TOP NOTCH PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIES

Issue 4

FROM AWARENESS
TO APPLICATION
Five essential aids to learner training
Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher

A STRUCTURED PEDAGOGY
FOR LEARNER TRAINING

1. Working towards goals

2. Observing progress
and self-assessing
3. Being aware of the
instructional process
4. Reflecting on ones
language learning
5. Making strategies
a habit

Can learner training help students learn

English more efficiently?
We begin by considering two questions concerning the teaching
of English to young adult and adult learners:
Which aspects of learner training relate most specifically to the
learning of a new language?
What teaching approaches can help students move from awareness
of helpful practices to taking the initiative and responsibility of
applying them?
This article will suggest a structured pedagogy for learner training that
will build students awareness of practices that aid in language learning
and enable them to apply those practices as they use and continue to
learn English.

From Awareness to Application

It is generally agreed by language educators that providing opportunities

for students to work towards goals; to access prior knowledge; to practice
classic learning strategies such as planning, self-assessing, predicting, etc. will have positive results on students
ability to learn. Although many believe that creating content and lessons that include these practices aids the
learning of language, students will not incorporate them into their own learning initiatives if they are unaware of
them or their value. Following are suggestions for building learner awarenessan awareness that leads to active
application of strategies that work.

1. Working towards goals

At the beginning of each term, before beginning instruction, it is a good idea to probe students individual goals in
learning English. Such a discussion can be conducted in English or in the students native language, depending on
their level. Common goals will be: for professional reasons, for travel, for academic study, etc. It is important to
2008 Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher

directions? What did you learn today? and so on. When

students confirm that the goal was achieved, they value
the class, study, and instruction. Since language in classes
is learned very much by doing, observing progress
reinforces the value of paying attention and participating.

show how the course and/or course book will help them
reach these goalsfor example, by helping them learn to
understand and communicate in spoken and written
English.
It is also worthwhile to encourage students to brainstorm
what they want to be able to do in English in more
practical or specific terms. Students might generate a
list such as this, which could be posted on the board in
the class:
order meals
check into hotels
read academic journals or articles
write emails or letters
discuss news and current events
have social conversations
use the Internet
Almost all English course books include
topics and skills, so you can show students
how what they will learn to do, discuss,
understand, read, etc. support the goals
they listed. Topics and skills are usually
easily located in the scope and sequence
chart at the beginning of most course
books.

Then, at the end of each study unit or lesson in your

textbook, and before assessment, it is worthwhile to ask
students what they have learned in the unit. One
approach is to prepare a list of can-do*
statements for students to check, indicating
Although many
that they have achieved each goal. Can-do
statements should be worded in the same
believe that creating
way as the goals and can be written on
content and lessons
the board or photocopied for students.
An example follows.
that include these

practices aids the

learning of language,
students will not
incorporate them
into their own
learning initiatives
if they are unaware
of their value.

But most importantly, throughout the

course dont lose sight of those goals. At the beginning of
each class session, be sure to tell students (or post on the
board) the goal(s) for the day: Today were going to learn
how to give and get directions. Alternatively, for a less
teacher-centered approach, ask students to take a few
moments to look over the course book page or pages you
plan to do that class session and ask them to infer the
goal for the day.

Now I can
4 understand a menu in English
4 order a meal in a restaurant
4 use the vocabulary of foods
and drinks

4 use count and non-count nouns

correctly

4 discuss healthy and unhealthy foods

Benefit: Students consciously observe
their progress, which validates their
effort and encourages perseverance in
studying English.

3. Being aware of the instructional process

Students should become aware that the language
presentations and activities used in class and assigned for
work outside of class (homework, projects, laboratory
activities, on-line assignments) are not random or
accidental. They should be led to see how each one of
these has an additive and integrative impact on their
learning of English.

Benefit: Students see a practical purpose for each

lesson and are motivated by how each lesson will help
them attain their own goals.

