Traos da lingua Portugusa

um compndio lingustico

Contents
1

History of Portuguese

1.1

Social history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

Romanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Iberian Romance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.3

Proto-Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.4

The lyric period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.5

The divergence of Galician-Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Standardization during the Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1

Expansion during the age of discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historical sound changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

Medieval sound changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2
1.3

Galician-Portuguese

2.1

Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.1

Origins and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.2

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.3

Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1

A stanza of Galician-Portuguese lyric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Oral traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

2.6

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

2.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

2.2

Portuguese dialects

13

3.1

Main subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.1.1

Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

3.1.2

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.1.3

Africa, Asia and Oceania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

ii

CONTENTS
3.2

Notable features of some dialects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.2.1

Conservative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

3.2.2

Innovative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.2.3

Homophones in dialects

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

3.3

Mixed languages

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.4

Closely related languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.5

Mutual comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.6

List of dialects

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.8

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

Portuguese in South America

19

4.1

Geographic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

4.2

The importance of Brazilian Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

4.3

Media and popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

4.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

4.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

4.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

Brazilian Portuguese

21

5.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.1.1

Portuguese legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

5.1.2

Inuences from other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

5.2

Written and spoken languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.3

Formal writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

5.3.1

Spelling dierences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

Formal versus informal registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

5.4.1

Characteristics of informal BP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

5.5

Lexicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

5.6

Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

5.6.1

Syntactic and morphological features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

5.6.2

Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

Dierences in formal spoken language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.7.1

Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Dierences in the informal spoken language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

5.8.1

Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

Diglossia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

5.9.1

Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

5.9.2

Prestige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

5.10 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

5.11 Language codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

5.4

5.7
5.8
5.9

CONTENTS

iii

5.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

5.13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

5.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

Portuguese language

38

6.1

History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

6.2

Geographic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

6.2.1

Ocial status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

6.2.2

Population of countries and jurisdictions of Portuguese ocial or co-ocial language

. . .

40

6.2.3

Portuguese as a foreign language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

6.2.4

Future

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

Dialects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

6.3.1

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

6.3.2

Portugal

43

6.3.3

Other countries and dependencies

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

6.3.4

Characterization and peculiarities

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

6.4

Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

6.5

Classication and related languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

6.5.1

Galician-Portuguese in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

6.5.2

Inuence on other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

6.5.3

Derived languages

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

6.6.1

Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

6.6.2

Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

6.7

Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

6.8

Writing system

50

6.3

6.6

6.8.1
6.9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spelling reforms

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

6.10 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

6.10.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

6.10.2 Phonology, orthography and grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

6.10.3 Reference dictionaries

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

6.10.4 Linguistic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

6.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

History of Portugal

55

7.1

Etymology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

7.2

Early history

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

7.2.1

Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

7.2.2

Ancient history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

7.3

Romanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

7.4

Germanic invasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

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CONTENTS
7.5

7.6
7.7

Middle Ages and the Reconquista (7111249) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

7.5.1

Beginning of the Reconquista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

7.5.2

Creation of the County of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

7.5.3

Foundation of the Kingdom of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

7.5.4

Armation of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

Naval exploration and Portuguese Empire (15th16th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

7.6.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

1580 succession crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

7.7.1

63

Discovery of the sea route to India and the Treaty of Tordesillas

Decline of the Portuguese Empire under the Philippine Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.8

Portuguese Restoration War (16401668)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

7.9

Pombaline era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

7.9.1

Portuguese-led invasion of Spain in 1707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

7.9.2

The Ghost War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

7.10 Crises of the nineteenth century

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

7.11 The First Republic (19101926) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

7.11.1 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

7.11.2 Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

7.11.3 Political instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

7.11.4 Evaluation of the republican experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

7.11.5 28 May 1926 coup d'tat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

7.12 Estado Novo (19331974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

7.12.1 Salazar dictatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

7.12.2 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

7.12.3 Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

7.13 The Third Republic (1974)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

7.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

7.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

7.15.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

7.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

7.16.1 Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

7.16.2 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

7.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

7.18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

7.18.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

7.18.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

7.18.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

Chapter 1

History of Portuguese
The Portuguese language developed in the Western
Iberian Peninsula from Latin brought there by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. Old
Portuguese, also known as Galician-Portuguese, began to
diverge from other Romance languages after the fall of
the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions,
also known as barbarian invasions in the 5th century
and started appearing in written documents around the
9th century. By the 13th century, Galician-Portuguese
had become a mature language with its own literature
and began to split into two languages. In all aspects
phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntaxPortuguese
is essentially the result of an organic evolution of Vulgar
Latin with some inuences from other languages, namely
the native Gallaecian language spoken prior to the Roman
domination.

Hispania Baetica, and Lusitania, the latter of which included most of modern Portugal. In the 3rd century, emperor Diocletian split Tarraconensis into three, creating
the adjacent province of Gallaecia, which geographically
enclosed the remaining part of Portugal, and modern-day
Galicia (in the northwestern region of Spain).

1.1.2 Iberian Romance

Main articles: Iberian Romance languages and GalicianPortuguese
Between AD 409 and 711, as the Roman Empire was collapsing, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by peoples of
Germanic origin, known by the Romans as Barbarians.
The Barbarians (mainly Suevi and Visigoths) largely absorbed the Roman culture and language of the peninsula; however, since the Roman schools and administration were closed and Europe entered the Early Middle
Ages, the Vulgar Latin language of ordinary people was
left free to evolve on its own and the uniformity of the
language across the Iberian Peninsula broke down. In
the north-western part of the Peninsula (todays Northern
Portugal and Galicia), Vulgar Latin began gaining a growing number of local characteristics, leading to the formation of what linguists today call Galician-Portuguese. The
Germanic languages inuenced Galician-Portuguese by
introducing words often linked to the military like guerra
(war) or laverca (lark), placenames such as (Resende),
animals like ganso (goose), texugo (badger), adjectives
like mulherengo (womaniser) or (eeminate), human
feelings such us orgulho (pride), verbs like brigar (to
ght), suces like reguengo (royal domain) and everyday
objects such as frasco (ask).

1.1 Social history

1.1.1

Romanization

Further information: Vulgar Latin

Arriving on the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC, the ancient
Romans brought with them Latin, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by
arriving Roman soldiers, settlers and merchants, who
built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous civilizations. Later, the inhabitants of the cities of
Lusitania and the rest of Romanized Iberia were recognized as citizens of Rome.
Roman control of the western part of Hispania was not
consolidated until the campaigns of Augustus in 26 BC.
Although the western territories to the south of the Tagus
River were only conquered after the victory of Licinius
Crassus in the year 93 BC,[1] only an estimated four hundred words of the native languages[2] persist in modern Portuguese. After 200 years of wars rst with the
Carthaginians in the Eastern part of the peninsula, and
then the local inhabitants, emperor Augustus conquered
the whole peninsula, which was named Hispania. He then
divided it into three provinces, Hispania Tarraconensis,

From 711, with the Moorish invasion of the Iberian

Peninsula, Arabic was adopted as the administrative language in the conquered regions. However, much of
the population continued to speak the Latin-derived Romance dialects, called collectively by modern linguists
Mozarabic. The main eect of the Arabic inuence was
lexical. Modern Portuguese has between 400 up to as
much as 800 words of Arabic origin[3] (many were absorbed indirectly through Mozarabic) especially relating
1

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PORTUGUESE

to food, agriculture and the crafts, which have no cognates in other Romance languages except in Spanish from
which in fact, Portuguese borrowed many of its Arabicderived words. The Arabic inuence is also visible in placenames, especially in the southern provinces, such as the
Algarve, Alfama and Ftima. However, there are no Arabic loan words in the lexicon related to human feelings or
emotions; those are all of Latin, Germanic or Celtic origin.

1.1.3

Proto-Portuguese

The oldest surviving records containing written GalicianPortuguese are documents from the 9th century. In these
ocial documents, bits of Galician-Portuguese found its
way into texts that were written in Latin. Today, this
phase is known as Proto-Portuguese simply because the
earliest of these documents are from the former County
of Portugal, although Portuguese and Galician were still a
single language. This period lasted until the 12th century.

1.1.4

The lyric period

and slowly became two increasingly distinct languages.

This growing dierence accelerated when Galicia became part of Castile and Galician was increasingly inuenced by Castilian. Meanwhile, the southern variant
of Galician-Portuguese became the modern Portuguese
language within the Kingdom of Portugal and its empire.

1.2 Standardization during the Renaissance

See also: Portuguese vocabulary
The end of Old Portuguese was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, in
1516.
Modern Portuguese developed from the early 16th century to the present. During the Renaissance, scholars and writers borrowed many words from classical
Latin and ancient Greek, which increased the complexity of the Portuguese lexicon. As with most European
vernacular languages, the standardization of the Portuguese language was propelled by the development of
the printing press. In 1536 Ferno de Oliveira published
his Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa in Lisbon, the
rst Portuguese grammar.[5][6] The work of this heterodox Dominican priest, philologist and mariner was soon
followed. In 1540, Joo de Barros crown ocer published his Gramtica da Lngua Portuguesa along with
moral dialogues and basics of the Catholic Church to
help teaching young aristocrats.[6][7] This second work,
illustrated with woodcuts, is considered the worlds rst
printed illustrated text book.[7]

What modern scholars call Galician-Portuguese was originally the native language of the medieval Kingdom of
Galicia, which was founded in 410 and included the
northern part of present-day Portugal. It appears to have
also been used regularly in other Christian kingdoms of
the Iberian Peninsula as the language for lyric song. It
was employed by poets from throughout the non-Basque
medieval Christian kingdoms of the peninsula; including Leonese, Castilian, Aragonese and Catalan. It is also
the language used in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. These
songs were traditionally attributed to Alfonso X, a Castilian king, though more recent work shows that they must
have been composed in collaboration with many transla- 1.2.1
tors, poets and musicians.

1.1.5

The
divergence
Portuguese

of

Expansion during the age of discovery

Galician- See also: Portuguese vocabulary

Portugal was formally recognized as an independent kingdom in 1143 by the Kingdom of Len, into which Galicia
was incorporated at the time, with Afonso Henriques as
its rst king. In 1290, King Diniz created the rst Portuguese University in Lisbon (the Estudo Geral) and decreed that the language of the Portuguese, then simply
called the Vulgar language (i.e. Vulgar Latin) should
be used in preference to Latin and known as the Portuguese language. In 1296, Portuguese was adopted by
the Royal Chancellary and was used not only in poetry
but also when writing law and in notaries. In the rst period of Old Portuguese (from 12th to the 14th century),
the language came gradually to be used in ocial documents. With the political separation of the County of
Portugal from Galicia, Galician-Portuguese lost its unity

The second period of Old Portuguese covers the time

from the 14th to the 16th centuries and is marked by the
Portuguese discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. In
that time, colonisers, traders and missionaries spread the
Portuguese language to many regions in Africa, Asia and
The Americas. Today most Portuguese speakers live in
Brazil, the biggest former colony of Portugal. By the mid16th century, Portuguese had become a lingua franca in
Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local ocials and Europeans of all nationalities. In Ceylon
(modern Sri Lanka) several kings became uent speakers
of Portuguese, and nobles often took Portuguese names.
The spread of the language was helped by its association with the Catholic missionary eorts, which led to
its being called Cristo ("Christian") in many places. The

1.3. HISTORICAL SOUND CHANGES

Nippo Jisho, a JapanesePortuguese dictionary written in
1603, was a product of Jesuit missionary activity in Japan.
The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, despite the severe measures taken by
the Dutch to abolish it in Ceylon and Indonesia.
Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in
India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia preserved their
language even after they were isolated from Portugal.
The language has largely changed in these communities and has evolved through the centuries into several
Portuguese creoles. Also, a considerable number of
words of Portuguese origin are found in Tetum, the national language of East Timor, such as lee "to read" (from
ler), aprende "to learn" (from aprender) and tenke to
have to (from tem que). Portuguese words entered the
lexicons of many other languages, such as pan "bread"
(from po) in Japanese (see Japanese words of Portuguese
origin), sepatu "shoe" (from sapato) in Indonesian, keju
"cheese" (from queijo) in Malay and meza "table" (from
mesa) in Swahili. Due to the vast expanse of the
Portuguese Empire, there are also numerous words that
entered English (see: List of English words of Portuguese
origin) such as albino, baroque, mosquito, potato, savy
and zebra.

3
pronounced [kent]. Later Latinisms are marked with
(L).
Palatalization of voiceless stopsthe consonants [k] and
[t] assimilated with the high vowels [e] and [i], and with
the semivowel [j].
centum > [tj]ento > [ts]ento > [s]ento (hundred)
facere > fa[tj]ere > fa[ts]er > fa[dz]er > fa[z]er (to
do)
A more ancient evolution was
fortiam > for[ts]a > for[s]a (strength)
Voicingsome consonants did not disappear but rather
evolved with voiceless stops becoming voiced stops and
voiced stops becoming voiced fricatives in certain positions, this is inuenced by phonologies of Celtic languages:
mutum > mudo (mute)
lacum > lago (lake)
fabam > fava (broadbean)

1.3 Historical sound changes

Both in morphology and in syntax, Portuguese represents
an organic transformation of Latin without the direct intervention of any foreign language. The sounds, grammatical forms, and syntactical types, with a few exceptions, are derived from Latin, and almost 90% of its
vocabulary is still derived from the language of Rome.
Some of the changes began during the Empire, others
took place later. A few words remained virtually unchanged, like carro, taberna (tavern), or even returned
to a form close to the original, such as coxa (thigh)
in this case, however, only the spelling looks identical:
Latin x and Portuguese x designate two completely different sounds, [ks] and [] respectively.

locustam > lagosta (lobster)

Assimilationconsonant clusters, especially double consonants, were simplied:
guttam > gota (drop)
peccare > pecar (to sin)
Elisionthe consonants [l] and [n] of Vulgar Latin were
deleted between vowels, after which sometimes the vowels around them coalesced, or an epenthetic semivowel
was introduced between them. Original geminates [ll],
[nn] persisted, later becoming single [l], [n].

dolore > door > dor (pain); (L) doloroso (painful)

Learned Latinisms were formed in the late Middle Ages,
bonum > bo > bom (good)
due to the use of Church Latin by the Catholic Church,
and during the Renaissance, when Classical antiquity in
anellum > elo > elo (bond); (L) anel (ring)
general, and Literary Latin in particular, enjoyed great
prestige. Thus, for example, Latin aurum, which had
salire > sair (to get out)
originated ouro (gold) and dourado (golden), was re colare > coar (sift)
introduced as the adjective ureo (golden). In the same
way, localem (place), which had evolved to lugar, was
notulam > ndoa (stain)
later re-introduced as the more erudite local. Many erudite Greek words and combining elements were also in catenam > cadeia (jail, chain); (L) cadena (jail,
troduced or re-introduced in this way. Because of this,
chain) (more erudite)
many Latin words are still familiar to Portuguese speakers.
Palatalization of liquids and nasalsthe consonants [l]
The letter V was the vowel we know today as U, and the and [n] assimilated with the semivowel [j], producing the
C was always pronounced [k], so centum was originally palatals lh [] and nh []:

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PORTUGUESE

mulier > mulher (woman)
iunium > junho (June)

Regressive nasalizationbefore [m] or [n] which were

elided, or in syllable coda, some vowels became nasal.
This happened between the 6th and the 7th centuries,
likely inuenced by Celtic languages previously spoken
in the old region of Gallaecia (comprising todays Northern half of Portugal, Galicia and Asturias). This change
produced one of the most striking phonological dierences between Portuguese and Spanish. The history of
nasal vowels in hiatus with a previous or following vowel
is complex, depending on the identity of the two vowels
and the position of the stress.

ad noctem > noite > te > ontem [t] (yesterday).

