of the surface

of this

motion

of the

disturbance

into

the

obstacle,

system,

each encounter
so

that

it

will

A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL

OF ENERGY IN

The two paths must both

from one undisturbed path into another.

pass

the equation of energy,

and they must

intersect

each other

in

which the conditions of encounter with the fixed obstacle are


not subject to the equations of momentum.

are

715

POINTS.

It

is

satisfied,

difficult in

satisfy

phase for

the

but they

a case of such

extreme complexity to arrive at a thoroughly satisfactory conclusion, but we


with considerable confidence assert that except
of the

fixed

may

particular forms of the surface

for

the system will sooner or later, after a sufficient number

obstacle,

of encounters, pass through every phase consistent with the equation of energy.
I shall begin with the case

iip

which the system

is

supposed to be contained

within a fixed vessel, and shall afterwards consider the case of a free system,
or

system contained in a vessel rotating

of a

itself

moves uniformly in a
have found

convenient,

except in the

respects
to

it

consider a large

to

particles,

uniformly about an axis whicli

straight" line.

initial

system of material

instead of considering one

number of systems

to

similar

each other in

all

circumstances of the motion, which are supposed

vary from system to system, the total

the statistical investigation of the motion,

we

energy being

the

same

in

confine our attention to the

all.

In

number

of these systems which at a given time are in a phase such that the variables

which define

it

within given limits.

lie

number of systems which are in a given phase (defined with respect


configuration and velocity) does not vary with the time, the distribution of
If the

to

the systems
It

is

variables

path

said to be steady.

is

shewn that if the distribution is steady, a certain function of the


must be constant for all phases belonging to the same path. If the
through

passes

all

phases consistent with the equation

of

energy,

this

however there are phases


consistent with the equation of energy, but which do not belong to the same

function

must be constant

for

path, the value of the function

if

is

a necessary

the function

of energy,
if

we

whether

But
function

it

may

able

or

condition

initially

is

will

are

such phases.

all

If

be difierent for such phases.


not

to

prove that the constancy of

of a steady distribution,

constant for

all

it

this

manifest that

is

phases consistent with the equation

remain so during the motion.

This therefore

is

one solution,

not the only solution, of the problem of a steady distribution.

Now we know

from the empirical laws of

problem of the equilibrium of

the diffusion of heat that the

temperature in an isolated material system has

902

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

716

But we have found one

one and only one solution.

of equilibrium of energy in a system of material

the real material system in which the equilibrium of


is

capable

of being

accurately represented

of

solution

points in motion.

the problem
therefore,

If,

temperature takes place

by a system of material points

(as

defined in pure dynamics) acting on each other according to determinate, though

unknown,

then the mathematical condition of the equilibrium of energy

laws,

must be the dynamical representative of the physical condition of the equality


of temperature.

appears from the theorem that in the ultimate state of the system the

It

average kinetic energy


of the

ratio

number

of

two given portions of the system must be

of degrees of freedom

of those

This,

portions.

the

in

therefore,

must be the condition of the equality of temperature of the two portions of the
system.

Hence at a given temperature the total kinetic energy of a material system


must be the product of the number of degrees of freedom of that system
into a constant which is the same for all substances at that temperature, being
in

the

temperature on

the

temperature,

fact

the thermodynamic scale multiplied by an absolute

constant.
If

increased

by the product

therefore,

of the

is

raised

number

by

unity,

the

energy

kinetic

is

of degrees of freedom into the absolute

constant.

The observed

specific

heat of the body, expressed in dynamical measure,

the increment of the total energy

when the temperature

The observed specific heat cannot therefore be


number of degrees of freedom into the absolute
energy diminishes as the temperature

Dynamical

We

shall begin

having

type,

its

less

In variables

We

is

unless the

potential

rises.

Specification of the motion.


to be of the

determined by the n variables

motion determined by the corresponding momenta

system at any instant

is

by unity

increased

than the product of the

constant,

by supposing the material system

configuration

is

completely defined

if

most general

q^, ^^-..^n,

The

p^, 'p^...p^.

we know the

and

its

state of the

values of these

for that instant.

shall

suppose the forces acting between the parts

of

the

system to

be of the most general kind consistent with the conservation of energy.

This

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

may

be expressed by defining

function of

The

kinetic

energy

total

and

is

the system,

of

as

suppose

it

the variables which define the configuration.

<7i...g,

be expressed

to

energy

the potential

V,

717

energy of the system


in

is

denoted by

terms of the qs and

denoted by

^j's

as

in

We

T.

shall

The

Hamilton's method.

E=V+T

(1),

a constant during the motion of the system.

is

Hamilton's equations of motion for this system are

dqr_dE

dt

where

^'^'

dp^

.^t

^'^^'

dq,

and pr are the co-ordinate and the momentum corresponding

q^

to

each

other.

Let us now consider a

motion of the system.

finite

Let the

initial

co-

final

co-

momenta be distinguished by accented letters, and the


and momenta by the same letters unaccented.

ordinates and
ordinates

To
These

define

completely

may be

the n

such a motion requires

initial

co-ordinates,

the n

2n+l

variables

to

be given.

momenta, and the time

initial

occupied by the motion.

There

initial

is

another method however in which the 2

co-ordinates,

these quantities

are

the n final

co-ordinates,

and the

given there are in general only a

variables are

4- 1

finite

the

energy.

"When

number of

possible

total

motions.

Definition of the " Action

"

of the system during the motion.

Twice the time integral of the kinetic energy, taken from the beginning
to

the

end

co-ordinates

of

the motion,

and of the

during the motion.

If

total

and expressed
energy,

we denote

it

is

in

called

terms of the
the

\Tdt

is

and

expressed as a function of q{...qn, q^-'-q^ and E.

final

system

by A,

i-and

initial

"Action" of the

(4),

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

718
It

is

shewn

on dynamics* that

in treatises

dA

(5).

d^r~^'
dA
d^r^^

and

dPr

Hence
The

dqg

indices r

Also

if

t'

and

and
t

_
~

(6)-.

d^A_

_ _ dp^

dqfdq,

dq^

.(7).

this equation may be the same or different.


the values of the time at the beginning and at the end

5 in

are

of the motion,

JA
dA
dE'

t-f

(8).

d^

=
dE
S=-f ()-^'^'

Hence

In the course of our investigation we

shall

,(10).

'"dq:

have to compare the product

and momenta at the beginning of the


We shall
motion with the corresponding product at the end of the motion.

of the

write

differentials

for

ordinates,

and we

of the

co-ordinates

brevity ds = dq^...dqn

and

dcr

= dpj^.

the product

for

of

the differentials of the

shall use the product

ds'dsdE

as a middle

term

in

conlparing

ds dcr

with dsdcrdt.

Now

da

dt'

f^

ds'dsdEt +
-\dq.

dpn
^here

co-

.dpn for the product of the differentials of the momenta,

^<4.

dq^

dE)

^''^'

dt'

dqn dE,

denotes the functional determinant

dpi

dp'

dpi

dq,'

3^

dE

dpn
'

dqi

dpn
dq^

dE

df^

dt'

dq,'

^'

dE

Thomson and

Tait's

.(12).

dpri
'

Natural Philosophy,

330.

dt'

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


Substituting for the elements of

equations

(7),

(9),

and

(10)

it

this

becomes

-'^r-

determinant their

values

719
given

by

BOLTZMANNS THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

720
have

to

deal

with

terms

in

of the latter set

Then

of variables.

by

since

equation (2)

dE _ dq,' _
dp^
dq^

Similarly

we

dq^'

=d
dq^

find for the final state of the

dq^ dp,'

dp^'

dE ,

..(19).

. .

system

dp^ = dq^

dq^ dp^

dq^

the

..dp^'
dp^

dp(

.(18),

dt

dq^ dp,

dp^

dE

(20).

The left-hand members of these equations have been proved equal, and in
right-hand members dE is the same at the beginning and end of the
Dividing out

motion.

dE we
dq^dp:

dq!

This equation

find

is

dp^ -^, = dq,

dqjp,

c/p

applicable to the case in which the total energy

not to vary from one particular instant of the motion to another,


therefore,

the

2?i

(21).

supposed

is

and

in which,

variables are no longer independent, but, being subject to the

equation of energy, are reduced to 2n

Statisticcd

\.

Specification.

We

have hitherto, in speaking of a phase of the motion of the system,


supposed it to be defined by the values of the n co-ordinates and the ?i momenta.
We shall call the phase so defined the phase (pq). We shall now adopt a
wider definition by saying that the system is in the phase (ajj) whenever the
values of the
h.,

and

h,_

co-ordinates are such that

+ dK, and

limits of the first

of p,

is

so

on;

also p^

component of

not independent of

and the other 2n -

q^ is

between

momentum,

t?,

between
cu

and

b^

and \ + d\,
and so

a^-\-da^,

q^

between

on.

The

are not specified, because the value

the other variables, being given in terms of

variables in virtue of the equation of energy.

The quantities a, h are of the same kind as p and q respectively, only


In
they are not supposed to vary on account of the motion of the system.
the statistical method of investigation, we do not follow the system during
whether
its motion, but we fix our attention on a particular phase, and ascertain

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


the system

when

it

and

that phase or not,

in

is

leaves

when

also

Boltzmann defines the probability of the system being


whole time
I

prefer

the

of

there

that

are

set

of values

for

energy

many systems

great

which are the same, and that each of these


total

the same in

all,

and

in

set

is

the n co-ordinates and the n

being

to

aim

^y

be

the

t,

are

the phase

in

momenta, the value of the

number of these
The motion of each

{ajj).

number of these
b, t).
The
a function of X,

he denoted by

{a,h)

method is to express
and momenta with their

statistical

of the co-ordinates

that

the properties of

motion with a different

the whole number of systems, and let the

the time

at

of

{a^b)

to the

of course independent of the other systems.

is

Let
which,

the phase

consider the

systems which, at a given instant, are in the phase

system

in

that phase

in

is

it

the whole time being supposed to be very great.

motion,

suppose

to

and

it.

the ratio of the aggregate time during which

as

phase

the

enters

it

721

J\^ [a^,

b,

can only enter the function as a factor, for

Also any differential

not act on each other.

t)

sls

and of

limits,

J\" (a,,

It

t.

manifest

is

the different systems do

da or db can only enter as

sls

a factor, for the number of systems within any phase must vary in the ratio

between the

of the interval

X[a,lf)

AVe may therefore write

limits of that phase.

= X/{a,,

a,

5,

b,,

t)

da^db,

da,

where we have to determine the form of the function

We

shall

we begin

to

Since

now

the

(22),

motion of these systems from the time

follow the

watch the motion, to the time

individually the

db

when we

watch

cease to

t\

when

it.

systems which at the time t form the group X{a^, b, t)


same systems which at the time ?' formed the group -^(a/, b',

wc have
X{a,^

Nf{a,

or

But by equation

where

is

= X{a:,

V,

= Xf{a:

db^{\)-^

/(a,

t)

t)

t')

(23),

da;

a constant for

all

= da:

t)\=f(a:

db^ih:)-^

X(a^,
VOL. n.

(24).

phases of the same motion, and

b,

t)

(25).

0^.'=^

t) = C(br
= XC{b.y'da,

/(.

and

db,'

(21)

da,

Hence

b,

db^

t)da,

(26).

we may

write
(27),

db^

(28).

91

are
t')

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

722

distribution of the

If the

the number

be steady.

said to

is

systems in the different phases

a given phase does not vary with

in

The condition

of this

phases belonging to the same path.

all

is

the

that

such that

is

the

time,

distribution

must be constant

for

It will require further investigation to

determine whether or not this path necessarily includes

all

phases

consistent

with the equation of energy.


If,

we assume that the

however,

the

to

different

phases

original distribution of the systems according

such that

is

with the equation of energy, and zero for

is

constant for aU phases consistent

all

phases which that equation shows

be impossible, then the law of distribution will not change

to

and

We

with the time,

be an absolute constant.

will

have therefore found one solution of the problem of finding a steady


Whether there may be other solutions remains to be investigated^

distribution.

Let
h,

+ dbi,

the

iV(6)
q^

denote the number

between

h^

and

momenta not being

h^

of

+ dh.,, and

systems in which

q^

is

between

b^

and

and g between 5 and hn + d\,


otherwise than by their being consistent with

specified

so

on,

the equation of energy, then

N{h)=
the integration being

...

extended to

{N(a,, h)da,.,.da^
all

values

of

the

(29),

momenta

consistent

with

the equation of energy.

To

simplify the integration let us suppose the variables transformed so that

the kinetic energy

is

expressed in terms of the squares of the component momenta,


r=^(/x,a,''

where

a^...an are

co-ordinates,

the

transformed

+ ia,a/+...+/.a=')
momenta, and

/x-i.-./x^

(30),

are functions

which we may caU moments of mobility, and which,

in

of

of material points, are the reciprocals of the masses.

Now

let

us assume

^I.^A^^=T=E-V

(31),

ll..AnJ = l^n{Ar.'-a.')

(32),

lln-AnJ = l^n-iAnJ-<^nJ)

(33),

/x^/ = /x3(^/-a,=)

the

the case

(34).

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

723

Then by the equation of energy


fi,,a,'

Of

quantities,

these

given and

is

= fi,{A,'-a,')

a function

of the

(35).

co-ordinates

a function of the co-ordinates, ^_i

is

ordinates and a, -4_, of the co-ordinates

is

and of a and

only,

because-

is

a function of the co-

a_j,

and

so on.

Also by equation (2)

6.=

^^ = ^, a.
= (/.,,x,)H^4.'-a,f

(36).

To integrate the expression


jjj...jc{K)-^da,...da^,

we begin by

integrating with respect to a,, thus

f(7(6,)-^cZa3=fc(/.,/x,)-^(A'-a/)-W,
the limits of integration being A^.

The

result

(37),

is

MC{m.;.=)-W

(38).

For the next integration we have


j{fi.A,yda, =

Hence

after r integrations,

j\{A.'-^')Yda,=
r being any number

^^A,^
less

than

(39).

n,

the result

is

^~2~
Putting r =

n-l

and remembering that

fi^A*

= 2E-2V, we

N{h) = NC^^^{,.,H'.-f^n)-K'^E-2Vp^

This
variables

is

number

the

6,...6,

while the

of

systems

whose configuration

momenta may have any

find

(41).

is

specified

by the

values consistent with

equation of energy.

912

tlie

BOLTZMANN S THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

724

EV,

The quantity

which

occurs

in

equation,

this

is,

equal in magnitude to T, the kinetic energy of the system.

however,

is

momenta

defined explicitly in terms of the velocities or the

EV

whereas

system,

by equation (l),
The quantity T,

not

does

involve

these

quantities

of the

but

explicitly,

is

expressed as a function of the configuration.

We

find

shall

it

complicated

problems,

configuration

is

If

however, especially in the

convenient,

remember

to

number

that the

of

study

more

of

systems in a given

a function of the kinetic energy corresponding to that configuration.

the kinetic energy

is

sum

not expressed as a

of

squares,

but in the

more general form,


r=-^[ll]ai' + [l2]aia, + &c.

+ i[22]a/ + [23]a,a3 + &c


where

the

by [11] &c. are


the moments and products

quantities

which we may

call

denoted

(42),

functions of the co-ordinates,


of

mobility

system

of the

then since the discriminant

[111

[12],

[m]

[21],

[22],

[2n]
.(43)

[tiI],
is

in

an invariant,

which case

value

its

is

[nn]

[7i2],

the same

when

is

reduced to a sum of squares,

the elements except those in the principal diagonal

all

determinant vanish, and

of the

we have
A=/^i/i,...^

and we may write the value of

(44),

(b),

N{b)=NC^^f

A-!(2-2F)~d6....d6..

.(45).

^',2
If the

system consists of n

/Xi

Hence

in this case

= /Xj =

ju.3

we may

i\r(6)

= m^~^

whose masses are m^...m

material particles,

then the number of degrees of freedom


/>t'4

is

n = 3n' and

= /^s = ft6 = ^3~^

aiid so

on

-(46).

write

= A^C'^^^(m,...my [2^-27]

dh,...dK

.(47).

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


These

For

positive

in

specified

configurations

greater than E, the value of

The value of N(b)

systems in a given configuration

N{b)

is

exceed the total ^energy.

energy cannot

way

such a

that

if

by a

path

continuous

consider

given

though they make


from the

make

original

V greater

than E.

number of systems in a commean time it will be useful to

return to this expression for the

shall

configuration,

specified

pletely

would be

zero.

configuration without passing through configurations which

We

they existed

also zero for configurations which,

is

than E, cannot be reached

less

of

that configuration, for since the kinetic energy

for

the potential

positive,

necessarily

is

is

the number

give

expressions

^ F

when

only

725

how many
In

limits.

but

in

the

of these systems have


this

average distribution of

one of their momenta, p^, between

way we shall be able to determine completely the


momentum among the variables without making any

assumptions about the nature of the system which might limit the generality
of our results.

In order to find the number of systems in the configuration

one

of

the

momenta,

say

before the last integration.

N{b,a,)

= NC

_p,

lies

(6)

between o and an + da^, we

which

for

must

stop

Putting r = n 2 in equation (40)


);/_ ^^ (^..../Xn-r^Fn-x^n-.')

'

da,db,...db^

(48).

The whole number of systems

in configuration (b) is given

the proportion of these systems for which a

lies

by

(45).

between a and a-f ca

^-'^(L r^-F-w.f;^,^^
lE-V]^
(i)r(^)
If

we

Hence
is

(,).

write
il^na.'

=h

(50),

then k^ denotes the part of the kinetic energy arising from the

The proportion
and K + dk^ is

of the

systems in configuration

(b)

for

which

_l(L_ liId^,-^aK
r(l)r(V)

[^-H'

^-

momentum
is

between

(51).

a.

boLtzmann's theorem on the average distribution

726

Since any one of the variables


of the kinetic energy

of values

for

^,

the same for

all

the variables.

value of the kinetic energy corresponding to any variable

The maximum value


The mean value

is

(52).

T=nK

(53).

is

l-'^-^r-l
+ 2...n+2r-2

When

The mean

is

K=-(E-V) = - T
is
^'

of

the law of distribution

may be taken

is

,^,

^^^y

.7i

very large, the expression (51) approximates to


(")

7fek*<^*
Mecapitulation.

The

result of our investigation

(a)

We

may

begin by considering a set of material systems which satisfy the

and

general equations of dynamics (2)


in

these systems the

be satisfied during

satisfies

the

equation (51), to which

motion

have to

shall

If

(l).

(45),

and

equation (51), these equations will continue

subsequent

we

and the equation of energy

(3),

of configurations satisfies equation

distribution

the distribution of motion


to

therefore be stated as follows

is

energy corresponding to any one of the variables

is

One

system.

of the

refer,

result

average

that

the

the

same

of

kinetic

every one

for

of the variables of the system,

We

(/8)

a
in

rigid

now turn our

vessel

attention to a system of

such a system the temperature

real

bodies enclosed in

know by experiment

is

the same, and that this condition

necessary in whatever manner the configuration of the system

by altering the position and mean density of the portions of


which we are able to divide it.

Now

if

the system of real bodies

equations of dynamics,
condition

of the system

and

if

will, as

that

cannot remain steady in every part unless

the temperature of every part of the system


is

We

impervious to matter and to heat.

is

equations

may

a material system which


(45)

and

we have shewn,

(a),

(51)

are

be varied

sensible size into

also

satisfies

satisfied,

the
the

be steady in every respect,

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

and therefore

Hence by

in respect of temperature.

727

the temperature of every

(/8)

part of the system must be the same.

Therefore

equations

if

of temperature

But the

(45)

and

(51) are satisfied, the condition of equahty

also satisfied.

is

condition

of

equality

temperature

of

configuration of the system, for though

we can

depend

not

does

alter the configuration

on the
by external

we cannot prevent the temperature from becoming equalized.


We must therefore conclude,

constraint

It does

not depend, therefore, on equation (45).


equation (51)

satisfied,

is

the condition of equality of temperature

other words, that equation (51)

or, in

is

that

if

also satisfied,

the condition of equality of temperature.

is

Hence when two parts of a system have the same temperature, the average
energy corresponding to any one of the variables belonging to these
parts must be the same.
kinetic

system

If the

same

is

gas or a mixture of gases not acted on by external

the theorem that the average kinetic energy of a single molecule

forces,

molecules of different gases

for

of equilibrium

is

between gases of

of temperature

kinds such as oxygen

different

and nitrogen, because when the gases are mixed we have no means of
temperature of the oxygen or of the nitrogen separately.

taining the

ascer-

"We can

only ascertain the temperature of the mixture by putting a thermometer into

We
of the
for

cannot

legitimately

nitrogen must be

the only

existing

way

in

as

into

motion.

is

we begin

soon as

But

since

our investigation

only

it

of

satisfies

pure oxygen

the solid diaphragm

the

and

contact

oxygen

or

is

consisting

of

dynamics,

nitrogen

separated

of molecules

capable

each

other,

nitrogen as

the

becomes resolved

equally applicable to a system

equations

pure

with

as a system of molecules,

see the molecules distinctly, heat

provided
consist

they are in

by picturing the medium


to

it.

temperatures of the oxygen and

that the

because

which we can conceive the

the mixture

in

and

assert

equal

the

is

not sufficient to establish the condition

of

of any kind,

we may suppose
by a

solid

motion, but

it

to

diaphragm,
acting on

each other with forces which are sufficient to prevent any molecule from getting
far

apart

from

In this

its

neighbours

except

under

the

action

of

disturbing

forces

any which would occur in a system at the given temperature.


system, though the oxygen and the nitrogen cannot mix, each can make

greater than

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

728

an exchange of molecular energy with the surface molecules of the diaphragm,


and exchanges of energy can go on within the soHd diaphragm itself without
any exchange of molecules between distant parts of the diaphragm.
Hence, in this system, the average kinetic energy of a molecule of oxygen

become equal to that of a molecule of nitrogen

will

in the

final state

of the

when the temperatures of all parts of the system have


become equal, and since in that final state we have pure oxygen on one side
and pure nitrogen on the other, we can verify the equahty of temperature by
means of a thermometer, and we can now assert that the temperatures, not
only of oxygen and nitrogen, but of all bodies, are equal when the average
that

system,

is

to

say,

kinetic energy of a single molecule of each of these substances

Approximate value of

To

find the

when

the prohahility

number of systems the

is

the same.

small compared with E.

is

configuration

of which

is

specified

as

regards the limits of certain of the variables while the other variables are left

we should have

undetermined,

to

integrate the

expressions

in

equations (41),

with respect to each of the undetermined variables in succession,


the integrations being extended to all values of these variables which are
consistent with the equation of energy.
(45), or (47)

These integrations cannot be performed unless the potential energy of the


is a known function of the variables which determine its configuration.

system

We

cannot therefore in general continue the integration so as to determine


the number of systems in which the limits are specified for some, but not all,
of the variables.

