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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

What is Environment?

Definition: The word environment is originated from environ, which mean things that
surrounds.

So environment means all that environ us like all physical and biological surroundings i-e
air, water, human, trees, plants, animals, micro-organisms, road, building etc.

Broadly speaking environment is defined as sum of all conditions and influence , which
affects development and life all organism on earth.

The environment is collective term for all condition, in which organism lives.

Thus all factor such as light, temperature, water, soil, air and organism constitute
environment.

Ecology:

It is the scientific analysis and study of interactions and various relationship of living
organisms with each other and with their environment.

Population:

The group of similar individual species that live together in same area in same time, in
ecological term form population.

Habitat: The type of environment in which particular organism or population lives is its habitat and
they are habitant of it.
Biodiversity: it is a term we use to define variety of life on earth like plants, animals etc.

It refers to wide variety of ecosystem and living organism and their habitats.

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and


with their environment such that energy is exchanged and system-level processes.

Species: A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals having similar characteristics
and capable of interbreeding. Endangered is a specie which is in danger of extinction.
Fauna: The animal of specified region or time.
Flora: The plant of specified region or time.
Bacteria: They are unicellular (single cell) prokaryotic (lack of cell/membrane) living
microorganism. Their importance is that
(1) They change composition and shape of organism.
(2) Alimentary canal bacteria which help us in digestion.
(3) Medical bacteria help us in medicine making.
(4) Industrial bacteria which are harmful for living organisms.
However bacteria which are harmful and causes disease are termed as pathogenic bacteria like
industrial bacteria. And those which do not cause disease are Non- pathogenic bacteria.

Viruses: these are very small non-cellular parasites or pathogen of plant and animal.
What is Environmental Engineering?
Definition: The application of science and engineering knowledge, concepts and principles to
improve, or restore our natural environment (air, water and land) and solve environmental
problems, in order to provide healthy environment for all living organism.

It involves management of waste water, pollution control, recycling waste disposal,


radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental stability, and public health issues as
well as knowledge of environmental laws.

It also includes study of the environmental impacts of proposed construction projects.

Difference b/w Environmental Engineering and Environmental science?

Environmental science deals only with study of environmental issues which hazards
environment, and environmental engineering deals with methods, techniques and
application of engineering principles to solve the environmental issues.

Lithosphere: The solid part of the earth consisting of the crust and outer mantle.
Hydrosphere: The watery layer of the earth's surface; includes water vapor etc.
Biosphere: Difference ecosystem whether terrestrial or aquatic are linked together and
collectively constitute a giant ecosystem is called biosphere. The biosphere consist of earth
surface with few meters depth of water and air capsule which is of about 20km surrounding earth.
All living things live within biosphere not beyond it.
Types of Environmental Engineering

Environmental chemistry

Environmental microbiology

Environmental impact assessment

Environmental hydrology

Environmental health and safety

Environmental quality of modeling


and monitoring

Water and waste water treatment,


distribution and disposal

Air pollution and its control.

Noise pollution and its control.

Solid and hazards waste


management.

Population forecasting
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of a particular
city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make system inadequate for
the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make it costly. Changes in the population
of the city over the years occur, and the system should be designed taking into account of the
population at the end of the design period.
Factors affecting changes in population are:

increase due to births

increase/ decrease due to migration

decrease due to deaths

increase due to annexation

Population forecasting Methods

ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD (OR GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION METHOD

INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

GRAPHICAL METHOD

COMPARATIVE GRAPHICAL METHOD

MASTER PLAN METHOD

LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD

ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development.

If it is used for small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower population
estimate than actual value.

This method is based on assumption that the population increases at constant rate. Or rate
of change of population is constant.

Hence, dP/dt = x i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.

Therefore, Population after nth decade will be Pn= Po + n.x

Where, Pn is the population after n decades and P is present population

GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD (OR GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION METHOD)

In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed
to remain constant.

Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in population.

Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new industrial
town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population at the end
of nth decade Pn can be estimated as:

Pn = Po (1+ IG/100)

Where, IG = geometric mean (%) P = Present population N = no. of decades.

INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an


average size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in
increasing order.