Epenthesisthe insertion of a sound to break up a combination of vowels which was dicult to pronounce:
arena > ara > areia (sand); (L) arena (arena)
gallina > gala > galinha (chicken)
vino > vo > vinho (wine)

Examples such as the former two have been used by some

authors to argue that the digraph nh was a nasal approximant in medieval Portuguese, and thus its pronunciation

1. If the vowels were near each other, they collapsed into [j] in most dialects[8]of Brazil and So Tom and Prncipe
a single vowel (nasal or oral, according to the nasality of is the original one.
the stressed vowel):
DissimilationModication of a sound by the inuence
of neighbouring sounds; similar became dierent over
time, so as to ease pronunciation.
bonum > bo > bom (good masc.)
calentem > cate > quente (hot)

1. Between vowels:

ganadu > gado > gado (cattle)

locustam > lagosta (lobster)

lanam > la > l (wool)

campanam > campa > campa (tomb)

2. Otherwise, if the second vowel was more closed, the 2. Between consonants:
result was usually a nasal diphthong:
manum > mo (hand)

memorare > nembrar > lembrar (to remember); (L)

memorizar (to memorize)

canem > ces (dogs)

animam > alma (soul); (L) animado (animated)

3. If the second vowel was more open, or as open, nasalization was lost:
lunam > la > lua (moon). Exception: una > a >
uma (one)
bonam > ba > boa (good fem.)
plenum > cho > cheio (full)
4. If the rst vowel was [i], however, nasalization evolved
to a palatal nasal consonant, inserted between the two
vowels:

localem > logar > lugar; (L) local (place)

Metathesisa sound change that alters the order of
phonemes in a word. Semi-vowel metathesis:
primarium > primeiro (rst); (L) primrio (primary)
Consonant metathesis in [l] and [r]:
tenebras > tevras > trevas (darkness); this was rare
in Portuguese; (L) tenebroso (dark)
Vowel metathesis:

vinum > vo > vinho (wine)

reginam > *ragina > raa > rainha (queen)

genuculum > *enoclo > olho > joelho (knee)

Progressive nasalizationThe spread of nasalization for- 1.3.1 Medieval sound changes

ward from a nasal consonant, especially [m].
Old Portuguese had seven sibilants: lamino-alveolar affricates /ts/ (c before e/i, elsewhere) and /dz/ (z);
matrem > made > mae > me (mother)
apico-alveolar fricatives /s/ (s, or ss between vowels)
meam > mia > ma > minha (my fem.); but compare and /z/ (s between vowels); palato-alveolar fricatives
meum > meu (my masc.)
// (x) and //, earlier /d/ (j, also g before e/i);

1.4. SEE ALSO

and palato-alveolar aricate /t/ (ch). This system was
identical to the system of Old Spanish, and Portuguese
followed the same path as Old Spanish in dearicating
the sibilants /ts/ and /dz/ into lamino-alveolar fricatives
that still remained distinct from the apico-alveolar consonants. This produced a system of six fricatives and one
aricate, which is still maintained in small parts of northeast Portuguese province of Tras-os-Montes and in the
adjacent Mirandese language; but in most places, these
seven sounds have been reduced to four.

5
cently in Rio de Janeiro (and rapidly spreading to other
parts of Brazil), /t/ and /d/ have been aricated to /t/
and /d/ before /i/, including /i/ from earlier unstressed
/e/.

Old Portuguese had a large number of occurrences of hiatus (two vowels next to each other with no consonant in
between), as a result of the loss of Latin /l n d / between vowels. In the transition to modern Portuguese,
these were resolved in a complex but largely regular fashion, either remaining, compressing into a single vowel,
Everywhere except in the above-mentioned parts of Tras- turning into a diphthong, or gaining an epenthetic consoos-Montes, the lamino-alveolar and apico-alveolar frica- nant such as /v/ or //; see above.
tives merged. (This appears to have happened no ear- Portuguese traditionally had two alveolar rhotic consolier than the seventeenth century, on the evidence of the nants, a ap // and trill //, as in Spanish. In most areas
spelling system used by Alexandre de Rhodes to represent of Portugal the trill // has passed into a uvular fricative
Middle Vietnamese). In northern Portugal and Galicia, //. In most parts of Brazil, however, // has become an
they became apico-alveolars (as in the central and north- unvoiced fricative /x/ (variously [x h]), and all instances
ern peninsular Spanish pronunciation of /s/). In most of // not preceding a vowel have been likewise aected.
of Brazil, they became lamino-alveolar consonants (as (When nal, this sound is sometimes not pronounced at
in the English pronunciation of /s/ and /z/). In central all.)
and southern Portugal (and in Rio de Janeiro and surrounding areas, due to the relocation of the Portuguese /l/ when not before a vowel became heavily velarized in
nobility here in the early 1800s), they merged as lamino- Portuguese. This still remains in Portugal, but in Brazil
alveolars before vowels, but as palato-alveolar / / else- has progressed further, merging into /w/.
where. Meanwhile, /t/ eventually lost its arication and
merged with //, although /t/ is maintained throughout
Tras-os-Montes.
1.4 See also
It appears that the sound written v was at one point during the medieval period pronounced as a voiced bilabial
fricative []. Subsequently, it either changed into a labiodental fricative [v] (as in central and southern Portugal,
and hence in Brazil), or merged into /b/ (as in northern Portugal and Galicia, similarly to modern Spanish).
Also similarly to modern Spanish, the voiced stops /b d
/ eventually became pronounced as fricatives [ ] between vowels and after consonants, other than in the clusters /nd/ /ld/ /n/ /mb/ (the nasals were presumably still
pronounced in these clusters, rather than simply reected
as a nasal vowel). However, this change happened after
the colonization of Brazil, and never aected Brazilian
Portuguese.
Final unstressed /a/ was subsequently raised to //. Final /o/ was eventually raised to /u/ in both Portugal and
Brazil, but independently. Final unstressed /e/ was likewise raised to /i/ in Brazil, but shifted to // in Portugal
(now barely pronounced). In Portugal (but not in Brazil),
these changes have come to aect almost all unstressed
instances of /a/ /o/ /e/; but not /ou/ (which now appears
as /o/), nor the former sequences /aa/ /ee/ /oo/ (which
now appear as /a/ // // respectively), nor in syllables
closed by stop consonants (e.g. in seco section, optar to choose). Hence in Portugal pesar to weigh
/pza/ but pregar to preach /pra/ (former preegar
< PRAEDICRE); morar to live /mua/, but corado
blushing /kadu/ (former coorado < COLRTUM),
roubar to rob /oba/. (In Brazil these appear as
/pezax/, /preax/, /moax/, /koadu/, /xo(u)bax/.) Re-

Dierences between Spanish and Portuguese

Galician language
History of Galicia
History of Portugal
History of Brazil
List of English words of Portuguese origin
Portuguese vocabulary
Romance languages
Spelling reforms of Portuguese
Museum of the Portuguese Language

1.5 References
[1] Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around
200 BC)
[2] Portuguese vocabulary
[3] A lngua portuguesa nos seus percursos multiculturais
p.39
[4] Translation: Of those I see / I desire / no other lady but
you; / and a desire / so dire, / could kill a lion, / lady of my
heart: / ne little rose, / prettiest over all the owers / ne
little rose, / may your love / not put me / in such a disgrace.

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PORTUGUESE

[5] Grammatica da lingoagem Portuguesa de Ferno de

Oliveira. Tesouros impressos da Bibioteca Nacional.
[6] Azevedo, Milton M. (2005). Portuguese: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
13. ISBN 978-0-521-80515-5.
[7] Cantarino, Nelson. O idioma nosso de cada dia, in: Revista de Histria da Biblioteca Nacional, ano 1, n 8,
fev/mar 2006 (Seo: Documento Por Dentro da Biblioteca) Texto parcial, stio obtido em 31 de janeiro de
2008.
[8] Rosa Mattos e Silva, O Portugus arcaico fonologia,
Contexto, 1991, p.73.

1.6 External links

History of Portuguese
Changes to the Portuguese Language

Chapter 2

Galician-Portuguese
Galician-Portuguese (Galician: galego-portugus or
galaico-portugus) (Portuguese: galego-portugus or
galaico-portugus), also known as Old Portuguese or
Medieval Galician, was a West Iberian Romance language spoken in the Middle Ages, in the northwest area
of the Iberian Peninsula. Alternatively, it can be considered a historical period of the Galician and Portuguese
languages.
Galician-Portuguese was rst spoken in the area bounded
in the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, and by the
Douro River in the south, comprising Galicia and northern Portugal, but it was later extended south of the Douro
by the Reconquista.
It is the common ancestor of modern Portuguese,
Galician, Eonavian and Fala varieties.
The term
Galician-Portuguese also designates the subdivision of
Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Galician
the modern West Iberian group of Romance languages.
(Galician-Portuguese) within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the year 1000 and 2000.

2.1 Language
Roman languages spoken by the native people, each used
in
a dierent region of Roman Hispania, contributed
2.1.1 Origins and history
to the development of several dierent dialects of Vulgar Latin and that these diverged increasingly over time,
See also: History of Portuguese
eventually evolving into the early Romance Languages of
Galician-Portuguese developed in the region of the former Roman province of Gallaecia, from the Vulgar Latin the Iberia.
(common Latin) that had been introduced by Roman sol- It is believed that by 600, Vulgar Latin was no longer
diers, colonists and magistrates during the time of the spoken in the Iberian Peninsula.[6] An early form of
Roman Empire. Although the process may have been Galician-Portuguese was already spoken in the Kingdom
slower than in other regions, the centuries of contact with of the Suebi and by the year 800 Galician-Portuguese
Vulgar Latin, after a period of bilingualism, completely had already become the vernacular of northwestern
extinguished the native languages, leading to the evo- Iberia.[6] The rst known phonetic changes in Vulgar
lution of a new variety of Latin with a few Gallaecian Latin, which began the evolution to Galician-Portuguese,
took place during the rule of the Germanic groups, the
features.[2][3]
[6]
Gallaecian and Lusitanian inuences were absorbed into Suebi (411585) and Visigoths (585711). And the
inected innitive (or personal
the local Vulgar Latin dialect, which can be detected in Galician-Portuguese
[7]
and
the
nasal vowels may have evolved uninnitive)
some Galician-Portuguese words as well as in placenames
der
the
inuence
of
local Celtic languages[8][9] (as in
[4]
of Celtic and Iberian origin like Bolso. In general, the
more cultivated variety of Latin spoken by the Hispano- Old French). The nasal vowels would thus be a phonoRoman elites in Roman Hispania had a peculiar regional logic characteristic of the Vulgar Latin spoken in Roman
attested in writing until after
accent, referred to as Hispano ore and agrestius pronun- Gallaecia, but they are not
[10]
the
6th
and
7th
centuries.
[5]
tians. The more cultivated variety of Latin coexisted
with the popular variety. It is assumed that the Pre- The oldest known document to contain Galician7

CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE

Portuguese words, found in northern Portugal, is called

the Doao Igreja de Sozello and dated to 870 but
otherwise composed in Late/Middle Latin.[11] Another
document, from 882, also containing some GalicianPortuguese words is the Carta de dotao e fundao da
Igreja de S. Miguel de Lardosa.[12] In fact, many Latin
documents written in Portuguese territory contain Romance forms.[13] The Notcia de adores, written in 1175,
is thought by some to be the oldest known document written in Galician-Portuguese.[14]

was, almost without exception, the only language used

for the composition of lyric poetry. Over 160 poets are
recorded, among them Bernal de Bonaval, Pero da Ponte,
Johan Garcia de Guilhade, Johan Airas de Santiago, and
Pedr' Amigo de Sevilha. The main secular poetic genres were the cantigas d'amor (male-voiced love lyric), the
cantigas d'amigo (female-voiced love lyric) and the cantigas d'escarnho e de mal dizer (including a variety of genres from personal invective to social satire, poetic parody
and literary debate).[16]

The Pacto dos irmos Pais, recently discovered (and possibly dating from before 1173), has been said to be even
older, but despite the enthusiasm of some scholars, it has
been shown[15] that the documents are not really written in Galician-Portuguese but are in fact a mixture of
Late Latin and Galician-Portuguese phonology, morphology and syntax. The Noticia de Torto, of uncertain date
(c. 1214?), and the Testamento de D. Afonso II (27
June 1214) are most certainly Galician-Portuguese.[14]
The earliest poetic texts (but not the manuscripts in which
they are found) date from c. 1195 to c. 1225. Thus, by
the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th
there are documents in prose and verse written in the local
Romance vernacular.

All told, nearly 1,700 poems survive in these three genres,

and there is a corpus of over 400 cantigas de Santa Maria
(narrative poems about miracles and hymns in honor of
the Holy Virgin). The Castilian king Alfonso X composed his cantigas de Santa Maria and his cantigas de escrnio e maldizer in Galician-Portuguese, even though he
used Castilian for prose.

2.1.2

Literature

Main article: Galician-Portuguese lyric

King Dinis of Portugal, who also contributed (with 137

extant texts, more than any other author) to the secular
poetic genres, made the language ocial in Portugal in
1290. Until then, Latin had been the ocial (written) language for royal documents; the spoken language did not
have a name and was simply known as lingua vulgar (ordinary language, that is Vulgar Latin) until it was named
Portuguese in King Dinis reign. Galician-Portuguese
and portugus arcaico (Old Portuguese) are modern
terms for the common ancestor of modern Portuguese
and modern Galician. Compared to the dierences in
Ancient Greek dialects, the alleged dierences between
13th-century Portuguese and Galician are trivial.

Galician-Portuguese had a special cultural role in the literature of the Christian kingdoms of medieval Iberia,
comparable to that of Occitan in France and Italy dur- 2.1.3 Divergence
ing the same historical period. The main extant sources
of Galician-Portuguese lyric poetry are these:
As a result of political division, Galician-Portuguese lost
its unity when the County of Portugal separated from the
The four extant manuscripts of the Cantigas de Santa Kingdom of Galicia (a dependent kingdom of Leon) to
establish the Kingdom of Portugal. The Galician and PorMaria
tuguese versions of the language then diverged over time
Cancioneiro da Ajuda
as they followed independent evolutionary paths.
Cancioneiro da Vaticana

As Portugals territory was extended southward during

the Reconquista, the increasingly distinctive Portuguese
Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti, also known as Can- language was adopted by the people in those regions, supcioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional (Lisbon)
planting the earlier Arabic and other Romance/Latin languages that were spoken in these conquered areas during
Cancioneiro dun Grande de Espanha
the Moorish era. Meanwhile, Galician was inuenced by
the neighboring Leonese language, especially during the
Pergaminho Vindel
time of kingdoms of Leon and Leon-Castile, and in the
Pergaminho Sharrer
nineteenth and twentieth centuries it has been inuenced
by Castilian. Two cities at the time of separation, Braga
Os 5 lais de Bretanha
and Porto, were within the County of Portugal and have
Tenzn entre Afonso Snchez e Vasco Martns de remained within Portugal. Further north, the cities of
Lugo, A Corua and the great medieval centre of Santiago
Resende
de Compostela remained within Galicia.