But when the number


energy

of

the

specified

energy of the system, we

of variables

configuration

may

is
is

very great, and when the potential


very

small

compared with the

total

obtain a useful approximation to the value of

n-2

[^

F]

in

an exponential form,

for if
n-2

we

write, as in equation (53),

n-i n-2,

/,

= ^Ve-2-^
nearly,

provided

is

very great and

is

E = nK,

r\

(56),

small

compared

with

E.

The

729

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


expression

its

kinetic energy,

number

the

that

statement,

it

potential energy of the system in the given configuration

very small compared with

correct

and

nearly as great as E,

is

V=E.

ought to do, when

it

Hence when the


is

no longer approximate when

is

does not vanish, as

systems

of

in

given configuration

in

of which

the index

function,

invei-sely proportional to the exponential

the potential energy of the system

we may use the approximately


is

is

half

divided by the

the given configuration

average kinetic energy corresponding to each variable of the system.


If

we

the

V,

V^ and

divide

energy

whole

the

of

the potential energy of

Vji,

the system into any two parts,

potential

and B, we may consider

made up

as

system,

and B, each on

itself,

of three

parts,

and W, that of

with respect to A.

When,

the

in

as

of

case

a gas,

V^

the average values of

degree independent of each other,


treated as

a system are in a great

of

the parts

constants, and the variations of

will

and

V^ may be

W,

be the same as those of

so that the variable part of the exponential function will be reduced to


(57).

e'2^
If
gas,

we suppose

and that

system,

that

denotes

denotes a single molecule

all

there are

since

then,

many

a particular kind

of

whatever

of

is

kind,

we may

molecules similar to A,

the number of systems in which

molecules,

other

the

pass,

of

the

in

from

within a given element of volume,

to

the average number of molecules similar to A which are within that element,
element.
or, in other words, the average density of the gas A within that
therefore interpret the expression (57) as asserting that the density
the
of a particular kind of gas at a given point is inversely proportional to
single
a
of
energy
potential
exponential function whose index is half the

We

may

molecule

of

the

gas

at

that

point,

divided

by

the

average kinetic energy

corresponding to a variable of the system.

We

must

remember

determined by three
centre

the

of mass

mean
VOL.

of

that

variables,

a molecule

since

the
is

three

centre

the

mean

kinetic

times

the

of

mass

energy

of

quantity

of

molecule

agitation

A'

which

of

denotes

kinetic energy of a single variable.


II.

is

the

92

BOLTZM Ann's theorem

730

Part

on the average distribution

II.

Free system.

In a material system not acted on by external forces the motion


equations

six

besides the

our integration

all

equation of energy,

that

so

we must not

satisfies

include in

the phases which satisfy the equation of energy, but only

those of them which also satisfy these six equations.

what

In

follows,

we

shall

suppose the system to

w, V, w, are

mi + mj + &c.

s of

particles,

these particles, and write

+ m, = 1/g

+ mjr.^ + &c. + m^Xg = MgXg,


m^,+m^^ + &o. + 'mgyg = MgYg,
iUtX^

+m^2 +&C, -rin^g = M^Zg,

mjZj^

Mg

?i

'mi...inn,

Let us now consider a system consisting of

then

of

consist

and whose co-ordinates x, y, z, and velocity-components


distinguished by the same suffix as the particle to which they belong.

whose masses are

will

(58),
"j

(59),

be the mass of the minor system and Xg, Yg, Z, the co-ordinates

of its centre of mass.

If

we

also write

+ &c. + nigUg = M, Ug, 1


+ kc. + mgVg^ MgVg, I
nijWi + &c. + nigWg = MgWg, J
m.iy.w, - z,v,) + &c. + mg(ygWg - ZgVg) = Fg + Mg{YgWg - Z,F,), 1
m,{z,u, -x,iv,) + &c.+mg {ZgUg-XgWg) = Gg + Mg(ZgUg-XgWg),
m, {x,v, - y,u,) &c. +
(a;,v, - ygUg) = H^+ Mg (Xg Vg - F, Ug)
J
WiWi
m^v^

-\-

then Ug,
Fg,

Gg,

Vg,

Hg

We

Wg

will

rrig

be the velocity-components of the centre

momentum round

seven

conditions

V^,

+ kc.+^mg{Ug^ + Vg^ + iVg^) = Tg

satisfied

by the whole system

W^, F^, G^, H^ and

and

therefore transform

equation

are

(62).

that the seven

are constant during the motion.

Under these conditions the Zn momentum-components


shall

of mass,

this point.

shall also write

quantities U^,

We

...(61),

the components of angular

lm,(u^ + v^ + w^)

The

(60),

(17) into

are not independent.

one in which the difierentials

OP ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


of the

first

seven velocity- components are

replaced

by the

differentials

731
of the

seven constants.

The functional determinant is found by differentiating the seven quantities


y^ ^^n. Fn, G^, H^ and E with respect to the momenta m^u^\ ^it',,
m\iL\\ m.^i(j, mj.\, m^ii\_; and m^iiy
We thus obtain
Un,

1,

BOLTZMANNS THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

732

We

find

shall

in

useful

it

what

follows

to

the energy of internal

define

motion as the excess of the whole kinetic energy of

system

the

over

that

would have if it were moving like a rigid body with the same confio-uration, and the same components of momentum and of angular momentum.
which

it

we suppose the

If

forces

the

during

altered

internal

by internal

time

very short

process,

motion

forces,

for

the

kinetic

energy referred

the mass moving with the velocity of

due

to

the

rotation

energy of internal motion,

where

where p,
axes of

the configuration

is

not sensibly

then the work done by the system against these

the measure of the energy of internal motion.

is

"Writing

energy

the system to be destroyed in a

of

that

so

X,

of

the system

y,

the origin,

for

of

mass,

for

I=T-K-J

(71),
(72),

K=^M{U'-{-V'+W')
J=i{Fp + Gq + Hr)

(74),

the

of

angular

H by

(73),

velocity

with

respect

to

the equations

Ap-Nq- Mr = F,

aF-nGmH=p,

Bq-Lr = G,

-nF+hG- lH=q,

Mp-Lq+Cr=H,

mF- IG+ cH=T,

.(75).

where
'

L = tm{y-Y){z-Z)

M=tm{z-Z){x-X)
N=tm{x-X){y-Y)
a,

D=

T =t[^m (u' + v^ + vf)']

and are related to F, G,


N'p +

the kinetic

a rigid body, and

as

that of

for

we have

r are the components

q,

to

the centre

the


733

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

we

If

write

^=u U + qz rl/^
ri

= v V -\-rxpz

^=w

.(79),

>

W-\-py-qx]

be the velocity-components

of

^,

axes

passing through the centre of mass of the system

7},

C,

will

We

angular velocity whose components are p, q, r.


the velocity-components of the internal motion.
rigid,

may

be expressed in terms of

^,

-q,

thus

^,

may

therefore

call

-q,

The energy

of internal motion

(80).

have now to express the energy of internal motion of a system of


and T belonging
particles in terms of the quantities U, V, W, F, G,

We

to

the system of

s^^

particle.

To avoid the
to

system were to become

/=Sim(f + V + r)
5-1

to

respect

and rotating with the

If the

the internal motion would become zero.

with

particle

then

the

minor

particles,

together

repetition of suffixes

system

of

s-1

We

we

particles

belonging to the complete system of


letters.

with

the position and velocity of

the

shall distinguish quantities belonging

by

s particles

accented

and the

and quantities
m, by unaccented

letters,

particle

shall also write

Mm
We

M' = M-m
M'X' = MX-mx
M'U' = MU-mu,
F' = F-ii,{ij-Y){iv-\V) + ix,{z-Z)(v-V)

thus find

..(81).

L' = L-t.(y-Y)(z-Z)

T=T-^m{u' + if + iif)
K'=K+^iJL[{u-uy+{v-vy+(w-wy']-im(u'+e+'uf).}
Since the choice of the axes of reference is arbitrary, we may simplify
the expressions by taking for origin the centre of mass of the system M, and
may also turn
for the axis of z the line passing through the particle m.

We

'

BOLTZMANN S THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

734

the axes of x and y about that of


of which

till

becomes a maximum, the condition

is

LM-{-CN=0.

We

shall

the system

With

also

reckon velocities with reference to the centre

of mass

of

M.
these simplifications

we

find

h'=
C'

M' =

aiiz-

r=

'

l-hfJLZ'

m = 1 ma/xz-

l-hfiz"

n' =?

'

H' =
C' = C
N' = N

= C + /A2^

G' = G-fiuz
B' = B-iiz'

F' = F+ix,vz
A' = A-iiz'L' = L

hiiz-

71

.(82).

= 0,

aixz^j

U = D(l-aii,z'){l-liiz').
We

are

now

able to

calculate

the energy

of

rotation,

J\

of the

minor

system
2J' = aF" +

h'G''

+ c'H"-2VG'H'-2m:H'F'-2nF'G'

= 2J+ ^_

(83),
^

^,

\faiiz'

- 2vfiz (Fa - Hm) + fiz' (Fa - Hrrif]

(84).

+ Y^^^, iW'hiiz' + 2utiz {Gh - HI) + ixz' (Gh - Hiy]


Combining these results and reducing we
motion of the system

find

for

the energy of internal

M'

r = I-^fj.(l -h,jiz!')-' (u- Gh + my -ifi{l -afiz')-' (r- Fa + Hiy -iixw\..(S5).

(r(-^))T|

^dudvdw =

Hence
III''

the

integration being

extended

/ON I

19+5
'
.-6^.f / ....(86).

;-l^ g) ii-a,rY

to all

values

of u.

v,

and

positive.

Now

(l

afiz^)(lbfiz^) = D'
^, and

this

is

an invariant.

which make

/'

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

Hence

whatever axes we choose,

in general,

(r(^))T(^"^"')
"
^ ^

[M,jD,_,-\^lJdu.dv.dw,=

[imJ-[l//Ar^/5~

For the system consisting of the two particles


rotation

735

m^ and

m.,

(87).

the energy of

is

j,=i-^^,(i^/+(?.^+ir/)
"2"

and the energy of internal motion

is

^.

Hence we may write equation

= 4^'V

If
so

first

\-h

C{7n,'m.^m,a,r,)-'{2j^] I-^dv,...dw^

xY(6)=
have

(89).

(70)

/3-7

Wo

(88),

(90).

to express /, in terms of quantities having the suffix

we make the

plane of yz pass through the three particles

,.

7/1,,

that the origin coincides with their centre of mass and has the same velocity,

and the axis of

z passes

whose vertices are

111^^,

through

7713,

then a

is

twice the area of the triangle

m^ and m^,

F, = F, + ^'z,v,,

G,= G,-^^z,u,,

H, = H,

am^u,= G,{y,-7j,)-{-H,{z,-z,)

r/

We

V/^

M^G^z,

,F,z,

(91),

(92),

y]_,i{3m,^_
3

have now to integrate


I

extending the integration to

all

\l~^ dv^dw^y

values of

v.^

and u\ which make

/, positive,

and

BOLTZMANNS THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

736

remembering

The

that

equation (92)

shews

jjl,

dv.aw,-

that

U3

independent of

is

and

v,

w^.

result is

J,

Now

m^

for the three particles

A = j^^-'
where

^3^

r^,

r-ji

and

rjj

are the

[^23*

^,

1,

^^^^^^^,

(94;.

m^, Wj,

^^^2^8

distances

+ r^^ m,m, + r^/ m^mJ a"


between the

(95),

and a

particles,

the area

is

of the triangle m^m^m^.

r^m^m^ + r^^m^rn^ + rjm^m^ = -~ {m^m^r^ -^-M^m^z^)

Also

We

may now

(96).

write equation (90) in the form

(6)

r'c^^X \_\m,'mlm:MiD,J^l} du,.dw,

(97).

Continuing the integration by equation (87) we find


3-8

/^i^^"~^

-8

what we have defined as the energy of internal motion of the


work which the system would do, in virtue of its motion,
against the system of internal forces which would be called into play if the
distances between the parts of the material system were in an insensibly small
time to become invariable.
where

is

or the

system,

In order to determine the number of systems in a given configuration

which

the

velocity-components

of

the

particle

n\du, v\dv, w\dw, we must form the


by stopping short before the

We

thus find

=^

'

m^

lie

expression

between
for

iV(6,

the
w,

v,

last triple integration.

iV(6, w, v,

w^

C'-L-gi (m,..m.,)-'jl/..-i)..,-/_.

for

limits

A(dv<iw...(99).

w^

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.


as

If,

equations (82) to

in

we suppose the

(86),

be the centre of mass of the whole system,


the axes of x and

the particle w, and

^=u-qz,
so that

the system would do

if it

whose components are

i^,

The sum of the

are

rj,

^,

We
77i

were then to become

we may

r,

q,

particle

in^ is

moving with the

also define it as the

Comparing

this

result

distribution

of

would be

it

substitute for

of

of the

with the angular velocity

(101).

sign taken positive,

its

relative velocity

is

due to the

whose components

system,

if

these forces

mean square

line of relative

vessel containing

infinitely short time.

n2

particles,

provided that

(l-a^r)"Y,

^-

is

velocity

where

z is

motion of the

the same at

in

all

we

respectively.
line joining

of the velocity in the direction of the

of the
1,

an

rigid in

particle

were suddenly to

with that obtained in equation (48), we see that


the velocities of the particle m^ is the same as

in a fixed

the ratio of 1-a/xr to

on the

axes moving as

to

relative

rigid,

v\ vf the quantities (l-6/xr)"'f,

u',

Hence the mean square


the

the

(100),

work which would be done by the

of the

the particle with the centre of mass

but

of

then writing

may

law

z,

write

become such as to render the whole system

what

normal to

=w

m^

through

pass

directions

motion of the system which

internal

against the internal forces

the

the

terms of this expression, with

last three

part of the

that the

fact

to

= /n-i/^(l-Z>/^r)-f-i;x(l-a/.r)-V-4/x-

/-.

represents the

= i'-f;9r,

of

in

ellipsoid

the velocity- components of

are

T],

^,

7;

of co-ordinates to

origin

axis

be

to

ij

momental

principal axes of the section of the

the

737

points of the system,

other directions

is

less

than this in

the perpendicular from the centre of mass


particle,

and a

system about an axis through the centre

is

the

of mass

moment

of mobility

and normal

to

the

plane through that centre and the line of motion.

When

the

product

from the centre

distance

of
is

mass of the

the
so

small that

it

particle

may

into

the square

of

its

be neglected in comparison

with the moments of inertia of the system, then quantities like a/ir' and 6/12*
may be neglected in respect of unity, and we may assert that the mean square
of the relative velocity, for a particle of given mass,

and at

all

VOL.

II.

points

of

the

system;

but

that

for

is

the same in

difierent

all directions

particles

it

varies

93

738

boltzmann's theorem on the average distribution

inversely as

their

the moving axes

masses

is

so

that the

average

the same for particles of

all

energy

of

motion relative to

kinds throughout the system.

"We have already learned from equation (98) that in a free system of n
the number of cases in which the system is in a given configuration,

particles

other words, the probability of that configuration,

in

or,

We
Let
is

proportional to the

power of the energy of internal motion corresponding to that configuration.


have next to consider the manner in which this probability depends

on the position of a particular

is

IJ'^

say of the last particle, m.

particle,

denote the energy of internal motion of the complete system when

and

at the centre of mass of the system

to that centre.

It

is

manifest that in this case

is

without any velocity relative

contributes nothing towards

the energy of internal motion.

Now
left

to

let

77i

be carried from the centre of mass to the point

there without any velocity (that

Let

W be

effect

this

three angular

let

is,

and

z)

then since the total energy of the system and the

momenta must be maintained

J_,

But by equation

we

constant,

shall

have after this

(102).

(85)

Substituting the value

of

/_i

from

equation

and

(102),

find for the energy of internal motion in the

I^

particles,

= J/)-T7

= ^-i + i/x (1 - t/^tz^"' (^^ - ?2)' + i/^ (1 - otf^^T' (^ +^52)' + iF^-

u = v = w = 0, we

The

0,

the work which must be done against the forces of the system
transference,

displacement, for the energy of internal motion of the remaining n

/n

(0,

= v = iv = 0).

of a

configuration in

-(103).

remembering

new

= IJ^^-W + ifx{l-hixz')-'qY + ^fi{l-aiMz')pV

probability, therefore,

that

configuration
(104).

which, the positions of

all

8n-8

the other particles being given,


/ being given

by equation

When, as in the
we may speak

to m^,

in the element dxdydz.

case

that of

is

varied,

is

proportional to

^
,

(104).

of a gas,

there

of the density of the

In this

case,

are

a great

medium

many

particles

similar

consisting of such particles

however, for reasons already given, neglect

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

739

and we may write m for /x. We may also choose


is most convenient.
We shall therefore make
the axis of z that round which the system, if it were rendered rigid, would
rotate with velocity la, and we shall suppose this axis to be vertical, as
the quantities

a/xz'

and

Z>/x',

our axes in the manner which

otherwise a steady motion under the

action of gravity could not exist,

denote the horizontal distance from this axis by

shall

We

may now

and we

r.

write for the density of the gas at the point

(2,

r)

3n-8

where

When
is

is

71

we may

p=

write for this the exponential expression

p/

(106).

the mass of a molecule of hydrogen,

is

iii\

(105),

a very large number and when the second term of the binomial

very small compared with unity,

If

"

the density at the origin.

is

p^

= Po[l + {2/<^>)'"(i''^-2wi5'2)]

molecule of the kind of gas considered, where

/x

is

will

yjin^

be the mass of a

the chemical equivalent

of

the gas.

Also
of

if

agitation

second,

is

of

dilatation

perfect

gas,

the molecules

of

scale, and a the coeflBcient


then since the " velocity of mean square " of

the temperature on the centigrade


a

of

hydrogen at

O^C.

is

l*844xl0' centimetres per

the kinetic energy of agitation of a system containing

any kind

will

and

difference

fWo^j(l-844)=10"(l
the

n molecules of

be

between

this

+ aT),

and the energy

of

internal

may

motion

be

neglected.

We

thus find for the density at any point

= Poe

(10/).

Let us now consider a tube of uniform section placed on a whirling table


so

that one end,

B, revolves
of

is

velocity

6jr,

is

A, of the tube coincides with the axis while the other end,

about the axis with the angular velocity

and we

shall

suppose,

for

w.

The

linear

the sake of easy calculation,

one-tenth of the velocity of agitation of the

velocity

that

this

molecules of hydrogen.

932

BOLTZMANNS THEOREM ON THE AVERAGE DISTRIBUTION

740

The

hydrogen at

density at
If

will be

e^,

would be 184-4 metres per second.


the ratio of the density of the

0"C.,

If the

gas at

tube

to the

or approximately l+^oo--

a gas whose chemical equivalent

contains

it

end

of the

velocity

contains

is

the ratio will be

/x,

200
tube contains hydrogen and carbonic

If the

of the tube at

contains

then an equal volume

the tube at

of

and 222 parts of carbonic

acid,

will

contain 201

Thus

degree

of

carbonic acid,

parts of

hydrogen

approximation to the ultimate distribution

varies as the square of the length of the tube.

Loschmidt's experiments on the

in

a certain volume
of

require to be continued in

The time during which the experiment would


mixed gases

if

acid.

order to obtain a given


of the

and

200 parts of hydrogen and 200

diffiision of

gases he used a tube

experiments from half an hour to an


from which he could best deduce the

about a metre long, and continued his

hour

order to

in

the

obtain

results

coefficient of diffusion.

In

these

carbonic
in

acid

an

half

experiments

were
hour,

the

reduced to

and

the

if

inequalities

of

distribution

of.

hydrogen

and

than a third part of their original value


experiment had gone on for two hours the

less

differences from the ultimate distribution

would have been reduced to a hundredth

part of their original value.

We may therefore consider two hours as ample time for an experiment


on the ultimate distribution of these two gases in a tube one metre in length.
But

if

distribution

we make the
from

the

whirling tube 20

centimetres long, the difierences of

ultimate distribution would be reduced to

part of their original value in a twenty-fifth part


in

4 minutes 48 seconds.

so

as to

If

it

of the time,

a hundredth

that

is

to

say

were found more convenient to have bulbs on the ends of the tubes,
be able to secure the gas at each end before

the violent

commotion

arising

from

the

stopping

should have to allow a longer time for the whirling.

of

it

the

got

mixed up by

whirling

tube,

we

OF ENERGY IN A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL POINTS.

741

In order to obtain a .similar distribution of the two gases in a vertical


tube by the action of gravity the tube would require to be 1720 metres high,
and in order to obtain the same degree of approximation to the ultimate

we should have to let the experiment go on for 675 years,


the tube during that time from all inequalities of temperapreserving
carefully
the gases
ture, which, by causing convection-currents, would continually mix up

distribution

and prevent their

partial

separation.

[From Nature,

XCV.
When, about two
Atlantic

the

electricity,

hundreds
believe

of

news

ago,

had

been

sounds

articulate

had

report

came

invented

from
of

in

of

fact,

imaginations in picturing some triumph of constructive


surpassing

that

Sir

being

humble

put

as

be

to

who had

us

began to
skill

the

of

means

of

heard

reason to

our

exercise

something

as

far

was

at last this little instrument appeared,

everyone of which

by an

together

appearance

When

bell-pull.

consisting, as it does, of parts,

of

side

by

William Thomson's Siphon Eecorder in delicacy and intricacy as

beyond a common

is

other

so

voice,

those

speaker,

some foundation

the

transmitting,

human

the

of

away from the

miles

that the

Telephone {Rede Lecture).

Tlie

years

method

that

Vol. xviii.]

only

amateur,

partially

is

familiar

to

on

relieved

and capable

us,

disappointment

the

arising

finding that

it

from

was

its

really

able to talk.