In this method per decade growth rate is not assumed to be constant as in arithmetical
increase method, but progressively increasing and decreasing depends the average
incremental increase in past is positive or negative.

Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = Po+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y

Where, Pn = Population after nth decade X = Average increase Y = Incremental increase

GRAPHICAL METHOD

In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to a suitable
scale on graph.

The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future population. This extension
should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and judgment.

The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with population
curve of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.

MASTER PLAN METHOD

The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard manner, but
are planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan.

The master plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city.

According to the master plan the city is divided into various zones such as residence,
commerce and industry.

The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan. From this population
density total water demand and wastewater generation for that zone can be worked out.
By this method it is very easy to access precisely the design population.

LOGISTIC CURVE METHOD

This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and
migrations takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any extraordinary
changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster, etc.,

And the population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things within limited
space and economic opportunity.

If the population of a city is plotted with respect to time, the curve so obtained under
normal condition looks like S-shaped curve and is known as logistic curve

Environmental engineering
Water supply scheme (Water quantity, water demands, and variation in water demands.)

Water supply scheme

Water supply schemes are provided and constructed where shortage of water occurs or
unavailability of water occurs.

Water supply schemes should be proposed by the public health engineer and that
scheme should be designed for the current population and for the population of minimum
2 decades.

It is proposed that water supply schemes are facilitated in those areas where is scarcity of
water, there is no any proper maintenance, check and balance.

Silent features of water supply scheme

1. Population forecast: Water supply schemes should be designed to serve satisfactory at least
population of 3 decades.
2. Assessment of water demand: depending upon the population the total water requirements
should be estimated for a town or city including domestic, public, industrial etc demands.
3. Record of industry: the nature and no of industries in a town should be recorded because
industries require much water for running and maintenance. This record should be updated
from time to time.
4. Record of public places: the nature and no of public places like parks, play grounds, hospitals,
schools, markets etc should be recorded for provision of additional water requirement.
5. Source of water: the cost of water supply scheme depends upon selection of site for source
of water. The selection of site for source of site should be such that cost of convenience and
water treatment should be reasonable. If water supply scheme is designed for two cities water
supply scheme should be designed at the center of both.
Water quantity

When designing the water supply project for a town or city, it is essential to determine the
detailed quantity of a water required for various purposes by the city.

But as there are so many aspects involved in demand of water, it is impossible to precisely
figure out the actual demand.

Certain empirical formula and thumb rules are used in determining the water demand, which
is very near to the real demand.

Water Quantity Estimation


The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed requires following data:
Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)
Population to be served.
Quantity= Per capita demand x Population
Types of water demands
1. Domestic water demand

The amount of water necessary in the residences for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing
etc is known as domestic water demand and primarily depends on the habits, social status,
weather and traditions of the people.

Under normal conditions,


135 litres/day/capita.

But in developed countries this figure may be 325 340 litres/day/capita because of use
of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances.

the

domestic

consumption

of

water

is

about

2. Industrial water demand

The water needed in the industries mostly relies on the kind of industries that are established
within the town. The water needed by various industries like paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton

mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use. About 50 l/c/d or 20 25%
of total water demand is normally considered as industrial water demand.
3. Institutional and commercial water demand

This type of water demand includes the water requirement for the public buildings other
than residences.

Commercial buildings, Malls, Colleges, Hotels, Bus depots and other similar public buildings
comes within this category. Commercial demand 20l/c/d

4. Public use water demand

Volume of water necessary for public utility needs like for washing and sprinkling on roads,
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc comes under
public demand.

Usually Public demand 20 l/c/d or 5 % of total water demand for city is considered for
public use while designing water supply scheme.

5. Fire water demand

Water requirement for firefighting purpose fall under this head. The volume of water
necessary for firefighting is usually computed by making use of various empirical formula.
For water demand kuichings formula provides acceptable results.
Q = 3182 Sqroot (p)
where,
Q = volume of water required in Lits / Hour
p = population of city in thousands

6. Wastage and Losses

There are always losses and wastage occurs in pipeline while water distribution. The main
reasons for this are listed below

Damage pipe line and or faulty accessories like valves, fittings etc.