For example, if the communication goal of a class is to

extend, accept, or decline invitations to events, then the
grammar or vocabulary presented during that class
session should be essential to achievement of the
communication goal. One such plan follows:

2. Observing progress and self-assessing

If each class begins with the statement of an achievable
goal, it then becomes easy for students to observe and
confirm their progress. One simple way to ensure this is
to ask them, Did you learn how to give someone

* Can-do statements are used as assessment criteria by the Council of Europes

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.

COMMUNICATIVE GOAL: EXTEND, ACCEPT, AND

DECLINE INVITATIONS

It is our experience that students will not be aware of

this without prompting.

A. Model Conversation (to exemplify the goal)

Benefit: Students become aware that language

presented and practiced contributes to their being
able to achieve a communicative goal.

A: Are you free on Friday? Married on

Main Street is at the Film Forum.
B: Really? Id love to go. What time?

4. Reflecting on ones learning

A: At 7:10.

There are a number of hurdles that must be overcome in

the learning of a foreign or a second language. One such
hurdle that interferes with progress is not knowing the
difference between understanding the meaning of a word
and being able to translate it into ones own language.

OR
B: Really? Id love to go, but Im busy on
Friday.
A: Too bad. Maybe some other time.

Learners instinctively attempt to translate word for word

everything they hear. Such an effort is futile for two
reasons: first, no one can possibly translate word for
word quickly enough to follow a speaker speaking at a
natural pace. And second, languages dont equate in a
word-by-word way. Moreover, exact translations dont
help for idioms, expressions, metaphors, or figurative
language. In order to build students awareness of this
reality, we must help them see that, when faced with
words they havent heard or seen before, they can in fact
derive both general and specific meaning from them.

B. Grammar (to support the goal)

1. Questions with When, Where, and What time

2. Prepositions of time and place
Students will then, through pair work, personalize the
conversation and thus achieve the communication goal
(to extend, accept, or decline invitations to events). They
should be encouraged to see that they will be able to
personalize the conversation because they have learned
the grammar they need.

The following example from a Spanish class for English

speakers illustrates learner confusion between
understanding and translating and suggests a way
to build student awareness that understanding is possible
without translation.

C. Pair Work (to permit students to observe how the

model and the grammar are essential in achieving
the goal)

A: Are you free _____? _____ is

playing _____.

A picture in an intermediate level Spanish-as-a-secondlanguage textbook showed sugar cane growing in a sugar
cane field. The caption read: La caa de azcar crece en
un caaveral. (Sugar cane grows in a sugar cane field.)

B: Really? Id love to go. _____?

Merely offering students a lesson in which the parts

contribute to the achievement of its goal may be good
language teaching. However, if students can develop a
cognitive awareness of the value of the lessons parts in
achieving its communication goal (in the case above, the
grammar), the lesson will make them better language
learners.
In order to ensure this cognitive awareness, ask students
to study the pair work before actually personalizing the
model conversation. Say, Weve just studied prepositions
of time and place and questions with When, Where, and
What time. Where do you need to use that grammar?

The instructor pointed at each part of the picture that

depicted the new vocabulary, asked students to repeat it,
and asked questions (in Spanish) to be sure the students

strategies, so they become a habit and result in the

following internal monologue: When I do x or y, I am
more successful.

understood. At the end of the activity, a student raised

her hand and said, We dont know what were saying.
The students, however, did in fact know what they were
saying, but were simply unable to translate the words
directly into English.

Although the strategy set that underpins successful

language learning is large and well appreciated, we will
concentrate in this example on one strategy that has great
value to language learners: compensating for inadequate
vocabulary.

To build awareness of the dichotomy between

understanding meaning and being able to translate, the
instructor pointed at the sugar cane and asked students,
Whats this? They answered, Sugar cane. (Caa is a
cognate for cane, so students didnt perceive this as a lack
of understanding. They probably silently translated,
Sugar cane to themselves.)

Canale and Swain (1980) classify communicative

competence into four categories: grammatical
competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic
competence, and strategic competence. This last ability
is what enables learners to express themselves even when
lacking the necessary language to do that correctly or
well. Even though students may become aware that
languages dont necessarily translate word for word, one
to another, they still will need assistance applying that
knowledge when they seek to express their own ideas.