But

perhaps

construction,

may

the telephone, though simple in respect of


involve some recondite physical principle,

might worthily occupy an hour's time of an academic audience


say that I have not yet met anyone acquainted with the
of electricity

physical
further,
in

the

who has

process

experienced the slightest

involved

and say that


columns

apprehension to

of

make

a
it

in

the

action

of

diflficulty

the

newspaper, which

worth preserving

shewed a

in

telephone.

have never seen a printed

material

its

and

the study of which


I

first

can

only

elements

understanding the
I

may even go

on the subject, even

article

sufficient

amount of mis-

among

scientific subjects

proof that

the telephone possesses a very exceptional degree of lucidity.

However,

if

the telephone has something to say for

hardly necessary for


It
all

is

to take

more
listener.

perfect

utterances

When

he

is

itself,

it

would seem

up your time with any tedious introduction.

unfortunate, however, that up to the present time

his

single

me

to

the telephone has kept

be whispered into the privileged ear of

older,

he

may

get more accustomed to public


743

THE TELEPHONE.
speaking, but

if

we

beyond what

is

good

immature

in his present

force him,

for him, it

may sound

state,

to exert his voice

rather too like the pot quarrelling

the kettle, and may call for the criticism with which Mr Tennyson's
" Song of the Swallow "
Princess complimented the disguised Prince on his

with

"

Not

for thee, she said,

Bulbul, any rose of Gulistan

Shall burst her veil:

rather, maid,

marah divers

Shall croak thee sister, or the

meadow crake

Grate her harsh kindred in the grass."

Is

for

it

and

solemn

this,

hall,

that

then,

engrossing

the

all

we

are

of

studies

where the very

air

to

the luncheons and lawn tennis

forsake

the

May

Term, and to assemble

problems, or else redolent of the graces of innumerable congregations


It

is

of Sir Robert

Rede when he founded

would

It

not by concentrating our minds on any problem, however important,

but rather by encouraging them to expand, that we shall best

parts

various

this

in

seems thick with the accumulation of unsolved

be

useless

as

as

it

the intention

fulfil

this lecture.

would

be

explain the

try to

tedious to

small instrument to persons in every part of the Senate

of this

House. I shall, therefore, consider the telephone as a material symbol of the


widely separated departments of human knowledge, the cultivation of which has
by as many converging paths, to the invention of this instrun^'jnt by
led,
Professor

For

Graham

Bell.

whatever

may be

said

about

the

importance

rather than width in our studies, and however strong the

age

may

build

up

of

aiming

demand

depth

at

of the present

be for specialists, there will always be work, not only for those
particular sciences and write monographs on them, but for those

who
who

open up such communications between the different groups of builders as will


And in a university we are
them.
facilitate a healthy interaction between
especially bound to recognise not only the unity of science itself, but the

We

are too apt to suppose that we are


of the workers in science.
congregated here merely to be within reach of certain appliances of study, such
as museums and laboratories, libraries and lecturers, so that each of us may

communion

study what he
it

is

for

the

prefers.

sake

suppose that

when the

of the honey that they do

bees crowd round the flowers


so,

the dust which they are carrying from flower to

never thinking that

flower

which

is

to

it

is

render

THE TELEPHONE.

744
possible

a more

splendid array of flowers, and

We

years to come.

cannot,

therefore,

a busier crowd

of bees,

in

the

do better than improve the shining hour

forward the cross-fertilization of the sciences.

in helping

Before

we go

further,

before you, but

my

wish to express

the able assistance he has given me.


constructed some of

lie

obligation to

But

himself.

it

given you some second-hand information

Mr

Garnett

for

has not only collected the apparatus

about

for

him,

telephones.

He

might have

made

has

it

you to hear something yourselves. I have also to thank Mr Gower,


who has brought his telephone harp, and Mr Middleton, who has contributed
possible

for

several instruments of his

We

shall

own

with

begin

invention.

telephone

the

in

most

its

obvious

aspect,

as

an

instrument depending on certain physical principles.

two instruments, the transmitter and the receiver,


of conducting electricity.
The speaker
talks to the transmitter at one end of the line, and at the other end of the
line the listener puts his ear to the receiver, and hears what the speaker says.
The process in its two extreme stages is so exactly similar to the oldfashione4 method of speaking and hearing that no preparatory practice is

The apparatus

consists of

doubly connected by a circuit capable

requirea on the part of either operator.

We

must

not, however, fall into

the error of confounding the principle of

the electric telephone with that of other contrivances for increasing the distance

may be

In

these the

principle

the

at which a

conversation

same as

in

the ordinary transmission of sound through the

of

matter which intervene between the speaker and the hearer take

portions
part,

in

succession,

in

the

received,

portion

and

is

in

in

all

Each

of

front

it,

in

again reduced to

a long tube,

or

air.

The

receives

is

different

certain

and communicates a precisely similar motion

it

doing which

it

gives

out

all

the energy

it

rest.

The medium which takes part


confined

on.

a certain mechanical process.

motion from the portion behind


to

carried

in

this

process

may

some other medium such

be the open

air,

as a brick wall, as

or air

when

we hear what goes on in the next house, or a long wooden rod, or a metal
In all these it is by the actual motion of
wire, or even a stretched string.
the successive portions of the

In the

electric

instrument to the other.


closed circuit.

But

medium that the message is transmitted.


is also a medium extending from the one

telephone there

it

is

It

is

a copper wire,

or

rather two wires forming a

not by any motion of the copper that the message

THE TELEPHONE.
is

The

transmitted.

and

flows to
It

fro in

remains

copper

at

745
but

rest,

variable

electric

current

the circuit.

which distinguishes the electric telephone from the ordinaryand from the transmission of vibrations along wooden rods by
Charles Wheatstone used to cause musical instruments to sound in

this

is

speaking tube,

which Sir

a mysterious manner without any visible performer.

On

we have

the other hand,

audible signals

visible or

and

transmission
circuit
is

interruption

Most of these depend on the alternate


In some part of the
electric current.

an

of

introduced corresponding to this instrument which

is

Whenever two

a key.

called

each

pieces of metal, called the contact pieces, touch

the current flows from the

other,

circuit.

Whenever the

and the

effects

which produce

electrical contrivances

a distance.

at

a piece of apparatus

the principle of the articulating

to distinguish

telephone from that of a great number of

one to the

contact pieces are

of this alternation

of current and

produce signals at any other part of the

other,

and

the

interrupted,

is

may

no current

round

so

current

separated the

be made to

circuit.

In the Morse system of signalling, currents of longer and of shorter duration


are

dashes

called

and

dots

The

rate

one another depends on the rate at

by

and

respectively,

symbols of letters are formed.

at

combinations

which these

which the

and may be increased by mechanical methods

can

operator

the

till

the

these

of

currents succeed

little

work the

receiving clerk

key,

can no

longer distinguish the symbols.

But the capability of the telegraph wire for transmitting signals is by no


means exhausted as the rapidity of the succession is increased, the ear ceases
to distinguish them as separate signals, but begins to recognise the impression
of a musical tone, the pitch of which depends on the
it receives as that
number of currents in a second.
Tuning forks driven by electricity were used by Helmholtz in his researches
on the vowel sounds, and the periodically intermittent current which they
;

furnish

is

research.

succession

recognised as

forks

are

currents

goes

on

of

whenever we have occasion


in

most

The tuning

a short time,

agent

valuable
of the

with

to follow

most

the

in

most

and

physical

massive

physiological

construction,

inflexible

regularity,

and

the

so

that

the march of a process which takes place

such as the vibration of a

violin

string

or

the

twitch of a

living muscle, the tuning fork becomes our appropriate timepiece.

Apparatus of
VOL.

II.

this kind, however, the merit of

which

is

its regularity,

is

quite

94

THE TELEPHONE.

746
of adapting

incapable

itself to

the transmission of variable tones sucb as those

of a melody.

The first successful attempt


made by Philip Reis, a teacher

On

October 21,

tones by electricity was

to

transmit

variable

in

a school

at Friedrichsdorf,

near Homburg.

Reis showed his instrument, which he called a telephone,

18fil,

He

to the Physical Society of Frankfort on the Main.

succeeded in transmitting

melodies which were distinctly heard about the room.


The transmitter of Reis's telephone is essentially a make and break key
of

vibrations

air

that

construction

delicate

so

work it.
The

set

strikes

against

time contact

number

of

This piece of platinum,

it.

platinum,

point of the circuit there

when

and so completes the

is

able

to

vibrating,

every

circuit

thus a series of currents corresponding

and by causing these

the vibrations of the drumhead,

to

through the cod

an

of

the

electromagnet,

armature

the current passes, and

attracted every time

to emit a sound,

the pitch of which

into the transmitter at the other

is

end of the

[Mr Gower here played the

"March

set it

in

to

pass

electromagnet

the

of

the armature

if

resonator of any kind, the succession of tugs will


it

are

air

made.

is

At every
in

piece

the

in

motion a stretched membrane like a drumhead,

in

with a piece of platinum fastened to


another

sound-waves

the

is

is

attached to a

vibration,

and cause

the same as that of the note sung


line.

of

Men

the

of

Harlech" on the

The instrument consists of


which make and break contact on

telephone harp placed in the Geological Museum.

a set of steel reeds worked by percussion,


the battery

The

circuit,

of which the

primary wire of an induction

worked by the secondary

are

receivers

coil

forms part.

There were four receivers,

current.

one of them Prof Bell's original one, placed in different parts of the Senate-house.]
If

pitch

the

distinguish,

of

sound

in the instrument of Reis.

ourselves
in

are

so

sound of a

distinctions

were

the only

quality

which we are able to

the problem of telephony would have received

trained

far

But the

by continual

human
practice,

ear

that

the slightest

we

for

the musical distinction of pitch, that

variation

in

the pronunciation of a word

indifferent to the variations of a melody.

complete solution

its

constructed,

recognise

more subtle character than that of pitch

have become so much more important

intercourse than

so

is

and these

the purposes of

many
wbo

and we

distinctions
finer

human

persons can detect


are

comparatively

747

THE TELEPHONE.

Now, the telephone

of

Prof.

we can

that so faithfully that

Graham

only melodies

which can transmit not

heard through the telephone.

often

How

is

Bell

sung

the

eflfected

ordinary

speaker

telephone,

articulating

but

it,

recognise
this

an

is

to

by

speech,

and

v.oice

as

It is manifest that if

by

his

any means we can cause the tinned plate of the receiving instrument to vibrate
in precisely the same manner as that of the transmitter, the impression on the
ear will be exactly the same as if it had been placed at the back of the
and the words

the transmitter,

of

plate

be

will

heard

as

if

spoken

at

the

other side of a tinned plate.

But

an

implies

this

exact

not

correspondence,

only

in

the

number

of

vibrations, but in the type of each vibration.

Now,

if

the electrical part of the process consisted merely of alternations


and no current, the receiving instrument could never elicit

between current
from

it

the semblance of articulate speech.

If the alternations were sufficiently

they would produce a sound of a recognisable pitch, which would be


very rough music if the pitch were low, but might be less unendurable if the
best, it would be like playing a violin with a
still, at the
pitch were high
regular,

saw instead of a bow.


What we want is not a sudden starting and stopping of the
a continuous rise and

fall

of the

inflexion to the motion of the air agitated

Graham

Prof.

made

to

current, but

current, corresponding in every gradation

Bell has recounted the

produce undulatory currents

and

by the voice of the speaker.

many

unsuccessful
of

instead

attempts which he

mere intermittent

ones.

He

making and breaking


had,
Every method involving impact of any kind, whether between electric
contact.
contact pieces or between the sounding parts of the instrument, introduces
discontinuity of motion, and therefore precludes a faithful reproduction of
of course,

to

give

up

altogether

the

method

of

speech.

In the ultimate form which the telephone in his hands assumed, the electric
current is not merely regulated but actually generated by the aerial vibrations
themselves.

The

electric

of electric

of this

principle

involved in Bell's telephone

currents discovered by

principle

Faraday in 1831.

has been before the

scientific

but has never been improved upon.


Consider first a conducting circuit, that

is

world

is

that of the induction

Faraday's

own statement

for nearly

half a century,

to say,

wire

which after any

942

THE TELEPHONE.

748

number of convolutions returns

may

current

and

flow,

into

Consider next a line of magnetic

by sprinkling iron

visible

Faraday
ticians

also

first

would

Now,

on

filings

showed,

Round such

itself.

circuit

an

electric
it.

such a hne as you see here made

force,

This

of paraffin paper.

a sheet

a line returning into

is

an electromotive force to drive

will flow if there is

line,

as

mathema-

as the

or,

itself,

say, it is a closed curve.

there are two

if

closed

they must

curves in space,

embrace

either

one another so as to be linked together, or they must not embrace each other.
If the line of force as well as the circuit were made of wire, and if

embraced the copper

circuit,

would be impossible

it

cutting one or other of the

But the

wires.

to

of force

line

more

is

it

them without

unlink

like

one of

which cannot

Milton's spirits,

"In

their liquid texture mortal

wound

Receive, no more than can the fluid air."

Now,

the copper circuit or

if

the

then in general some of the

other,

cease to

embrace

circuit

will

it will

become linked with


every line

For

amount of

certain

of

In

is

or

else

force

which ceases

embrace the

to

and

direction,

way

of the

in order to pass

through the

complete
still

coil,

another piece

lines of

even though there

of

and

circuit,

together

iron

to

beyond

in

the

circuit.

soft

for

so

take

If

iron

lines

line

which

is

embraces

air.

soft iron

magnetic force pass more

They
Hence a

will

go

out

of

large proportion

is

is

no iron beyond the

core, so

air.

placed near the end of the

which have passed through the

the Hnes belonging to

advantage

of

the

magnet

core
core

will

it

to

crowd

an easy passage through the core

the iron is moved nearer to the core, there


number of such lines, and, therefore, a negative
it is moved away there will be a diminution in ih".

If then

it.

be an increase in the

current

there

circuit

round a small core of

coil

Now

through iron instead of

greater facilities

theii'

closer

and the
will

if

aflbrd

each

causing a negative current.

force,

that they have to complete their circuit through

But

to

embraced the

belonging to the magnet pass through the iron core, and,

of force

lines

therefore,

will

new

every

for

a negative electromotive

through iron than through any other substance.

freely

relatively

originally

positive electromotive force, which, if unopposed, will generate

fastened to the end of a steel magnet.

their

which

some of those which did not embrace

telephone the circuit forms a

Bell's

move

force

it.

a current in the positive


the circuit there

it,

of

lines

lines of force

749

THE TELEPHONE.

number

and a

of lines,

employed by Page
machines, but
a tinned
in

the

current

positive

the construction

in

the

in

This

circuit.

was

principle

one of the earliest magneto-electric

of

was reserved for Prof. Bell to discover that the vibrations of


set in motion by the voice, would produce such currents
as to set in motion a similar tinned plate at the other end of

it

iron

plate,

the circuit
line.

It

will

Faraday

help us

to

developed

we

if

germ

of that

appreciate the fertility

detected and

first

recollect

of science

which

year after year he

that

had employed the powerful batteries and magnets and delicate galvanometers of
the Royal Institution to obtain evidence of what he all along hoped to discover

the

production of a current in one circuit by a current in another, but

without success,

at

till

phenomenon, to be
primary

he

less

the

the

the

at

of the

ordinary

caught by Faraday, has

making

as
or

all

transient

breaking the

growth

of

scientific

second Faraday,

principles,

this

but

germ, so

developed on the one hand into the powerful

which maintain the illumination of the lighthouses on our coasts

currents

on the other, into these currents

telephone which

of the

though the engine that drives them

eSect,

of

instant

than half a century, and by the aid of no

course

barely

detected

only

current

circuit.

In
in

last

observed

induced

itself

is

driven

and

produce an audible

by the tremors of a

child's voice.

Prof. Tait

the
at

produced them by means of a tuning fork vibrating in front of


of the transmitter.
Before the transmitted note ceased to be audible

coil

the

has recently measured the absolute strength of these telephone

He

currents.

other

end

of

the

line

he

measured

by

means

of

microscope

the

amplitude of the vibrations of the fork.

He

then placed a very delicate galvanometer in the

circuit

and found what

was produced by a measured motion of the fork.


Finally he measured the deflection of the galvanometer produced by a small

deflection

electromotive

force

of

currents produced an
their

known magnitude.
when

audible eflect

He

thus found that the telephone

reversed

500 times a second, though

strength was no greater than what a Grove's

million

megohms, about a thousand

million

cell

would send through a

times less than

the currents used

in ordinary telegraphic work.

One

great beauty of Prof. Bell's

two ends of the

invention

line are precisely alike.

When

is

that the insti-uments at the

the tin plate of the transmitter

THE TELEPHONE.

750
approaches the core of

bobbin

its

produces a current in the

it

circuit,

which

has also to circulate round the bobbin of the receiver, and thus the core of the
receiver
or

is

rendered more or less magnetic, and attracts

Thus the

smaller force.

scale,

but with perfect

of the

its tin

plate with greater

reproduces on a smaller

receiver

every motion of the tin plate of the transmitter.

fidelity,

symmetry

This perfect

plate

tin

of

the

whole apparatus

the

wire in the middle,

and the two gossips at the ends


may be very fascinating to a mere mathematician, but it
of the telephones
would not satisfy an evolutionist of the Spencerian type, who would consider
anything with both ends alike to be an organism of a very low type, which
must have its functions differentiated before any satisfactory integration can
the two telephones at the end of the wire,

take place.
Accordingly,

many attempts have been made, by

differentiating the function

transmitter from that of the receiver, to overqome the principal limitation

of the

the power of the telephone. As long as the human voice is the sole motive
power of the apparatus it is manifest that what is heard at one end must
be fainter than what is spoken at the other. But if the vibration set up by
the voice is used no longer as the source of energy, but merely as a means
to

of modulating the

of a

strength

current produced

by a voltaic battery, then


of the resulting sound,

there will be no necessary limitation of the intensity

what

so that

by the

is

whispered

the transmitter

to

proclaimed ore rotundo

receiver.

result

of this kind has

of a transmitter in which the

already been obtained by Mr Edison by means


sound vibrations produce a varying pressure on

a piece of carbon, which forms part


pressure,

the smaller

therefore the greater


I

may be

is

is

of

the electric

circuit.

The greater the

the resistance due to the insertion of the carbon, and


the current in the

have not yet seen

Mr

circuit.

Edison's transmitter,

but the microphone of Prof.

and other substances to the construction


of a transmitter, which modulates the intensity of a battery current in more
The energy
or less complete accordance with the sound- vibrations it receives.
of the sound produced is no longer limited by that of the original sound. All
that the original sound does is to draw supplies of energy from the battery,

Hughes

so

is

an application

of

that a very feeble sound


fly

carbon

may

give rise to a considerable

effect.

Thus,

walks over the table of the microphone the sound of his tramp

heard miles

off.

when

may

be

751

THE TELEPHONE.

We

shall

microphone seems to open up

the

Indeed,

have London

in all parts of the

by

Perhaps

discovery of a stridulating apparatus in scorpions.

long a microphone, placed in a nest of tropical scorpions,

ere

of research.

lines

The Entomological Society have been much interested

kingdom.

Mr Wood-Mason's

new

several

physicians performing stethoscopic auscultations on patients

may

be connected

to a receiver in the apartments of the society, so as to give the members


and their musical friends an opportunity of deciding whether the musical taste

up

of the scorpion resembles that of the nightingale or that of the cat.

have said that the telephone

from

an instance of the benefit to be derived


Now this is an operation which

is

the sciences.

of

cross-fertilization

the

cannot be performed by merely collecting treatises on the different sciences, and


Science exists only in the mind, and
binding them up into an encyclopaedia.
the union of the sciences can take place only in a living person.
Now, Prof. Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, is not an electrician

who has found

how

out

gain his private ends,

remarkable

man,

make a

to

Alexander

Melville

and of other works relating

Speech,"

tin

Bell,

to

He

author

that,

and

English,
I

did

not

analysis and

human

voice,

embodied

take

his

is

who, to

speaker,

son

the

of a

very

book called "Visible


In fact, his whole life

of

pronunciation.

He

has been employed in teaching people to speak.


perfection

but

speak,

plate

has become an electrician.

brought the art to such

though a Scotchman, he taught himself in six months to speak


regret extremely that when I had the opportunity in Edinburgh
lessons

from
of

classification

the Zulu

from
results

in

Mr

him.

Melville

Bell

the sounds capable

all

a system

coughing

to

clicks

made a complete

and

uttered

and

sneezing;

by the
he

has

the elements of which are not

symbols,

of

has

of being

taken from any existing alphabet, but are founded on the different configurations
of the organs of speech.

The
the test

capacities

by Mr Alexander

a gentleman who has

and

new mode

of this

"The

speech have been put to


Essentials

of

Phonetics,"

studied the whole theory of speech acoustically, philologically,


describes the result in a letter to Tlie Reader:

historically.

He

"

of procedure

The mode

Ellis,

J.

of representing

author of

was

Mr Bell sent
interesting
room

as follows

were to read the writing, out of the

it

is

his

to

two

sons,

know

who

that the

the words in this case, had only had five weeks' instruction
and I dictated slowly and distinctly the sounds which
in the use of the alphabet

elder,

who read

all

wished to be written.

They

consisted

of a

few words in Latin, pronounced

THE TELEPHONE.

752

notions of

then

Eton,

at

as

first

how

and

provincialisms

as

in

and then according to some theoretical


Then came some EngHsh

Italy,

the Latins might have uttered them.


the words

afiected pronunciations,

how odd

'

'

being given in

Suddenly German provincialisms were introduced; then


Some Arabic, some Cockney English,
discriminations of sounds often confused.
with an introduced Arabic guttural, some mispronounced Spanish, and a variety
several

distinct

ways.

of shades of vowels and diphthongs.


"

The
and

queer

delicate
so

result

distinctions,

uttered

them

in

as to

alphabet

in

the

Being
of the

lips

somewhat bold

in the

'Visible

speech.'

alphabet

may

title

made

soon be

may be adopted

me by

brevity,

Mr

is,

and

on

could,

accessible,

at

the

for

and
for

least

as

for

were,

it

Mr

my own

of

trace

Bell

mode

his

for

advantage

that,

my
and

reproduced with

all

that

then,

think,

which he has assumed

generally,

wrote down

not having heard them,

were

indistinctness

watch,

the

Bell

mispronunciations,

the extremely correct echo of

readers.

only hope that

that

pronunciations

such a manner that his sons,


surprise

drawl,

accuracy.

surprising

satisfactory

perfectly

exaggerated

Accent, tone,

voice

it

was

purposely

the

justified

is

of writing

such an

linguists,

the intercourse of nations,

extra- European

nations,

as

for

the

Chinese dialect and the several extremely diverse Indian languages, where such

an alphabet would rapidly become a great social and political engine."