Water tabs kept open in public or residences causing water wastage

Due to illegal and unauthorized connections

While calculating the total amount of water of a town; allowance of 50 l/c/d 270 l/c/d or
12- 15% of total quantity of water is designed to make up for losses, thefts and wastage of
water.

Factors affecting per capita demand:

Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for
smaller towns as big cities have severed houses.

Presence of industries.

Climatic conditions: water usage is more in summer less in winter.

Pressure in the distribution system.

Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.

Cost of water.as cost will increase wastage will decrease, because people will avoid to
waste water in their interest in order to minimize expenditures.

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily Per Capita Demand= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.

Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more
in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.

Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.

Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household
working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk
of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible.
Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during
short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.

As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand.

Peak demand=1.5 x average daily demand.

WATER impurities

Water is the universal solvent and in nature, it is never totally pure. No matter how isolated
it is from sources of contamination, it will always have some chemicals.
Gases or minerals in the air, soil, or rock are dissolved by the water. Some dissolved
materials give water its characteristic taste, and pure water is generally considered to
be flat and tasteless.
Minerals can cause hardness (calcium or magnesium), color (iron), contamination), and
radioactivity in the water. Humans can cause contamination through the improper use of
pesticides or fertilizers and through the disposal of waste. These impurities can dissolve in
the water, causing it to be contaminated.
Groundwater dissolves much of the material when it percolates through soil formation,
dissolved minerals and salts.
It is generally harder than surface water, and it usually contains more iron and manganese.
As stated earlier, water in nature is not pure.
The suspended impurities are likely less in ground water as sub surface porous soil act as
filter.
The quality of water in case of run off depends upon catchment area. Water quality from
storage reservoir appears to be good as suspended particles settle down in bottom of
reservoir and upper layers are exposed to more aeration. As more dissolved solids are

present in bottom of reservoir that results in change of color of water. A reservoir which is
designed to supply water to agricultural zones, industrial zones must be free from
suspended particles.
Minerals and impurities are normally present in very small concentrations, and are
measured in parts per million (ppm) (how many parts of impurities in a million parts of
water) or milligrams per liter (mg/l). The terms are equivalent and are used
interchangeably in water and wastewater.
Some contaminants can also be measured in parts per billion (ppb) or micrograms per liter
(g/l), which are also essentially equivalent.

Types of impurities

Depending upon nature impurities can be classified as

Physical impurities:

Chemical impurities:

Biological impurities

Physical impurities causes following impurities:


(1) Turbidity
(2) Color
(3) Taste
(4) Odor
(5) Temperature
(6) Radioactive substances

Physical impurities
Turbidity: Turbidity in the water indicates presence of suspended or colloidal insoluble matter
including coarse particles (mud, sediment, sand, clay, silt etc.) that settle rapidly on standing.
In some cases salts of different also impart turbidity in water. The colloidal substance and salts may
be injurious to health.
The turbidity of feed water should not exceed 5 ppm. These materials can be removed by settling,
coagulation and filtration. Their presence is undesirable because heating or evaporation
produces hard stony scale deposits on the heating surface & clog fluid system.
Color: The water gets color from discharge of industries like chemical, textile, paper etc. Yellowish
color indicates the presence of chromium and appreciable amount of organic matter. Yellowish
red color indicates the presence of iron, while red brown color indicates the presence of peaty
matter.
Taste: It is due to the presence of dissolved mineral in water produces taste, but not odor.
Bitter taste can be due to the presence of iron, aluminum, manganese, sulphate or excess of lime.
Soapy taste can be due to the presence of large amount of sodium bi carbonate.

Brackish (slightly salty, unpalatable) taste is due to the presence of unusual amount of salts.
Palatable (acceptable taste) Taste is due to the presence of dissolved gases and minerals like
nitrates in water.
Odor: waste products discharge from industries. Some industries components such as trades
contain strong smelling compounds which impart odor and taste. Generally smelling compounds
are chlorine, hydrogen, sulphide etc.
Temperature: Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water quality. In
addition to its own effects, temperature influences several other parameters and can alter the
physical and chemical properties of water. Water is most dense at 4 degrees Celsius, or 39
degrees Fahrenheit, and is less dense at either higher or lower temperatures.
Radioactive substances: The discharge from nuclear power plant or research center discharge
radioactive substances which can seriously affect human health and life.
Chemical impurities in water:

Followings are chemical impurities.