The language was used for literary purposes from the - Galician was preserved in Galicia in the modern era benal years of the 12th century to roughly the middle of cause those who spoke it were the majority rural or unethe 14th century in what are now Spain and Portugal and ducated population living in the villages and towns, and

2.4. SEE ALSO

Castilian was taught as the correct language to the bilingual educated elite in the cities. Because until comparatively recently most Galicians lived in many small towns
and villages in a remote and mountainous land, the language changed very slowly and was only very slightly inuenced from outside the region. That situation made
Galician remain the vernacular of Galicia until the late
nineteenth/early twentieth centuries and is still widely
spoken; most Galicians today are bilingual. Modern Galician was only ocially recognized by the Second Spanish Republic in the 1930s as a co-ocial language with
Castilian within Galicia. The recognition was revoked by
the regime of Francisco Franco but was restored after his
death.

the Galician-Portuguese language spread south with the

Reconquista, supplanting Mozarabic, this ancient sharing
of folklore intensied. In 2005 the governments of Portugal and Spain jointly proposed that Galician-Portuguese
oral traditions be made part of the Masterpiece of Oral
and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The work of documenting and transmitting that common culture involves
several universities and other organizations.

The linguistic classication of Galician and Portuguese

is still discussed today. There are those among Galician
independence groups who demand their reunication as
well as Portuguese and Galician philologists who argue
that both are dialects of a common language rather than
two separate ones.

Also part of the common heritage of oral traditions are

the markets and festivals of patron saints and processions, religious celebrations such as the magosto, entroido
or Corpus Christi, with ancient dances and tradition
like the one where Coca the dragon ghts with Saint
George; and also traditional clothing and adornments,
crafts and skills, work-tools, carved vegetable lanterns,
superstitions, traditional knowledge about plants and animals. All these are part of a common heritage considered
in danger of extinction as the traditional way of living is
replaced by modern life, and the jargon of sherman, the
names of tools in traditional crafts, and the oral traditions
which form part of celebrations are slowly forgotten.

The Fala language, spoken in a small region of the Spanish autonomous community of Extremadura, underwent
a similar development as Galician.
Galician is the regional language of Galicia (sharing coociality with Spanish), and it is spoken by the majority
of its population. Portuguese continues to grow and, today, is the fth most spoken language in the world.

2.2 Phonology
1

Eventually shifted to /v/ in central and southern Portugal (and hence in Brazil) and merged
with /b/ in northern Portugal and Galicia.
2

[] and [d] probably

complementary distribution.

occurred

in

Galician-Portuguese folklore is rich in oral traditions.

These include the cantigas ao desao or regueifas, duels of improvised songs, many legends, stories, poems,
romances, folk songs, sayings and riddles, and ways of
speech that still retain a lexical, phonetic, morphological
and syntactic similarity.

A Galician-Portuguese baixo-limiao lect is spoken in

several villages. In Galicia it is spoken in Entrimo and
Lobios and in northern Portugal in Terras de Bouro (lands
of the Buri) and Castro Laboreiro including the mountain
villa(county seat) of Soajo and surrounding villages.[17]

2.4 See also

About the Galician-Portuguese language

/s/ and /z/ were apico-alveolar while /ts/ and /dz/ were
lamino-alveolar. Later in the history of Portuguese, all
the aricate sibilants became fricatives, with the apicoalveolar and lamino-alveolar sibilants remaining distinct
for a time but eventually merging in most dialects. See
History of Portuguese for more information.

2.2.1

A stanza of Galician-Portuguese
lyric

Main article: Galician-Portuguese lyric

Cantiga de amigo
Eonavian
Fala language
Galician language
History of Portuguese
Portuguese language
Reintegrationism

2.3 Oral traditions

There has been a sharing of folklore in the GalicianPortuguese region going back to prehistoric times. As

About Galician-Portuguese culture

Culture of Portugal

10

2.5 References
[1] Galician-Portuguese at MultiTree on the Linguist List
[2] Lujn Martnez, Eugenio R. (3 May 2006). The Language(s) of the Callaeci (PDF). e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies 6: 715748. ISSN 1540-4889.
[3] Piel, Joseph-Maria (1989). Origens e estruturao
histrica do lxico portugus. Estudos de Lingustica
Histrica Galego-Portuguesa (PDF). Lisboa: IN-CM. pp.
916.
[4] A Toponmia Cltica e os vestgios de cultura material
da Proto-Histria de Portugal. Freire, Jos. Revista de
Guimares, Volume Especial, I, Guimares, 1999, pp.
265275. (PDF) . Retrieved on 14 November 2011.
[5] Adams, J. N. (2003). Bilingualism and the Latin language
(PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-817714. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
[6] As origens do romance galego-portugus. Instituto Luis
de Cames.
[7] Alinei, Mario; Benozzo, Francesco (2008). Alguns aspectos da Teoria da Continuidade Paleoltica aplicada
regio galega (PDF). Retrieved 14 November 2011.

CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE

2.6 Bibliography
Manuscripts containing Galician-Portuguese ('secular')
lyric (cited from Cohen 2003 [see below under critical
editions]):
A = Cancioneiro da Ajuda, Palcio Real da Ajuda
(Lisbon).
B = Biblioteca Nacional (Lisbon), cod. 10991.
Ba = Bancroft Library (University of California,
Berkeley) 2 MS DP3 F3 (MS UCB 143)
N = Pierpont Morgan Library (New York), MS 979
(= PV).
S = Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo (Lisbon),
Capa do Cart. Not. de Lisboa, N. 7-A, Caixa 1,
Mao 1, Livro 3.
V = Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. lat. 4803.
Va = Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. lat. 7182,
. 276r 278r
Manuscripts containing the Cantigas de Santa Maria:

[8] Comparative Grammar of Latin 34 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.

E = Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo (El Escorial),

MS B. I. 2.

[9] Ethnologic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 B.C.).

Arkeotavira.com. Retrieved on 14 November 2011.

F = Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale (Florence),

Banco Rari 20.

[10] Fontica histrica

T = Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo (El Escorial),

MS T. I. 1.

[11] The oldest document containing traces of GalicianPortuguese, a.D. 870. Novomilenio.inf.br. Retrieved on
14 November 2011.

To = Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid), cod. 10.069

(El Toledano)

[12] Charter of the Foundation of the Church of S. Miguel de

Lardosa, a.D. 882. Fcsh.unl.pt. Retrieved on 14 November 2011.

Critical editions of individual genres of GalicianPortuguese poetry (note that the cantigas d'amor are split
between Michalis 1904 and Nunes 1932):

[13] Norman P. Sacks, The Latinity of Dated Documents in the

Portuguese Territory, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1941

Cohen, Rip. (2003). 500 Cantigas d' Amigo: Edio

Crtica / Critical Edition (Porto: Campo das Letras).

[14] The oldest texts written in Galician-Portuguese

[15] Ivo Castro, Introduo Histria do Portugus. Geograa
da Lngua. Portugus Antigo. [Lisbon: Colibri, 2004], pp.
121125, and by A. Emiliano, cited by Castro
[16] Many of these texts correspond to the Greek psogoi mentioned by Aristotle [Poetics 1448b27] and exemplied
in the verses of iambographers such as Archilochus and
Hipponax.
[17] Ribeira, Jos Manuel. A Fala Galego-Portuguesa da
Baixa Limia e Castro Laboreiro: Integrado no Projecto
para a declaraom de Patrimnio da Humanidade da Cultura Imaterial Galego-Portuguesa (PDF). Retrieved 14
November 2011.

Lapa, Manuel Rodrigues (1970).

Cantigas
d'escarnho e de mal dizer dos cancioneiros medievais galego-portugueses. Edio crtica pelo
prof. . 2nd ed. Vigo: Editorial Galaxia [1st.
ed.
Coimbra, Editorial Galaxia, 1965] with
Vocabulrio).
Mettmann, Walter. (19591972). Afonso X, o
Sabio. Cantigas de Santa Maria. 4 vols ["Glossrio,
in vol. 4]. Coimbra: Por ordem da Universidade
(republished in 2 vols. ["Glossrio in vol. 2] Vigo:
Edicins Xerais de Galicia, 1981; 2nd ed.: Alfonso
X, el Sabio, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Edicin, introduccin y notas de . 3 vols. Madrid: Clsicos
Castlia, 19861989).

2.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Michalis de Vasconcellos, Carolina. (1904). Cancioneiro da Ajuda. Edio critica e commentada
por . 2 vols. Halle a.S., Max Niemeyer (republished Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional Casa de Moeda,
1990).
Nunes, Jos Joaquim. (1932). Cantigas d'amor
dos trovadores galego-portugueses. Edio crtica
acompanhada de introduo, comentrio, variantes,
e glossrio por . Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade (Biblioteca de escritores portugueses) (republished by Lisboa: Centro do Livro Brasileiro, 1972).

11
zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft) (Port. version in Oliveira 2001b: 141
170).
____ (1998b). Galicia trobadoresca, in Anuario
de Estudios Literarios Galegos 1998: 207229 (Port.
Version in Oliveira 2001b: 97110).
____ (2001a). Aventures i Desventures del Joglar
Gallegoportougus (tr. Jordi Cerd). Barcelona:
Columna (La Flor Inversa, 6).
____ (2001b). O Trovador galego-portugus e o
seu mundo. Lisboa: Notcias Editorial (Coleco
Poliedro da Histria).

On the biography and chronology of the poets and the

courts they frequented, the relation of these matters to the
internal structure of the manuscript tradition, and myriad
For Galician-Portuguese prose, the reader might begin
relevant questions in the eld, please see:
with:
Oliveira, Antnio Resende de (1987). A cultura
trovadoresca no ocidente peninsular: trovadores e
jograis galegos, Biblos LXIII: 122.
____ (1988). Do Cancioneiro da Ajuda ao Livro
das Cantigas do Conde D. Pedro. Anlise do acrescento seco das cantigas de amigo de O, Revista
de Histria das Ideias 10: 691751.
____ (1989). A Galiza e a cultura trovadoresca
peninsular, Revista de Histria das Ideias 11: 736.

Cintra, Lus F. Lindley. (19511990). Crnica

Geral de Espanha de 1344. Edio crtica do texto
portugus pelo . Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional-Casa
de Moeda (vol. I 1951 [1952; reprint 1983]; vol II
1954 [republished 1984]; vol. III 1961 [republished
1984], vol. IV 1990) (Academia Portuguesa da
Histria. Fontes Narrativas da Histria Portuguesa).
Lorenzo, Ramn. (1977). La traduccion gallego
de la Cronica General y de la Cronica de Castilla.
Edicin crtica anotada, con introduccion, ndice
onomstico e glosario. 2 vols. Orense: Instituto de
Estudios Orensanos 'Padre Feijoo'.

____ (1993). A caminho de Galiza. Sobre as

primeiras composies em galego-portugus, in O
Cantar dos Trobadores. Santiago de Compostela:
Xunta de Galicia, pp. 249260 (republished in
There is no up-to-date historical grammar of medieval
Oliveira 2001b: 6578).
Galician-Portuguese. But see:
____ (1994). Depois do Espectculo Trovadoresco.
a estrutura dos cancioneiros peninsulares e as recol Huber, Joseph. (1933). Altportugiesisches Elemenhas dos sculos XIII e XIV. Lisboa: Edies Colibri
tarbuch. Heidelberg: Carl Winter (Sammlung ro(Coleco: Autores Portugueses).
manischer Elementar- und Hndbucher, I, 8) (Port
____(1995). Trobadores e Xograres. Contexto
histrico. (tr. Valentn Arias) Vigo: Edicins Xerais
de Galicia (Universitaria / Historia crtica da literatura medieval).

tr. [by Maria Manuela Gouveia Delille] Gramtica

do Portugus Antigo. Lisboa: Fundao Calouste
Gulbenkian, 1986).

A recent work centered on Galician containing informa ____ (1997a).

Arqueologia do mecenato tion on medieval Galician-Portuguese is:
trovadoresco em Portugal, in Actas do 2 Congresso
Histrico de Guimares, 319327 (republished in
Ferreiro, Manuel. (2001). Gramtica Histrica
Oliveira 2001b: 5162).
Galega, 2 vols. [2nd ed.], Santiago de Compostela:
Laiovento.
____ (1997b). Histria de uma despossesso. A
nobreza e os primeiros textos em galego-portugus,
in Revista de Histria das Ideias 19: 105136.

An old reference work centered on Portuguese is:

Williams, Edwin B. (1962). From Latin to Por ____ (1998a). Le surgissement de la culture
tuguese. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: University of Penntroubadouresque dans l'occident de la Pninsule
sylvania Press (1st ed. Philadelphia, 1938).
Ibrique (I). Compositeurs et cours, in (Anton Touber, ed.) Le Rayonnement des Troubadours, Amsterdam, pp. 8595 (Internationale Forschungen Latin Lexica:

12
Mediae Latinitatis Lexicon Minus. Lexique Latin
Mdivale-Francais/Anglais. A Medieval LatinFrench/English Dictionary. composuit J. F. Niermeyer, perciendum curavit C. van de Kieft. Abbreviationes et index fontium composuit C. van de
Kieft, adiuvante G. S. M. M. Lake-Schoonebeek.
Leiden - New York - Kln: E. J. Brill 1993 (1st ed.
1976).
Oxford Latin Dictionary. ed. P. G. W. Glare. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1983.
Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin:
Weiss, Michael. (2009). Outline of the Historical
and Comparative Grammar of Latin. Ann Arbor,
MI: Beechstave Press.
On the early documents cited from late 12th century,
please see Ivo Castro, Introduo Histria do Portugus.
Geograa da Lngua. Portugus Antigo. (Lisbon: Colibri,
2004), pp. 121125 (with references).

