MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
AH 539 COSMOLOGICAL THOUGHT AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE
MIDDLE EAST

PATTERNS REFLECTING
COSMOLOGY IN ISLAMIC
ARCHITECTURE

BANU DENZ
22. 01. 2016

ABSTRACT
PATTERNS REFLECTING COSMOLOGY IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
Deniz, Banu
M.Arch., Department of Architecture
Instructor: Ali Uzay Peker
January 2016

This paper aims to comprehend the patterns in the Islamic architecture related with
cosmological context. These Islamic patterns will be examined in three parts which are
calligraphic, geometric and vegetative and floral (which became arabesque later) patterns.
To exemplify these patterns, some of the outstanding buildings from the Umayyad, Abbasid
and Fatimid periods will be studied to explain the chronological development of the Islamic
patterns. With the reviews of the studies in cosmologically investigated concepts in relation
with Islamic patterns will be explored to show how spirituality and creativity can be
coexisted. Hence, the paper investigates the associations of cosmology and Islamic patterns
with detailed examples.
Keywords: cosmology in Islam, cosmological patterns, spirituality, Islamic architecture,
Islamic patterns

1. Introduction
Ultimate Reality is at once Absolute and Infinite, the source of all being, of all
consciousness and of all life. Itself beyond form, it speaks to mankind through revealed
forms which, while externally bound and limited, open up inwardly towards the Boundless.
Through revelations of this Word or Logos come into being the sacred traditions which
although outwardly different are inwardly united into a Centre which transcends all forms.
They are, however, the bridge from the periphery to the Centre, from the relative to the
Absolute, from the finite to the Infinite, from multiplicity to Unity.1

Figure 1. Representation of Islamic Cosmology2

In the book entitled Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach,
Seyyed Hossein Nasr presents that among the religions and belief systems, Islam which is
central to the doctrine of unity is the final universal revelations of the people in the world
and the spiritual world was reflected in the sensible world with geometry and rhythm,
through arabesques and calligraphy that instead of various iconic forms but through which
reflect directly the worlds above and ultimately the supernal sun of Divine Unity. He
mentions Abrahamic Pythagoreanism which he described as a medium to see numbers and
figures that refers to the cosmos and archetypal world which is considered as the creation of
God in the sense of the Abrahamic monotheisms. He says that Abrahamic Pythagoreanism
1

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, foreword to Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach, by Keith
Critchlow. UK: Thames Hudson Ltd., 1984, pg. 6.
2

The image is used in a website to represent Islamic cosmology by Dr. Stephen N. Lambden who is a researcher
mainly on the topics that are Shi`i Islam and Qajar Persia. Representation of Islamic Cosmology,
http://www.hurqalya.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/BIBLIOGRAPHY-HYP/18-ISLAMIC%20SCIENCES/cis-logw.jpg,
(January 17, 2016).

could be the dimension that enabled Islam to produce a sacred art that was based on
geometric nature. 3

Calligraphy

Geometric
Figure 2. The Islamic Decorative Canon4

Arabesque

In the online article entitled Pattern as Cosmology in Islamic Geometric Art,

Madison Morrison (instructor at Harvard University and a writer) also explains the
Pythagoreanism within the Islam. He mentions that Pythagoras considered that
theoria (contemplation) led to kosmos (orderliness in Life), therefore to catharsis (the
purification of the Soul) which can be clarified as by Universal Reason people can proceed
from gross matter upward to the Soul of the Universe, and to the Divine, or God. Because of
Muslim thinkers emphasis on the nature of unity, that is, God, they could adopt the
Pythagorean metaphysics of number. Even many details of Pythagorean numerology is not
really important to the Muslim, he still believes that the universal reason that leads to God is
the existence of the Soul. 5
At this point, it is wortwhile to look at how patterns are related with the cosmology
with a visualizing example. To achieve that Morrison refers Yasser Tabbaa who is Assistant
Professor of the History of Art at the University of Michigan and a writer. As quoted by
Morrison, in his book entitled The Transformation of Islamic Art during the Sunni Period,
on the question of meaning in the muqarnas, Tabbaa explains that for a viewer of the
muqarnas the observation can be considered as insatiable enjoyment. However, more
informed viewers would wonder and be astonished by this observation. He says the
3

Op. Cit., Nasr, 1984.