(1) Acids: the waste products of some industries such as battery factories, explosive factories
contain acids. If these waste products are directly discharged into river then it will be harmful
to life, and will destroy self-purification property of water.
(2) Inorganic compounds: The waste products of industries like fertilization industry, oven
industry contain certain inorganic compounds. These compounds mainly consist of sulphide ,
ammonia etc which are harmful to life.
(3) organic compounds:
(a)Organic compounds may exist in the water due to presence of fats, protein and
carbohydrates.
(b)The suspended organic compounds may develop due to decayed fruits and dead
animals.

Organic compounds contain different dangerous elements which are harmful for life.

(4) pH :It is a value that determines if a substance is acid, neutral or basic, calculated from
the number of hydrogen ions present. The initials pH stand for "Potential of Hydrogen". It is
measured on a scale from 0 to 14, on which 7 means the substance is neutral. pH values
below 7 indicate that the substance is acidic and pH values above 7 indicate that it is
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH of 7 which means that it is neutral.
Biological impurities in water:

Biological contamination of water is caused by the presence of living organisms like algae,
bacteria, protozoa, pathogens, microbes, Viruses, Parasites and their eggs (cysts), etc.
known collectively known as microorganisms and commonly called 'germs'.

The development of pathogenic bacteria , fungus, viruses etc in water is caused due to
dead bodies and due to unhygienic discharge of sewage into river without treatment,
and are responsible for water borne disease.

The health effects of drinking water contaminated with germs may be severe, but easily
curable with modern day medicine. These minute living organisms in water are the causes
of diseases from dirty water like typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, gastroenteritis, etc.

Water tanks can sometimes be a breeding ground for microbes in water. In the usual test
for microorganisms, only one group of bacteria known as Coliform or e-coli is tested for,
this is because it is the most common species, and the first microorganism to infect water.
Membrane purification of water actually filters out all bacteria from water unlike UV water
purifier which kill bacteria in water but leaves their bodies in the drinking water.

What is coliform bacteria in water?

Coliform bacteria are one of the most common bacteria which is found almost
everywhere. Coliforms are a type or family of bacteria that includes many varieties, such
as Escherichia Coli or commonly known as E. Coli. Most of the E.Coli or Coliform bacteria
are harmless to human beings, and it is very rare for E.Coli bacteria to cause sickness,
especially since most people have immunity to their local variety of E.Coli.

Filtration

Filter Materials
Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is
measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may
be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand
by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is
measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity
coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through which
60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.
Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water
to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.
Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media.
Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke
or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.
Classification of Filters
The filters are classified according to the rate of filtration and the force by which the water
passes the filtering media. so, under these conditions, the filters may be of the following
types:

Constructional Features

Backwashing
To keep water treatment filters functional, they have to be cleaned periodically to remove
particulates. Ineffective backwashing is one of the main reasons that water treatment
filters fail. In terms of water treatment, including water purification and sewage treatment,
backwashing refers to pumping water backwards through the filter media, sometimes
including intermittent use of compressed air during the process. Backwashing is a form
of preventive maintenance so that the filter media can be reused.

WATER PURIFICATION

In early days surface water was used by human for their domestic purposes. At that man
did not have knowledge how to purify water, thats why man had to suffer from water
borne diseases, So many villages were destroyed because of water borne diseases.
With the growth of civilization and development of town or city, people started thinking
over issue of water for drinking, safety of life and healthy environment.
It is observed that people are not still using portable water. Before supplying the water to
the consumer, should be completely purified, and this involves very extensive and modern
methods of treatment.
By purification does not mean to remove all bacteria, because some of them are good
for health. The water which does not contain harm salts or minerals and does contain
impurities which are good for health is called portable water, or whole sum water. Portable
water is very clear in color, free from any type of odor, and should be free from harmful
bacteria.
So the Water purification is process of removing any kind of impurity it contain such as
undesirable chemical, biological contaminants , suspended solids and harmful substances
from raw water, to make it safe and portable for human consumption.
To obtain desired quality of water, a sample from resources like river, reservoir, canal etc is
collected and tested in laboratory and necessary treatment should be recommended
accordingly.
The extent of treatment depends upon characteristics and quality of available water and
also quality required.
Purification of water supply