The inventor of the telephone was thus prepared, by early training
practical

analysis

of

the

elements

of

speech,

to

associate

whatever

in the

scientific

knowledge he might afterwards acquire with those elementary sensations and


actions, which each of us must learn from himself, because they Ue too deep
within us to be described to others. This training was put to a very severe
test,

Bell

when, at the request of the Boston Board of Education, Prof Graham


conducted a series of experiments with his father's system in the Boston

School for the Deaf and


scientific

sound

analysis

Dumb.

I cannot

of speech, than

that

conceive a nobler application of the

by which

it

enables those to

whom aU

is

"

And wisdom

expunged and rased

at one entrance quite shut out,"

not only to speak themselves, but to read by sight what other people are saying.

The

successful

result

valuable testimonial to

of

the

the

experiments

father's

at

system of

Boston

is

visible

speech,

not

only

but

the

an

most

honour

THE TELEPHONE.

may

which the inventor of the telephone

well

753
consider as

the highest he has

attained.

An

independent method of research into the process of speech was employed

by Wheatstone,
was

in

well

as

and Kempelen, the aim of which was to imitate the


by means of artificial apparatus.
This apparatus

Willis,

human

sounds of the

voice

some cases modelled


as

so

as

to

represent as nearly as possible the form

the functions of the organs of speech,

equally good imitation

of

but

it

was found that an

the vocal sounds could be obtained from apparatus

the form of which had no resemblance to the natural organs.


Several

isolated

facts

of

importance were established by this

considerable

method, but the whole theory of speaking and hearing has been so profoundly
modified by Helmholtz and Bonders, that much of what was advanced before

come

their time has

Among

to possess only an historical interest.

the

all

which the truly

recent steps

scientific

or

the progress of science,

in

science-producing consequences are

influential as the rise of a school of physiologists,

who

know none

of

likely to be so

investigate the conditions

by producing on the external senses impressions, the physical


of which can be measured with precision, and then recording the

of our sensations

conditions

verdict of consciousness as to the similarity

or

difierence of the resulting sensa-

tions.

Prof. Helmholtz, in his recent address as Rector of the University of Berlin,

great stress

lays

on

that

personal

interaction

have already spoken of as essential to the

he says, "at

my

Miiller,

the
life

its

full

value

this

last

student days, and the impression

first

When

the physiologist.
order,

between living minds, which


of a University.

advantage,

man

when, looking back, I


a

man

of

modified for

perhaps the most interesting thing

life

may

offer."

Now, the form

in

which Johannes Miiller stated what we may regard as

the germ which fertilized the physiology of the senses


in

is

recall

Johannes

like

one finds himself in contact with

is

" I appreciate,"

made upon us by a man

the entire scale of one's intellectual conceptions

contact with such a

have to

life

the sensations due to different senses

does

not

is this,

depend

that the difierence

upon

the

actions

which excite them, but upon the various nervous arrangements which receive
them.

To accept
be

difficult

VOL. n.

to

this statement

an

easy-going

out of a book, as a matter of dead

student;

faith,

may

not

but when caught Hke a contagion, as


95

THE TELEPHONE.

754
Helmholtz

caught

No man

from the

it,

guiding principle of a

of the living teacher,

lips

it

has become the

of research.

life

has done more than Helmholtz to open up paths of communication

between isolated departments of human knowledge; and one of these, lying in


a more attractive region than that of elementary psychology, might be explored
under

exceptionally favourable

by some

conditions,

of the

now

minds

fresh

coming up to Cambridge.
Helmholtz, by a series of daring strides, has effected a passage for himself
over that

untrodden

where whole armies


sunk without

We
him

filling it

may
;

between

scientific

and

acoustics

that

music

men

musicians and musical

of Sound.

Rayleigh

we have

On

the

Mr

the

laying

the Board of Musical Studies,

and

in

On

the physical

foundation deep and strong in his

we have

side

aesthetic

Society doing the practical work,


of

have

That would require the seven league boots of the German

but to help us in Cambridge

we have Lord

Theory

science

up.

vindicating for music its ancient place in a liberal education.


side

bog

Serbonian
of

not be able even yet to plant our feet in his tracts and follow

right across.

colossus

wild
of

University

the

Musical

the space between, those conferences

Sedley Taylor, where the wail of the siren draws musician and mathematician

together

down

into the depths of their sensational being,

and where the gorgeous

hues of the phoneidoscope are seen to seethe and twine and


"Dragon boughs and

elvish

coil like

the

emblemings"

on the gates of that city where


'an ye heard a music, like

They are building still, seeing the


To music, therefore never built at

And

The
is

enow

city ia built
all.

therefore built for ever."

special educational value of this

combined study of music and acoustics

that more than almost any other study

what we must observe for ourselves.


The facts are things which must be

it

felt;

involves

continual

appeal

to

they cannot be learned from any

description of them.

All this

own prophets

has been said more than two hundred years ago by one of our

William

Harvey, of Gonville and Caius College.

"For whosoever

they be that read authors, and do not by the aid of their own senses, abstract

THE TELEPHONE.
true representations

of

the

755

themselves (comprehended

things

in

the

author's

expressions) they do not represent true ideas, but deceitful idols and phantasms,

by which they frame to themselves certain shadows and chimseras, and


theory and contemplation (which they

call science)

all

their

represents nothing but waking

men's dreams and sick men's phrensies."


Prof.

Maxwell was

of St John's College.

assisted

in

his

practical

demonstrations by

Mr Gamett,

[From Nature,

Vol. xix.]

Paradoxical Philosophy *

XC VI.

opening this book, the general appearance of the pages, and some of
the phrases on which we happened to light made us somewhat doubtful whether
of Nature to review
it lay within our jurisdiction, as it is not the practice

On

works.

novels or theological

either

In

the

however, the book

dedication,

is

described as an

account

the

of

Proceedings of a learned society, a species of literature which we are under a


special vow to rescue from oblivion, even when, as in this case, the proceedare

ings

those of one of those jubilee meetings,

to aim rather at being lively than

On
is

the title-page itself there

one of those

who by

previous

which

in

men seem

learned

scientific.

no name to indicate whether the author

is

have rendered themselves

conviction

to

liable

on the opposite page we find The Unseen Universe; or,


Physical Speculations on a Future State, to which this book is a "Sequel,"
ascribed to the well-known names of Balfour Stewart and P. G. Tait.

our surveillance, but

Mr Browning

expressed

has

his

regret

one volume in which


Dante was drawing when

the

that

Rafaelle wrote his sonnets, and the one angel which

he was
shall

science,

laid

interrupted

therefore

"driven,"

down

hands, and,

all

blissful

by "people of importance," are

make the most


they

as

of our
us,

tell

"by

the instruments of their

locking

up

country seats

their

where

can be no heat in the

fire

the

Philonous

recent times. Peacock and Mallock have

more picturesque of contemporary


in

exigencies

have

long

and no matter

the

We

world.

of

the

subject,"

of

have

shaken the very chalk from their

art,

laboratories,

to

lost

when two eminent men

opportunity

ago

themselves

betaken

convinced

in the

Hylas

to

those

that

there

world; and where in more

brought together in larger groups the

opinions.

In this book we do not indeed catch those echoes of well-known voices


citizens of the "New Republic" tell us how they prefer to

which the

* Paradoxical Philosophy.

Sequel to TJie Unseen Universe (London

Macmillan

&

Co.,

1878).

PARADOXICAL PHILOSOPHY.
regard themselves as thinking, taking care,
disturb

shall

members

their

enjoyment

extravagant

office

of his

friends

temper,

it

is

his

is

not a

Castle to

but

forthwith

is

no

literary

narrated

in

the

there

novel
as

his

it

feelings

out

little

of

falls

mode

in

into

an

He

he

"electro-biological" courtship

by

proving

successful,

that,

not

for

chapter.

telling

goes to

which one young lady performs her

the black arts in the lump as works


told

reason

last

take part in an investigation of spiritualistic phenomena.

renounce
are

of his

the book, makes

weapons as not to hurt the

and, this

we

main

the

of

name and

his

and when, near the end of the book, he gets a

begins by detecting the

rapping,

one

is

of

about matters with which a materialist, as such, has no concern.

As the book

He

spite

the thesis of

materialistic

what became of the Doctor,"

Strathkelpie

in

Stoffkraft,

the single-handed opponent of

as

chief care so to brandish

Stoffkraft,

pose of mind, but they exhibit that sympathy

Dr

of good-fellowship.

The

opinion.

Dr Hermann

fundamentals overlaid with variety in opinions which

conditions

"

of

Paradoxical Society, with their guest,

of the

are far too earnest to adopt this


in

the while, that no actual thought

all

luxury

the

of

757

having

is

persuaded

quieted

his

spirit

his

of

by a

and

wife

the

few

her

fiend

foul

spirit-

another,

of

priest

to

and then

evolutions

four

in

now settled down to compose his Exposition of the Relations


and Science, which he intends to be a thoroughly matured

dimensions, he has
Religion

hetweeyi

production.

The

Doctor

and,

indeed,

most

opinions

labelled

are

no mere
Euphranor and
Alciphron type. They do not reduce their subject to a capiit mortmnn by an
exhaustive treatment, but take care, like well-bred people, to drop it and pass
materialised

spirits,

or

of

the

with

other

names

characters

the

of

on to another before we have time to suspect that the

last

word has been

said.

We
science

cannot accuse the authors

contrary,
to

of

leading us through the

only to entrap us into some peculiar form of theological

imbue

they

avail

themselves of the

their readers at

general

interest

in

mazy paths
belief.

theological

unawares with the newest doctrines of

science.

On

of

the

dogmas
There

must be many who would never have heard of Carnot's reversible engine, if
they had not been led through its cycle of operations while endeavouring to
explore the Unseen Universe.
No book containing so much thoroughly scientific
matter would have passed through seven editions in so short a time without
the allurement of some more

human

interest.

PARADOXICAL PHILOSOPHY.

758

Nor need we

draw down on Nature the admonition which

to

fear

fell

on

the inner ear of the poet


" Thou pratesfc here where thou art least

This faith hath

And many

many

a purer priest,

an abler voice than thou."

For even those words and phrases which seemed at


book from the field of our criticism, are found on

first

sight

remove the

to

view

nearer

to

have

acquired a new, and indeed a jparadoxical sense, for which no right of sanctuary

can be claimed.

The words on the


setemum,"

may

title-page

an

to

recall

science,

of the nobler hopes

or

of

Here, however,

attained.

the

the

reader

"Te Deum,"

as such,

we

Domine,

te,

ordinary

Psalmist, the closing prayer of the

Xavier; and men of

" In

are

nobler

of

or the

the

in

Hebrew

dying words of Francis

not to be supposed incapable either

fears

find these

non confundar

speravi,

aspiration

to

fellow-men

which their

venerable words employed

to

have

express

a conviction of the perpetual vahdity of the "Principle of Continuity," enforced


by the tremendous sanction, that if at any place or at any time a single
exception to that principle were to occur, a general collapse of every intellect

would be the inevitable result.


There are other well-known words in which St Paul contrasts things seen
with things unseen. These also are put in a prominent place by the authors
in the universe

of the

Unseen

thoughts

Universe.

What,

then,

is

the Unseen to which they raise their

In the

first

place

the luminiferous sether, the tremors

of

which are the

the energy which has been lost by radiation from


the various systems of grosser matter which it surrounds. In the second place

dynamical equivalent of

still

more

subtle

all

medium, imagined

by

Sir

WiUiam Thomson

as

possibly

on
an explanation of the properties
some
by
motion
in
set
vortices
ring
of
they
are
built
up
the hypothesis that
supernatural power in a frictionless liquid: beyond which we are to suppose an

capable of furnishing

of sensible

bodies;

succession of media, not hitherto imagined by any one, each mamTo exercise the mind in
more subtle than any of those preceding it.
for those who
employment
speculations on such media may be a most delightful
they should
why
see
cannot
we
though
it,
are intellectually fitted to indulge in

indefinite
foldly

on that account appropriate the words of St Paul.


PARADOXICAL rniLOSOPHY.
Nature

mind

We

is

in

a journal of science, and one of the severest tests of a scientific

is

to discern the Hmits of the legitimate application of scientific methods.

shall

therefore endeavour to keep within +he bounds of science in speaking

of

subject-matter

of the

759

and earth

heaven

this

which,

book,

by the

remembering that there


required

selection

for

many

are

the

things

application

of

our scientific methods, have been excluded from our philosophy.

No new
of

man

began

to

make the argument

can

discoveries

death any stronger than

after

and no language

die,

of the Psalmist

can

against the personal existence

has appeared to be ever since

it

express

it

more

forcibly

men

the words

than

" His breath goeth

forth,

he returneth to his earth

in

that very day his

thoughts perish."
Physiology

may

the dependence of

supply a continually increasing number


our

actions,

of

illustrations

of

mental as well as bodily, on the condition of

our material organs, but none of these can render any more certain those facts

about death which our earliest ancestors

knew

as

well as

our latest posterity

clearing

away the haze

can ever learn them.


Science

has,

indeed,

made some

progress

in

materialism which clung so long to men's notions about

dogmatic

their

statements

about

its

forward to being able to demonstrate


gland,

or

to

Taylor's

Isaac

my

determine the quantity of

The notion that the


late

immateriality.

we only

No

anatomist

spite

now

of

of

looks

by dissecting it out of my pineal


by the process of double weighing.

soul exerts force lingered longer.

Physical Theorij of a Future State.

trace the

in

soul,

soul
it

one body might set another in motion; but


if

the

it

We
It

find

was asserted that

chain of phenomena far enough back,

it

even in the

was admitted that


in every case,

we must come

to

a body set in motion by the direct action of a soul.


It

would be rash to assert that any experiments on living beings have as

yet been conducted with such precision as to account

for

every foot-pound of

work done by an animal in terms of the diminution of the intrinsic energy of


the body and its contents; but the principle of the conservation of energy has
acquired so much scientific weight during the last twenty years that no physiologist would feel any confidence in an experiment which shewed a considerable
difference

between the work done by an animal and the balance of the account

of energy received

Science

and

spent.

has thus compelled

us

to

admit that that which distinguishes a

PARADOXICAL PHILOSOPHY.

7gO
living
entity,

body from a dead one is neither a material thing, nor that more refined
There are methods, however, by which the applicaa "form of energy."

tion of energy

may be

directed without interfering with

soul like the engine-driver,

of

of

the course

directs

valves,

certain

who does not draw the

its

amount.

train himself, but,

Is

the

by means

steam so as to drive the engine

the

forward or backward, or to stop it?

that

The dynamical theory of a conservative material system shews us, however,


motion determine the whole course
171 general the present configuration and

system, exceptions to this rule occurrmg only at the instants when the
which a strictly
system passes through certain isolated and smgular phases, at
one of a finite
any
to
system
the
of
course
infinitesimal force may determine the

of the

paths, as the pomtsman at a railway junction directs


Prof B. Stewart has expounded a
or another.
rails
of
set
one
the train to
Conservation
The
on
of Energy, and MM. de
book
his
in
kind
this
of
theory
correspondmg phase of some
St Venant and Boussinesq have examined the

of equally possible

number

purely mathematical problems.


rejoices in the name of " Psychophysik " has made constudy of the phenomena which accompany our sensations
the
siderable progress in
are taught that many of the processes which we
motions.
and voluntary
the strictest
suppose entu-ely under the control of our own will are subject to

The

which

science

We

we have no power

laws of succession, with which

of interfering;

and we are

by deducing from

shewn how to verify the conclusions of the science


of physical and mental training for ourselves and others.
Thus

science

materialisations
till

strips

off,

one

the

other,

confess

that

the

soul

is

to,

the

more

or

less

gross

other

men

shall soon

have

intervals, like

have prophesied that

we

than a function of certain

nothing else

methods

objective image of the soul,

of science, speculating, in then: non-scientific

men

on what science may possibly lead


to

after

by which we endeavour to form an

it

complex

material systems.

Men

of science, however, are but men,

Those who, Hke

their souls from within.

sensation or

consciousness

and therefore occasionally contemplate


Bois-Beymond, cannot admit that

Du

can be a function of a material system, are led to

the conception of a double mind.

"On

the

and

is

one

side

the

acting,

inventing,

unconscious material mind,

and determines the world's history; this


subject to the causal law, and on the other

into motion,

which puts the muscles

nothing else but the mechanics of atoms,


side the inactive, contemplative, remembering,
is

PARADOXICAL PHILOSOPHY.
which

immaterial mind,

conscious,

fancying,

and pain,

pleasure

feels

761
love,

and hate

this

one

lies

outside of the mechanics of matter, and cares nothing for cause and effect."

We

might ask

we must go on
at

Prof.

Du Bois-Reymond which

wrong, and knows that

or

to the

of these

and that he

act,

other view of the case, which

by some law of the Paradoxical, he

78, although

p.

his

is

it

Dr
is

it

is

that does right

responsible for

is

but

it,

alludes

Btoffkraft

to

not allowed to pursue

a subject which might have afforded excellent sport to the Society.


" I

myself compelled

feel

to

says the learned

believe,"

Doctor,

" that

all

kinds of matter have their motions accompanied with certain simple sensations.
In a word,

This

all

is

matter

what

is,

in

some occult

we may

call

the

sense, alive."

"levelling

up"

policy,

expounded with great clearness by Prof, von Niigeli


translation was given in Nature, Vol. xvl p. 531.

in

and

it

a lecture,

has been

which a

of

He can draw no line across the chain of being, and say that sensation
and consciousness do not extend below that line. He cannot doubt that every
molecule possesses something related, though distantly, to sensation, " since each
one
and,

the presence, the particular condition, the peculiar forces of the other,

feels

has the inclination

accordingly,

move

begins to

becomes

something which

is

related

move, and

to

were

alive as it

;"
.

to sensation, then this

respond to attraction and repulsion,

i.e.

under circumstances really

"If, therefore, the molecules feel

must be pleasure

if

they can

follow their inclination or disinclination

must be displeasure if they are forced to execute some opposite movement,


and it must be neither pleasure nor displeasure if they remain at rest."
Prof von Nageli must have forgotten his dynamics, or he would have
it

remembered that the molecules, like the


They cannot be disturbed from the path
forces,

for

they have a constant

and

planets,

of their

move along like


choice by the

perpetual will

to

blessed gods.
action of any

render to every force

Their condition must,


amount of deflexion which is due to it.
therefore, be one of unmixed and unbroken pleasure.
But even if a man were built up of thinking atoms would the thoughts
Those who try
of the man have any relation to the thoughts of the atoms ?
to account for mental processes by the combined action of atoms do so, not by
precisely

that

the thoughts of the atoms, but by their motions.

Dr

We

Stoffkraft

recommend

of Psychology,
VOL. IL

explains the

to his attention

179,

origin

Mr

of consciousness

at

p.

77 and at

Herbert Spencer's statement

where he shews

in a

p.

107.

in his Principles

most triumphant manner how, under


96

PARADOXICAL PHILOSOPHY.

762

must

certain circumstances, "there


fully

studied,

which we

may

have

contribute

been

to

describing,

arise a consciousness."

the

further

by

shewing

progress

more

Such statements,
of

science

clearly

in

that

care-

the path

consciousness

cannot be the result of a plexus of nervous communications any more than of


a congeries of plastidule
Personality

is

of consciousness

personality as

if

knowledge that

my

also

of

be.

But

beyond the
speech,

is

am

is

quite independent of

for

of science, for

for the continuity

impossible

to

deal

my

recollection that

with

I was,

the abysmal depths of personaUty

into
all

to

science, and, indeed, every

talk about the Subject

Object under a false name, for the

My
and

we

get

form of human

first

we

are really dealing with an

proposition about the

Subject, namely,

am," cannot be used in the same sense by any two of us, and therefore

can never become part of science at

The progress of
it,

is

about objects capable of being known by the speaker and the hearer.

Whenever we pretend
" I

it

a certain number of years, I have never ceased to

we plunge

soon as
limits

were another name

were something objective that we could reason about.

it

behef that,

as

it

memory, but

reproduced in

as

souls.

often spoken of as if

science,

all.

therefore,

so far

as

we have been able to follow


known about the

has added nothing of importance to what has always been

physical consequences of death, but has rather tended to deepen the distinction

between the
are

ourselves,

visible

and

which perishes before our eyes, and that which we


shew that this personality, with respect to its nature as
lies quite beyond the range of science.

part,

to

well as to its destiny,

[From Encyclopaedia Britannica.]

XCVII.
Ether, or
Cratihis

(410,

depa

Tov

pecou,

^ther
b)

{aWrjp,

the

derives

probably from aWcj, I burn, though Plato in his

name from

Stxatcus

deiderjp

Ether.

dv

its

KaXotro),

perpetual motion
material

ort act O^Z nepl

substance

of

more

subtle kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of space which
are apparently empty.

The hypothesis

of

an

sether

has been maintained

by

different

speculators

To those who maintained the existence of a plenum


principle,
nature's abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient
as a philosophical
even though every other
reason for imagining an all-surrounding sether,
argument should be against it.
To Descartes, who made extension the sole
essential property of matter, and matter a necessary condition of extension,
for

very different reasons.

the

bare

existence

of

bodies

existence of a continuous

apparently

at

distance

was a proof of the

medium between them.

But besides these high metaphysical necessities for a medium, there were
^Ethers were invented for
mundane uses to be fulfilled by sethers.
the planets to swim in, to constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia,
to convey sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on, till
It is only
filled three
all space had been
or four times over with aethers.
when we remember the extensive and mischievous influence on science which
more

hypotheses about sethers used formerly to exercise, that


horror

of

sethers

which sober-minded men had

we can

during the

appreciate the

18th

century, and

which, probably as a sort of hereditary prejudice, descended even to the

Mr John
The
tation

late

Stuart Mill.
disciples

of

Newton maintained

that

in

the fact of the mutual gravi-

of the heavenly bodies, according to Newton's law, they had a complete

quantitative account of their motions;

and they endeavoured

to

follow

out the

path which Newton had opened up by investigating and measuring the attrac-

962

ETHER.