The Islamic Decorative Canon, http://www.madisonmorrison.com/topics/pattern-as-cosmology-in-islamicgeometric-art/, (January 17, 2016).
4

Madison Morrison. Pattern as Cosmology in Islamic Geometric Art, Madison Morrisons Web,
http://www.madisonmorrison.com/topics/pattern-as-cosmology-in-islamic-geometric-art/, (January 17, 2016).

muqarnas vaults resemble a heaven-like ceiling. He describes it as a rainbow more colorful

than the one in the cloud, and the clear sky of heaven illuminated by the choir of the stars.
Therefore, the effect of it starts with a joy and becomes wonder to heavenly allusion which
is related with cosmology.6

Figure 3. Muqarnas Vault7

Tabbaa enhances his statement about relation between cosmology and Islamic
patterns by saying that geometric ornament has been considered to have a spiritual
dimension. It reflects the order of the universe and the embodiment of its atomistic
combination and occasionalistic formation. Also, the brilliance of human efforts and the
wonders of Gods creations are connected within the allegorical dimension that is possessed
by geometric ornament. Another fulfillment of geometry is focusing the worshipers minds
on central issues of dogma and clearing error from ones mind. He says that these
calligraphic and ornamental forms are based on the cosmology and they cannot be ascribed
neither to an Islamic essence nor to the genius of one particular racial or linguistic group,
whether Turkish, Persian or Arab.8 If that is the case, the adoption of these patterns to the

Yasser Tabbaa. The Transformation of Islamic Art during the Sunni Period, University of Washington Press,
2001, as quoted by Op. Cit., Morrison, (January 17, 2016).
7
Muqarnas Vault, Islamic Arts & Architecture, http://islamic-arts.org/wpcontent/images/0276a9725761_FA8D/Muqarnas-vault-Bishiriya-Madrasa-in-Baghdad-8x6.jpg, (January 17,
2016).
8

Op. Cit., Tabbaa, 2001, as quoted by Op. Cit., Morrison, (January 17, 2016).

Islam can be explained, as it is mentioned before, with the Islams nature of unity. As Keith
Critchlow mentions;
The overriding principle for Islam is the unity of existence and therefore of the universe.
This unity has always an inner and an outer aspect a hidden as well as a manifest aspect.
From this it follows that there is an inner as well as an outer way of studying cosmology. The
outer embraces sensible observation, the inner is appreciating the expression of
cosmological laws within ones own structure. The goal of spiritual disciplines is to unite the
inner and the outer, the greater and smaller, into an inseparable integrity. The language of
the archetypal laws which unite the inner and the outer cosmos is that of pattern and in
particular number pattern. 9
2. Calligraphic Patterns and Cosmology
Although calligraphy has developed in numerous forms and has embraced
functions and domains not directly related to the text of the Quran, something of this
principial wedding between calligraphy, which began in a purely Quranic context, and the
spiritual substance of the Quran has survived within all aspects of traditional Islamic
calligraphy.10

Figure 4. Calligraphy on Taj Mahal11

9

Keith Critchlow. An Analytical and Cosmological Approach, UK: Thames Hudson Ltd., 1984.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr. The Spiritual Message of Islamic Calligraphy, Islamic Art and Spirituality, Newyork:
State University of Newyork Press, 1990, pg. 19.
10

11

Calligraphy on Taj Mahal,

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Taj_Mahal_Calligraphy_Example.jpg, (January 17,
2016).