2.7 External links

Latin Portuguese document, a.D. 1008
Ponte nas ondas
Pergaminhos: coleco da Casa de Sarmento
Galician-Portuguese Intangible Heritage
Galician-Portuguese Intangible Heritage -Videos

CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE

Chapter 3

Portuguese dialects
Portuguese dialects are mutually intelligible variations extremely divergent pairs, the phonological changes may
of the Portuguese language over Portuguese-speaking make it dicult for speakers to understand rapid speech.
countries and other areas holding some degree of cultural
bound with the language. Portuguese has two standard
forms of writing and numerous regional spoken variations 3.1 Main subdivisions
(with often large phonological and lexical dierences).
The standard written form of Portuguese used in Brazil 3.1.1 Portugal
is regulated by the Brazilian Academy of Letters and is
sometimes called Brazilian Portuguese (although the term Main article: European Portuguese
primarily means all dialects spoken in Brazil as a whole). The dialects of Portugal can be divided into two major
In Portugal, the language is regulated by the Sciences
Academy of Lisbon, Class of Letters, which shapes the
standard spelling set of norms associated with European
Portuguese. This written variation is the one preferred
by Portuguese African and Asian ex-colonies, including
Cabo Verde, Mozambique, Angola, Timor-Leste, Macau
and Goa.
Dierences between Brazilian and European written
forms of Portuguese occur in a similar way (and are often compared to) those of American and British English,
though spelling divergencies are generally believed to occur with a little greater frequency in the two Portuguese
written dialects. Dierences in syntax and word construction, not directly related with spelling, are also observed. Furthermore, there were attempts to unify the
two written variations, the most recent of them being the
Orthographic Agreement of 1990, which only began to
take eect in the 2000s and is still under implementation in some countries. This and previous reforms faced
criticism by people who say they are unnecessary or inefcient or even that they create more dierences instead
groups:
of reducing or eliminating them.
The dierences between the various spoken Portuguese
dialects are mostly in phonology, in the frequency of
usage of certain grammatical forms, and especially in
the distance between the formal and informal levels of
speech. Lexical dierences are numerous but largely
conned to peripheral words, such as plants, animals,
and other local items, with little impact in the core lexicon.
Dialectal deviations from the ocial grammar are relatively few. As a consequence, all Portuguese dialects
are mutually intelligible although for some of the most

13

The southern and central dialects are broadly

characterized by preserving the distinction between
/b/ and /v/, and by the tendency to monophthongize
ei and ou to [e] and [o]. They include the dialect
of the capital, Lisbon, but it has some peculiarities
of its own. Although the dialects of the Atlantic
archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have unique
characteristics, as well, they can also be grouped
with the southern dialects.
The northern dialects are characterized by preserving the pronunciation of ei and ou as diph-

14

CHAPTER 3. PORTUGUESE DIALECTS

thongs [ei], [ou], and by somewhat having sometimes merged /v/ with /b/ (like in Spanish). They include the dialect of Porto, Portugals second largest
city.

For historical reasons, the dialects of Africa are generally

closer to those of Portugal than the Brazilian dialects, but
in some aspects of their phonology, especially the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, they resemble Brazilian
Portuguese more than European Portuguese. They have
Within each of these regions, however, is further varia- not been studied as exhaustively as European and Braziltion, especially in pronunciation. For example, in Lisbon ian Portuguese.
and its vicinity, the diphthong ei is centralized to [i] in- Asian Portuguese dialects are similar to the African ones
stead of being monophthongized, as in the south.
and so are generally close to those of Portugal. In Macau,
It is usually believed that the dialects of Brazil, Africa, the syllable onset rhotic // is pronounced as a voiced uvuand Asia derived mostly from those of central and south- lar fricative [] or uvular trill [].
ern Portugal.
Barranquenho

3.2 Notable features of some dialects

In the Portuguese town of Barrancos (in the border between Extremadura, Andalucia and Portugal), a dialect Many dialects have special characteristics. Most of the
of Portuguese heavily inuenced by Southern Spanish di- dierences are seen in phonetics and phonology, and here
are some of the more prominent:
alects is spoken, known as barranquenho.

3.1.2

Brazil

Main article: Brazilian Portuguese

Brazilian dialects are divided into northern and southern groups, the northern dialects tending to slightly more
open pre-stressed vowels. The economic and cultural
dominance of So Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil
made their dialects end up having some inuence on the
rest of the country. However, migration from the Northern states to the Southern states cause the inuence to be
a two-way phenomenon. Cultural issues also play their
roles. Speakers of the Gacho accent, for example, usually have strong feelings about their own way of speaking
and are largely uninuenced by the other accents. Also,
people of inner cities of the three southern states usually
speak with a very notable German, Italian or Polish accent, and among the inhabitants of the Santa Catarina,
the Azorean Portuguese dialect, in its local variant, predominates.
Between Brazilian Portuguese, particularly in its most
informal varieties, and European Portuguese, there can
be considerable dierences in grammar, aside from the
dierences in pronunciation and vocabulary. The most
prominent ones concern the placement of clitic pronouns,
and the use of subject pronouns as objects in the third person. Non-standard inections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese.

3.1.3

Africa, Asia and Oceania

Main articles: Portuguese in Africa and Portuguese in

Asia and Oceania

3.2.1 Conservative
In some regions of northern Portugal and Brazil, the
digraph ou still denotes a falling diphthong [ou], but
it has been monophthongized to [o] by most speakers of Portuguese.
In the dialects of Alto-Minho and Trs-os-Montes
(northern Portugal), the digraph ch still denotes the
aricate /t/, as in Galicia, but for most speakers, it
has merged with //.
Some dialects of northern Portugal still contrast
the predorsodental sibilants c/ /s/ and z /z/ with
apicoalveolar sibilants s(s) /s/ and s /z/, with minimal
pairs such as passo /pasu/ step and pao /pasu/
palace or coser /kuze/ to sew and cozer /kuze/
to cook, which are homophones in most dialects.
The other dialects of northern Portugal that have lost
this distinction have apicoalveolar sibilants instead
of the predorsodental fricatives, found in all southern dialects of Portugal as well as in Brazil. In those
dialects, they also appear in syllable codas instead of
the [] realizations that can be observed in all southern dialects.
In northern Portugal, the pronoun vs and its associated verb forms are still in use.
In Alentejo and parts of the Algarve (southern Portugal), one nds word-nal [i] where standard EP
has [], a feature shared with BP.
Also in Brazil, Alentejo and Algarve, progressive
constructions are formed with the gerund form of
verbs instead of a followed by the innitive that one
nds in most dialects of Portugal: est chovendo vs.
est a chover (its raining).

3.2. NOTABLE FEATURES OF SOME DIALECTS

In Brazil, original voiced intervocalic stops are still
pronounced as such, [vid], [kabu] instead of the
normal Portugal pronunciation [vi], [kau].
In Brazil, all ve vowels [a e i o u] are usually pronounced clearly in unstressed pretonic syllables like
in stressed syllables, while in Portugal they are generally reduced to [ i u u]. However, some words in
some Brazilian accents (esp. in Rio) have pretonic
[e o] raised to [i u].

3.2.2

Innovative

In central and southern Portugal (except the city

of Lisbon and its vicinity), the diphthong /ei/ is
monophthongized to [e]. The nasal diphthong /i/
is often monophthongized to [] as well.
In and near Lisbon, /ei/ and /i/ are pronounced [i]
and [ i] , respectively. Furthermore, stressed /e/ is
pronounced [] or [i] before a palato-alveolar or a
palatal consonant followed by another vowel.
In the dialect of the Beiras (Beira Interior Norte,
Cova da Beira and Beira Interior Sul) in central Portugal, the sibilant // occurs at the end of words, before another word which starts with a vowel, instead
of /z/.
In northern Portugal, the phoneme /m/ has a velar
allophone [] at the end of words.
In the dialects of Portalegre, Castelo Branco, Algarve (Barlavento area) and So Miguel Island
(Azores), the near-front rounded vowel [] replaces
/u/, in a process similar to the one that originated
the French u. The dialect of So Miguel has also the
front rounded vowel [] replacing /o/, as in outra or
boi.
In northern Portugal, the close vowels /o/ and
/e/ may be pronounced as diphthongs, such as in
Porto, pronounced [pwotu], qu": [kje], hoje":
[woi] or [wo] or even [woi]

15
be pronounced as [u mew im w kpow u~ kau
novu] or [u mew im w kpow ka novu]
in those dialects. In the Lisbon dialect the last two
words would instead be pronounced [ka novu],
[ka nov], [ka novu] or [ka nov]. In southern Portugal, word nal [w] and [w ] are also aected
so in Alentejo, the same sentence would sound [u
me im kpo ka novu] (in that dialect, utterance nal vowels are also noticeably very prolonged
so a more accurate transcription might be [novu]
for this example). In the southernmost region of the
country, the Algarve, the vowel is completely lost:
[u me im kpo ka nov].
In most of Brazil, syllable-nal /l/ is vocalized to /w/,
whicj causes mau bad and mal badly to become
homophones (although Brazil tends to use ruim in
place of mau). Similarly, degrau step and jornal
journal rhyme, which results in false plurals such
as degrais steps (vs. correct degraus), by analogy
with correct plural jornais. In the caipira dialect,
and in parts of Gois and Minas Gerais, syllablenal /l/ is instead merged with //, pronounced as an
alveolar approximant [] in the Caipira way.
The pronunciation of syllable-initial and syllablenal r varies considerably with dialect. See Guttural
R in Portuguese, for details. Syllable-initial r and
doubled rr are pronounced as a guttural [] in most
cities in Portugal, but as a traditional trill [r] in rural Portugal. In Brazil, the sound is normally pronounced as an unvoiced guttural ([x], [] or [h]),
which is also used for r at the end of syllables (except in the caipira dialect, which uses an alveolar approximant [], and the gacho dialect, which uses an
alveolar ap [] or trill [r]). r at the end of words,
in Brazil, is normally silent or barely pronounced.
In Macau, where Portuguese is spoken mostly as a
second language, initial and intervocalic r is sometimes replaced with a diphthong, and r at the end of
words (esp. when nal-stressed) is sometimes silent.

Some dialects of southern Portugal have gerund

forms that inect for person and number: em
chegandos (when you arrive), em chegndemos
(when we arrive), em chegandem (when you/they arrive). They are not used in writing.

The pronunciation of syllable-nal s/x/z also varies

with dialect. See Portuguese phonology for details.
Portugal and Rio de Janeiro favor [], both before
a consonant and nally. Most other parts of Brazil
favor [s], but in the Northeast, [] is often heard before consonants, especially /t/ (but not at the end of
words).

There are some dialectal dierences in how word

nal [u] is realized. In Brazilian Portuguese, it is
always pronounced. In Portugal, it is usually most
audible when at the end of an utterance. In other
contexts, it may be realized not at all or as mere
labialization of the preceding consonant. The northern dialects tend to maintain it in most contexts. For
instance, a sentence like o meu irmo comprou um
carro novo (my brother bought a new car) would

In the Northeast of Brazil and, to an increasing extent, in Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere, [j] is inserted
before nal /s/ in a nal-stressed word, which makes
mas but and mais more homonyms, both pronounced [majs] or [maj]. Other aected examples
are faz he does, dez ten, ns we, voz voice,
luz light, Jess Jesus, etc. Related forms like
fazem, vozes, nosso are unaected since /s/ is no
longer nal.

16

CHAPTER 3. PORTUGUESE DIALECTS

In most of Brazil, /t/, /d/ are palatalized to [t], [d]

when they are followed by /i/. Common sources of
/i/ are the unstressed ending -e, as in gente people [ti] and de of [di], and the epenthetic /i/
in words such as advogado lawyer [adivoadu].
Pexes de-, des- and dez- (such as dezoito eighteen) vary from word to word and from speaker
to speaker between [de], [des]/[dez]/etc. and [di],
[dis]/[diz]/etc..

Mau and mal

Both mean bad, but mau is an adjective, mal an adverb.
In most parts of Brazil, the l before consonants and ending words, which represents a velarized alveolar lateral
approximant in diering dialects, became a labio-velar
approximant, making both words homophones.
Jri and jure

Informal Brazilian Portuguese makes major changes

While jri means jury, jure is the imperative and secin its use of pronouns:
ond subjunctive third singular form of jurar, may he/she
Informal tu is dropped entirely in most regions swear. In dierent contexts, unstressed /e/ often became
along with all second-person singular verbal a close front unrounded vowel, but in some Southern
inections. When tu survives, it is used with Brazilian dialects, the Hispanic inuence, made /e/ never
go through the change.
third-person inections.
Clitic te [ti] survives as the normal clitic object pronoun corresponding to voc.
Comprimento and cumprimento
Clitic pronouns almost always precede the
verb. Post-verbal clitics are seen only in formal contexts, and mesoclisis (amar-te-ei I
will love you) is practically incomprehensible
to most Brazilians.

Comprimento means length, and cumprimento means

greeting. The same thing that happened with /e/ in the
example of jri/jure happened to the letter /o/, such becomes a close back rounded vowel in some cases, Hispanic inuence makes it never represent that sound in
Possessives seu, sua virtually always mean some Southern Brazilian.
your. To say his, her, constructions like
o carro dele his car or o carro dela her car
are used.
Asa and haja
Third-person clitics o, a, os, as and combined
clitics like mo, no-lo are virtually never heard
in speech. Instead, the clitics are simply omitted, especially to refer to objects; or a subject
pronoun is placed after the verb: Eu levo I'll
get it"; Vi ele I saw him.
Ns we is often replaced by a gente, conjugated with a third-person singular verb.

Asa means wing, and haja is the imperative and second subjunctive third singular form of haver, may he/she
exist. The words are usually distinguished, but in Alto
Trs-os-Montes and for some East Timorese Portuguese
speakers, they are homophones, both voiced palatoalveolar sibilants.
Boa and voa

Other Brazilian Portuguese grammatical changes:

Boa means good (feminine) and voa, he/she/it ies.

Preposition a is normally replaced by para in Unlike most of the West Iberian languages, Portuguese
speech. (Note: para a /pra/, para o /pro/.)
usually diers between the voiced bilabial plosive and the
The future tense is rarely used except for cer- voiced labiodental fricative, but the distinction used to be
tain verbs with monosyllabic innitives; other- absent in the dialects of the northern half of Portugal, and
wise periphrasis (vou falar I will speak) is it disappeared by Hispanic inuences in Southern Brazil
used. (Future perfect, future subjunctive and and in some dialects spoken in the border of Brazil or
future perfect subjunctive all occur regularly.) Portugal and Spanish-speaking countries. Both are realized indistinctly as a voiced bilabial plosive or a voiced
The conditional tense is rarely used. When a bilabial fricative, like in Spanish.
true conditional meaning is intended, the imperfect is substituted. When a future-in-thepast meaning is intended, a periphrasis is of- Ms, mas and mais
ten substituted: disse que ia falar comigo He
Ms means bad ones (feminine), mas means but and
said he would speak with me.
mais means more or most. In Northeastern Brazil
and the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro, the vowels
followed by coronal fricatives in the same syllable have
3.2.3 Homophones in dialects
a palatal approximant pronounced between both. The

3.5. MUTUAL COMPREHENSION

feature is very distinguishable since this combination appears in the plural forms.

X and ch
X means "shah", and ch means tea. At the beginning of
words, <x> and <ch> are usually voiceless palato-alveolar
fricatives, but <ch> is a voiceless palato-alveolar aricate
in northern Portugal. The sound happens in other cases
in Southeastern Brazil but disappeared in the rest of the
Portuguese-speaking world.