764

and repulsions of

tions

Newton

endeavoured

an aether

in

(see

Art.

to

and the cohesive

bodies,

without attempting to account

however,

himself,

of pressure

ferences

and magnetic

electrified

in the interior of bodies,

forces

for these forces.

account for gravitation by

Attraction^,

Vol.

iii.

dif-

64); .but

p.

he did not publish his theory, "because he was not able from experiment and
observation to give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the manner of
its

operation in producing the chief

On

other hand,

the

meant

were

they

which

the

that

was

order to

to

and could

imagined

as

of the luminiferous

existence

phenomena

explain phe-

media,

by them, would produce the effects


explain.
The only aether which has survived is that
The
by Huygens to explain the propagation of light.

media,

invented

evidence for the


tional

in

aethers

specify the nature of the motion of these

nomena could not


not prove

phenomena of nature."

who imagined

those

aether

has accumulated as addi-

and other radiations have been discovered; and the


medium, as deduced from the phenomena of light, have been

of light

properties of this

found to be precisely those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena.

the

Function of the cether in the propagation of radiation. The evidence


undulatory theory of light will be given in full, under the Article

we may

Light, but

here give a

summary

brief

of

so

it

as

far

for

on

bears

it

on

the existence of the aether.

That Hght

is

not

beam
optical methods into two
are made to reunite and
stopped, the other
to pass,

falls

the screen in

two portions of

light

a substance

itself

of interference.

may be proved from


a

single

source

have destroyed each

therefore light

quantities

others

the

is

we

which

opposite of

exact

the phenomenon

divided

by

certain

and these, after travelling by different paths,


upon
fall
a screen. If either half of the beam is
on the screen and illuminates it, but if both are allowed
certain places becomes dark, and thus shews that the
other.

that two bodies

when put together can annihilate


What we have proved is

cannot be a substance.

that one portion of light can be the exact opposite of


as -fa

is

parts,

Now, we cannot suppose


each other;

from

of light

opposite

-a, whatever a may

of

another portion,
be.

Among

just

physical

find

some which are capable of having their signs reversed, and

are

not.

an equal

Thus

displacement

displacement
*

[p.

in

the

in

one

opposite

485 of the present

vol.]

direction

direction.

is

the

exact

Such quantities

7G5

ETHER.

We

but always of processes taking place

not of substances,

are the measures,

substance.

that

therefore conclude

light

going

going on in a substance, the process

on

instant,

on at
light

of

difierence

that

find

length of the paths

the

the

both

or

when

or

their

there

when the

certain

small

more or

is

difference

two

the

of

extinguished

is

other cases

all

equal,

light

an odd multiple of a

is

In

a half wave-length.

called

and when the paths are

is

less

multiple

whole wave-length, the screen appears four times as bright as when one

of a

portion of the
cases

different
so

we

and

light

which the radiation of

in

path of one

the

portion of

first

combined no process goes

are

portions

length of

the

alter

beam,

the

of

distance
light

we

consists,

portions

when the two

that

so

the

in

To determine the nature of the process

all.

going on in the other at the

being always the exact opposite of the process

same

in

not a substance but a process

is

we

that

beam
on

see

on

falls

the

In the ordinary form of the experiment these

it.

simultaneously

exhibited

are

screen

at

points

different

of fringes

set

consisting

of

of

the

dark

screen,
lines

at

equal intervals, with bright bands of graduated intensity between them.


consider

If w^e

points

what

same

at the

of light

we

find

shall

a multiple of a wave-length

is

two points at the same


half

going on at different points in the axis of a beam

is

instant,

a wave-length

the

but

instant,

process

if

going

that

if

the distance between the

same process

the

the

distance

on at one point

on at the

going

is

an odd multiple of

is
is

the exact opposite

of the process going on at the other.

Now,

light

known

is

centimetres per second in


pose
find

movable

point

to

to

be propagated with a certain velocity (3 '004 x

vacuum, according to Cornu).


travel

along

the

ray

with

If,

this

therefore,
velocity,

we
we

10'"

supshall

the same process going on at every point of the ray as the moving point

reaches

it.

shall observe

If,

lastly,

we

consider a fixed

point in

the axis of the beam,

we

a rapid alternation of these opposite processes, the interval of time

between similar processes being the time light takes to travel a wave-length.
These phenomena may be

summed up in the mathematical


= A cos (nt px + a)

expression

which gives

u,

the phase of the process, at a point whose distance measured

from a fixed point in the beam

We

is

x,

and at a time

t.

have determined nothing as to the nature of the

be a displacement,

or

a rotation,

or

an

electrical

process.

disturbance,

or

It

may

indeed any

766

ETHER.

physical quantity which

capable

is

assuming negative

of

Whatever be the nature of the


expressed by an equation of this form, the
values.

is

called a

and ntpx + a

called the period;

The

the constant

vibration;

at a given

configuration

is

is

process,

if

as

it

well

as

capable

is

positive

of

the amplitude; the time

called

being

going on at a fixed point

process

is

the phase.

instant

is

and the distance

called a wave,

is

The

called the loave-length.

velocity of propagation

is

When we

-.

contem-

medium as going through the same process in


we use the word undulatory to denote this character of the process
any way restricting its physical nature.

plate the different parts of the


succession,

without in

further insight

the fact that


of one

of

into

the physical nature of the process

the two rays are polarized, and

if

them be made

to turn round the axis

two planes of polarization are


distinct,

and when

the

obtained from

of the

then when the

ray,

the phenomena of interference appear as

parallel

planes

is

the plane of polarization

As the plane turns round, the dark and

above described.
less

if

of

are

polarization

light

bands become

right

at

angles,

the

illumination of the screen becomes uniform, and no trace of interference can be


discovered.

Hence the physical

process

involved in the propagation

only be a directed quantity or vector capable of having

of

its

must not

light

direction reversed,

but this vector must be at right angles to the ray, and either in the plane
of

or

polarization

ment

of the

perpendicular to

medium

Neumann supposed

it.

Fresnel supposed

it

to

to

it

be a displace-

Maccullagh and

perpendicular to the plane of polarization.

The
phenomena

be a displacement in the plane of polarization.

comparison of these two theories must be deferred

we come

till

to the

of dense media.

The process may, however, be an electromagnetic

one,

and

as in this case

the electric displacement and the magnetic disturbance are perpendicular to each
other, either of these

All
eyes,

that

has

may be supposed

to be

been said with respect to

and which we

call

light,

applies also

the plane of polarization.


the

radiations

to those

which

radiations

affect

which

our

do not

produce a luminous impression on our eyes, for the phenomena of interference


ETHER.

767

have been observed, and the wave-lengths measured,

the case of radiations,

in

which can be detected only by their heating or by their chemical


Elasticity, tenacity,

and

density of the cether.

geometrical character of the

medium

process,

which

it

takes place.

medium, whatever

it

may

in

In the
it

We

we must now turn our attention to


may use the term cether to denote

to

our senses, which of

heat bodies which absorb them

the
this

the absorbing

radiations which

itself

is

evidence

and by measuring the

to such bodies, the energy of the radiation

In the next place this energy


radiating body to

The

capable of transmitting energy.

transmits are able not only to act on

work done, but


heat communicated

effects.

so far determined the

be.

first place, it is

of

Having

may

be calculated.

not transmitted instantaneously from the

is

body,

but

exists

for

certain

time

in

the

medium.
If

we adopt

either Fresnel's or Maccullagh's form of the undulatory theory,

half of this energy

is

in

the form of potential energy, due to the distortion of

elementary portions of the medium, and

due to the motion of the medium.

half

in

the

form of kinetic

energy,

We

must therefore regard the aether as


possessing elasticity similar to that of a soHd body, and also as having a finite
density.
If we take Pouillet's estimate of 17633 as the number of grammecentigrade units of heat produced by direct sunlight falling on a square centimetre in a minute, this is equivalent to 1*234x10^ ergs per second. Dividing
this by 3-004x10"', the velocity of light in centimetres per second, we get for
4*1 x 10"' ergs.
Near the sun the energy in
would be about 46,000 times this, or r886 ergs.
If we
further assume, with Sir W. Thomson, that the amplitude is not more than one

the energy in a cubic centimetre

cubic centimetre

hundredth of the wave-length, we have

Ap =

^^

or about

so that

we have

Energy per cubic centimetre

=\pV^A'^p-=l'Q^Q ergs.*

Greatest tangential stress per square centimetre

= pV'Ap =30' 176 dynes.


=842'8.
= pV^
= p
=9-36x10"".

Coefficient of rigidity of ether

Density of aether

The

coefficient

of

rigidity

of

steel

is

about

x 10",

and that of

glass

2-4x10".
* [The numbers in this column are incorrectly deduced from the data.
60-352, 965-632 and 1-07 x lO"''.]

They should be 1886,

ETHEB.

768

If the temperature of the atmosphere


in equilibrium

about the earth supposed at

were everywhere
rest, its

0"

C, and

if it

were

density at an infinite distance

x lO""^ which is about 1-8 xlO"^ times less than


the estimated density of the sether. In the regions of interplanetary space the
density of the aether is therefore very great compared with that of the attenuated atmosphere of interplanetary space, but the whole mass of aether

would be

earth

from the

within a sphere whose radius

that of the most distant planet

is

is

very small

compared with that of the planets themselves*.

The

OBther

atmosphere
is

it

not the air

vibrations,

a million

and
the

itself,

for

the

in

matter. When

first

slower

times
are

no

than

doubt

velocity of transmission
is

air

still

is

the

propagated

does transmit travel about

transparent

capable of transmitting
is

light

the air cannot transmit transverse

place

Solid

light.

through

travels

light

medium through which the

and the normal vibrations which the

crystals,

bodies,

hundreds of thousand times

transmitted through these bodies.

such

as

transverse vibrations,

We

less

glass

but

than that

are therefore obliged

medium through which light is propagated is something


from the transparent medium known to us, though it interpenetrates

suppose that the

distinct
all

gross

manifest that the

with which light


to

from

distinct

is

transparent bodies and probably opaque bodies too.

The velocity of hght, however, is different in different transparent media,


and we must therefore suppose that these media take some part in the process,
and that their particles are vibrating as well as those of the sether, but the
energy of the vibrations of the gross particles must be very much smaller
than that of the

would be

light

glass to

aether,

reflected

vacuum than we

for otherwise

when a ray

as

much
passes

larger proportion of the incident


fi:om

vacuum

to

glass

or

from

find to be the case.

Relative motion of the (Bther.

dense bodies

somewhat

We

loosely

must therefore consider the

connected

with

the

dense

aether within

bodies,

and we

have next to inquire whether, when these dense bodies are in motion through
the great ocean of sether, they carry along with them the sether they conor whether the sether passes through them as the water of the sea
tain,
through the meshes of a net when it is towed along by a boat. If
were possible to determine the velocity of light by observing the time it
takes to travel between one station and another on the earth's surface, we
passes

it

* See Sir

W.

Thomson, Tran^. R.

S.

Edin. Vol. xxi.

p. 60.

ETHER.
observed

by comparing the

might,

the

the

of

velocity

with

sether

methods, however, by which

opposite

in

velocities

respect

these

to

determine

directions,

terrestrial

All

stations.

practicable to determine the velocity of light

is

it

769

from terrestrial experiments depend on the measurement of the time required


for

the double journey from one station to the other and back, again, and the

increase

of this

that

the

of

time on account of a relative velocity of the aether equal to

earth

in

orbit

its

would be only about

one

hundred

milliontli

part of the whole time of transmission, and would therefore be quite insensible.

The theory
us

enable

to

motion of the aether

of the

form

strict

mathematical

hardly sufficiently developed to

is

of the

theory

taking into account the motion of the aether.

aberration

of

light,

Stokes, however,

Professor

has

on a very probable hypothesis with respect to the motion of the

shewn

that,

sether,

the amount of aberration would not be sensibly affected by that motion.

The only

method

practicable

the aether with respect

to

the

of determining directly the relative velocity of


solar

system

compare the values of the

to

is

velocity of light deduced from the observation of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites

when

Jupiter

is

seen from the earth at nearly opposite points of the

ecliptic.

Arago proposed to compare the deviation produced in the light of a star


after passing through an achromatic prism when the direction of the ray within
the prism formed

different

If the aether

in its orbit.

angles with

the

direction

when

the

of the

might be expected to be

different

same as that of the

and when these directions were

aether,

direction

The present writer * arranged the experiment


the

slit

The

light

and then through

the

object-glass of the collimator,


reflected,

in

which

and

after

prisms

as

parallel

the

of

the

observing

point

of

the

cross

Trans.

till

CLViii.

(1868), p.

telescope

wires from
532.

its

brought

which

[Communicated by

it

to

direction,

originally

Prof.

fell

where

formed

it

original
it

it

mirror,

passing again through the object-glass

object-glass

* Phil.

pencil

and came to a focus at the

each of the prisms parallel to

the

more practicable manner

in a

plane

passing through

with

was the

light

opposite.

of the collimator.

illuminated.
glass

earth

mirror was substituted


The cross wires of the observing telescope were
from any point of the wire passed through the object-

by using an ordinary spectroscope,


for

motion of the

of

were moving swiftly through the prism, the deviation

JNIaxwell

focus

Dr

the

it

was

pencil

that

so

coinciding

proceeded.
to

on

Since

Ilugjins

included by him in his paper on the spectra of some of the stars and nebulre.]

VOL,

II.

97

ami

ETHER,

770

the image coincided with the object,


the pencil

diverting

by

found that the miage of the


the light which

could not be observed directly, but


a plane surface of glass,

at

be distinctly seen, though

spider line could

finest

by-

was

it

the

image had passed twice through three prisms of

first

turned so that the direction of the light in

formed

The apparatus was

60".

it

reflection

partial

passing through the second prism was that of the earth's motion in

The apparatus was afterwards placed

so

the

that

direction

of

the

its

first

orbit,

light

was

by the
would
it
journey,
first
in
the
reason
this
for
diminished
prisms was increased or
be diminished or increased in the return journey, and the image would appear
on one side of the object. When the apparatus was turned round it would
that of the earth's motion.

opposite to

appear on the other

the

The experiment was

side.

only negative results were obtained.

but

year,

If

deviation

of the

ray

tried at different times of the

We

however,

cannot,

conclude

absolutely from this experiment that the aether near the surface of the earth
is carried along with the earth in its orbit, for it has been shown by Professor
Stokes * that according to Fresnel's hypothesis the relative velocity of the aether

would be to that of the aether outside inversely as the


of refraction, and that in this case the deviation would
not be sensibly altered on account of the motion of the prism through the {ther.
within

the

prism

square of the index

however, by observing the change of the plane of polarization of


a series of glass plates, obtained what he

Fizeaut,

transmitted obliquely through

light

supposed to be evidence
the

ray in

difiraction.

space was

The writer

of

a difference in the result

and Angstrom

different,
is

when the

direction

of

results

by

obtained analogous

not aware that either of

these very difficult experi-

ments has been verified by repetition.


In another experiment of M. Fizeau, which seems entitled to greater conhe has observed that the propagation of light in a stream of water takes

fidence,

place

with greater velocity in

in the opposite direction, but

which

would

be

due

to

the

the

direction

in

which

that the change of


velocity

actual

phenomenon does not occur when

air

is

the water

velocity

of

the

is

water,

substituted for water.

less

moves than
than

and that

that

the

This experiment

seems rather to verify Fresnel's theory of the aether; but the whole question
of the state of the luminiferous medium near the earth, and of its connexion
with gross matter,

is

very far as yet from being settled by experiment.

* Phil. Mag. 1846,

p. 53.

t Ann. de Chimie

et

de Physique, Feb. 1860.

771

ETHER.
Function
that, the

of the

'phenomena.

eleetromagnetic

in

(Ether

medium which

same

be the agent in electromagnetic phenomena. "For


vacuum to the magnetic

also

"considering the relation of a


character

phenomena

magnetic

of

Faraday

conjectured

concerned in the propagation of light might

is

external

part,"

am much more

inclined to the notion that in the transmission of the force there


action, external

at

not unlikely that,

simply the

than

may

Such an action

a distance.

repulsion
is

such an

is

the magnet, than that the effects are merely attraction and

to

for

it

he says,

and the general

force,

magnet,

the

to

my own

conveyance

an

there be

if

radiation*."

of

be a function

aether,

should

it

This

conjecture

of

the

aether;

have other uses


has

only been

strengthened by subsequent investigations.

We
Electrical energy is of two kinds, electrostatic and electrokinetic.
have reason to believe that the former depends on a property of the medium,
in virtue of wliich an electric displacement elicits an electromotive force in the
electromotive force for unit displacement being inversely

opposite direction, the


as

the

specific

The

inductive capacity of the medium.

on the other hand,

electrokinetic energy,

medium by

motion set up in the

electric currents

is

simply the energy of the

and magnets,

this

motion not

being confined to the wires which carry the currents, or to the magnet, but
existing in every place where magnetic force can be found.

Theory

Electromagnetic

medium

are

niferous

medium,

therefore as

but

of
as

far

the

best

Light. The properties

of

the

electromagnetic

we have gone similar to those of the lumiway to compare them is to determine the

velocity with which an electromagnetic disturbance

would be propagated through

should be equal to the velocity of light, we would have


strong reason to believe that the two media, occupying as they do the same
The data for making the calculation are furnished
space, are really identical.
the medium.

If this

by the experiments made


electrostatic system of

disturbance in

more

from

air,

as

in

units.

order

The

calculated

the velocity of

light

compare the electromagnetic with

to

from
in

different

air,

sets

If the

that of

velocity
fight

in

of

of

data,

not

does

differ

by different observers,
differ among each other.

as determined

than the several calculated values of these quantities

to

the

velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic

propagation of an electromagnetic

other transparent media,

disturbance

is

equal

then in non-magnetic media the

* Experimental Eesearclies, 3075.

972

772

ETHER.
inductive

specific

should

capacity

equal

be

the

to

square

the

of

index

of

refraction.

Boltzmann'" has found that this

he has examined.
relation,

very accurately true for the gases which

is

Liquids and solids

exhibit a greater

divergence from this

but we can hardly expect even an approximate verification when

have to compare the results

our

of

sluggish

electrical

experiments with

ve
the

alternations of light, which take place billions of times in a second.

The undulatory

theory,

the form which treats the phenomena of light

in

as the motion of an elastic solid,

The

The only way


is

still

encumbered with several

and most important of these

first

bility of undulations

would

is

of

is

consisting of vibrations

accounting

for

the

fact

that the theory indicates the possi-

normal to the surface of the wave.

phenomena which

that the optical

from these waves do not take place

arise

difiicultiesf.

to

is

assume that the sether

incompressible.

The next

that,

is

whereas the phenomena of reflection are best explained

on the hypothesis that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of

in

polari-

those of double refraction require us to assume that the vibrations are

zation,

that plane.

The third
fracting

is

crystal

that plane

is

that,

in

order to account for the fact that in a doubly re-

the velocity of

the same,

rays

any principal plane aAd

in

we must assume

polarized in

certain highly artificial relations

among

the coeflacients of elasticity.

The electromagnetic theory

of light

satisfies

single hypothesis J that the electric displacement

No

polarization.

normal displacement can

exist,

all
is

these requirements by the

perpendicular to the plane of

and

in

the specific dielectric capacity for each principal axis


to

doubly refracting crystals


is

assumed to be

equal

the square of the index of refraction of a ray perpendicular to that axis,

and

polarized

in

a plane

perpendicular to

that

axis.

Boltzmann

has found

that these relations are approximately true in the case of crystallized sulphur,
* Wiener Sitzb., 23 April, 1874.
t See Prof. Stokes, " Report on Double Refraction," British Ass. Report, 1862,

X Over de tlieorie der terugkaatsing en hreking


Lorentz.
Ai-nliem, K. van der Zande, 1875.

"

Ueber

van

het lichi,

Academisch

p.

253.

Proefschrift door

die Verschiedenheit der Dielektricitatsconstante des krystallisirten Schwefels

denen Ricbtungen," by Ludwig Boltzmann, Wiener

Sitzb.,

8th Oct., 1874.

H. A.

nach verschie-

ETHER.
a body

having three unequal

773

The

axes.

specific

dielectric

capacity

for

these

axes are respectively

4773

3-970

and the squares of the

of refraction

indices

4-576

3-886

Physical constitution of the


aether

is

We

it

moving

know
under

remain

that

the

such

loss

the ultimate constitution of the

is

transverse vibrations

that a group

during

mitting vibrations without

What

of energy by dissipation.

conditions

other

3-591

transmits

aether

sensible

each

near

cether.

molecular or continuous

distances without

3-811

much

of

molecules

may

the whole motion,

of energy,

dissipation

to

very great

molecular medium,

once near together

be capable of trans-

but

motion

the

if

is

such that the groups of molecules are not merely slightly altered in configuration
tjrpes

but entirely broken up, so that their component molecules pass into new
of grouping, then in the passage from one type of grouping to another

away

the energy of regular vibrations will be frittered


agitation which

We

we

call

cannot therefore suppose the constitution of the aether to be like that

of a gas, in which the molecules


for

such a

in

into that of the irregular

heat.

hundredth of

medium a
its

are

always in a state of irregular agitation,

transverse undulation

is

reduced to

amplitude in a single wave-length.

than one

less

If the aether

five-

molecular,

is

the grouping of the molecules must remain of the same type, the configuration
of the groups being only slightly altered during the motion.

Mr

Tolver Preston* has supposed that the aether

S.

is

like

molecules very rarely interfere with each other, so that their


greater than any planetary distances.

He

has not

investigated the

of such a medium with any degree of completeness, but it


we might form a theory in which the molecules never
other's

light

motion of translation, but travel in

and

directions

is

far

easy to see that

interfere

with

is

properties

the

with

each

velocity

of

suppose that vibrating bodies have the power of imthese molecules some vector property (such as rotation about an

if

pressing on

we

all

a gas whose

mean path

further

axis)

which does not interfere with their

then

carried

along

by the molecules, and

motion of translation, and which


if

the alternation

* Phil. Mag., Sept aud Nov. 1877.

of the

is

averao-e

ETHER.

774
value of this vector for

which we

process
will

then

light,

call

the

equations which

the

form as that which expresses

same

the

be of

the molecules within an element of volume be the

all

express

average

this

displacement

the

in

ordinary theory.
It

pressible

asserted that

often

is

a proof

is

the mere fact that a

that the medium

separate parts having void

medium

spaces between them.