In the book entitled Islamic Art and Spirituality, Seyyed Hossein Nasr says that
sacred calligraphy is the visual embodiment of the Sacred Word and is the origin of the
traditional sonoral arts. He describes calligraphy as the geometry of the spirit. He also says
that it is the visual embodiment of the crystallization of the spiritual realities contained in
the Islamic revelation.12
About the calligraphy and cosmology relation, Nasr considers the reed used as the
instrument of calligraphy as the medium of a cosmogonic act, the act of descent of
traditional cosmology which is the motion of the Soul to the corruption and ultimately hell,
and the act of return to the Origin, the arc of ascent which is the motion of the Soul to the
heaven. By relating the reed and the cosmological acts of the soul, the author represents the
correspondence between calligraphy and cosmology which Is the basis of all traditional art. 13
As another example to the connection between calligraphy and cosmology, he
mentions that representation of the universe with a tree. As he refers to the Quran, it has
its roots firm and its branches spread in the heavens. Among the cosmic manifestations,
The World Tree is one of the most known symbols. Therefore, combining calligraphy with
stylized plant forms is frequently seen. He exemplifies this statement with the architectural
edifices as Cordoba mosque, Minareli School in Anatolia, Gawhar Shad Mosque in Mashhad
and the mausoleums and mosques of Agra. 14

Figure 5. Plate on Cordoba Mosque Facade 15

Figure 6. Gawhar Shad Mosque 16

12

Op. Cit., Nasr, 1990, pp. 17-18.

Ibid., pg. 24.
14
Ibid., pg. 29.
13

15

Plate on Cordoba Mosque Faade,

https://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/spain/cordoba/mezquita/0010.jpg, (January 17, 2016).
16

Gawhar Shad Mosque, http://www.iranziarat.com/_Media/img_0181.jpeg, (January 17, 2016).

He says intertwining of calligraphy and arabesque forms can be observed on these buildings
to reflect the correspondence between the Quran and the world of nature. 17
Stylized plant forms or arabesques and geometric patterns are often combined with
calligraphy. As Nasr says;
Here the calligraphy, related directly to the Divine Word, may be said to symbolize
the Principle of creation, the geometric element symbolizing the immutable patterns or
masculine aspect while the arabesques, related to life and growth, represent the living,
changing and material aspect of creation. Seen in this light, the calligraphy can be
contemplated as the principle from which the two other elements of Islamic patterns,
namely the geometric and the arabesque, originate and into which they become integrated
as all cosmic dualities become integrated in the unity of the Principle.18
3. Geometrical Patterns and Cosmology
Beside the conceptual relation between geometrical patterns and cosmology, the
formational relation in terms of the shapes of the geometrical patterns with regard to
cosmology is another issue. In this chapter, both of these issues will be discussed with the
review of Keith Critchlow and his main reference man, Ibn Arabi to comprehend the origins
of the Islamic geometrical patterns.
As quoted by Critchlow, Ibn Arabi offered that cosmology had to be equally an
interior truth and an exterior truth which can be explained as that the universe owes its
existence to the observation of it by people and the existence of humanity completely
dependent on the universe while both are subjected to the Creator. 19
For Ibn Arabis cosmogony as illustrated in Figure 7, the starting point is the sphere
of potentiality, the sphere-limit of all space. He explains the disequilibrium that gives rise to
the existent cosmos with the rhythm of expansion and contraction. The principle of the
equinoxes at the spring and at the autumn is produced by the expansion of day and night to
17

Op. Cit., Nasr, 1990, pg. 29.

18

Ibid.

19

Keith Critchlow. Astronomical and Cosmological Symbolism in Islamic Patterns: The Objectivity of Sacred
Geometry, pg. 47, http://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/4233/original/DPC0431.pdf?1384781930,
(January 17, 2016).

the time that they are equally long. When the days and nights are as short as related to each
other, the principle of contraction is produced and thereby the shortest day in winter and
shortest night in summer are seen. Therefore, in the limit sphere, four poles are formed
which are Aries in the spring, Cancer in the summer, Libra in the autumn, and Capricorn in
the winter. Critchlow mentions that the contraction and expansion constitutes the life
rhythm of the people.20

The limit
sphere
of existence

Figure 7. Ibn Arabi Cosmogonic Diagrams 21

The next issue that can be an explanation to the origins of the Islamic patterns is
explained with the threefold of the Divine Intellect in Ibn Arabi's cosmogony. This threefold
produces eight directions making up the twelve constellations in the limit sphere. For Arabi,
the Divine Intellect resumes from its origin to its complete limit point, and then returns to its
first point. This twelvefold geometry matches to a representative understanding of how the
cosmos submits itself to the human perception through the actions of sun and moon. It
takes twelve months to the sun complete its cycle through the sky. There are twelve months
due to the connection between the sun and the moon marks out the sky in twelve intervals.
Each new moon marks the next monthly interval. After examining Ibn Arabis statements
and Platos ideas based on that the Gods communicate with the people in geometry of the
cosmos, Critchlow mentions that Islamic art preserved the geometry of earlier times,
geometry of eternity. He also suggests that Islamic patterns are produced by putting in an
over and an under crossing point, on the midpoint of the line of a polygon. He says that
20

Ibid., pp. 47-49.