3.3 Mixed languages

17

3.5 Mutual comprehension

The dierent dialects and accents do not block crossunderstanding among the educated. Meanwhile, the
basilects have diverged more. The unity of the language
is reected in the fact that early imported sound lms
were dubbed into one version for the entire Portuguesespeaking market. Currently, lms not originally in Portuguese (usually Hollywood productions) are dubbed separately into two accents: one for Portugal and one for
Brazilian (using without regionalisms). When dubbing an
African character in cartoons and TV and lm productions, Portuguese people usually mimic an Angolan accent, as it is also commonly seen as the African accent of
Portuguese. The popularity of telenovelas and music familiarizes the speakers with other accents of Portuguese.

Prescription and a common cultural and literary tradition,

among other factors, have contributed to the formation
of a Standard Portuguese, which is the preferred form in
formal settings, and is considered indispensable in academic and literary writing, the media, etc. This standard
tends to disregard local grammatical, phonetic and lexical peculiarities, and draws certain extra features from
the commonly acknowledged canon, preserving (for example) certain verb tenses considered bookish or archaic in most other dialects. Portuguese has two ocial
3.4 Closely related languages
written standards, (i) Brazilian Portuguese (used chiey
in Brazil) and (ii) European Portuguese (used in Portugal
and Angola, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau,
Main articles: Galician language and Fala language
Macau, Mozambique, and So Tom and Prncipe). The
written standards slightly dier in spelling and vocabuThis section does not cover Galician, which is treated as
lary, and are legally regulated. Unlike the written lana separate language from Portuguese by Galician ocial
guage, however, there is no spoken-Portuguese ocial
institutions, or Fala. For a discussion of the controversy
standard, but the European Portuguese reference pronunregarding the status of Galician with respect to Portuguese,
ciation is the educated speech of Lisbon.
see Reintegrationism.
Portunhol/Portuol: In regions where Spanish and Portuguese coexist, various types of language contact have
occurred, ranging from improvised code-switching between monolingual speakers of each language to more or
less stable mixed languages. They are often designated
by the common term portunhol (portuol).

Portunhol Riverense is spoken in the region between

Uruguay and Brazil, particularly in the twin cities of
Rivera and Santana do Livramento.
The language must not be confused with Portuol, since
it is not a mixing of Spanish and Portuguese, but a variety
of Portuguese language developed in Uruguay back in the
time of its rst settlers. It has since suered inuence
from Uruguayan Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese.
In academic circles, the Portuguese used by the northern
population of Uruguay received the name Dialectos Portugueses del Uruguay (Uruguayan Portuguese Dialects).
Theres still no consensus if the language(s) is (are) a dialect or a creole, although the name given by linguists uses
the term dialect. There is also no consensus on how
many varieties it has, with some studies indicating that
there are at least two varieties, an urban one and a rural one, while others say there are six varieties, of which
Riverense Portuol is one.[1] This Portuguese spoken in
Uruguay is also referred by its speakers, depending on
the region that they live, as Bayano, Riverense, Fronterizo, Brasilero or simply Portuol.

3.6 List of dialects

3.7 See also
Dialects
Portuguese phonology
Galician
Fala

3.8 References
[1] CARVALHO, Ana Maria. Variation and diusion of
Uruguayan Portuguese in a bilingual border town, by
Ana Maria Carvalho, University of California at Berkeley USA. (PDF)

18

3.9 External links

Dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Cames
Audio samples of the dialects of Portugal
Audio samples of the dialects from outside Europe
Audio samples of Brazilian Portuguese, European
Portuguese, and Galician
A Pronncia do Portugus Europeu at the website of
the Instituto Cames
Isoglosses of the main dialects in Portugal at the
website of the Instituto Cames
Lindley Cintra, Lus F. Nova Proposta de Classicao dos Dialectos Galego-Portugueses Boletim de
Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Filolgicos,
1971. (PDF)
Portugus del Uruguay y educacin bilinge

CHAPTER 3. PORTUGUESE DIALECTS

Chapter 4

Portuguese in South America

In South America, Portuguese is the ocial and national
language of Brazil as well as one of three ocial languages of MERCOSUL. In addition it is spoken by other
smaller communities throughout the western hemisphere.
Lusophone immigration came from various countries and
in various waves throughout the Americas.

Argentina was the rst Spanish-speaking member state of

Mercosur to participate in the Frontier schools project. It
involves the exchange of language teachers with Brazil.
Secondary schools are now required to oer Portuguese
as a foreign language.[1] The same goes for primary
schools in provinces bordering Brazil.[2]
Uruguay, born out of conict rst between the Spanish
and Portuguese empires and then Brazil and Argentina,
has Portuguese speakers in northern region. The acronym
DPU (Dialectos Portugueses del Uruguay) is used to describe the varieties of Portuguese spoken in this region.
DPU is not standardized and so Brazilian Portuguese
serves as the primary model for Uruguayan speakers of
Portuguese, native and non-native speakers alike. Instruction in Portuguese has now been increased in the
Uruguayan education system. In the northern departments bordering Brazil, education has become bilingual
combining Spanish and Portuguese as languages of instruction.

4.1 Geographic distribution

Paraguay has been receiving waves of Brazilian immigrants for decades, known as Brasiguaios. Unlike in
Uruguay, the Brasigaios are a result of more recent immigration and, as such, are more markedly Brazilian in
speech and cultural identity. These immigrants tend to
settle in the eastern regions of the country and most originate from the Brazilian state of Paran. Estimates of the
size of this community range from 200,000 to 500,000.
Venezuela has a large and prominent Portuguese immigrant community, one of the largest in Hispanoamerica.
Its membership in MERCOSUR is pending and, towards
that end, the Venezuelan government has begun to encourage the teaching of Portuguese as a second language.
Portuguese is to be made available in the public school
system.[3]

Portuguese control of South America in 1754. (Green)

Brazil is the largest country in which Portuguese is spoken

in the Americas with a population of approximately 190
million, almost all of whom are native speakers of Portuguese. The size of this population renders Portuguese
a relevant regional and world language. Research in regional and social variation in Brazilian Portuguese reveals
the diversity of this language. The country also received
settlers from Portugal and white settlers from former Portuguese African colonies, East Timor, and Macau and
Eurasian settlers from Macau and East Timor.

In the USA, the state of Massachusetts has the largest

communities of Portuguese speakers.
Portuguese,
Angolan, Brazilian, and Cape Verdean immigrants have
been in the US for a couple of centuries.
Canada has received lusophone immigrants primraily
from Portugal, Angola and Brazil. Portuguese immigrants rst arrived in Canada the 1950s. The majority
of Luso-Canadians are settled in Toronto, Ontario and in
Montreal, Quebec.[4] According to the 2006 census, there

19

20
are 318,000 Canadians of Portuguese origin.[5]

CHAPTER 4. PORTUGUESE IN SOUTH AMERICA

Dialectos Portugueses del Uruguay
Portuguese American

4.2 The importance of Brazilian

Portuguese
In the Americas, it is Brazilian Portuguese which is the
standard for learners and non-native speakers. P.l.e.
(Portugus como lngua estrangeira) is the acronym used
to describe the learning and instruction of Portuguese as
a second or foreign language; a term comparable to ESL.
Brazils growing international prole and the adoption of
Portuguese as an ocial language of Mercosur have created a demand for non-native uency in Portuguese in the
Hispanic member states. This has accompanied a growth
in the private language instruction in Portuguese in said
countries.
The Museum of the Portuguese language (the second language museum in the world) is located in So Paulo,
Brazil.
The Brazilian Ministry of education has developed a prociency test in Portuguese specically for Brazil and
based on the Brazilian norm: CELPE-Bras
The latest orthgraphic agreement was ratied rst by
Brazil and while it requires adjustments in spelling,
hyphenation and accentuation from all CPLP member
states, the agreement favours the Brazilian norm.

4.3 Media and popular culture

Luso American
Portuguese Canadian
Lusophone

4.5 References
[1] http://portal.educ.ar/noticias/educacion-y-sociedad/
el-portugues-sera-materia-obli.php
[2] http://www.misionesonline.net/paginas/detalle2.php?
db=noticias2007&id=128150
[3] http://www.cidadeverde.com/geral_txt.php?id=38265
[4] Milton Mariano Azevedo, Portuguese a Linguistic Introduction, pp205
[5] http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/data/
topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&
APATH=3&CATNO=97-562-XCB2006012&
DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=
0&GAL=&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=0&IPS=
97-562-XCB2006012&METH=0&ORDER=&PID=
92339&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=
&StartRow=&SUB=&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&
VID=&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928

4.6 External links

Portuguese-speaking communities in the Americas outside of Brazil, from Canada to South America form the
primary audience for Brazilian and Portuguese satellite
television in their respective countries. Such programming be it football matches, telenovelas or variety shows
allow lusophones outside of Brazil to access media and
cultural content in Portuguese and stay informed and connected to events in Brazil. Rede Globo and RTPi are
available throughout the Americas.

Governo uruguaio torna obrigatrio ensino do portugus

Immigrants from Portugal, Brazil and Lusophone Africa

in North America, Hispanomerica and the Caribbean
maintain Portuguese to one degree or another as a heritage language. Locally produced and published 'ethnic'
media (print, radio and television programming) allow for
Lusophone immigrants to articulate their realities in the
host countries in Portuguese.

Portuguese-speaking Community in Massachusetts

4.4 See also

Brazilian Portuguese
CELPE-Bras
MERCOSUL

Brasil estender a Paraguai e Uruguai projeto Escolas Bilnges de Fronteira

Regional Blocs as a Barrier against English Hegemony? The Language Policy of Mercosur in South
America

Chapter 5

Brazilian Portuguese
For Brazilians of Portuguese descent, see Portuguese 5.1.1 Portuguese legacy
Brazilian.
The existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of
Brazilian Portuguese (portugus do Brasil [potuez du the Portuguese colonization of the Americas. The rst
baziw] or portugus brasileiro [potuez bazileju]) is wave of Portuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil
a set of dialects of the Portuguese language used mostly in the 16th century, but the language was not widely
in Brazil. It is spoken by virtually all of the 200 mil- used then. For a time Portuguese coexisted with Lngua
lion inhabitants of Brazil[3] and spoken widely across the Gerala lingua franca based on Amerindian languages
Brazilian diaspora, today consisting of about two million that was used by the Jesuit missionariesas well as
with various African languages spoken by the millions of
Brazilians who have emigrated to other countries.
slaves brought into the country between the 16th and 19th
This variety of the Portuguese language diers, par- centuries. By the end of the 18th century, Portuguese had
ticularly in phonology and prosody, from varieties and armed itself as the national language. Some of the main
dialects spoken in most Portuguese-speaking majority contributions to that swift change were the expansion of
countries, including native Portugal and African countries colonization to the Brazilian interior, and the growing
the dialects of which, partly because of the more re- numbers of Portuguese settlers, who brought their lancent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, tend guage and became the most important ethnic group in
to have a closer connection to contemporary European Brazil.
Portuguese. Despite this, Brazilian and European Portuguese vary little in formal writing[4] (in many ways anal- Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal's governogous to the dierences encountered between American ment made eorts to expand the use of Portuguese
throughout the colony, particularly because its consoland British English).
idation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal the
In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Coun- lands in dispute with Spain (according to various treaties
tries (CPLP), which included representatives from all signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded
countries with Portuguese as the ocial language, to the people who eectively occupied them). Under the
reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese or- administration of the Marquis of Pombal (17501777),
thography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil Brazilians started to favour the use of Portuguese, as the
on one side and the remaining Lusophone countries on the Marquis expelled the Jesuit missionares (who had taught
other. This spelling reform went into eect in Brazil on Lngua Geral) and prohibited the use of Nhengatu, or
1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into Lingua Franca.[6]
law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6year adaptation period, during which both orthographies The failed colonization attempts by the French in Rio
co-existed. All of the CPLP countries have signed the re- de Janeiro in the 16th century and the Dutch in the
form. In Brazil, this reform will be in force as of January Northeast in the 17th century had negligible eects on
2016. Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries Portuguese. The substantial waves of non-Portuguesespeaking immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th
have since begun using the new orthography.
centuries (mostly from Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland,
Regional varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, while re- Japan and Lebanon) were linguistically integrated into
maining mutually intelligible, may diverge from each the Portuguese-speaking majority within few generations,
other in matters such as vowel pronunciation and speech except for some areas of the three southernmost states
intonation.[5]
(Paran, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul)in the
case of Germans, Italians and Slavsand in rural areas
of the state of So Paulo (Italians and Japanese).

5.1 History

Nowadays the overwhelming majority of Brazilians speak

Portuguese as their mother tongue, with the exception of
21

22

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

small, insular communities of descendants of European

(German, Polish, Ukrainian, and Italian) and Japanese
immigrants mostly in the South and Southeast as well
as villages and reservations inhabited by Amerindians,
but either group constitutes a negligible portion of the
countrys total population. Even in those cases, these populations make use of Portuguese to communicate with
outsiders and to understand television and radio broadcasts, for example.

tributed (1) by Bantu languages (above all, Kimbundu,

from Angola, and Kikongo from Angola and the area that
is now the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo),[7] and (2) by Niger-Congo languages, notably Yoruba/Nag, from what is now Nigeria,
and Jeje/Ewe language, from what is now Benin.