But there

elastic

is

not continuous, but

is

is

or com-

composed

is

of

nothing incon-

sistent with experience in supposing elasticity or compressibility to be properties

of every

portion,

however

small,

be divided, in which case the

into

which the medium can be conceived to


A medium,
strictly continuous.

medium would be

though homogeneous and continuous as regards its density, may be


rendered heterogeneous by its motion, as in Sir W. Thomson's hypothesis of
vortex-molecules in a perfect liquid (see Art. Atom)*.
however,

The ^ther,

if

it

is

the

medium

of

electromagnetic phenomena,

is

probably

molecular, at least in this sense.

has shewn that the magnetic influence on light discovered


by Faraday depends on the direction of motion of moving particles, and that it
See also
the medium w^hen magnetized.
indicates a rotational motion in

W. Thomson t

Sir

Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism,

Now,

it

is

whole about an

Art.,

806, &c.

the magnetic field

may

medium

as

be of any breadth, and there

is

manifest that this rotation cannot be that of the


axis, for

no evidence of any motion the velocity of which increases with the distance from
a single fixed line in the field. If there is any motion of rotation, it must be a
portions

the

rotation

of very small

that the

medium must be broken up

of

medium each about its


number of molecular

into a

ow^n

axis,

so

vortices.

have as yet no data from which to determine the size or the number
We know, however, that the magnetic force in the

We

of these molecular vortices.

region in the neighbourhood of


retains

magnet

its

a magnet

magnetization, and as we

would

lose

all

its

is

have no

magnetization

maintained as long as
reason

to

by the mere

believe
lapse

the steel

that a steel
of

time,

we

conclude that the molecular vortices do not require a continual expenditure of


work in order to maintain their motion, and that therefore this motion does

not necessarily involve dissipation of energy.


*

[p.

445 of the present volume.]

t Proceedings of

the

Royal

Society, June,

1856.

775

ETHER.

No

theory of the constitution of


such a system

account for

will

sether

tlie

of molecular

has yet

vortices

been invented which

being maintained for an

indefinite time without their energy being gradually dissipated into that irregular

medium which, in ordinary media, is called heat.


we may have in forming a consistent idea

agitation of the

Whatever

the

of

stitution

which

which we

is

have

Whether
fulfil

but

stitute

the

as

con-

the

largest,

uniform body of

probably the most

and

any knowledge.

this

vast homogeneous

expanse of
interaction

other physical functions of which, perhaps,


also,

of the

doubt that the interplanetary and

no

not empty, but are occupied by a material substance or

certainly

a medium of physical

be

only to

be

can

there

aether,

spaces are

interstellar

body,

difficulties

the

authors of

material

organism

as high or higher than

ours

limits of physical speculation.

the

Unseen

of beings

are

at

isotropic

betw^een

we have

Universe

exercising

present,

is

matter

distant
as

seem to
functions

is

fitted

bodies,

not

and to

yet no conception,
suggest,
of

life

to

con-

and mind

a question far transcending the

[From Nature,

Thomson and

XCVIII.

The
been

waiting

Tail's

Ph

Natural

1867 will long be remembered by natural philosopbers as that

year

publication of the

of the

Vol. xx.]

the

for

first

book,

volume of "Thomson and

and

in

They had long

Tait."

delay was accounted for

the preface the

by the necessity of anticipating the wants of the other three volumes, in which
The reader
the remaining divisions of Natural Philosophy were to be treated.
was

also

reminded, that

if in

any passage he

to

failed

appreciate the aim

of

what he was studying was in reality


a prospective contrivance, the true aim of which would not become manifest
until after the perusal of that part of the work for which it was designed to
the

authors,

the

reason

might be that

prepare the way.

What we
reminded

have

had before

strictly

us,

us

now

twelve

for

matter.

preliminary

The

years

plan

could only be guessed at from the scale on which

of

the

authors

whole

treatise

was,

the

foundations

its

were

con-

structed.

men

In these days, when so much of the science of our best

is

dribbled

out of them in the fragmentary and imperfectly elaborated form of the memoirs

which

they

books

is

of one

contribute

relegated to

subject

as

to

learned

professional

of another,

it

societies,

and

when the work

of

making

bookmakers, who understand about as

was something

that even one

to find

much
man of

known power had not shrunk from so great a work it was more when it
men of mark were joined together in the undertaking and
when at last the plan of the work was described in the preface, and the
;

appeared that two

scale

on which

its

foundations were being laid was exhibited in the vast sub-

structure of Preliminary Matter, the feeling with which

we began

to contemplate

the mighty whole was one in which delight was almost overpowered by awe.

THOMSON AND

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TAIT's

777

we have

This feeling has been growing upon us during the twelve years

been exploring the visible part of the work, marking

bulwarks and telling

its

the rising generation what manner of a palace that must be, of which these
are but the outworks and first line of defences, so that now, when we have

second

the

us

before

thing about the plan of what

The

pure

geometry.

The

long

been

has

example,

on motion

treatises

in

the

curvature

the

of

recognised

forward,
treats,

the

geometers,

best

not

of

the

now

is

for

of

lines

much

as lying as

these

the

the

and

surfaces,

figures

for

outside of the subject

influence

and that

of motion,

science

existing in

already

figures

are

its

boldly and explicitly put

time

first

part of the

is

between

relations

which

by

process

is

an important branch of geometry, but

as

was regarded

that geometry itself

is

are

or

as the four rules of arithmetic or the binomial theorem.


The guiding idea, however, which, though it has long exerted

on

we

volume,

observe in the arrangement of the work

theory

it

first

the theory of pure motion, and the large


heading to what has been hitherto considered part

under this

devoted

space
of

the

of

an unfinished work, and to say some-

already before us.

is

given to kinematics,

prominence

part

first

criticising

we

thing which

first

the

of

edition

impelled to risk the danger of

space,

it

but of

generated by the motion of a point

or a line.

"We
stroke

no

longer,

the

as

as the beginning

This

method

of motion

consider

call

it

the

and
of

regarding

underlies

end of

as the

the

AB

of

to

simply

as

white

BA, but we conceive


B, and we distinguish

or

this trace.

geometrical
idea

AB

line

indifferently

the motion of a point from

of

trace

it

idea

example,

for

on a black board, and

figures

form,

and

seems
is

in

imply

that

the

accordance

with

the

to

which asserts that at any given instant the attention is


confined to a single and indivisible percept, but that as time flows on the
attention passes along a continuous series of such percepts, so that the path
of investigation along which the mind proceeds may be described as a conOur knowledge, therefore, of whatever kind, may
tinuous line without breadth.
psychological doctrine

be compared to that which a blind

by

stroking

imagination

them
the

about continuity
our

exploration

VOL.

II.

with

the

point

man
of

acquires

his

stick,

of the

form of

and then

filling

solid

up

bodies
in

his

own notions
and probability. The rapidity, however, with which we make
such that we come to think that by a single glance we
is
unexplored

parts

of the surface according to his

98


THOMSON AND TAIT S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

778
thoroughly

can

towards

us,

when

other side too,

we

are

after

all,

point of the blind

the

as

it,

whole

the

see

indeed,

if,

that

of

surface

not prepared
if

body which is turned


we have seen the

of

to assert that

our attention were to leave a

trace

a mere line meandering over the surface in various directions,

as

between

its

convolutions unexplored areas, the

We

the whole surface.

are

behind

man's stick might do, this trace would appear

sum

of which

but

still

is

leaving

equal

to.

at liberty no doubt to course over the surface and

to

subdivide the meshes of the network of lines in which

to

conclude that there cannot be a hole in

it

of

we

envelope

it,

and

more than a certain diameter,

but no amount of investigation will warrant the conclusion, which nevertheless

we draw

and without a

once

at

tinuous and

has no hole in

it

scruple,

at

all.

that the surface

Even when,

in

is

absolutely con-

a dark night, a flash

and

of lightning discloses instantaneously a whole landscape with trees

we

not

things

these

discover

at

but

once,

by perusing

buildings,

our leisure the

at

picture which the sudden flash has photographed on our retina.

The reason why the phenomena of motion have been so long refused a
among the most universal and elementary subjects of instruction seems
to be, that we have been relying too much on symbols and diagrams, to the
neglect of the vital processes of sensation and thought.
place

It

no

is

much

doubt

easier

to'

represent in a diagram or a picture the

instantaneous relations of things coexisting in space than to illustrate in a

full

and complete manner the simplest case of motion. When we have drawn our
diagram it remains on the paper, and the student may run his mind over the
lines

real

any

in

motions,

the

diagram,

which

order

mind

is

him.
But when we are either perceiving
them without the aid or the encumbrance of

pleases

or thinking about
carried

manner far more easy and


hither and thither along the

along

natural
lines of

opening of the chapter

we
our

have to

first

authors,

physical

one

reasoning,

deal
of

cannot,

it

is

in

rushing indiscriminately

its

elementary principles

till

its

intricacies

we resume the study of the elements of science in the


on " Dynamical Laws and Principles." It is here that
with something which claims the

whom

never

when he has occasion


make the following somewhat

of course,

title

of Matter,

and

misses an opportunity of denouncing meta-

except

of the Unconditioned,

"We

when

a diagram.

Having pursued kinematics from


begin to be appalling,

the actual course of the motion,

than

give a definition

to

expound the pecuUarities

pusillanimous statement

of Matter which

will

satisfy the


THOMSON AND

may

metaphysician, but the naturaUst

can be perceived by

the

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TAIT's

know matter

be content to

or as

senses,

779
that which

as

which can be acted upon

that

or can

by,

exert, force."

The
object

proceed

authors

of

and

sense,

about

Force

us that the question

Mliat

throw

to

telling

after

be discussed in a future volume,

out

hint

which

in

also

the

being

a direct

matter?

is

will

Subjectivity of Force will

be considered, they retire to watch the effect of the definition they have thrown

camp

into the

Now

whether

to

as

way a

what

in

spond with their

modem

of

place

Even

the

phrases,

Hnes,

in

kind

We

have

solids,

we have any change

to

exactly corre-

when our authors speak

of

though they introduce several

they speak of

motion

of

on

treatise

have not even a

the book do not

in

kinematics,

and

surfaces,

We

from a square.

is

none other than that

which Euclid recognises, when he treats of the generation of

Why,

in

by touch or by sight that we come

is

differs

of these figures

definitions.

the motion of points,

it

triangle

that the diagrams

caution

much out

very

us

to

have nothing of the kind in treatises on Geometry.

disquisitions

know

seems

this

We

Dynamics.

no

of the naturalists.

all

figures.

method when we pass on from


Why should we find it more difficult to
kinematics to abstract dynamics?
endow moving figures with mass than to endow stationary figures with motion ?
then, should

The bodies we deal with


to

dynamics are just as completely known

abstract

in

of

They have no

us as the figures in Euclid.

properties whatever except those

which we explicitly assign to them.


Again,

at

p.

" Matter

every

body,

an

has
as

the

222,

the following statement

far

capacity

the

of

student

is

called

upon to accept

power

innate
as

can,

it

of

external

resisting

remains

at

rest

or

influences,

moves

that

so

uniformly

in

acquired,

of

straight line."
Is

it

resisting

that

fact

external

"matter" has any power, either innate

influences

Does

always produce exactly that change in


a force,

value,

as

innate

power of

is

reckoned

resisting

Is

every

But suppose

we have got

matter,

force

or

a cup of tea to

acts

whereby

it

is

on

be accused of having an

the sweetening influence of sugar, because

ently refuses to turn sweet unless the sugar

depravity of

which

body
the motion of the body by which its

not

actually put into

it

it

persist-

rid

of this

Manichaean doctrine of the innate

is

disabled

from yielding to the influence of

982

THOMSON AND TAIT S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

780
a

moving

We
to

be the subject-matter of abstract dynamics

motions of points,

possible

all

new

The

appropriate to dynamics

idea

independent

of

each

what

sort

of

figures.

In so

far as real

kinematics to them.
that the motions

is

of bodies

are

but that, under certain conditions, dynamical

other,

two

transactions take place between

and

lines,

we may apply

bodies have figures and motions,

not

it,

supposed to have mastered so much of kinematics as to be able

are

describe

that force actually spends itself upon

unless

force

facts are left us to

bodies,

whereby the motions of both bodies

are affected.

Every body and every portion of a body in dynamics is credited with a


The first part of our study must
certain quantitative value, called its mass.
there
of

is

the

be

therefore

of mass in

distribution

This

mass.

name, we

point

think,

was

than

of

is

determined by the distribution

by Boscovich the centre

called

centre

In every dynamical system

bodies.

a certain point, the position of which

inertia,

though

either

of

of mass

these

better

free

is

from

the error involved in the term centre of gravity.

every dynamical

In

which

thing

determines

transaction

between two bodies there must be some-

the relation between the alteration of the motions of

In other words, there must be some function of the motions


According
two bodies which remains constant during the transaction.
to the doctrine of abstract dynamics it is the motion of the centre of mass
of the two bodies which is not altered on account of any dynamical trans-

the two bodies.


of

the

action between the bodies.


means of ascertaining the

This doctrine,
ratio

if

true

of real bodies,

gives us the

of the mass of any body to that of the body

adopted as the standard of mass, provided we can observe the changes in the
motions of the two bodies arising from an encounter between them.

We then confine our attention to one of the bodies, and estimate the
magnitude of the transaction between the bodies by its efi'ect in changing the
momentum of that body, momentum being merely a term for a quantity mathematically defined
of

momentum

body, and, for

in

terms of mass and motion.

takes place
all

is

The

rate at which this change

the numerical measure of the force acting on the

the purposes of abstract dynamics,

it

is

the force acting on

the body.

We
and

have

stress,

thus

impulse

science beside form

vindicated

for

figures

with mass, and, therefore,

and momentum, work and energy, their places


and motion.

in

for

force

abstract

THOMSON AND
phenomena

Tlie

TAIT's

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

bodies are found to correspond so exactly with the

of real

necessary laws of dynamical systems, that


of dynamics

were

to

we cannot

help applying the language

and speaking of the masses

in

dynamics as

if

they

real bodies or portions of matter.

We

must be

bodies, against

may

or

ignorance,

matter,

is

not

that

which Berkeley directed his arguments, but something as perfectly

may

bodies

or

we sometimes, even
unknown substratum of real

however, to remember that what

call

a straight line or a sphere.

intelligible as

Keal

careful,

dynamics,

abstract

in

bodies,

real

781

or

may

not Jiave such a substratum, just as they

them may

between

and the dynamical transactions

may

knowledge

not have sensations, or be capable of happiness or misery,

may

or

not

be accompanied with the conscious effort which the word force suggests to us
when we imagine one of the bodies to be our own, but so long as their
motions

we

dynamics,

each

to

related

are

according

other

them, in a perfectly

call

down

the conditions laid

to

intelligible

in

dynamical or material

sense,

systems.

In

the second edition,

this,

importance of which

is

we

notice

a large amount of

such that any opinion which

importance

new

matter, the

could form w^ithin the

But there

time at our disposal would be utterly inadequate.


vital

we

is

one point of

which we observe a marked improvement, namely,

in

in

the

treatment of the generalised equations of motion.

Whatever may be our opinion about the

relation

dynamics, to the matter which constitutes real bodies,


the

science

from

arises

analogous

strikingly

to

the
that

that

fact
in

real

bodies

do

of mass,

as

defined

in

the practical interest of

behave

in

manner

which we have proved that the mass-systems

of abstract dynamics must behave.

In
can

for

cases

like

that of the planets,

be actually observed,

translation

of

Newton's

laws

when the motions we have

the equations of Maclaurin,


into

the

system

Cartesian

to

account

which are simply a


of

co-ordinates,

are

But when we have reason to believe that


amply sufficient for our purpose.
the phenomena which fall under our observation form but a very small part
what phenomena
of what is really going on in the system, the question is not

will

but
the

result

what

from the hypothesis that the system


is

condition

is

of a certain specified kind

the most general specification of a material system consistent with


that

observe are what

we

the

motions

find

them

those

of

to be

parts

of the

system which we can

THOMSON AND TAIT S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

782

Lagrange, in the first place, that we owe the method which


this question without asserting either more or less than
answer
enables us
But though this
all that can be legitimately deduced from the observed facts.
method has been in the hands of mathematicians since 1788, when the Mecanique
It

is

to

to

Analytique was published, and though a few great mathematicians, such as Sir

W.

Hamilton, Jacobi, &c., have made important contributions to the general

E.

theory

dynamics,

of

it

how

remarkable

is

slow natural philosophers at large

have been to make use of these methods.

Now, however, we have only


in

to

open any memoir on

order to see that these dynamical theorems have

mathematics

sanctuary of profound

have

been

do

to

set

all

a physical

subject

been dragged out of the

which they lay so long enshrined, and

in

kinds of work,

easy as well as

difficult,

throughout

the whole range of physical science.

The credit of breaking up the monopoly of the great masters of the spell,
and making all their charms familiar in our ears as household words, belongs
The two northern wizards were the
in great measure to Thomson and Tait.
first who, without compunction or dread, uttered in their mother tongue the
true and proper names of those dynamical concepts which the magicians of old
were wont to invoke only by the aid of muttered symbols and inarticulate
equations.

And now

the

feeblest

among us can repeat the words

of power

and take part in dynaipaical discussions which but a few years ago we should
have left for our betters.
In the present edition we have for the first time an exposition of the
general theory of a very potent form of incantation, called by our authors the
and

Tait

are

the variables

not

many independent
freedom.

We

must remember that the co-ordinates of Thomson


erected over space by Descartes, but
which determine the whole motion. We may picture them as so

Ignoration of Co-ordinates.

In the

mere

the

scafiblding

driving-wheels of a machine which has as


cases

to

which the method of ignoration

is

many

degrees

of

applied there are

of the system such that neither the kinetic nor the potential
energy of the system depends on the value of these variables, though of course
The motion of
the kinetic energy depends on their momenta and velocities.
variables

certain

the rest of the system cannot in any


these

variables,

be ascertained
system.

We

and
by means

therefore

of

the

way depend on

particular

the particular values of

values of these variables

any observation of the motion of the

have therefore no

right,

cannot

rest of the

from such observations, to assign to them

THOMSON AND
any particular

and the only

values,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TAIT's

way

scientific

783

with them

of dealing

is

to

ignore them.

But
for

this

not

is

Since these variables do not appear in the expression

all.

the potential energy, there can be no force acting on them, and therefore

momenta

their

of them,

each

are,

we may

them

consider

their

are

velocities

functions

variables do not enter into the expressions,

as functions of the

other variables,

as they are here

or,

and of the constant momenta of the ignored

the retained co-ordinates,

called,

and

constant,

own

of the variables, but, since their

co-ordinates.

From the
we

of

contribution

the

obtain

thus expressed, together with the constant momenta,

velocities as

the ignored co-ordinates to the kinetic energy

of the system in terms of the retained co-ordinates and of the constant momenta
This part of the kinetic energy, being independent
of the ignored co-ordinates.

of

the

velocities

co-ordinates,

retained

the

of

ordinates, strictly positional'-,

as

is,

and may be considered

regards the retained co-

for all

experimental purposes

The other part of the kinetic


were a term of the potential energy.
the velocities of the retained
of
function
energy is a homogeneous quadratic
the ignored co-ordinates
neither
motion
of
equations
final
In the
co-ordinates.

as

if

it

nor their velocities appear, but everjrthing is expressed in terms of the retained
co-ordinates and their velocities, the coefficients, however, being, in general,

momenta

functions of the constant

We

may

scientific

attention

regard

on those elements

of

to vary, and ignore those which

In an ordinary

stead

of

belfiry,

to

floor

acting

as

mathematical illustration of the

of any complex object, we must fix our


which we are able to observe and to cause

that in the study

principle

a hole in the

of the ignored co-ordinates.

investigation

this

on

it

we can

neither observe nor cause to vary.

each bell has one rope which

the bellringers' room.

one

bell,

contributes

to

machinery, and that the motion of each piece

comes down through

But suppose that each


motion

the
is

of

many

rope, in-

pieces

of

determined not by the motion

but by that of several, and suppose, further, that all this


machinery is silent and utterly unknown to the men at the ropes, who can
only see as far as the holes in the floor above them.
of one

rope alone,

Supposing

all

command

this,

of

what
the

have

full

rope

any position and any


*

The

is

the scientific duty of the

ropes,
velocity,

but of nothing

else.

men below? They


They can give each

and they can estimate

division of forces into motional

and positional

is

its

introduced at

momentum by
p.

370.

THOMSON AND

784
stopping
If

they

order

the ropes at once, and feeling what sort of tug each rope gives.

all

the

take

to

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TAIT's

trouble

the

drag

ropes

to

how much work they have

ascertain

down

given

to

of

set

positions,

to

do

in

and to express

terms of these positions, they have found the potential energy of the
system in terms of the known co-ordinates. If they then find the tug on any
one rope arising from a velocity equal to unity communicated to itself or to
in

this

in terms of the co-ordinates

any other rope, they can express the kinetic energy

and

velocities.

These

all

data

when

ropes

that

are

and*

it

men

the

suflScient
all

determine

to

at the

ropes

can ever know.

of every

one of the
This

these degrees of freedom must be ignored.

is

machinery above has

If the

the co-ordinates which express

degrees of freedom than there are ropes,

more

motion

the

the others are a^ted on by any given forces.

There

is

no help

for

it.

Of course, if there are co-ordinates for which there are no ropes, but which
enter into the expression for the energy, then, if the motion of these coordinates
ropes,

going

is

periodic,

"adynamic vibrations" communicated

there will be

to the

something peculiar

and by these the men below will know that there


But if they pull the ropes in proper time, they can
on above them.
is

either quiet

these adynamic vibrations or strengthen them, so that in this case

these co-ordinates cannot be ignored.

which the conditions for the ignoration


if an opaque and apparently rigid
body contains in a cavity within it an accurately balanced body, mounted on
which
frictionless pivots, and previously set in rapid rotation, the co-ordinate
There are other

of co-ordinates

expresses the
ignore, because

receiving

bewitched.

this

cases,

strictly

however,

apply.

in

For instance,

angular position of this body

we have no means
body into
disciple

his

is

hands

would

we

one which

of ascertaining

it.

An

are compelled to

unscientific

immediately conclude

person on

that

it

was

of the northern wizards would prefer to say that the

body was subject to gyrostatic domination.


Of the sections on cycloidal motions of systems, we can only here say
their
that the investigation of the constitution of molecules by means of
assisted by
vibrations, as indicated by spectroscopic observations, will be greatly
a thorough study of this part of the volume.
have not space to say anything of what to many readers must be
calculating
one of the most interesting parts of the book that o^ continuous

We

machines, in which pure rolling friction

is

taken from the

class

of unavoidable

THOMSON AND
and

evils,

raised

rank

the

to

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

TAIT's

785

one of the most powerful aids to science.

of

Rolling and sliding have been more than once combined in the hope of obtaining
accurate measurements, but the combination is fatal to accuracy, and these

new machines, one


are

the

has been actually constructed and

of which

at least

which

in

first

pure

rolling

friction

has had

method of mechanically accurate integration.