21

Ibn Arabi Cosmogonic Diagrams, Ibid., pp. 48-52.

three twelve-sided figures meet on an equilateral triangle can be found by setting up a

specific pattern and a nine-sided figure is formed. He relates this nine with the time cyclic
relationship between Saturn and Jupiter and the twelve to the zodiacal background which
shows the connection between cosmology and Islamic geometrical patterns.22
Another researcher mentioning the formal origin of the Islamic geometrical patterns
related with the religious symbolism is Yahya Abdullahi. In his research article entitled
Evolution of Islamic Geometric Patterns, he mentions that the compass and straight edge
were the only tools used to draw polygons and with proper angles for centuries. This is the
reason for that the Islamic patterns are formed from the harmonious subdivisions of circles
and templates of circle grids. As the author quoted, Critchlow also states that the use of the
circle is a medium to express the Unity of Islam. Accordingly, Abdullahi presents that all
Islamic patterns begin with the circle and its center. For him, the circle is a represents a
religion that highlights One God and the role of Mecca, which is the center of Islam toward
which all Moslems face in prayer.23

.
Figure 8. Islamic Geometric Patterns Classification 24
Abdullahi says that constructive polygons such as the hexagon and octagon are the
basic forms of the most Islamic geometrical patterns. By connecting the vertices of
constructive polygons, star polygons are created. 25
22

Ibid., pp. 49-56.

23

Yahya Abdullahi. Evolution of Islamic Geometric Patterns, 2012,

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263513000216, (January 17, 2016).
24

Islamic Geometric Patterns Classification, Ibid.

25

Ibid.

4. Vegetative and Floral (Arabesque) Patterns and Cosmology

In the online article entitled Islamic Art: Histroy of Muslim Visual Arts, it is said
that flowers and trees as decorative motifs for the embellishment of cloth, objects, personal
items and buildings are habitually employed by the Islamic artists. Both the international and
local techniques influenced the design of these patterns. For example , European botanical
artists as well as the traditional Persian and Indian flora affected the Mughal architectural
decoration. It is indicated that, designs were often used as a template for "infinite pattern"
type decoration, using arabesques (geometricized vegetal patterns) and covering an entire
surface. By the repetition of curved lines in the infinite rhythms creates a relaxing, calming
effect and variations of line, colour and texture can enhance this influence. 26 The vegetative
and floral ornaments are the representations of the nature. This statement offers the
relation between these patterns and cosmology.
About vegetative and floral Islamic patterns, Patrick Ringgenberg mentions;
Man does not simply imitate the natural world, but recreates in his arts, and
according to a certain cultural context, aesthetic orientation, technical and material
situation, the shape of a tree or the design of a flower.27
As it is understood from the references, vegetative and floral and therefore
arabesque patterns are directly related with the cosmology. They are the representations of
the nature, of the Universe as decorative elements.
5. Islamic Patterns in Architecture
In this chapter, the examples of the Islamic patterns on the buildings constructed in the
Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid era will be examined. Yahya Abdullahi says that Islamic
patterns have been applied in architecture for centuries and his study chronologically and

26

Floral Patterns in Islamic Decoration, Islamic Art: History of Muslim Visual Arts, http://www.visual-artscork.com/islamic-art.htm, (January 17, 2016).
27

Patrick Ringgenberg. Man and Nature, Islamic Ornamentation: Reflections on its Humanistic, Cosmological,
and Metaphysical Aspects, http://patrickringgenberg.com/?q=node/52, (January 17, 2016).