5.1.2

Brazilian Portuguese has borrowed copiously from English, especially words related to the following elds:

Inuences from other languages

The development of Brazilian Portuguese has been inuenced by other languages with which it has come into contact: rst the Amerindian languages of the original inhabitants, then the various African languages spoken by the
slaves, and nally those of later European and Asian immigrants. Although the vocabulary is still predominantly
Portuguese, the inuence of other languages is evident in
the Brazilian lexicon, which today includes, for example,
hundreds of words of TupiGuarani origin referring to
local ora and fauna; numerous Yoruba words related to
foods, religious concepts, and musical expressions; and
English terms from the elds of modern technology and
commerce.
Words deriving from the Tupi language are particularly prevalent in place names (Itaquaquecetuba,
Pindamonhangaba, Caruaru, Ipanema, Paraba). The
native languages also contributed the names of most of
the plants and animals found in Brazil, such as arara
("macaw"), jacar (South American alligator"), tucano
("toucan"), mandioca ("cassava"), abacaxi ("pineapple"),
and many more.
However, many TupiGuarani
toponyms did not derive directly from Amerindian expressions, but were in fact coined by European settlers
and Jesuit missionaries, who used the Lngua Geral extensively in the rst centuries of colonization. Many of
the Amerindian words entered the Brazilian Portuguese
lexicon as early as in the 16th century, and some of them
were eventually borrowed by European Portuguese and
later even into other European languages.
African languages provided hundreds of words as
well, especially in the domains of: food (e.g.,
quitute, quindim, acaraj, moqueca); religious concepts
(mandinga, macumba, orix ("orisha"), and ax); AfroBrazilian music (samba, lundu, maxixe, berimbau); bodyrelated parts and diseases (banguela toothless, bunda
buttocks, capenga lame, caxumba mumps); geographical features (cacimba well, quilombo or mocambo runaway slave settlement, senzala slave quarters); articles of clothing (mianga beads, abad
"capoeira or dance uniform, tanga loincloth, thong);
and household concepts, such as cafun (caress on the
head), curinga ("joker card"), caula (youngest child,
also cadete and lho mais novo), and moleque (brat,
spoiled child). Although the African slaves had various
ethnic origins, by far most of the borrowings were con-

There are also many borrowings from other European

languages: especially English and French, but also
German and Italian. In addition there are a few loanwords
from Japanese.

technology and science: app, mod, layout, brieng,

designer, slideshow, mouse, forward, revolver, relay,
home oce, home theater, bonde ('streetcar, tram',
from 1860s company bonds), chulipa (also dormente, 'sleeper'), bita ('beater', railway settlement
tool), breque ('brake'), picape/pick-up, hatch, roadster, SUV, air-bag, guincho ('winch'), tilbur (19th
century), macadame, workshop;
commerce and nance: commodities, debnture,
holding, fundo hedge, angel, truste, dumping, CEO,
CFO, MBA, kingsize, fast food ([fst fud]), delivery service, self service, drive-thru, telemarketing,
franchise (also franquia), merchandising, combo,
check-in, pet shop, sex shop, at, loft, motel, sute,
shopping center/mall, food truck, outlet, tagline, slogan, jingle, outdoor billboard ('ad'), case (advertising), showroom;
sports: surf, skating, futebol (Association football,
soccer, calque ludopdio), voleibol, wakeboard,
gol ('goal'), goleiro, former quper, chutar, chuteira,
time, turfe, jockey club, cockpit, box (Formula 1),
pdium, plo, boxeador, MMA, UFC, rugby, match
point, nocaute ('KO'), poker, iate club, handicap;
miscellaneous cultural concepts: okay, gay, hobby,
vintage, jam session, junk food, hot dog, bife or
bisteca ('steak'), rosbife ('roast beef'), sundae, banana split, milkshake, (protein) shake, araruta ('arrow root'), panqueca, cupcake, brownie, sanduche,
X-burguer, boicote ('boycott'), pet, Yankee, happy
hour, lol, nerd ([ndi], rarely [ndz]), geek
(sometimes [iki], but also [iki] and rarely [ik]),
noob, punk, skinhead ([skdi]), emo ([mu]),
indie ([di]), hooligan, cool, vibe, hype, rocker,
glam, rave, clubber, cyber, hippie, yuppie, hipster,
overdose, junkie, cowboy, mullet, country, rockabilly, pin-up, socialite, playboy, sex appeal, strip
tease, after hours, drag queen, go-go boy, queer
(as in 'queer lit'), bear (also calque urso), twink
(also efebo/ephebe), leather (dad), footing (19th
century), piquenique (also convescote), bro, rapper,
mc, beatbox, break dance, street dance, free style,
hang loose, soul, gospel, praise (commercial context, music industry), bullying ([bulj], but very

5.1. HISTORY
often closer to the pronunciation [bl()]), stalking ([stawk], very often closer to [stwk()]),
closet, ashback, check-up, ranking, bondage, dark,
goth (gtica), vamp, cueca boxer or cueca slip (male
underwear), black tie (or traje de gala/cerimnia
noturna), smoking ('tuxedo'), quepe, blazer, jeans,
cardig, blush, make-up artist, hair stylist, gloss
labial (hybrid, also brilho labial), pancake (facial
powder, also p de arroz), playground, blecaute,
script, sex symbol, bombshell, blockbuster, multiplex,
best-seller, it-girl, fail (web context), trolling (trollar), blogueiro, photobombing, sele, sitcom, standup comedy, non-sense, non-stop, gamer, camper,
crooner, backing vocal, roadie, playback, overdrive,
food truck, monster truck, picape/pick-up (DJ), coquetel ('cocktail'), drinque, pub, bartender, barman,
lanche, underground (cultural), op (movie/TV context and slang), DJ, VJ, haole (slang, surfers brought
from Hawaii).

23

coieur, tnis, cabine, concirge, chaueur, hangar,

garagem, haras, calandragem, cabar, coqueluche, coquine, coquette (cocotinha), gal, bas-fond (used as
slang), mascote, estampa, sabotagem, RSVP, rendezvous, chez..., la carte, la ..., forr, forrobod from
19th century 'faux-bourdon'. Brazilian Portuguese tends
to adopt French suxes as in aterrissagem (Fr. atterrissage landing [aviation]), dierently from European
Portuguese (cf. Eur.Port. aterragem). Brazilian Portuguese (BP) also tends to adopt culture-bound concepts
from French, but when it comes to technology, the major inuence is from English, while European Portuguese
(EP) tends to adopt technological terms from French.
That is the dierence between BP estao ('station') and
EP gare ('train station'). BP. trem from English 'train' but
ultimately from French and EP comboio from Fr. convoi. An evident example of the dichotomy between English and French inuences can be noted in the use of the
expressions know-how, used in a technical context, and
savoir-faire in a social context. Portugal uses the expresAlso several calques such as arranha-cu, 'skyscraper' sion hora de ponta from French l'heure de pointe to refer
to the 'rush hour' while Brazil has the usage of horrio de
and cachorro-quente, 'hot-dog'.
pico, horrio de pique (rush hours/period) and hora do
French has contributed words for foods, furniture, and
rush. And both bilhar from French billard and Lusiluxurious fabrics, as well as for various abstract concepts.
tanate sinuca are interchangeably used for 'snooker'.
Examples include hors-concours, chic, metr (with the
French inection), batom, soutien, buqu, abajur, guich, Contributions from German and Italian include terms for
iar, chal, cavanhaque from Louis-Eugne Cavaignac, foods, music, arts and architecture.
calibre, habitu, clich, jargo, manchete, jaqueta, bote From German, besides strudel, pretzel, bratwurst,
de nuit or boate, cofre, rouge, frufru, chuchu, pur, pe- kuchen (also bolo cuca) sauerkraut (also spelled chutit gteau, pot-pourri, mnage, enfant gt, enfant ter- crute from French choucrout and pronounced [ukuti]),
rible, garonnire, patati-patata, parvenu, dtraqu, en- wurstsalat, sauerbraten, Oktoberfest, biergarten, zelt,
qute, equipe, malha, la, burocracia, bir, aair, grife, Osterbaum, Bauernfest, Schtzenfest, hinterland, Kindergafe, croquette, crocante, croquis, femme fatale, noir, garten, bock, fassbier and chope from Schoppen, there
marchand, palet, gabinete, gr-no, blas, de bom tom, are also abstract terms from German such as Prost, zum
bon-vivant, guindaste, guiar, anar, bonbonnire, calem- wohl, doppelgnger (also ssia), ber, brinde, kitsch, erbour, jeu de mots, vis--vis, tte--tte, mecha, blusa, con- satz, blitz police action and possibly encrenca dicult
haque, mlange, bric-brac, broche, ptisserie, peignoir, situation (perhaps from Ger. ein Kranker 'a sick perngligl, robe de chambre, dshabill, lingerie, corset, son'). Xumbergar, brega from marshal Friedrich Hercorselet, corpete, pantufas, salopette, cachecol, cachenez, mann Von Schnberg and xote (musical style and dance)
cachepot, colete, colher, prato, costume, serviette, garde- from schottisch. A signicant number of beer brands in
nappe, avant-premire, avant-garde, debut, crepe, frapp Brazil are named after German culture-bound concepts
(including slang), canap, paet, tutu, mignon, pince- and placenames due the fact that the brewing process was
nez, grand prix, parlamento, patim, camuagem, blin- brought by German immigrants.
dar (from German), guilhotina, gogo, pastel, l, silhueta, menu, matre d'htel, bistr, chef, coq au vin, Italian loan words and expressions, in addition to those
rtisserie, mai, busti, collant, fuseau, cigarette, croch, that are related to food or music, include tchau (ciao),
tric, tricot (pullover, sweater), calo, culotte, botina, nonna, nonnino, imbrglio, bisonho, entrevero, panetone,
bota, galocha, scarpin (ultimately Italian), sorvete, glac, colomba, casaca, colombina, arlequim, palhao, vero,
boutique, vitrine, manequim (Dutch borrowing), mach, cicerone, male male, terra roxa, capisce, mezzo, va bene,
tailleur, echarpe, fraque, laqu, gravata, chapu, bon, ecco, ecco fatto, ecco qui, caspita, schifoso, gelateria,
edredom, gabardine, fondue, buet, toalete, pantalon, cantina, canalha, cavolo, incavolarsi, pivete, engrouvincala Saint-Tropez, manicure, pedicure, balayage, limu- hado, engambelar, andiamo via, guardanapo, tiramisu,
sine, caminho, guido, cabriol, capil, garfo, nicho, talharim, macarro, tarantela, grappa, stratoria, terms of
garonete, chenille, chion, chemise, chamois, pliss, endearment amore, bambino/a, ragazzo/a, caro/a mio/a,
balon, fris, chamin, guilhoch, chteau, bid, redin- tesoro and bello/a; babo, mamma, baderna from Magote, chri(e), ambado, bufante, pierrot, torniquete, rietta Baderna, bagatela, carcamano, torcicolo, gazeta,
molinete, canivete, guerra (Provenal), escamotear, es- tosto, casanova, noccia, noja, manjar (mangiare), che
croque, amboyant, maquilagem, visagismo, topete, me ne frega, Io ti voglio tanto bene, ti voglio bene assai.

24

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

Also the usage of the reexive me especially in So Paulo of these borrowings and very minor alterations, Braziland the South as an example of Italianism. Due to the ian Portuguese can be traced directly from 16th-century
large Italian immigrant population, parts of the Southern European Portuguese.[9]
and Southeastern states exhibit some Italian inuence on
prosody, including patterns of intonation and stress.
Fewer words have been borrowed from Japanese. The
latter borrowings are also mostly related to food and
drinks or culture-bound concepts, such as quimono, from
Japanese kimono, karaok, yakisoba, temakeria, sushi
bar, mang, biombo, from by bu sukurn, folding screen;
ken game j ken p, jankenpon ('rock-paper-scissors') is
played with the Japanese words being said before the
start, saqu, sashimi, tenpur (which has Portuguese etymology), hashi, wasabi, johrei (religious philosophy),
nikkei ('Japanese descendants, even used by banks targeting public), gaijin ('non-Japanese'), issei ('Japanese immigrant'), the dierent descending generations nissei, sansei, yonsei, gossei, rokussei and shichissei; racial terms
ainoko ('Eurasian'), hafu; work related terms and social economical terms, as well as historical and ethnic
might be used in some spheres: koseki (research about the
family history), dekassegui ('dekasegi'), arubaito, kaizen,
seiketsu, karoshi (death by work excess), burakumin,
kamikaze, seppuku, harakiri, jisatsu, jigai, ainu; martial
arts terms such as karat, aikid, bushid, katana, jud,
jiu-jtsu, kyud, sum; writing kanji, kana, katakana, hiragana, romaji; art concepts such as kabuki and ikebana,
bathing furniture/device ofur, Nihong (target news niche
and websites), kabch (introduced in Japan by the Portuguese), reiki, and shiatsu. Some words have popular
usage while others are known for a specic context in
specic circles. Terms used among Nikkei descendants
are oba-chan ('grandma'), onee-san, onee-chan, onii-san,
onii-chan, toasts and salutations kampai, banzai, and
sometimes treatment suxes chan, kun, sama, san, senpai.
Chinese contributed with a few terms such as tai chi
chuan, nunchaku and ch.
Aside from the above-mentioned prosodic eects from
Italian, the inuence of other languages on the phonology of Brazilian Portuguese have been very minor. Some
authors claim that the loss of initial es- in the forms of the
verb estar (e.g. T bom) now widespread in Brazil
reects an inuence from the speech of African slaves.[8]
Something extremely controversial since the same feature attributed to African inuence can be found in European Portuguese and several other Romance languages.
It is also claimed that some common grammatical features of Brazilian Portuguese such as the near-complete
disappearance of certain verb inections and a marked
preference for the periphrastic Periphrasis future (e.g.
vou falar) over the synthetic future (falarei) recall the grammatical simplication typical of pidgins and
creoles. However, the same or similar processes can be
observed in the European variant, (and in Spanish variants e.g., Chilean, Argentinian and Mexican Spanish),
and such theories have not yet been proved.[9] Regardless

5.2 Written and spoken languages

The written language taught in Brazilian schools has historically been based on the standard of Portugal, and until the 19th century, Portuguese writers have often been
regarded as models by some Brazilian authors and university professors. Nonetheless, this closeness and aspiration to unity was severely weakened in the 20th century by nationalist movements in literature and the arts,
which awakened in many Brazilians the desire for true
(own) national writing uninuenced by standards in Portugal. Later on, agreements were made as to preserve at
least the orthographical unity throughout the Portuguesespeaking world, including the African and Asian variants
of the language (which are typically more similar to EP,
due to a Portuguese presence lasting into the end of the
20th century).
On the other hand, the spoken language suered none
of the constraints that applied to the written language.
Brazilians, when concerned with pronunciation, look up
to what is considered the national standard variety, and
never the European one. Lately, Brazilians in general
have had some exposure to European speech, through
TV, and movies. Often one will see Brazilian actors
working in Portugal, and Portuguese actors working in
Brazil.

5.3 Formal writing

The written Brazilian standard diers from the European
one to about the same extent that written American English diers from written British English. The dierences
extend to spelling, lexicon, and grammar. However, with
the entry into force of the Orthographic Agreement of
1990 in Portugal and in Brazil since 2009, these dierences were drastically reduced.
Several Brazilian writers were awarded with the highest
prize of the Portuguese language. The Cames Prize
awarded annually by Portuguese and Brazilians is often
regarded as the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in Literature for works in Portuguese.
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Joo Guimares Rosa,
Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Graciliano Ramos, Joo
Cabral de Melo Neto, Ceclia Meireles, Clarice Lispector, Jos de Alencar, Rachel de Queiroz, Jorge Amado,
Castro Alves, Antonio Candido, Autran Dourado,
Rubem Fonseca, Lygia Fagundes Telles and Euclides da
Cunha are Brazilian writers recognized for writing the
most outstanding work in the Portuguese language.