A method is also given of combining a number
integrators,

so

related

each

to

machines
the

all

to form

as

other

work

in

by a
a

play given

of disk, globe,

used,
as

it

differential

equation

of any given

purely statical manner, that


is

is,

in

and cylinder

a machine the motions of two pieces of which

energy of the system

kinetic

fair

such a

are

These

form.

way

that

not an essential element in the practical

theory of the machine (as in the case of pendulums,

&c.),

but has to be taken

account only in order to estimate the magnitude of the tangential forces


at the points of contact which might, if great enough, produce shpping between
Thus, by means of a machine, which will go as slowly as may
the surfaces.
into

be

necessary

calculated,

to

the

keep
phases

pace
of

with

which

our
in

powers

nature

of

pass

thought,
before

motions

may be

us too rapidly to be

followed by us.

In the original preface some indications were given of what we were to


"We hope that the reason
expect in the remaining three volumes of the work.
new
edition is that the work
in
the
omitted
is
preface
the
of
part
this
why
will

now go on

so

steadily

that

it

will

be unnecessary to preface performance

by promise.

VOL. IL

99

[From Encyclopaedia Britannica.]

XCIX.Faraday.
Faraday, Michael, chemist, electrician, and philosopher, was bom at New22nd September, 1791, and died at Hampton Court, 25th August,
His parents had migrated from Yorkshire to London, where his father
1867.

ington, Surrey,

Faraday himself became apprenticed to Mr Riebau,


worked as a blacksmith.
written to his friend Benjamin Abbott at this time
letters
The
a bookbinder.
give a lucid account of his aims in life, and of his methods of self-culture,

when

his

mind was beginning

to turn

to

the

experimental

study of nature.

him

hear four lectures

In

1812

master, took

by

Sir

notes of these lectures, and afterwards

Mr Dance, a customer of his


Humphry Davy. Faraday took

wrote them out in a

fuller

form.

to

Under the encouragement of Mr Dance, he


"The reply was immediate, kind,
work as a journeyman bookbinder till 1st

wrote to Sir H. Davy, enclosing these notes.

He continued to
and favourable."
March, 1813, when, at the recommendation of Sir H. Davy, he was appointed
He
assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
1833
in
and
1825
February,
was appointed director of the laboratory 7th
;

he was appointed Fullerton Professor of Chemistry in the Institution for life,


He thus remained in the Instituwithout the obligation to deliver lectures.

He

tion 54 years.

accompanied Sir H. Davy on a tour through France,

Italy,

Switzerland, Tyrol, Geneva, etc. from October 13th, 1813, to April 23, 1815.
Faraday's earliest chemical work was in the paths opened by Davy, to whom

he acted as

new

assistant.

chlorides

diffusion

of

importance

of

which

a special study of chlorine, and discovered two


made the first rough experiments on the

also

phenomenon first pointed out by Dalton, the physical


been more fully brought to light by Graham and

has

succeeded in Hquifying several gases; he investigated the alloys


and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes.

Loschmidt.
of steel,

of

gases,

He made
He

carbon.

He

FARADAY.

787

specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane

when the

of light

of polarization

was

the substance which

also

as

He

also

some

with

endeavoured

chemistry, as distinguished from

was placed

glass
first

its

success
results,

the magnetic

in

by the

repelled

poles

make the

to

the subject

and

field,

the

of

magnet.

methods

general

of

study and of

of special

See his work on Chemical Manipulation.

popular exposition.

But Faraday's chemical work, however important in itself, was soon comovershadowed by his electrical discoveries. The first experiment which
he has recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence,
seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water.
pletely

With
July

this

decomposed sulphate of magnesia

Henceforward, whatever

1812).

12,

time claim
selected

he

pile

attention,

his

which he kept persistently


to

solve

His
of

them had been

in

and

1820) were

still

to

view, even

conducting

of wires

in

electrical

of

force

full

when year

his

year

after

mind, and

his

attempts

from

the

the

electric

great

continuous rotation

the

round each

current

discovery of

Orsted

(21st

other.

July,

1821 apprehended in a somewhat confused manner even by


Dr WoUaston indeed had formed the expectation
of science.

men
make

that he could
1821,

among

he applied the

Abbott,

might from time to


phenomena that he

bafiled.

The consequences deducible


the foremost

from

to

letter

(first

subjects

notable discovery was the production of

first

magnets

was

it

problems to which

those

other

the conducting wire rotate on

he came with Sir H.

make an experiment.

Davy

to the

its

laboratory

own

axis,

of the

and

in

April,

Royal Institution

Faraday was not there at the time, but coming

in

afterwards he heard the conversation on the expected rotation of the wire.


In July, August, and September of that year Faraday, at the request of

Mr

Phillips,

the

editor

of

the Annals

of Philosophy,

wrote for that journal

and he repeated almost all the exThis led him in the beginning of September to disperiments he described.
cover the method of producing the continuous rotation of the wire round the

an

historical

sketch of

electro-magnetism,

magnet, and of the magnet round the w^re.

He

did not succeed in making

the wire or the magnet revolve on its own axis. This first success of Faraday
in electromagnetic research became the occasion of the most painful, though

unfounded, imputations against his honour.


ferring the reader to the Life of

Into these

we

shall

not enter,

Faraday, by Dr Bence Jones.

992

re-

FARADAY.

788

We

may

remark, however, that although the fact of the

tangential force

was clearly stated by Orsted,


between an electric current and a magnetic
others, the realization of
and
WoUaston,
Ampere,
and clearly apprehended by
round each other was a
magnet
the
and
wire
the
of
rotation
the continuous
pole

For on
solution.
scientific puzzle requiring no mean ingenuity for its original
on the
the one hand the electric current always forms a closed circuit, and
properties, and
other the two poles of the magnet have equal but opposite
for
one pole to
is
there
tendency
whatever
are inseparably connected, so that
cu-culate

of

round the current


other

the

pole

neither drag the

to

one direction

causing the current,

in

we adopt

the magnet the

nor

yet

leave

The thing

behind.

it

some form Faraday's ingenious solution, by


of its course, to divide into two channels,

magnet, in such a way that during the revolution


transferred from the channel in front of the
is

current

magnet to the channel behind

it,

so that the

current without stopping

across the

opposed by the equal tendency

in

some part

one on each side of the

is

the other way, and thus the one pole can

other round the wire

cannot be done unless

of

in

round

go

it,

just

as

mi(idle of the

magnet can pass

Cyrus caused his army to pass

dryshod over the Gyndes by diverting the river into a channel cut
his

for

it

in

rear.

We

must now go on to the crowning discovery of the induction of

electric

currents.

1824 he had attempted to obtain an electric current by means


unsuccessful
of a magnet, and on three occasions he had made elaborate but
in another
current
of
a
means
by
wire
one
in
attempts to produce a current
August,
1831, he
29th
the
on
and
persevered,
still
He
wire or by a magnet.
In Dec.

obtained

the

just

now

thing,

my

but

that

an

electric

current can induce another in a

23 he writes to his friend E. Phillips" I am busy


electromagnetism, and thmk I have got hold of a good

On September

again
can't

labour, I

evidence

first

different circuit.

on
say.

may

It

may be

at last pull

up."

weed

instead

This was his

of
first

fish

that,

successful

after

all

experiment.

In nine more days of experimenting he had anived at the results described


in his first series of " Experunental Kesearches" read to the Eoyal Society,

November

24,

1841.

the intense application of his mind he had brought the new idea, in
maturity.
less than three months from its first development, to a state of perfect
The magnitude and originaHty of Faraday's achievement may be estimated by

By

789

FABADAY.

made the

at once

some

the

of

subject

most

were

physicists

experienced

unable

avoid

to

it

was

world,

but

expected,

scientific

mistakes

in

be more scientific language than Faraday's,

to

Up

the phenomena before them.

by the whole

investigation

of

what they conceived

in

stating,

As might be

subsequent history of his discovery.

tracing the

to

the present time the mathematicians

who

have rejected Faraday's method of stating his law as unworthy of the precision of their science have never succeeded in devising any essentially different
formula which shall fully express the phenomena without introducing hypotheses
about the mutual action of things which have no physical existence, such as
elements of currents which flow out of nothing, then along a wire, and finally
sink into nothing again.

After nearly half a century

of

labour

of

this

we may

kind,

say

that,

though the practical applications of Faraday's discovery have increased and are
increasing in number and value every year, no exception to the statement of
these laws as given by Faraday has been discovered, no new law has been
added to them, and Faraday's original statement remains to this day the only
one which asserts no more than can be verified by experiment, and the only
one by which the theory of the phenomena can be expressed in a manner

which

is

exactly and

numerically accurate,

and at the same time within the

range of elementary methods of exposition.

During
rents,

ways

his

first

period

of discovery, besides

Faraday established the identity of the


;

the induction of electric cur-

electrification

produced in different

the law of the definite electrolytic action of the current

which he

and the

fact,

upon

laid great stress, that every unit of positive electrification is related in

a definite manner to a unit of negative electrification, so that it is impossible


to produce what Faraday called "an absolute charge of electricity" of one

kind not related to an equal charge of the opposite kind.

He
for

discovered the difference of

also

taking

part

in

electric

been admitted by continental

induction,

the capacities of

different

substances

a fact which has only in recent

electricians.

It

appears,

years

however, from hitherto

papers that Henry Cavendish had before 1773 not only discovered that glass, wax, rosin and shellac have higher specific inductive capacities
than air, but had actually determined the numerical ratios of these capacities.

unpublished

This,

of course,

was unknown both to Faraday and

to

all

other electricians of

his time.

The

first

period of Faraday's electrical discoveries lasted 10 years.

In 1841 he

FARADAY.

790
found that he required
second great period

and

rest,

of research,

it

in

was not

till

1845 that he entered on his

which he discovered the

effect of

magnetism

and the phenomena of diamagnetism.


on
Faraday had for a long time kept in view the possibility of using a ray
the condition of transparent
of polarized light as a means of investigating
Dr. Bence Jones (Z-i/e,
forces.
magnetic
bodies when acted on by electric and
polarized light,

of Faraday, vol.
10th September,

i.

p.

362) gives the following note from his laboratory book,

1822:

to ascertain whether any depolarizing


"Polarized a ray of lamp-light by reflexion, and endeavoured
poles of a voltaic battery and in a glass
it by water placed between the
of
fluids decomposed were pure water, weak solution
cistern; one Wollaston's trough used; the
eff^ect on the polarized light,
any
had
them
of
none
acid;
sulphuric
strong
sulphate of soda, and
that no particular arrangement of particles could be
either when out of or in the voltaic circuit, so

action (was) exerted on

ascertained in this way."

Eleven

May, 1833

years
{Life

afterwards

we

entry in his note-book, on 2nd


He then tried, not only
p. 29).

find another

by Dr Bence Jones,

vol.

ii.

and breaking contact.


the effect of a steady current, but the effect on making
will be found to have (as
"I do not think, therefore, that decomposing solutions or substances
Should
the time) any efi^ect on the polarized ray.
a consequence of decomposition or arrangement for
borax, glass, etc. whilst solid, to see
now try non-decomposing bodies, as solid nitre, nitrate of silver,
they cannot
by decomposition is destroyed, i.e. whether, when
if any internal state induced, which

decompose, any state of electrical tension

is

present.

My

borate of glass good, and

common

electricity

better than voltaic."

Hence I see
he makes further experiments, and concludes "
be rendered
can
tension^
no reason to expect that any kind of structure or
or coninsulatmg
in
bodies,
evident, either in decomposing or non-decomposing

On May

ducting states."

J
-n
been made by Dr
Experiments similar to the last-mentioned have recently
of
evidence
obtained distinct
Kerr of Glasgow, who considers that he has
1.

force is perpendicular to
a ray of polarized light when the electric
Many physicists, howpolarization.
the ray and incHned 45" to the plane of
result.
Kerr's
Dr
obtain
ever, have found themselves unable to
with
attacked the old problem, but this time

action on

At

complete

last,

in

success.

1845,

Faraday

Before

we

describe

this

result

we may mention
the

light
1862 he made the relation between magnetism and
He endeavoured, but in vain,
work.

very last experimental

subject
to

that
of

detect

his

any

FARADAY.
change in the

spectrum of a flame wlien the flame was acted on

of the

lines

791

by a powerful magnet.
This long series of researches
is

shewn

instance

in

way

the

which he was

in

is

His energy

an instance of his persistence.


followed

he

The

successful.

the plane of polarization

the rotation of

up

first

of

the

discovery in

his

single

evidence which he obtained of

light

under the action

mag-

of

13th September, 1845, the transparent substance being his

netism was on the

own heavy

which

in

glass.

began to work on August 30, 1845, on polarized light passing through


After three days he worked with common electricity, trying glass,
electrolytes.
heavy optical glass, quartz, Iceland spar, all without effect, as on former trials.

He

On September
rock-crystal,
"

Heavy

13

he worked with

calcareous

glass

spar,

was experimented

magnetic

of

lines

with.

contrary poles were on opposite sides

(as

It

gave no

respects

the

eflects

course

when
of

Air, flint,

force.

were examined but without

glass,

effect.

the same magnetic poles or the

the

polarized

ray),

nor when the

same poles were on the same side either with the constant or intermitting current. But when contrary magnetic poles were on the same side there was an eflfect produced on the polarized ray,
This fact will most
and thus magnetic force and light were proved to have relations to each other.
likely prove exceedingly fertile,

and of great value in the investigation

the

of

conditions of natural

force."

He

immediately goes on to examine other substances, but with " no

"Have

and he ends by saying,

effect,"

On September

got enough for to-day."

18 he

"does an excellent day's work." During September he had four days of work,
and in October six, and on 6th November he sent in to the Eoyal Society the
19th series of his "Experimental Researches," in which the whole conditions
of

the phenomena are fully specified.

media

is

The negative rotation

ferromagnetic

in

the only fact of importance which remains to be discovered afterwards

(by Verdet in 1856).

But

his

work

the year was

for

not

On November

yet over.

3,

new

Faraday immediately began to experiment


The
on the action in the polarized ray through gases, but with no effect.
following day he repeated an experiment which had given no result on October 6.

magnet came

horseshoe

home,

and

bar of heavy glass was suspended by silk between

"When

magnet.
affect

it

it

was arranged,

by the magnetic

forces

and had come

and give

he had sent in to the Royal Society the


2l8t series

of his

it

to

position."

20th,

the

poles

By

and on

of

the

new

found I could

the

6th December

24th

December the

rest,

"Researches," in which the properties of diamagnetic bodies

FARADAY.

792
are fully described.
earlier one, in

The
though

Thus these two great

not

did

Faraday's

magnetic

the

discovery of
it

were elaborated,

discoveries

like his

about three months.

lead

such

to

discoveries, has

earlier

the

of

rotation

important

plane

practical

of

polarized

applications

been of the highest value to

light,

some of

as

science,

as

fur-

nishing complete dynamical evidence that wherever magnetic force exists there
is

matter,

small

portions

which

of

are

about

rotating

axes

parallel

to

the

direction of that force.

We
to

have given a

identify

selecting

few^

examples of the concentration of his

the apparently different

forces

nature,

of

efforts in

of his

seeking

far-sightedness

in

what he
discoveries, and

subjects for investigation, of his persistence in the pursuit of

set before him, of his energy in

working out the results of

made

of the accuracy and completeness with which he

his

his

final

statement

of

the laws of the phenomenon.

The

characteristics

and are manifest to


his character, to

all

his

who

scientific

spirit

on the surface of his work,

lie

read his writings.

But there was another

the cultivation of which he paid at least as

and which was reserved


and

of

his conversation

for

his

were always

friends,
ftiU

his family,

and

much

his church.

side of

attention,

His

letters

of whatever could aw^aken a healthy interest,

When, on rare occasions, he


free from anything that might rouse ill-feeling.
was forced out of the region of science into that of controversy, he stated the
He was entirely free from pride and
facts, and let them make their own way.
and

undue

self-assertion.

During the growth of

accepted a correction, and

would make
his

memory

tion

or

according

his

made use

his

powers

he

always thankfully

of every expedient, however humble, which

work more effective in every detail. When at length he found


and his mental powers declining, he gave up, without ostenta-

failing

complaint,
to

his

whatever

parts

own standard

of

his

of efficiency.

work he

When

apply his mind to science, he remained content

could no longer carry on


-he

was no longer able to

and happy

in

the

exercise

of

those kindly feelings and w^arm affections which he had cultivated no less carefully

than his

scientific

powers.

The parents of Faraday belonged to the very small and isolated Christian
Faraday himself attended
sect which is commonly called after Robert Sandeman.
the meetings from childhood; at the early age of 30 he made public profession
of his faith, and during two different periods he discharged the office of elder.
His opinion with respect to the relation between his science and his religion

is

FARADAY.

793

expressed in a lecture on mental education delivered in 1854, and printed at the

end of

Chemistry and Physics.

his Researches in

upon the subject, I must make one distinction which, however it may appear
High as man is placed above the creatures around him,
is to me of the utmost importance.
and the ways are infinite in
a higher and far more exalted position within his view

" Before entering


to others,

there

is

which

he

believe

occupies

that

truth

the

of that

mental powers, however exalted


than his own, and

is

about the

thoughts

his

future

cannot

they

may be

that

it

am

made known

is

received through simple belief of the

an instant that the self-education


It

would be improper here

content to bear

Him

the

things

man by

if

I shall be reproached

belief.

him by other teaching


Let no one suppose for
life,

reasoning could find out God.

with the weakness of refusing to apply

think good in respect of high things to the very highest.

Yet even

the

man which

of

life.

about to commend, in respect of the things of this

earthly matters I believe that

in

world are

clearly

can

be

known by

being

seen,

made, even His eternal power and Godhead'; and


those

future

enter upon the subject farther than to claim an absolute distinction

to

reproach.

from the creation of

to

testimony given.

extends to any considerations of the hope set before us, as

between religious and ordinary


those mental operations which

of

brought to his knowledge by any exertion of his

be
;

or expectations

or hopes,

fears,

by the things that

understood

am

'the invisible things of


ai*e

have never seen anything incompatible between

the spirit

of

man which

is

within him, and those

higher things concerning his future which he cannot know, by that spirit."

Faraday gives the following note as to this lecture

"These obser\'ations were delivered as a lecture before His Royal Highness the Prince Consort
They are so immediately conand the members of the Royal Institution on the 6th of May, 1854.
nected in their nature and origin with my own experimental life, considered either as cause or
consequence,

that

have

thought

the close

of

volume

this

an

not

unfit

place

for

their

repro-

duction."

As Dr Bence Jones

concludes

"

His standard of duty was supernatural.


It was not founded on any intuitive ideas of right
and wrong, nor was it fashioned upon any outward experiences of time and place, but it was
formed entirely on what he held to be the revelation of the will of God in the written woi-d,
and throughout

Published

John Mun-ay,
I.

and

II.,

all

his life his faith led

Works.
1st

C/iemical
William

Taylor and

1859

Griffin,

Windus

Francis,

Bohn, and

2 vols.,

Co.,

1861

Franci.<,

Lectures
;

On

on

1855
the

being

3rd

Instructions

1842;

vols.
;

up to the very

I.

and

to

letter of it."

Students in

ii.

Experimental

1844 and 1847;


Researches

in

Cliemical History of a Candle

the various Forces in

Chemistry,

Experimental Researches in
vol,

ill.

1844;

Chemistry and
(edited

Electricity,

by

W.

vol.

vol.,

vols.
ill.,

Physics,

Crookes),

Nature (edited by W. Crookes), Chatto and

(no date).

Faraday as a Discoverer, by John Tyndall, Longmans, 1st edition 1868, 2nd edition
The Life and Letters of Faraday, by Dr Bence Jones, Secretary of the Royal Institution, in
Longmans, 1870; Michael Faraday, by J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., Macmillan, 1872.

Biographies.

1870;

1830,

Richard and John Edward Taylor,

Richard Taylor and

to act

Manipulation,

1827, 2nd

edition

him

VOL.

II.

100

[From

Reports on Special Branches of Science.

C.

Reports on
corresponding to

British Association Report.l

may

branches of science

special

every stage

organisation,

of

be of several different types,

from

the

up to

catalogue

the

treatise.

When

a person

engaged

is

in

research,

scientific

it

desirable

is

that he

what has been


The ordinary method
written on the subject and who are the best authorities.
is to get hold of the most recent German paper on the subject, to look up
the references there given, and by following up the trail of each to find out
who are the most influential authors on the subject. German papers have the
most complete references because the machinery for docketing and arranging
scientific papers is more developed in Germany than elsewhere.
should be able to

" Fortschritte

The

with

ascertain,

Physik

der

and bad, arranged in


Wiedemann's "Beiblatter"

subjects,

think

as

is

"

Httle

gave an annual

with

a more

abstracts
select

are

Societies

useful

and of the

for

strictly

see

read only what

The

authors.

opinions

whether
is

of

Lists

selection

who

he has

have had

most

or

up

been

given more in

influence.

if

in

full.

undertaken by
proceedings

Nature.

These

do not think that a more

for long.

but

he requires

is

the

the whole mass of

student wishes to

the names of the best

of these is constantly done by skimming


by the names they quote the men whose
But a report on the history and present

election

indicate

good
ones.

of the titles of the

anticipated,

What

papers,

important

all

more

of a discovery has to examine

worth reading.

authors,

individual

assortment,

contemporary science, and

The intending publisher


to

list

the

of periodicals are given

contents

elaborate system of collection could be kept

science

of

doubtful whether a publication of this kind,

it

the British Association, would succeed.


of

labour as possible,

REPORTS ON SPECIAL BRANCHES OF SCIENCE.


of a

state
to

has for

science

main aim

its

795

enumerate the various authors and

to

point out their relative weight, and this has been very well done in several

British

Association

some

Reports,

which

of

are

nearly as

old

the British

as

Association.

There

are

or

else

public,

some

branches

treatise so long as he

which

will

up by the school

encouragement,

little

is

is

with

respect

the

to

such that treatises or text-books

public.

however,

with much

can,

much more

be

interest,

commercial principles, either as books to be read by the

can be published on

free public, or to be got

There

whose position

science

of

the educational

to

less

for

man

scientific

trouble, produce an

to

write a

original

memoir,

by a learned society than the

readily received

treatise

would have been by a publisher.