regionally traced the evolution of Islamic patterns. Therefore, mainly with the help of his
research and statements, the Islamic patterns will be exemplified.
5.1. Umayyad architecture (660750 CE)
The vegetal and floral patterns obtained from Sassanid and Byzantine architecture became
common in Islamic architecture around the end of the 7th and early 8th centuries. From this
period, Dome of Rock, which was built in 688691 CE stands as a surviving building from this
period. It is richly decorated with vegetal, calligraphic and geometrical motifs, but most of its
ornaments; especially the geometrical ones are added later from the Umayyad era.
The Great Mosque of Damascus which was converted from the Damascus Christian Temple
in 705 CE is another example. The floral patterns that looks like the the rich gardens and
natural landscape of Damascus are the original ones while the geometrical ones are later
additions.28

Figure 9. Pattern on the Dome of

the Rock29

Figure 10. The Great Mosque of the

Damascus30

The third example from this period is Qasr Mshatta which is the ruin of an Umayyad
winter palace. As seen from the ruins, it was lavishly decorated with floral patterns with the

28

Op. Cit., Abdullahi.

29

Pattern on the Dome of the Rock, http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-andislam/blog/where-in-the-world/posts/dome-of-the-rock, (January 17, 2016).

30

The Great Mosque of the Damascus, https://thewildimagineer.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/11255080239-the-great-mosque.jpg, (January 17, 2016).

animals. About the patterns, Betsy Williams who is a researcher at Institute of Fine Arts, New
York University says;
Mshatta's decor is particularly interesting in that it suggests the early Muslim
community was attentive to distinctions between secular and sacred space. While most of
the decoration filling the zig-zag shapes along the facades walls is populated with animated
creatures entirely in keeping with secular elite residential dcor, one side lacks animals of
any kind. This is the qibla wall, on the side facing Mecca, along which was located
the qasr's mosque. A pronounced effort at visual distinction suggests a concept of the
appropriate uses of figural imagery in secular contexts, but not in sacred ones, had
developed already by the eighth century.31
About this period, Yahya Abdullahi states that, the vegetal ornaments stand as one
of the common features of Umayyad architecture. Molded stucco, mosaic, and wall
paintings, with figural and floral motifs are the most seen features on the finishing surfaces
and facades of Umayyad buildings. The use of figural patterns in mosques was reduced by
the end of the Umayyad era. 32
5.2. Abbasid Architecture (7501258 CE)
For this era, the first example is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (Tunisia) which is
constructed in 670 CE and rebuilt in 836 CE. The primary motifs are the vegetal and floral
ones while some elementary geometrical shapes which are the earliest endeavors to apply
geometrical ornaments in Islamic architecture are also observed. In the Mosque of IbnTulun (876879 CE), the basic 6- and 8-point geometrical patterns as the earliest examples of
woven geometrical patterns in Muslim decorative arts can be seen. That is why it is regarded
as a starting point of geometrical patterns to Islamic architecture. Another examples are the
Abbasid Palace in Baghdad (1230 CE) and the Madrasa of Mustansiriyeh (1233 CE) which are
embellished with Muqarnas decorations as well as the detailed geometrical patterns of

31

Betsy Williams. Qasr al-Mshatta, 2012, unpublished research paper supported by The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/where-inthe-world/posts/qasr-al-mshatta, (January 17, 2016).
32

Op. Cit., Abdullahi.

carved brickwork and terracotta. The earliest examples of rosette petals introduced to 8and 12-point star patterns can be observed on these buildings.33

Figure 11. Great Mosque of Kairouan34

Figure 12. Mosque of Ibn-Tulun35

Yahya Abdullahi mentions that geometrical motifs started to be used often by

Muslim architects and artisans by the end of the 9th century. Therefore, other features of
Islamic architecture such as the transformation from the naturalism of early Islamic
ornaments to new levels of abstraction were affected. In this era, Samarra vegetal motifs
were produced. Wall paintings, carved wood, stone, stucco, terracotta, and brickwork
became favored. As mentioned, geometrical shapes were introduced to surface decoration
by the late 8th and early 9th centuries. In late 9th century, woven geometrical patterns (6and 8-point patterns) began dominating Islamic architecture. 36
5.3. Fatimid's architecture (9091171 CE)
In this era, Al-Azhar Mosque (970972 CE) was the first mosque and Madrasa. The surviving
parts of the building are the original stucco panels with vegetal patterns and window screens
with geometrical designs. The second example is the Al-Juyushi Mosque (1085 CE). The richly
carved stucco of its Mihrab with floral and geometrical patterns is the most important
surviving part of the building. Another building from this era is the Al-Aqmar Mosque (1125
33

Ibid.