Screening: In this method net is used to remove large solids, dead animals, solids, logs, wooden
branches etc. This method is installed while designing of purification of water.
Chemical addition:

Before coagulation, chemicals like aluminum sulphate (Alum), polymers, or chlorine


are added to water. These kill the germs and improve taste, odor and help to settle
the solid particles suspended in the water and these particles are then mixed together.
Coagulation and flocculation:
Here the Alum and other chemical from chemical addition start cling to particles in
the water this called coagulation. It causes the particles to stick together and form
large particles called floc and this process is called flocculation.

Sedimentation: The water and floc particles flow into sedimentation basin, here the floc settles in
the bottom of basin and get removed from water.
Filtration: From the sedimentation basin water flows through filters. Filters are made of sand and
gravels. Filters are used to remove any remaining particle left in water. The gravel layer is often
about 1 foot deep and the sand layer about 2 feet deep.
Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine or the disinfection chemicals are added in this process.
This is used to kill an remaining particle or germ to keep the water safe as it travels to the public.
In some water system specially those within ground water, this is only treatment to be provided.
Storage and distribution: After disinfection water is stored for a period of 15 days to check is there
any effect of germ and bacteria. When it is checked there is no any harmful bacteria and germ,
water is distributed to community.

For domestic supply it is necessary to make the water wholesome and pleasant to
drink. Water contain suspended solids, turbidity, bacteria and dissolved salts. They are
harmful and need to be removed, so that water is fit for health.

To make water consumable following factors should be taken into consideration.

Safety for preventing water borne diseases.

Ensuring water quality so as to attain permissible standard before to reach consumers.

Removing turbidity, color, taste and odor which cause the water to be unacceptable.

Supplying adequate quantity of water for various domestic purposes.

Distribution System
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure.
Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from
its source to the point of usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution System
Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.

All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer
lines.
It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
Layouts of Distribution Network
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their
layouts generally follow the layouts of roads.
There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly
or in combinations, can be used for a particular place.
They are:
Dead End System

Grid Iron System

Radial System

Ring System

Dead End System


It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.
Advantages
Relatively cheap.
Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
Disadvantages
Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
Radial System
The area is divided into different zones.
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone.

The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.

Advantages:
It gives quick service.
Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
Grid Iron System
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the
water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
Advantages
Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of
dead ends.
In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is
available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all branches.
Ring System
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the
mains.

This system also follows the grid iron system with the flow pattern similar in character to that
of dead end system.

So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.


Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.

Methods of water distribution


For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at various points.
Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area and other local conditions
the water may be forced into distribution system by following ways Gravity system
Pumping system
Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity system
Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.
Most reliable and economical distribution system.
The water head available at the consumer is just minimum required.
The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.
Pumping system
Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main without storing.
Also called pumping without storage system.
High lifts pumps are required.
If power supply fails, complete stoppage of water supply.
This method is not generally used.
Combined gravity and pumping system
Most common system.
Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir.
Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.

The excess water during low demand periods get stored in reservoir and get supplied
during high demand period.
Economical, efficient and reliable system.

Disinfection
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms.
When microorganisms are not removed from drinking water, drinking water usage will cause
people to fall ill. Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However, during the sterilization
process all present microorganisms are killed, both harmful and harmless microorganisms.
Some common water-borne diseases prevented by disinfection:

Bacterial
Typhoid fever
Para-typhoid
Bacterial diarrhea
Cholera
Legionnaires disease

Viral
Hepatitis
Rotavirus diarrhea

Protozoan
Amoebiasis
Giardiasis
Cryptosporidiasis

Types of disinfection:

Physical disinfection techniques include boiling and irradiation with ultraviolet light.
Chemical disinfection techniques include adding chlorine, bromine, iodine, and ozone to
water.

Physical disinfection (boiling):

Boiling kills vegetative bacterial cells, but spores (produces), viruses, and some protozoa
may survive long periods of boiling.
Boiling is an effective method for small batches of water during water emergencies.
Boiling is prohibitively expensive for large quantities of water.