5.4. FORMAL VERSUS INFORMAL REGISTERS

5.3.1

Spelling dierences

25

5.4 Formal versus informal registers

The linguistic situation of the BP informal speech in relation to the standard language is controversial. There are
authors (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Bagno, Perini)
who describe it as a case of diglossia, considering that
informal BP has developed both in phonetics and
Further information: Reforms of Portuguese orthography grammar in its own particular way.
The Brazilian spellings of certain words dier from those
used in Portugal and the other Portuguese-speaking countries. Some of these dierences are merely orthographic,
but others reect true dierences in pronunciation.
Until the implementation of the 1990 orthographic reform, a major subset of the dierences related to the consonant clusters cc, c, ct, pc, p, and pt. In many cases, the
letters c or p in syllable-nal position have become silent
in all varieties of Portuguese, a common phonetic change
in Romance languages (cf. Spanish objeto, French objet).
Accordingly, they stopped being written in BP (compare
Italian spelling standards), but continued to be written in
other Portuguese-speaking countries. For example, we
had EP aco / BP ao (action), EP ptimo / BP timo
(optimum), and so on, where the consonant was silent
both in BP and EP, but the words were spelled dierently. Only in a small number of words is the consonant
silent in Brazil and pronounced elsewhere or vice versa,
as in the case of BP fato, but EP facto. However, the new
Portuguese language orthographic reform led to the elimination of the writing of the silent consonants also in the
EP, making now the writing system virtually identical in
all of the Portuguese-speaking countries,

Accordingly, the formal register of Brazilian Portuguese

has a written and spoken form. The written formal register (FW) is used in almost all printed media and written communication, is uniform throughout the country,
and is the Portuguese ocially taught at school. The
spoken formal register (FS) is basically a phonetic rendering of the written form; it is used only in very formal situations, such as speeches or ceremonies, by educated people who wish to stress their education, or when
reading directly out of a text. While FS is necessarily
uniform in lexicon and grammar, it shows noticeable regional variations in pronunciation. Finally, the informal
register (IS) is almost never written down (basically only
in artistic works or very informal contexts such as adolescent chat rooms), but exceptions do exist (for example
modernist works such as Macunama). It is used to some
extent in virtually all oral communication outside of those
formal contexts even by well educated speakers and
shows considerable regional variations in pronunciation,
lexicon, and grammar.

However, the theory of diglossia in BP is met with some

opposition, since diglossia does not constitute simply the
coexistence of dierent varieties or registers of the language formal and informal . It describes, in fact, sitHowever, BP has retained those silent consonants in a uations in which there are two (often related) languages:
few cases, such as detectar (to detect). In particular, a formal one and an informal one, which is the spoken
BP generally distinguishes in sound and writing between tongue. Opponents of the diglossia theory argue that the
seco (section as in anatomy or drafting) and seo various aspects that separate the informal register and the
(section of an organization); whereas EP uses seco formal one in Brazil cannot be compared with the numerous dierences between standard Italian or German and
for both senses.
the national dialects with which they share speakers.
Another major set of dierences is the BP usage of or
in many words where EP has or , such as BP neurnio The discussion is framed around whether informal BP is
/ EP neurnio (neuron) and BP arsnico / EP arsnico dierent enough from the standard in order to be consid(arsenic). These spelling dierences are due to gen- ered a low-prestige language in its own right, spoken by
uinely dierent pronunciations. In EP, the vowels e and the Brazilian people, who must learn a language that is
o may be open ( or ) or closed ( or ) when they are not their own, the formal Portuguese language. In oppostressed before one of the nasal consonants m, n followed sition to this theory, the following arguments have been
by a vowel, but in BP they are always closed in this en- used:
vironment. The variant spellings are necessary in those
cases because the general Portuguese spelling rules man1. even in the most informal and low-prestige varieties
date a stress diacritic in those words, and the Portuguese
of BP, almost the entirety of the lexicon is the same,
diacritics also encode vowel quality.
with few dierences of pronunciation in comparison
Another source of variation is the spelling of the [] sound
to the standard BP, especially in what refers to the
before e and i. By Portuguese spelling rules, that sound
basic vocabulary;
can be written either as j (favored in BP for certain words)
2. there are some dierent aspects in the grammar, but
or g (favored in EP). Thus, for example, we have BP
many authors argue they are very minor (besides,
berinjela / EP beringela (eggplant).

26

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

some of those dierences also arose during the recent development of European Portuguese);

3. the fact that the informal vocabulary is much smaller

than the formal one happens in every literate language, so it cannot be used to prove the low-prestige
variety constitutes another language in a typical situation of diglossia;
4. the preference of another form over another that
is also considered correct in the standard/classical
grammar also does not justify the existence of
diglossia (e.g., preferred compound tense vai faltar
and faltar will lack are both standard BP; the
common expression ter que is standard and equivalent to the verb dever);
5. the phonetic aspects of the informal language are
mostly a matter of preference or accent, since the
standard language, in general, accepts most of them
(for example, the devoicing of nal r, which is accepted by standard BP, as well as the common contraction of words in Portuguese, such as para os becoming pros, as long as it is not written that way).

5.4.1

Characteristics of informal BP

The main and most general (i.e. not considering various

regional variations) characteristics of the informal variant
of BP are the following (some of them may occur in EP
as well):
dropping the rst syllable of the verb estar
("[statal/incidental] to be) throughout the conjugation (ele t (hes) instead of ele est (he is), ns
tva(mos/mo) (we were) instead of ns estvamos
(we were)); (Exactly the same in EP)
dropping prepositions before subordinate and relative clauses beginning with conjunctions (Ele precisa
que vocs ajudem instead of Ele precisa de que vocs
ajudem); (Exactly the same in EP)
replacing haver when it means to exist with ter
(to have): h muitos problemas na cidade (there
are many problems in the city) can be heard, but is
much rarer than tem muitos problema(s) na cidade
lack of third-person object pronouns, which may be
omitted completely or replaced by their respective
personal pronouns (eu vi ele or even just eu vi instead
of eu o vi for I saw him/it) (may occur in EP as
well)
lack of second-person verb forms (except for some
parts of Brazil) and, in various regions, plural thirdperson forms as well (mostly lower-class speakers)
(tu cantas becomes tu canta or voc canta (Brazilian
uses the pronoun voc" a lot but rarely uses tu,
except in some states such as Amazonas and Rio

Grande do Sul, in the latter voc" is almost never

used in informal speech, with tu being used instead, using both second and third-person forms depending on the speaker)
lack of the relative pronoun cujo/cuja (whose),
which is replaced by que (that/which), either alone
(the possession being implied) or along with a possessive pronoun or expression, such as dele/dela (A
mulher cujo lho morreu (the woman whose son
died) becomes A mulher que o lho [dela] morreu
(the woman that [her] son died))
frequent use of the pronoun a gente (people) with
3rd p. sg verb forms instead of the 1st p. pl verb
forms and pronoun ns (we/us), though both are
formally correct and ns is still much used. (Exactly
the same in EP)
obligatory proclisis in all cases (always me disseram,
rarely disseram-me), as well as use of the pronoun
amidst two verbs in a verbal expression (always
vem me treinando, never me vem treinando or vem
treinando-me)
contracting certain high-frequency phrases, which is
not necessarily unacceptable in standard BP and is
often restricted to certain regions or circumstances
(para > pra; dependo de ele ajudar > dependo 'dele'
ajudar; com as > c'as ; deixa eu ver > x'o v; voc
est > c t etc.); (Some occur in EP as well)
preference for para over a in the directional meaning
(Para onde voc vai? instead of Aonde voc vai?
(Where are you going?"))
use of certain idiomatic expressions, such as Cad o
carro? instead of Onde est o carro? (Where is the
car?") (Occurs in EP as well)
lack of indirect object pronouns, especially lhe,
which are replaced by para plus their respective personal pronoun (D um copo de gua para ele instead
of D-lhe um copo de gua (Give him a glass of water); Quero mandar uma carta para voc instead of
Quero lhe mandar uma carta (I want to send you a
letter)) (Occurs in EP as well)
use of a as a pronoun for indenite direct objects
(similar to French 'en'). Examples: fala (fala + a)
(say it), esconde a (hide it), pera a (espera a
= wait a moment); (Occurs in EP as well)
impersonal use of the verb dar (to give) to express
that something is feasible or permissible. Example:
d pra eu comer? (can/may I eat it?") ; deu pra eu
entender (I could understand); (Occurs in EP as
well)

5.6. GRAMMAR

5.5 Lexicon
The vocabularies of Brazilian and European Portuguese
also dier in a couple of thousand words, many of which
refer to concepts that were introduced separately in BP
and EP.
Since Brazilian independence in 1822, BP has tended
to borrow words from English and French. However,
BP generally adopts foreign words with minimal adjustments, while EP tends to apply deeper morphological
changes. However, there are instances of BP adapting
English words, whereas EP retains the original form
hence BP estoque and EP stock. Finally, one dialect often
borrowed a word while the other coined a new one from
native elements. So one has, for example
BP mouse English "(computer) mouse versus EP rato literal translation of mouse in
Portuguese (mouse is also used in EP)
BP esporte (alternatives: desporto, desporte)
English sport versus EP desporto Spanish
deporte
BP jaqueta English jacket versus EP
bluso EP blusa French blouse/blouson
(also used in BP)
BP concreto English concrete versus EP
beto French bton (in BP, a concrete truck
is still called betoneira)
BP grampeador (stapler) grapadora
Spanish grapa versus EP agrafador agrafo
French agrafe.
A few other examples are given in the following table:

5.6 Grammar
5.6.1

27
fazer (With this girl I don't know what to do).[12] The
use of redundant pronouns for means of topicalization is
considered grammatically incorrect, because the topicalized noun phrase, according to traditional European analysis, has no syntactic function. This kind of construction,
however, is sometimes used in European Portuguese poetry, usually for keeping the metre, and is considered a
case of anacoluthon (anacoluto in Portuguese). Brazilian grammars traditionally treat this structure similarly,
rarely mentioning such a thing as topic. Nevertheless,
the so-called anacoluthon has taken on a new dimension
in Brazilian Portuguese.[13] The poet Carlos Drummond
de Andrade once wrote a short metapoema (a metapoem,
i. e., a poem about poetry, a specialty for which he was
renowned) treating the concept of anacoluto:
[...] O homem, chamar-lhe mito no passa
de anacoluto[14] (The man, calling him myth is
nothing more than an anacoluthon).
In colloquial language, this kind of anacoluto may even be
used when the subject itself is the topic, only to add more
emphasis to this fact, e.g. the sentence Essa menina, ela
costuma tomar conta de cachorros abandonados (This
girl, she usually takes care of abandoned dogs). This
structure highlights the topic, and could be more accurately translated as As for this girl, she usually takes care
of abandoned dogs.
The use of this construction is particularly common with
compound subjects, as in, e.g., Eu e ela, ns fomos
passear (She and I, we went for a walk). This happens
because the traditional syntax (Eu e ela fomos passear)
places a plural-conjugated verb immediately following
an argument in the singular, which may sound ugly to
Brazilian ears. The redundant pronoun thus claries the
verbal inection in such cases.
Progressive

Syntactic and morphological features Portuguese makes extensive use of verbs in the progres-

Topic-prominent language

sive aspect, almost as in English.

Brazilian Portuguese seldom has the present continuous

construct estar a + innitive, which, in contrast, has beModern linguistic studies have shown that Brazilian come quite common in European over the last few cenPortuguese is a topic-prominent or topic- and subject- turies. BP maintains the Classical Portuguese form of
prominent language.[10] Sentences with topic are exten- continuous expression, which is made by estar + gerund.
sively used in Brazilian Portuguese, most often by means
of turning an element (object or verb) in the sentence into Thus, Brazilians will always write ela est danando (she
an introductory phrase, on which the body of the sentence is dancing), not ela est a danar. The same restricconstitutes a comment (topicalization), thus emphasizing tion applies to several other uses of the gerund: BP uses
it, as in Esses assuntos eu no conheo bem literally, camos conversando (we kept on talking) and ele traThese subjects I don't know [them] well.[11] The an- balha cantando (he sings while he works), but rarely
ticipation of the verb or object at the beginning of the camos a conversar and ele trabalha a cantar as is the
sentence, repeating it or using the respective pronoun re- case in most varieties of EP.
ferring to it, is also quite common, e.g. in Essa menina, BP retains the combination a + innitive for uses that
eu no sei o que fazer com ela (This girl, I don't know are not related to continued action, such as voltamos
what to do with her) or Com essa menina eu no sei o que a correr (we went back to running). Some dialects

28

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

of EP (namely from Alentejo, Algarve, Aores(Azores), clitic is replaced by preposition + strong pronoun: thus BP
Madeira) will also tend to feature estar + gerund as in writes ela o deu para mim (she gave it to me) instead
Brazil.
of EP ela deu-mo; the latter most probably will not be
understood by Brazilians, being obsolete in BP.
Personal pronouns
Main article: Portuguese personal pronouns

Syntax In general, the dialects that gave birth to Portuguese had a quite exible use of the object pronouns in
the proclitic or enclitic positions. In Classical Portuguese,
the use of proclisis was very extensive, while, on the contrary, in modern European Portuguese the use of enclisis
has become indisputably majoritary.
Brazilians normally place the object pronoun before the
verb (proclitic position), as in ele me viu (he saw me). In
many such cases, the proclisis would be considered awkward or even grammatically incorrect in EP, in which the
pronoun is generally placed after the verb (enclitic position), namely ele viu-me. However, formal BP still follows EP in avoiding starting a sentence with a proclitic
pronoun; so both will write Deram-lhe o livro (They gave
him/her the book) instead of Lhe deram o livro, though
it will seldom be spoken in BP (but would be clearly understood).
However, in verb expressions accompanied by an object
pronoun, Brazilians normally place it amid the auxiliary
verb and the main one (ela vem me pagando but not ela
me vem pagando or ela vem pagando-me). In some cases,
in order to adapt this use to the standard grammar, some
Brazilian scholars recommend that ela vem me pagando
should be written like ela vem-me pagando (as in EP),
in which case the enclisis could be totally acceptable if
there would not be a factor of proclisis. Therefore, this
phenomenon may or not be considered improper according to the prescribed grammar, since, according to the
case, there could be a factor of proclisis that would not
permit the placement of the pronoun between the verbs
(e.g. when there is a negative adverb near the pronoun, in
which case the standard grammar prescribes proclisis, ela
no me vem pagando and not ela no vem-me pagando).
Nevertheless, nowadays, it is becoming perfectly acceptable to use a clitic between two verbs, without linking it
with a hyphen (as in 'Poderia se dizer', No vamos lhes
dizer') and this usage (known as: pronome solto entre dois
verbos) can be found in modern(ist) literature, textbooks,
magazines and newspapers like Folha de S.Paulo and O
Estado (see in-house style manuals of these newspapers,
available on-line, for more details).
Contracted forms Even in the most formal contexts,
BP never uses the contracted combinations of direct and
indirect object pronouns which are sometimes used in EP,
such as me + o = mo, lhe + as = lhas. Instead, the indirect

Mesoclisis The mesoclitic placement of pronouns (between the verb stem and its inection sux) is viewed
as archaic in BP, and therefore is restricted to very formal situations or stylistic texts. Hence the phrase Eu darlhe-ia, still current in EP, would be normally written Eu
lhe daria in BP. Incidentally, a marked fondness for enclitic and mesoclitic pronouns was one of the many memorable eccentricities of former Brazilian President Jnio
Quadros, as in his famous quote Bebo-o porque lquido,
se fosse slido com-lo-ia (I drink it [liquor] because it
is liquid, if it were solid I would eat it)

5.6.2 Preferences
There are many dierences between formal written BP
and EP that are simply a matter of dierent preferences
between two alternative words or constructions that are
both ocially valid and acceptable.
Simple versus compound tenses
A few synthetic tenses are usually replaced by compound
tenses, such as in:
future indicative: eu cantarei (simple), eu vou
cantar (compound, ir"+innitive)
conditional: eu cantaria (simple), eu iria/ia
cantar (compound, ir"+innitive)
past perfect: eu cantara (simple), eu tinha cantado (compound, ter"+past participle)"
Also, spoken BP usually uses the verb ter (own, have,
sense of possession) and rarely haver (have, sense of
existence, or there to be), especially as an auxiliary (as
it can be seen above) and as a verb of existence.
written: ele havia/tinha cantado (he had sung)
spoken: ele tinha cantado
written: ele podia haver/ter dito (he might have
said)
spoken: ele podia ter dito

5.7 Dierences in formal spoken

language

5.7. DIFFERENCES IN FORMAL SPOKEN LANGUAGE

5.7.1

Phonology

In many ways, compared to European Portuguese (EP),

Brazilian Portuguese (BP) is conservative in its phonology. That also occurs in Angolan Portuguese, So
Tomean Portuguese, and other African dialects. Brazilian Portuguese has 8 vowels, 5 nasal vowels, with several
diphthongs, and triphthongs.