34

Great Mosque of Kairouan,

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Mihrab,_Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan.jpg, (January
17, 2016).
35

Mosque of Ibn-Tulun, http://sheepdogguides.com/egypt10/tulunarchesB4250.jpg, (January 17, 2016).

36

Op. Cit., Abdullahi.

CE) in Cairo. The calligraphic, vegetal, and geometrical decorations can be observed on this
structure. The final example of the Fatimid buildings is the Mosque of Al-Salih-Tala'i (1160
CE), that resembles to the Al-Aqmar Mosque in structural and decorative ways. 6- and 8point star shapes over the walls and a perfectly proportioned 12-point pattern is carved over
the Minbar which is added in the Mamluk era in 1300 CE can be seen. Also, 8- and 12-point
geometrical rosette patterns can be observed on the carved wooden door, which dates back
to 1303.37

Figure 13. Al-Azhar Mosques Facade 38

Figure 15. Al-Aqmar Mosques Facade 40

Figure 14. Al-Juyushi Mosques Minbar39

Figure 16. The Mosque of Al-Salih-Tala'Is

Minbar 41

37

Ibid.

38

Al-Azhar Mosques Faade, http://www.pbase.com/image/72720515, (January 17, 2016).

39

Al-Juyushi Mosques Minbar, http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/architecture/4-614-religious-architecture-andislamic-cultures-fall-2002/lecture-notes/fatimid/SLD13.jpg, (January 17, 2016).

40

Al-Aqmar Mosques Faade, https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/913/flashcards/4698913/png/alaqmar-150F786B5546AAC12E8.png, (January 17, 2016).

41

The Mosque of Al-Salih-Tala'Is Minbar,

http://archnet.org/system/media_contents/contents/6539/original/IHC0620.jpg?1384688959, (January 17,
2016).

Abdullahi says that the form of isolated elements, rather than entire surface-covering
patterns are common among the early Fatimid decorative ornaments while in the late
Fatimid era Geometrical patterns became common.42
Conclusion
"As an architect draws (yusawwir) the details of a house in whiteness and then brings it
out into existence according to the drawn exemplar (nuskha), so likewise the creator (fatir)
of heaven and earth wrote the master copy of the world from beginning to end in the
Preserved Tablet (al-lawh al-mahfuz) and then brought it out into existence according to the
written exemplar. 43
As quoted by Samer Akkach, in his Iy Ulm al-Dn, Ghazali relates the religion with
art, spirituality with creativity. He presents that the designs and acts of human are
interconnected to the cosmological and cosmogonic ideas that are contained by religious
writings.44 Therefore, as the product of human design, the patterns in Islamic architecture
are meant to represent these cosmological ideas throughout the centuries as told in this
paper.

42

Op. Cit., Abdullahi.

43

Al- Ghazali. Iy Ulm al-Dn, as quoted by Samer Akkach, Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam:
An Architectural Reading of Mystical Ideas, New York: State University of New York Press, 2005, pg. xvii.
44

Ibid.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Akkach, Samer. Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: An Architectural Reading of
Mystical Ideas, New York: State University of New York Press, 2005.
Abdullahi, Yahya. Evolution of Islamic Geometric Patterns, 2012.
Critchlow, Keith. An Analytical and Cosmological Approach, UK: Thames Hudson Ltd., 1984.
Critchlow , Keith. Astronomical and Cosmological Symbolism in Islamic Patterns: The
Objectivity of Sacred Geometry.
Morrison, Madison. Pattern as Cosmology in Islamic Geometric Art, Madison Morrisons
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Approach, by Keith Critchlow. UK: Thames Hudson Ltd., 1984.
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Ringgenberg, Patrick. Man and Nature, Islamic Ornamentation: Reflections on its
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Williams, Betsy. Qasr al-Mshatta, 2012.