Physical disinfection (UV radiation):

Ultraviolet radiation is an effective and relatively safe disinfection method, but is relatively
expensive and not widely used.
UV light disrupts DNA of microbial cells, preventing reproduction.
Specific wavelengths, intensities, distances, flow rates, and retention times are required.

Chemical disinfection:

Chemicals added to water for disinfection include chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
Bromine is not recommended for drinking water disinfection, but may be used for pool
water.
Iodine is sometimes used for drinking water disinfection, but causes a bad aftertaste.

Chlorine disinfection:

Chlorination is a cheap, effective, relatively harmless (and therefore most popular)


disinfection method.
It is the method of disinfection by which the microorganisms are killed if chlorine & its
components are used. Chlorination serves not only for disinfection, but as an oxidant for
other substances (iron, manganese, cyanide, etc) & for taste & odor control in water
& wastewater.

Other chemical disinfectants include chlorine dioxide, ozone, bromine, iodine. The last two
chemicals are generally used for personal application, not for the public water supply.

Chlorine is added as a gas or hypochlorite solution.

Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions form in solution, which are strong chemical
oxidants, and kill microbes.

Combined chlorine is the proportion that combines with organic matter.

Free chlorine is the amount that remains to kill microbes in the distribution system (0.5 ppm,
10 min.)

Total chlorine is the combined concen-tration of combined and free chlorine.

Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)

Plain Chlorination : This term is to indicate that only the chlorine treatment without any
other treatment
Pre Chlorination: The application of chlorine to raw water before any other treatment to
improve the coagulation & to remove the taste, odor, & color

Post Chlorination: Application of chlorine to treated water after all the other treatment

Double chlorination: When water has been chlorinated twice.

Ozonation: Ozone (O3) is an effective, relatively harmless disinfection method, but is expensive
(and therefore less popular than chlorine). Ozonation is a chemical water treatment technique
based on the infusion of ozone into water. Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms (O3),
which is one of the most powerful oxidants.
Summary: Disinfection is the destruction of microorganisms in drinking water to safe levels.
Disinfection techniques include physical (boiling, ultraviolet light) and chemical methods
(chlorine, bromine, iodine, and ozone).

Hard Water, Soft Water


Hard Water:

One class of impurity that is of special interest is "hardness". As water


moves through soil and rock, it dissolves very small amounts of minerals and holds them
in solution. Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two most common
minerals that make water hard. The degree of hardness becomes greater as the
calcium and magnesium content increases.

Minerals in hard water interact with soap.

Interferes with soaps ability to lather.

Effects of Hard Water

Homes with hard water use more soap!

More soap residue.

Calcium and iron deposits can build up in appliances

Washing machine

Dish washer

Steam iron

Shortens their life span and adds to landfill problem!

Soft Water
Water with very low concentrations of minerals.
Soap lathers easily and is sometimes difficult to rinse off.

Sedimentation
Sedimentation is water treatment process, during which water has little or
no movement, and suspended solids sink to the bottom under the force of
gravity and form a sediment, this process is called sedimentation.

Purpose of sedimentation

To remove coarse dispersed phase.


To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.

Sedimentation Principle

Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of
water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by
offering storage. Inorganic suspended solids having specific gravity of about 2.65;
and Organic suspended solids having specific gravity of about 1.04
The particles having specific gravity of about 1.20 or so readily settle down at the
bottom of tank. But it is difficult to cause the settlement of lighter particles.
This phenomenon of settling down of particles at the bottom of sedimentation tank
is known as hydraulic subsidence and every particle has its own hydraulic settling
value which will cause its hydraulic subsidence.
Basin in which the flow is retarded is called sedimentation basin. Theoretical
average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called
the detention period

Types of sedimentation

Plain sedimentation: It is process of settling down of solids and impurities in the


raw water to the bottom of sedimentation basin by natural gravity force alone,
no chemical is added. This method is very cheaper and mostly used in all
filtration and purification system of water.
Sedimentation by using clarifier and contact: In this method chemicals are
mixed in water and that water is rotated by help of pumps for period of two
hours per day, and suspended solids are settled down in the bottom of reservoir
or tank etc.
Chemically Assisted sedimentation or clarification: this is process in which
chemicals are added to water and through mixing the suspended solids and
other impurities are stick together and form floc, which settles to the bottom of
basin. In general most used process is chemically assisted horizontal
sedimentation and following assumptions are based on:
o

water generally flows through a tank as an irregular flow thus the


intention of sedimentation is to create condition in which the flow is
uniform as for long enough period, to permit the maximum practical

amount of floc to be settled before the water reaches at the end of


tank.
o

Size, shape and weight of particles.