Next, the instructor asked students, Whats the sugar

cane doing? Students answered, Its growing. (This
was understood because in the presentation, the
instructor had gestured grows with a rising hand, and
theres an exact equivalence of the verbs crece and grows.
Next she asked students, Wheres it growing? They
responded In a a caaveral. The instructor asked,
What is it you dont understand? Students said a
caaveral!? When the instructor followed this with,
Whats a caaveral? students said, Its the place where
the sugar cane grows.

Learners must accept that although few people ever

acquire the breadth of vocabulary in a foreign or second
language that they have in their own language,
communication is nevertheless possible even when one is
missing an essential word or phrase. To help students
build the skill of compensating for missing vocabulary,
we can work with them to help them restate their ideas
using language they do know.

From this process, students became aware that even

though they had no equivalent English word for
caaveral, they knew what a caaveral wasthe place
that sugar cane grows.

One activity might be to ask students to define words

after learning them. For example, assume students have
learned the names of foods and drinks through the use of
an illustrated list. Students could then take turns
describing the foods and asking others to guess the name
of the specific food they are describing. An example
follows.

This is a profound awareness that every learner of a new

language needs to reflect on. It creates the desire and need
to depend on context to infer meaning, promoting the
development of one of the most important strategies for
language learnersunderstanding meaning from context.
Benefit: Students gain confidence that they can
gather meaning from context and extrapolation and
other clues.

S1: Its a vegetable. Its orange and long.

Its good for your eyes. (The other students
guess carrot.)

5. Making strategies a habit

S2: I drink it for breakfast. Its dark brown,

almost black. I like it with sugar and milk.
(The other students guess coffee.)

We characterize strategies as actions learners choose to

take to be more successful. In order for them to make the
choice to use a strategy, they have to have observed that
the strategy is effective. Only with repeatedly
experiencing these successes will students transfer the
strategies to other learning opportunities. For that reason,
we advocate multiple opportunities for students to apply

This activity can be done with students of all levels and

with individual words, phrases, or collocations. For
instance, in a lesson about travel problems, students learn
the following phrases: have an accident, have mechanical
problems, miss the train, and get seasick. Once students

have learned this vocabulary, they can break into two

teams, with one team working together to formulate a
definition and the other team guessing the phrase.

S: (doesnt know the word cruise) I would like

to go to Hawaii, on a a ... How do you
say [word for cruise in native language]?

Team 1: We arrived at 3:00. The train left at

2:45. (The other students guess You
missed the train.)

T: What would you like to do? How would you

like to go there? Would you like to take an
airplane?

Team 2: We traveled on a boat. The weather was

bad. The boat moved a lot. We felt very,
very bad. (The other students guess
You got seasick.)

S: No. I would like to take a boat.

Certainly using a dictionary is an important aspect of
learner training, but in a real conversation outside of an
English class, its impractical to look a word up on the
spot. Knowing how to talk around an unknown word
is very valuable. Giving students frequent practice with
this skill ensures that they will make it a habit and elect it
as a strategy when necessary.

Becoming skillful at defining words and phrases is

important because it allows one to be able to describe
what a word means in order to elicit that word from
others. Alternatively, if one is speaking with someone
who doesnt know the right word either, the definition
itself can get the idea across. An example follows:

Benefit: Students learn that they are able to express

themselves on a variety of topics in spite of deficits
in vocabulary.

S: (doesnt know the word superstitious) I am

a how do you say it I am afraid of black
cats. I am afraid of the number 13. I worry
that some things bring bad luck. What is the
word for that kind of person?

Summary
This article has focused on classroom practices that help
students move from cognition to behavior. We have
sought to suggest concrete ways to instill awareness,
generate reflection, and therefore promote the habitual
transfer and application of these effective practices. The
five aspects of learner training covered in this article offer
a pedagogical approach that we hope will motivate
students and promote more successful language learning.