The
when left

systematisation
to itself;

of

and

warrants the belief that

science

therefore

is

carried

on

under

difficulties

think that the experience of the British Association


action

its

in

asking

men

of science to furnish reports

has conferred benefits on science which would not otherwise have accrued to

it.

There are so many valuable reports in the published volumes that 1 shall
indicate only a few, the selection being founded on the direction of my own work
rather than on any less arbitrary principle.

when

First,

a branch

interesting experiments,
side

it

of
is

should be conscious that

The matter

ticians.

contains

science

abstruse

desirable that those

calculations

well as

as

cultivate the experimental

things have been done by the mathema-

certain

to be reported

who

on in this case

is

not voluminous, but

it

is

hard reading, and those who are not experts require a guide.
Thus, Professor Challis in 1834 gave a most useful
investigations

matical

Attraction, and

Professor

Young,
Stokes

Laplace,

1862

in

Poisson,

on the mathe-

report

and

Gauss

reports on Theories

of

on

Capillary

Double Re-

This report may, indeed, be accepted as an instalment of the treatises

fraction.

which,

by

the desire of

if

long ago have


writings,

but

a report

is

done nothing

Another

and 1862).

it

written.
is

the
It

intelligible

full justification

world were law,

scientific
is

meant,

in

itself

no

doubt,

as

Professor Stokes

a guide

to

would

other men's

without reference to those writings.

of the existence of the British Association, if

Such
it

had

else.

type

of

report

This seems

authors than as a

is

that of

intended

self-interpreting

Professor

Cayley on Dynamics (1857

rather as a guide

document,

though,

in

of

reading
course,

the

original

besides

1002

the

REPORTS ON SPECIAL BRANCHES OF SCIENCE.

796
criticism

and the methodical arrangement, there


It
of memoirs discussed in it.

on the mass

is

will

much origmal Hght thrown


be many years before the

value of this report will be superseded by treatises.

Committee on Mathematical Tables deals with a subject


which, though not so abstruse, is larger and drier than any of the preceding.
It is, however, a most interesting as well as valuable report, and supplies information which would never have been printed unless the British Association
had asked for the Report, and which never would have been obtained if the

The Report

of the

author of the report had not been available.

There

are

several

other

reports

which are not mere

original papers preceded by a historical sketch of the

couragement

is

reports,

subject.

No

needed to get people to write reports of this kind.

but rather
special

en-

[From the Encydopcedia Britannica.]

Harmonic

CI.

Harmonic

Analysis

the

is

Tait in their treatise

Professor

Analysis.

name given

by

investigating physical questions, the earliest

Thomson and

William

Sir

on Natural Philosophy

to

a general method

of

appHcations of which seem to have

of
been suggested by the study of the vibrations of strings and the analysis
its harmonics or overtones.

these vibrations into their fundamental tone and

The motion
motion

that

is

of a
to

uniform stretched string fixed at both ends is a periodic


after a certain interval of time, called the fundamental

say,

motion, the form of the string and the velocity of every part
the same as before, provided that the energy of the motion has not

period of the
of

it

are

been sensibly dissipated during the period.

There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a uniform


One of these may be called the wave method, and the other
stretched string.

The wave method is founded on the theorem that in


length a wave of any form may be propagated

the harmonic method.


a stretched string of
in

either

direction

"velocity of

with

propagation."

direction meets
is

infinite

certain

F,

velocity,

which

we may

define

a wave of any form travelling in the

If

the

as

positive

another travelling in the opposite direction, the form of which


corresponding

such that the lines joining

the

of

points

the

of the

string,

then

two waves are


the

point

of

all

the

in a fixed point in
corresponding to this point will remain fixed, while the two waves pass
If we now suppose that the form of the waves
it in opposite directions.
travelling in the positive direction is periodic, that is to say, that after the

bisected

line

string

wave has
string

is

travelled

forward a distance

the same as

it

was at

time of travelling a wave-length

I,

the position of every particle

first,

then

is

called

denote by T, so chat

l=VT.

is

the

called the wave-length,

periodic

time,

which

of the

and the

we

shall

HARMONIC ANALYSIS.

798
If

to

be

the

in

travelling

in position,

waves similar to these, but reversed

set of

there

direction,

opposite

be

will

series

points,

of

be no motion of the string;


will therefore make no difference to the motion of the string if we suppose

distant
it

we now suppose a

^l from each other,

at

which there

will

the string fastened to fixed supports at any two of these points, and we may
then suppose the parts of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it

We

have thus
cannot affect the motion of the part which is between them.
arrived at the case of a uniform string stretched between two fixed supports,

and we conclude that the motion of the string may be completely represented
as the resultant of two sets of periodic waves travelling in opposite directheir wave-lengths being either twice the distance between the fixed
tions,
points

or

submultiple

subject to

this

of

wave-length,

this

and

form of

the

waves,

these

condition, being perfectly arbitrary.

To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in terms of its distance
from one end of the string, and from these data it is easy to calculate the
The form of the string
form which is common to all the travelling waves.
the positions of
calculating
by
deduced
at any subsequent time may then be
displacements.
their
compounding
and
time,
that
at
waves
the two sets of
Thus

in

the wave-method the

as the resultant of

actual

motion

of

two wave-motions, neither of which

the
is

string

of

itself,

is

considered

and without

with the condition that the ends of the string are fixed.
Each of the wave-motions is periodic with a wave-length equal to twice the
distance between the fixed points, and the one set of waves is the reverse of
consistent

the other,

the other in respect of displacement and velocity and direction of propagation;but, subject to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary.
of a particle of the string, being determined

The motion
pass over

it

by the two waves which

of an equally arbitrary type.

in opposite directions, is

In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the string is
regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions which may be infinite
in

number, but each

particular

solution

of

of

which

the

perfectly

is

problem

of

the

definite

in

type,

and

is

motion of a string with

in

fact

its

ends

fixed.

simple harmonic motion

-When a point Q

is

moves uniformly

thus defined by Thomson and Tait

cii'cle,

53)

the perpendicular QP, drawn from

HARMONIC ANALYSIS.
its

799

any instant to a fixed diameter AA' of the circle, intersects the


P whose position changes by a simple harmonic motion.

position at

diameter in a point

The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion

the range on one side or the

is

other of the middle point of the course.

The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses from
any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same direction through
the same position.

The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the fraction of


whole period which has elapsed since the moving point last passed through

the
its

middle position in the positive direction.


In the case of the stretched string,

it

these particular
of

certain

the

line

the

joining

fixed

points

through these two points, and therefore having

particular

for

axis,

its

curve

of

sines

and passing

wave-length either twice

for its

a simple harmonic

is

In

that of a curve

is

the length of the string or some submultiple of this wave-length.

tude of the

cases

a simple harmonic motion.

is

the form of the string at any instant

cases

having

sines

only in

is

that the motion of a particle of the string

function

The ampli-

the

of

time, the
being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the fundaEvery one of these modes of vibration is dynamically possible
mental period.

period

by

and any number of them may coexist independently of each

itself,

By

a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of each of these

modes of

vibration,

we

the string,
in

which

tions

other.

it

whose

determination
vibrations

so

so

that their resultant shall

obtain a

new

represent the initial

state

of

representation of the whole motion of the string,

seen to be the resultant of a series of simple harmonic vibra-

is

periods

as

to

fundamental

the

are

the

of

and

amplitudes

satisfy

the

initial

and

period

phases

of

the

conditions

is

its

submultiples.

several

an

simple

example

of

The

harmonic
harmonic

analysis.

We
the

have thus two methods of solving the partial

motion of a

hibits the

solution

in

The

of which have to

equation of

first,

which must be determined from the


method, leads to a

differential

which we have called the wave-method, exthe form containing an arbitrary function, the nature of

string.

series

of terms

be determined.

initial

conditions.

involving sines

and

The second,
cosines,

or harmonic

the coefficients

The harmonic method may be defined

in

HARMONIC ANALYSIS.

800

more general manner as a method by which the sokition of any actual problem
may be obtained as the sum or resultant of a number of terms, each of which
The nature of these paris a solution of a particular case of the problem.
one
of them must be conticular cases is defined by the condition that any
jugate to any other.

The

mathematical

two

from

arising

test

conjugacy

of

is

that

energy of

the

harmonics existing together

the

of

is

the

equal to the

the energy arising from the two harmonics taken separately.

system

sum

of

In other words,

no part of the energy depends on the product of the amplitudes of two difWhen two modes of motion of the same system are conjuharmonics.

ferent

gate to each

The

the

other,

simplest

case

the vibrating string

is

of

one of them does not affect the other.

of

existence

harmonic analysis, that of which the

an example,

treatment of

what

completely investigated in

is

is

known

as Fourier's Theorem.

theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single variable


which does not become infinite at any phase, can be expanded in
the form of a series consisting of a constant term, together with a double
series of terms, one set involving cosines and the other sines of multiples of
Fourier's

period p,

the phase.

Thus
then

it

if

may

a periodic function of the

is

<^(^)

be expanded as follows

,^(f)

The part
also

is

of

coefficients

A^ A^

to

B^.

^ having a period

= 4. + 2r^.cos^+2r<sm2-|f
which

the theorem

the easiest

variable

investigate,

is

is

the

most

frequently

PJ

?/>
U

^^

(1).

required,

determination of the

These are

1^

_2^,

P
P

dt,

and

values

which
of

the

801

HARMONIC ANALYSIS.
This

part

by

of (1)

sides

the

of

grating from

The

by cos

d^,

verified

by

or

d^,

single-valued

evidently

is

by

once

at

d^,

sin

and

multiplying
in

each

becomes imaginary
of

any value of

for

<^(^)

for

values

all

any given value of

for

case

both
inte-

It

^.

is

convergent,

^ such that

of

It cannot

f.

has more than one value, or which

of ^ which

represent a function

value

be

to p.

series

therefore

true

may

tlieorem

the

approaching to

f varies infinitesimally

if

the function also varies infinitesimally.

W. Thomson,

Sir

himself of the

availing

globe,

disk,

and

cylinder inte-

by his brother. Professor James Thomson, has


constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals required for the exinvented

grating

machine

pression

of Fourier's series can

trace of

any

simultaneously from

obtained

be

the

recorded

quantity, such as the height of the tide, the

variable

periodically

temperature of the pressure of the atmosphere, or the intensity of the different


components of terrestrial magnetism. If it were not on account of the waste
of time,

instead

afterwards

curve

a curve drawn by the action of the

of having

acted

by

on

might be driven by a
variable of the machine, but
itself

machine, the

the

clock,

this

time

tide,

and the

the

machine

of

axis

and the tide itself might work the second


would involve the constant presence of an

expensive machine at every tidal station.


It

devoid

would not be

of

had we opportunity

interest,

for

it,

to

trace

the analogy between these mathematical and mechanical methods of harmonic


analysis and the dynamical processes which go on when a compound ray of
light

is

tone

is

analysed into

simple vibrations by a prism,

its

by a

selected from a complex tone

complicated sound-wave of an orchestra,


crowd,
listener,

which,

are

armed
as

into

interpreted

it

with

hangs

the
in

intelligible

harp

the

three

gateway

components of the waves of the

VOL. IL

of

of

resonator,

when a

particular over-

and when the enormously

even the discordant clamours of a

ox

music

or

thousand
his

ear,

language
strings,

by
the

discriminates

the

attentive

resonance

the

of

multifold

aerial ocean.

W)l

INDEX TO VOL.

aausius, 28, 55, 77, 222, 226, 344, 347, 365, 369,

Action at a distance, 311


Air, Viscosity

II.

409, 421, 427, 431, 451, 458, 664

of, 1

Airy's function of stress, 92, 102, 180, 192,

200

Colour Blindness, 277

Colour Vision, 230, 267

205

Ampere, 317
Anaxagoras, 445, 449
Andrews, 371, 409

Constitution of Bodies, 616

Apjohn, Dr, 637

Cotes' Theorem, 390

Atom, 445
Atomic theory, forms of, 448
Attraction, 485 A Paradox

Coulomb, 302, 317, 322

Continuity of Gaseous and Liquid State, 407

Comu, 765

Cremona, 494
in the

Theory

of,

599

work, 79

Bell, A. M., 751


Bell, Professor

Crookes, 682, 685


Currents, Electric, maintenance of by mechanical

Confocal Cyclides,

Cyclide, 144;

Graham, 742755

Benson, W., 232, 272

Isothermal Functions

Bernoulli, D., 364

146, 148;

Forms

of,

Boltzmann, 366, 431, 433, 622, 691

his

of,

672

Theorem

on the Kinetic Theory of Gases, 714

Dalton, 277, 367

Boole, 229

Descartes, Doctrine of continuity, 450

Boscovich, 448, 471, 480

Diagrams,

classified,

Boussinesq, 760

Diffusion,

625646

Bow's method

of

drawing diagrams, 492

British Association

215

of,

148

Cylinder, Electrical capacity

Bois-Raymond, 760

155; Conjugate

153; Construction

of,

Address to Physical Section,

Lecture before, on molecules, 361

647659;

Reciprocal, 102

Diffusion of Gases, 57, 61, 343, 501, 740

Disk, Electrical capacity

of,

678

Dupre, 549, 551


Duprez, 585

Capacity, electrical, 672


Effusion, Thermal, 711

Capillary Action, '542


Capillary Surface,

Form

of,

569

Cavendish, 301, 317, 322, 612, 789

Clairaut, 542

and Electro-magnetic units compared

J., 751
Envelope, spherical, Equilibrium of, 86
Ether, 763; its function in Electro-magnetic pheno-

ElHs, A.

338

Chemical Society, lecture


Chrystal, Professor, 537

Electrostatic

experimentally, 125

Cayley, 233, 235


Challis,

Electrical problems. Solution of, 256

to,

418

mena, 771; Physical constitution

of,

773

1012

INDEX TO VOL.

804
Eye, Centre of motion

of,

II.

Grove, Sir W., Letter

416

Faraday, 221, 286, 302, 318321, 349, 488, 747


Biography, 786; Electrical work, 787; Experi;

ments on Light, 790


chemical work, 786

and
Felici,

his character,

Remarks on

792

his

Beam

of Light, 381

optical instruments,

W.

Hamilton, Sir

Figure, particular case of transformation

Frames and Diagrams

of,

applied to the theory of

439

R., 144, 259, 381

Harmonic Analysis, 797


Heat: Coefficient of conductivity, 76; Conduction

Fick, 626, 633

Figures,

298

of in a gas, 54, 74

of Forces, 161

Helmholtz, 223, 230, 255, 276, 306, 342, 402, 416,

Fizeau, Experiments in propagation of Light, 770

Fluid motion, on the Displacement in a case

466, 708, 745, 753

of,

Remarks on him

Focal lines of a refracted pencil, 332

Herapath, 364

Forbes, 77

Herschel, Sir

Forces between molecules of a gas: Mutual action

Heterogeneous substances, equilibrium


Hills

the inverse fifth power of distance, 32; External

Holman, 692

on a system

J.,

277, 376, 483


of,

498

Hockin, 127, 133, 134

Hopkinson, 622

49

of molecules,

man

and Dales, 233

Mutual action
between two molecules, 35
between two systems, 37 Reasons for adopting
;

as a

592

of science,

208

forces

400

Hamilton's Characteristic Function for a narrow

his character

295

of his treatise,

Guthrie, Professor, 500

355

genius,

on Magneto-Electric In-

to,

Review

duction, 121;

Huggins, 322, 465

Foucault, 107, 112, 322

Hutton, 637

Fourier's Theorem, 800

Frames, Degrees of Freedom and Constraint

of,

171
Induction, Magneto- Electric, 121

Fresnel, 322, 766

Induction of currents in an infinite plane, 286

Gases: Coefiicient of Diffusion, 60; Conduction of


heat

64

Cooling

74;

54,

in,

Definition of the Action of a system, 717

Dynamical Specification of
the motion of, 716 Dynamical theory of, 26
Equations of motion of, 56, 69 Interdiffusion
Law of Equivalent Volumes, 63
of, 61
Diffusion

57

of,

Pressure

of,

of, 65,

53; Rigidity of, 32, 71; Specific


66; Statistical Specification, 720

Conditions at surface of a
Equations of motion, 697, 701

Gases, Rarified:
704, 709

311

solid,

Jurin, Dr, 542

Kempelen, 753
Kirchhoff, 96, 406

Kopp, 349
Kronig, 365

Methods in Thermodynamics,

498, 625, 659

582

Joule, 136, 305, 323, 364, 454, 501

Kohlrausch,

Lecture on Action at a distance,

Jenkin, 106, 107, 110, 164, 494


Jets, instability of,

Gay-Lussac, 455, 546


Professor

Integration, Multiple, 604

Gauss, 228, 245, 546

Gibbs,

Royal

Lecture on Colour Vision, 267

heat

Institution,

by expansion,

of,

1,

31, 126, 136, 641

Kundt, 685, 692, 712

Governors, 105

Graham, 11,58,

59, 61, 71, 73, 222, 343, 347, 367,

457, 501, 626', 710

Laplace, 545, 571


Leidenfrost, 543

Graphical Statics, 492

Leonardo da Vinci, 541

Green, 253, 599

Le

Sage, explanation of gravitation, 474

INDEX TO VOL.

Physical Forces, Correlation

637

Leslie, 544,

Light, Electromagnetic Theory

of,

Drop between two


between two plates, 568

plates,
;

400

Physics, Introductory Lecture on,- 241

Lines of Force, Experiment on, 319


:

of,

Physical quantities, mathematically classified. 257

138, 771

Lightning, Protection of Buildings from, 538

Liquid

805

II.

Piotrowski, 685, 708

57 1

Rise

Rise

of,

in a Tube,

of,

Plateau, 393, 548


Poisson, 301, 303, 317, 547, 560

Polyhedra, Relation between the numbers of edges,

567
Liquid films

Stability

of,

578

583

Tension

summits and faces

of,

553, films which are surfaces of revolution, 576

of,

170

Priestley, 367

Problem, in Discontinuity, 310

Lockyer, N., 465


Lorenz, 137, 228

Loschmidt, Experiments on Diffusion, 343, 369, 460,

Quadratic functions, 329


Quaternions,

740

260266

Quincke, 395, 541

Lucretius, 445, 471, 472

549

Liidtge,

Rankine, 163, 259, 494, 664


Rayleigh, Lord, 435, 465, 644, 754

MaccuUagh, 766
Mayer, 402

Reading instruments, methods

Mean, the geometrical mean distance between two


figures, 280
Meyer,

Meyer, O.

E., 12, 24, 25, 29, 71, 344, 459, 621,

Molecular

aether,

692

subject to forces, 351

Final state

Lecture on,

der Waals, 407;

Monge, 544

Motion of a connected system. Equations

of,

308

of

338

Physics,

Philosophy, 756;

Sir

W.

Challis's
;

relation of Physical Forces," 400

work by

Mathematical
Grove's
;

"Cor-

Paradoxical

Thomson's papers,

Thermodynamics, 660 Thomson


and Tait's Nat. Phil., 324, 776; Whewells
Writings and Correspondence, 528
301

361

278

in,

work by Plateau, 393

Principles

Encounter between, 686

when

Van

Molecular Vortices, 774

of,

742

Reis, Philip, 746

Review

Molecular Science, 451

lecture,

Retina, Yellow spot

437

Molecular Constitution of Bodies, 418

Molecules

Rede

Regnault, 454

349

L.,

514

of,

Reciprocal Diagrams, 164, 182

Tait's

Reynolds, Professor, 704

Neumann,

228, 766

Newton, 230, 268, 314, 316, 327, 419, 452, 487,


542, 764

Riemann, 137, 170

Scientific

Apparatus

classified,

505

527

Segner, 542

Obermayer, 692
Ohm's Law, 533

Siemens's Governor, 108, 116

Optics, its relation to other parts of Mathematics,

Somerville, Mrs, 401

391
Orsted, 317

Slipping, Coefficient

in a gas, 708,

712

Spectrum, Best Arrangement for producing a pure


spectrum, 96
Spherical

Page, 749

of,

Harmonics, Application

Gases, 688

Paradoxical Philosophy, 756

Stefan, 344, 459, 503

Peaucellier's Linkage, 495

Stereograms of Surfaces, 97

to

Theory

of

INDEX TO VOL.

806

11.

Stewart Balfour, 756

Transpiration, Thermal, 710

Stokes, 12, 24, 230, 253, 344, 769

Tyndall, 215, 221

Stoney, 222, 348, 372

Diagrams

Stress:

Equilibrium

in

of,

three

dimensions,

178;

in a Solid Body, 197

of,

587

Laws

variation

591

563

of,

of,

on velocity of waves,
arising from

Phenomena

572; Relation to temperature,

of,

Tables

Effect

der Waals, 407, 426, 560

43

of,

Venant,

St,

760

Virial, defined, 421

Viscosity, Coefficient of, 7, 71

589, 590

of,

der Mensbrugghe, 548

Velocities of molecules of a gas, final distribution

Stresses in Rarified Gases, 681

Surface Tension

Van
Van

gases, 347; of Air,

Sylvester, 215

25,

Table

of,

for several

692; of a mixture

of gases, 72

Viscous

Tait, 228, 266, 324, 749, 756, 776, 797


Tait's

Thermodynamics, 660

671

Taylor, Sedley, 754


Taylor,

W.

Telephone,

in,

379

Law

of Equivalent

Vortex Atoms, Theory

of,

Volumes,

63,

430

466

742755

Thermometer,

Wet

Thomson, Sir W.,


226,

Volumes,

494

P., 164,

double refraction

fluid,

Voit, 626, 633

Warburg, 685, 6&2, 712

Bulb, 636
2,

16,

107, 112, 127, 136, 222,

255, 256, 258, 292,

301307,

312, 321,

324, 341, 348, 372, 450, 454, 470, 476, 488,

Weber,

31, 126, 136, 228, 245, 291, 621

Wheatstone,

501, 508, 549, 587, 621, 626, 711, 742, 767,

Wiedemann,

774, 776, 798, 801

W^illis,

Todhunter, 529

84, 745,

753

Whewell's Writings and Correspondence, 528


E.,

692

753

Wroblewski, 503

Tomlinson, 548, 566


Torsion Balance, 513

Young, 267, 273, 322, 545, 566

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