Viscosity and temperature of water.

Detention period of tank.

Effective depth of tank.

Area of tank.

Surface over flow rate.

Velocity of flow and outlet design.

Rectangular sedimentation basin

Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to flow horizontally
through a long tank. This type of basin is usually found in large-scale water
treatment plants.
Rectangular basins have a variety of advantages such as predictability, costeffectiveness, and low maintenance. They are the least likely to short-circuit,
especially if the length is at least twice the width. The inlet and outlet
arrangements of rectangular basis are shown below.
A disadvantage of rectangular basins is the large extent of land area required.

Circular sedimentation basin

Square and circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are often known as
clarifiers.
This type of basin faces short-circuiting problems. Below Figure shows the inlet and
outlet arrangements.

Design detail

Detention period for plain sedimentation 4-8 hours and for coagulated sedimentation
3-4 hours.
Velocity of flow not greater than 30cm/ mint( horizontal flow).
Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common) maximum 100 m.
Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly
flocculated
water
24000
to
30000
L/d/m2
tank
area.
Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.

Detention period
The theoretical (calculated) time required for a given amount of water or wastewater to
pass through a tank at a given rate of flow. In other words it is average time for which the
water is detained in tank.

t= = =

Where t is detention period, Q is flow rate.


Detention time is inversely proportional to the incoming flow rate - as flow rate
increases, the detention time decreases.
Example
Calculate the detention time for a rectangular sedimentation tank with the following
dimensions, length is 20m, width is 10m, depth is 4m, and the flow rate is 0.5 3 per sec.
detention time = tank volume
incoming water flow rate
Note units of measurement are all consistent. ie time is given in seconds and
length is given in meters.
detention time = (20 x 10 x 4)
0.5
detention time = 800
0.5
detention time = 1600 seconds
detention time = 26.7 minutes
The term detention is often used interchangeably with retention and hydraulic
retention time.

Coagulation

The very fine suspended particles and the colloidal matter present in water cannot
be settled in plain sedimentation tank. So they need special treatment to remove,
for this purpose certain chemicals compound called coagulants are added to
water, which on thorough mixing form a gelatinous precipitated called folc.

The process of addition and mixing of chemicals is called coagulation.

In addition to removing turbidity from water, coagulation and flocculation is


beneficial. In other ways the process to remove many bacteria which are
suspended in the water and can be used to remove color from water.

The coagulation before sedimentation is almost universally adapted in all the


major water treatment plant and is followed by rapid sand filtration.

COMMON COAGULANTS

The coagulants like aluminum sulphate (Alum), ferrous sulphate etc carry positive
charge and attract negatively charged colloidal particles of clay, turbidity, and
color. Thus helping in the removal of these impurities from water.

Following are common coagulants:


1. Aluminum sulphate
2. Ferrous sulphate
3. Chlorinated copperas
4. Magnesium carbonate
5. Poly electrolytes
6. Ferric chloride
7. Sodium aluminate etc

Aluminum sulphate

This is most common and universal coagulant used in water works.

Its chemical composition is Al2(SO4)3.18H2O. It requires the presence of alkalinity in


water to form flux. Many water have bicarbonate alkalinity naturally in them. When
dissolved in water aluminum sulphate tends to hydrolyze into aluminum hydrolyze as
is evident from following reactions

Al2(SO4)3 18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)= 2Al( OH3)+3CaSO4+18H2O+6CO2

If Natural alkalinity in water is insufficient to react with alum , lime is also added to
water to form calcium hydrodoide Ca(OH)2 Or hydrated lime which reacts with Alum
as follows

Al2(SO4)3 18H2O+3Ca(OH)2=2Al( OH3)+3CaSO4+18 H2O

Sometimes sodium carbonate known as soda ash is added to form alkalinity the
resulting reactions are

Al2(So4)3 18H2o+3Na2co2 = 2Al(OH)2+3NaSo4+3cO2+18H2O

Though soda ash does not cause hardness, it is expensive than lime and is found to
be effective when ph value of water varies from 6.5 t0 8.5.