T: Superstitious.
S: (doesnt know political terminology) My
husband is very different from me. He doesnt
like new ideas. He doesnt like change. Is there
a word for that?
T: Yes. Hes conservative. What about you?
S: Im the opposite. I like new things and
change. Whats the word for that?
T: Liberal.
In this way, if students can describe and explain what
they mean, they can compensate for the vocabulary
they are lacking. If students develop this skill, they
will apply it as a strategy when challenged with a lack
of knowledge.

References

In teacher / student interactions, we can also discourage

students from expecting us to be their dictionaries.
While in many cases its simplest and fastest either to give
the student the word, to suggest the student look it up in
a dictionary, or to ask other students to provide it, we
suggest at least some of the time encouraging students to
talk around the word they dont know. An example
follows.

Canale, Michael & Merrill Swain (1980). Theoretical bases of

communicative approaches to second language teaching and
testing, Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47
OMalley, J. Michael, Anna Uhl Chamot, Gloria Stewner-Manzanares,
Rocco P. Russo, and Lisa Kupper (1985). Learning strategy
applications with students of English as a Second Language.
TESOL Quarterly, 19/3, 557-584

About the Authors

Joan Saslow

Allen Ascher

Joan Saslow is co-author, with Allen

Ascher, of two best-selling, adult-level
English courses, Top Notch and Summit.
These two courses are, respectively, the
2006 and 2007 recipients of the
Association of Educational Publishers' Distinguished
Achievement Awards. Ms. Saslow has authored a number
of other textbook series with integrated multimedia
components designed specifically for adults learning
English. She is the author of Ready to Go: Language,
Lifeskills, Civics; Workplace Plus: Living and Working in
English; and Literacy Plus, a combined language and
literacy program for pre-literate adult immigrants. In
addition, Ms. Saslow was Series Director of True Colors:
An EFL Course for Real Communication and True Voices:
An EFL Video Course.

Allen Ascher is co-author, with Joan

Saslow, of the Top Notch and Summit
courses. Mr. Ascher has been a teacher,
a teacher-trainer, an academic
administrator, and a publisher. He has
taught in both China and the United States. In China, Mr.
Ascher trained teachers and taught English at the Beijing
Second Foreign Language Institute, and he taught ESP
classes for workers at a major international hotel. In the
United States, he taught Japanese students from Chubu
University studying English at Ohio University. In New
York, he taught students of all language backgrounds and
abilities throughout the City University of New York. Mr.
Ascher was the academic director of the International
English Language Institute at Hunter College, and he
trained teachers in the TESOL Certificate Program at the
New School.

Ms. Saslow has taught in the United States and Chile in a

variety of programs, including binational centers, as well
as academic, intensive-language, and workplace
programs. Ms. Saslow has been an editor, a teachertrainer, a language learner, and a frequent speaker at
gatherings of English teachers throughout the world. Ms.
Saslow has a BA and an MA in French from the University
of Wisconsin. She is fluent in Spanish and French.

As a publisher, Mr. Ascher played a key role in creating some

of the most widely used materials for adults, including True
Colors, NorthStar, Focus on Grammar, Ready to Go, and the
Longman TOEFL and TOEIC test prep series. He is also
author of the popular Think About Editing: A Grammar Editing
Guide for ESL Writers and is currently contributing to an
online teacher-training course. Mr. Ascher is a continuing
learner of Spanish, French, and Mandarin Chinese and has
an MA in Applied Linguistics from Ohio University.

Other titles of interest in the

TOP NOTCH PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIES:

Making English Unforgettable
The Purposeful Use of Songs
in Language Instruction
A Process Approach to Discussion:
Four Techniques that Ensure Results
(see page 8)

Notes

Other titles of interest in the

TOP NOTCH PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SERIES

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TOP NOTC

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OF

Fou

ESSI
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SERIE
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DIS

PP
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A gr
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lts

ISSUE 1
Making English Unforgettable:
Enhancing Acquisition in the EFL Setting
ISBN: 0-13-238521-X
ISSUE 2
The Purposeful Use of Songs in
Language Instruction
ISBN: 0-13-242410-X

ISSUE 3
A Process Approach To Discussion:
Four techniques that ensure results
ISBN: 0-13-714375-3

ISBN 0-13-813906-7