Its dose depends upon turbidity, color, taste, ph value and temperature of water. The
dose of alum varies between 10 t0 30mg per dm3 of water. Alum is preferred over
other coagulants because it reduces taste and odor etc effectively. It is cheap and
floc formed is quite tough to be broken easily.

It produce crystal clear water. The main disadvantage of alum is that it is difficult to
dewater sludge formed.

Ferrous sulphate

Ferrous or copperas can react with naturally calcium carbonate and alkalinity in
water but this is very much delayed one, hence lime is used with ferrous sulphate and
the following reactions take place.

Fe(SO4) 7H2O+ Ca (OH)2= Fe(OH)2+ Caso4+ 7H2O

The ferrous hydroxide is satisfactory gelatinous floc , which is heavier than one formed
by Alum.

The effective Ph range for this is 8.5 and above. Ferrous sulphate is not suitable for soft
colored water.

Chlorinated copperas

Hydrated Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O is traditionally referred to as Copperas. It has


too high solubility to act as satisfactory coagulant . It is therefore, first oxidized to Ferric
Sulphate [Fe2(SO4)3] and Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) by mixing its solution with a feed from
chlorinator the .6FeSO4.7H2O + 3Cl22Fe (SO4)3+ 2 FeCl3+ 7H2OFe2(SO4)3and FeCl3,
produced instantaneously are called chlorinated Copperas .

.Fe2(SO4)3effective pH 4 to 7 and >9FeCl3. it is effective over pH value 3.5 to 6.5 and


>8.5The combination has therefore proved to be very effective coagulant for treating
low pH water

Polyelectrolytes: These are mostly used to assist the flocculation process and are often
called flocculation aids. They are polymeric organic compounds of long polymer chains
that act to enmesh particles in the water. Polyelectrolytes can be cationic (carrying a
positive charge), anionic (carrying a negative charge) or non-ionic (carrying no net
charge). This coagulant removes both temporary and permanent hardness and is
effective for Ph range of 6 t0 8.5 naturally available in water.
Ferric chloride: (FeCl3) is commonly used as a coagulant. When added to water, the ion
precipitates as ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and the hydroxide flocs enmesh the colloidal
particles in the same way as the aluminium hydroxide flocs do. The optimum pH for
precipitation of iron is not as critical as with aluminium and pH values of between 5 and
8 give good precipitation.
POLYMERS: Polymers long-chained, high-molecular-weight, organic chemicals--are
becoming more widely used, especially as coagulant aids together with the regular
inorganic coagulants. Anionic (negatively charged) polymers are often used with metal
coagulants. Low-to-medium weight, positively charged (cationic) polymers may be used
alone or in combination with the aluminum and iron type coagulants to attract the
suspended solids and neutralize their surface charge. The manufacturer can produce a
wide range of products that meet a variety of source-water conditions by controlling the
amount and type of charge and relative molecular weight of the polymer. Polymers are
effective over a wider pH range than inorganic coagulants. They can be applied at lower
doses, and they do not consume alkalinity.
Chambers of coagulant basin

Inlet chamber: water is allowed to enter coagulant tank through it.

Feeding device: the selected coagulant is added to water by feeding device.

Mixing device: there are many types of mixing device. A suitable one is adapted
for mixing operation. Generally the device consist of paddles, which are rotated
by deriving unit. The paddles go on rotating continuously and coagulant are
mixed in this way.

Flocculation chamber: in this chamber the mixture of water and coagulant is


detained for some period or it is allowed to flow in very low velocity so that the
floc may be formed and get settled down by arresting the suspended particles.
Thus sludge is deposited at bottom of coagulant chambers.

Sludge removal: at the time of removal the sludge is agitated by scrappers fixed
with rotating arms which are operated by deriving unit. The sludge is taken off
through the sludge removal pipe by opening the valve.

Collection of clear water: the clear water from top is collected in a draw off
chamber from where it is taken to the next unit through the outlet pipe.

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