29
tion extends uniformly through the entire vowel. In the
Southern-Southeastern dialects of Brazilian Portuguese,
the nasalization begins almost imperceptibly and then
gets far stronger in the end of the vowel, rhus being
closer to the nasalization of Hindi-Urdu phonology (see
Anusvara). In some cases, the nasal archiphoneme actually represents the addition of a nasal consonant like /m,
n, , , w , /.
manta = /m nt/

Vowels

tampa = /t mp/

banco = /b ku/
The reduction of vowels is one of the main phonetic
characteristics of the Portuguese language, but the inten- bem = /b/
sity and frequency with which that phenomenon happens bom = /b/ or /b/ or /b/
varies signicantly between Brazilian Portuguese and Eupan = /p / or /p /
ropean Portuguese.
Brazilians generally pronounce vowels more openly than
Europeans even when they reduce them. In the syllables Consonants
that follow the stressed one, BP generally pronounces o as
[u], a as [], and e as [i]. Some dialects of BP also follow Palatalization of /di/ and /ti/ One of the most noticeable tendencies of modern BP is the palatalization of
these rules for vowels before the stressed syllable.
/d/ and /t/ by most regions, which are pronounced [d]
In contrast, EP pronounces unstressed a primarily as [],
and [t] (or [d] and [t]), respectively, before /i/. The
elides some unstressed vowels or reduces them to a short,
word presidente president, for example, is pronounced
near-close near-back unrounded vowel [], a sound that
[pezidti] in these regions of Brazil but [pzidt()]
does not exist in BP. Thus, for example, the word setemin Portugal. The pronunciation probably began in Rio
bro is [setbu]/[stbu] in BP but [s()tbu] in EP.
de Janeiro and is often still associated with this city but
The main dierence among the dialects of Brazilian Por- is now standard in many other states and major cities,
tuguese is the frequent presence or not of open vowels in such as Belo Horizonte and Salvador, and it has spread
unstressed syllables. Southern and Southeastern dialects more recently to some regions of So Paulo (because
generally pronounce e and o when they are not reduced of migrants from other regions), where it is common in
to [i] and [u] and as closed vowels [e] and [o] if they are most speakers under 40 or so. It has always been stannot stressed, in which case the pronunciation will depend dard in Brazils Japanese community since it is also a feaon the word. Thus, 'operao' (operation) and 'rebolar' ture of Japanese. The regions that still preserve the un(to shake ones body) may be pronounced [opeas ] and palatalized [ti] and [di] are mostly in the Northeast and
[hebola].
South of Brazil by the stronger inuence from European
However, in Northeastern and Northern accents, there are Portuguese (Northeast), and from Italian and Argentine
many complex rules that still have not been much studied Spanish (South).
but lead to the open pronunciation of e and o in a huge
number of words. Thus, contrary to other dialects, the
open vowels [] and [] are not used only in stressed syllables. Thus, the previous examples would be pronounced
dierently: [pas ] and [hbla].
Another noticeable if minor dierence between
Northern-Northeastern
dialects
and
SouthernSoutheastern ones is the frequency of nasalization
of vowels before m and n: in the former, the vowels are
virtually always nasalized they are stressed or unstressed;
in the latter dialects, the vowels may remain unnasalized
if they are unstressed. A famous example of this distinction is the pronunciation of banana: a Northeasterner
would speak [b n n], and a Southerner would speak
[ban n].

Epenthesis in consonant clusters BP tends to break

up consonant clusters, if the second consonant is not /r/,
/l/, or /s/, by inserting an epenthetic vowel, /i/, which can
also be characterized, in some situations, as a schwa. The
phenomenon happens mostly in the pretonic position and
with the consonant clusters ks, ps, bj, dj, dv, kt, bt, ft,
mn, tm and dm: clusters that are not very common in the
language (afta": [aft] > [at]; opo : [ps ] >
[pis ]).

However, in some regions of Brazil (such as some Northeastern dialects), there has been an opposite tendency to
reduce the unstressed vowel [i] into a very weak vowel so
partes or destratar are often realized similarly to [pahts]
and [dtata]. Sometimes, the phenomenon occurs even
It is also noteworthy that the vowel nasalization, in some more intensely in unstressed posttonic vowels (except the
dialects of Brazilian Portuguese is very dierent from nal ones) and causes the reduction of the word and
that seen in French, for example. In French, the nasaliza- the creation of new consonant clusters (prtica > prt'ca;

30
mquina > maq'na; abbora > abobra; ccega > cosca).
L-vocalization and suppression of nal r Syllablenal /l/ is pronounced [u ], and syllable-nal /r/ is weakened in most regions to [] or [h] but not in So Paulo
State or in the South Region ir dropped (especially at
the ends of words). That sometimes results in rather
striking transformations of common words. The brand
name McDonalds, for example, is rendered [mkidnawdis], and the word rock is rendered as [hki].
(Both initial /r/ and doubled r are pronounced in BP as
[h], as with syllable-nal [r].) Combined with /n/ and
/m/ already not being at the end of syllables in Portuguese
and replaced with nasalization on the previous vowel, that
makes BP strongly favor open syllables.
Another remarkable aspect of BP is the suppression of nal r, even in formal speech. It may still be pronounced, in
most of Brazil as [] or [h], in formal situations, at the end
of a phrase, but almost never in a coda with other words
(then, the pronunciation would be [])). Thus, verbs like
matar and correr are normally pronounced [mata] and
[kohe]. However, the same suppression also happens in
EP much less often than in BP.[15]
Nasalization Nasalization is much stronger in many
BP dialects than in EP and is especially noticeable in
vowels before /n/ or /m/ before by a vowel, but in EP,
they are nearly without nasalization. For the same reason,
open vowels (which are not normally under nasalization
in Portuguese) cannot occur before /n/ or /m/ in BP, but
can in EP. That sometimes aects the spelling of words.
For example, EP, harmnico harmonic [mniku] is
BP harmnico [amniku]. It also can aect verbal
paradigms: EP distinguishes falamos we speak [fl mu] from 'falmos [flamu] we spoke, but in BP, it
is written and pronounced falamos [fal mus] for both.

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

the same pattern as Rio de Janeiro, and in several other
dialects (such as in Cear), fricatives replace [s] and [z]
only before the consonants /t/ and /d/. Another change in
EP that does not occur in BP is the lowering of /e/ to []
before palatal sounds ([], [], [r] [] and [j]) and in the
diphthong em //, which merges with the diphthong e
/ / in EP but not in BP.
There are many dialect-specic phonetic aspects in BP
that can be essential characteristics of a dialect or another in Brazil. For example, Cearense is notorious for
changing [v] into [h] in rapid speech (vamos [v mu],
lets go, becomes [h mu]); more rural dialects in southeastern states, including So Paulo and Minas Gerais,
change preconsonantal r into []; several dialects reduce the diminutive sux inho to im (carrinho, little
car:" [kahu] > [kah]) and several dialects nasalize the
/d/ in the gerund form: cantando [k t du] > [k t nu].
Another common change that often makes the dierence
between two regions dialects is the palatalization of /n/
followed by the vowel /i/. Thus, there are two slightly
distinct pronunciations of the word menina, girl:" with
palatalized ni [minin] and without palatalization [minin].
A change that is in the process of spreading in BP and
perhaps started in the Northeast is the insertion of [j] after stressed vowels before /s/ at the end of a syllable. It
began in the context of // (mas but is now pronounced
[majs] in most of Brazil, making it homophonous with
mais more). Also, the change is spreading to other nal
vowels, and, at least in the Northeast, the normal pronunciations of voz voice is [vjs]. Similarly, trs three
becomes [tejs], making it rhyme with seis six [sejs];
that may explain the common Brazilian replacement of
seis with meia (half, as in half a dozen) when phone
numbers are spelled out.

Related is the dierence in pronunciation of the conso- 5.8 Dierences in the informal sponant represented by nh in most BP dialects. It is always
ken language
[r] in EP, but in most of Brazil, it represents a nasal which nasalizes the preceding vowel
ized semivowel [j],
(early morning).
There are various dierences between European Poras well:[16] manhzinha [m j zj]
tuguese and Brazilian Portuguese, such as the dropping
of the second-person conjugations (and, in some dialects,
Phonetic changes BP did not participate in many of the second-person pronoun itself) in everyday usage
sound changes that later aected EP, particularly of con- and the use of subject pronouns (ele, ela, eles, elas) as
sonants. In BP, /b/, /d/, and // are stops in all positions direct objects. People from Portugal can understand
but are weakened to fricatives [], [], and [] in EP. Brazilian Portuguese well. However, some Brazilians nd
Many dialects of BP maintain syllable-nal [s] and [z] European Portuguese dicult to understand at rst. This
as such, and EP consistently converts them to [] and []. is mainly due to vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
Whether such a change happens in BP is highly variable in European Portuguese: loss of phonemic contrasts, or
according to dialect. Rio de Janeiro is particularly known often, in the case of word-nal e, omission. Speakers of
for such a pronunciation; So Paulo and most Southern EP also introduce more allophonic modications of varidialects are particularly known for lacking it. Elsewhere, ous sounds. Another reason is that Brazilians have almost
such as in the Northeast, it is more likely to happen before no contact with the European variant, but Portuguese are
a consonant than word-nally, and it varies from region used to watching Brazilian television programs and listo region. Some dialects (such as in Pernambuco) have tening to Brazilian music.

5.8. DIFFERENCES IN THE INFORMAL SPOKEN LANGUAGE

5.8.1

Grammar

31
Voc fala ingls?

No falo, no.
Spoken Brazilian usage diers from European usage in
Do you speak English?"
many aspects. The dierences include the placement of
I don't speak [it], no.
clitic pronouns and, in Brazil, the use of subject pronouns
as objects in the third person. Nonstandard verb inections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese. Sometimes, even a triple negative is possible:
Voc fala ingls?

Armation and negation

No. No falo, no
Spoken Portuguese rarely uses the armation adverb sim
(yes) in informal speech. Instead, the usual reply is a
repetition of the verb of the question.
EP:

Do you speak English?"

No. I don't speak it, no.
In some regions, the rst no of a no...no pair is
pronounced [n].

Foste biblioteca?
Fui (, fui ontem).
BP:

In some cases, the redundancy of the rst no results in

its omission, which produces an apparent reversal of word
order from that prevailing in European Portuguese:
EP:

Voc foi na//pra biblioteca?

Voc fala ingls?

Fui.

No falo. ([I do] not speak)

BP:

or
Tu foste/foi na//pra biblioteca? (Southern
variant)

Voc fala ingls?

Falo no. ("[I] speak not)

Fui.
Translation
Translation
Do you speak English?"
Have you gone to the library yet?"

No, I don't.

Yes, I went there yesterday.

Imperative
In BP, it is common to form a yes/no question as a declarative sentence followed by the tag question no ? (isn't
it?"), contracted in informal speech to n? (compare English He is a teacher, isn't he?"). The armative answer
to such a question is a repetition of the verb: ":":

Standard Portuguese forms a command according to the

grammatical person of the subject (who is ordered to do
the action) by using either the imperative form of the verb
or the present subjunctive. Thus, one should use dierent inections according to the pronoun used as subject:
Ele no fez o que devia, n? (He didn't do what he tu ('you', grammatical second person with the imperative
should've, did he?")
form) or voc ('you', grammatical third person with the
present subjunctive):
. (Right, he didn't.)
or
Ela j foi atriz, n? (She had already been an actress,
hadn't she?")
. (She already had.) Or , sim, ela j foi. (If a
longer answer is preferred.)

Tu s burro, cala a boca! (cale-se)

Voc burro, cale a boca! (cale-se)
You are stupid, shut your mouth! (shut up)"

Currently, several dialects of BP have largely lost the

It is also common to negate statements twice for empha- second-person pronouns, but even they use the secondsis, with no (no) before and after the verb:
person imperative in addition to the third-person present
subjunctive form that should be used with voc:
BP:

32

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

BP: Voc burro, cale a boca! OR
BP: Voc burro, cala a boca! (considered
grammatically incorrect, but completely dominant in informal language)

are two skirts in a room and one says, Pega essa saia para
mim (Take this skirt for me), there may be some doubt
about which of them must be taken so one may say Pega
essa a (Take this one there near you) in the original
sense of the use of essa, or Pega essa saia aqui (Take
this one here).

Although Brazilians use the second-person imperative

forms even when referring to voc and not tu, in the case Personal pronouns and possessives
of the verb ser 'to be (permanently)' and estar 'to be (temporarily)', the second-person imperative s and est are See also: Portuguese personal pronouns
never used; the third-person subjunctive forms seja and
esteja may be used instead.
The negative command forms use the subjunctive present
tense forms of the verb. However, as for the second person forms, Brazilians do not use the subjunctive-derived
ones in spoken language. Instead, they employ the imperative forms: No anda, rather than the grammatically
correct No andes.
As for other grammatical persons, there is no such
phenomenon because both the positive imperative and
the negative imperative forms are from their respective
present tense forms in the subjunctive mood: No jogue
papel na grama (Don't throw paper on the grass); No
fume (Don't smoke).
Deictics

Tu and voc In many dialects of BP, voc (formal

you in EP) replaces tu (informal you in EP). The object pronoun, however, is still te ([ti] or [ti]). Also, other
forms such as teu (possessive), ti (postprepositional), and
contigo (with you) are still common in most regions of
Brazil, especially in areas in which tu is still frequent.
Hence, the combination of object te with subject voc in
informal BP: eu te disse para voc ir (I told you that you
should go). In addition, in all the country, the imperative
forms may also be the same as the formal second-person
forms, but it is argued by some that it is the third-person
singular indicative which doubles as the imperative: fala
o que voc fez instead of fale o que voc fez (say what
you did).

In areas in which voc has largely replaced tu, the forms

EP demonstrative adjectives and pronouns and their corti/te and contigo may be replaced by voc and com voc.
responding adverbs have three forms corresponding to
Therefore, either voc (following the verb) or te (preceddierent degrees of proximity.
ing the verb) can be used as the object pronoun in informal BP. A speaker may thus end up saying I love
Este 'this (one)' [near the speaker]
you in two ways: eu amo voc or eu te amo. In parts
of
the Northeast, most specically in the states of Piau
Esse 'that (one)' [near the addressee]
and
Pernambuco, it is also common to use the indirect
Aquele 'that (one)' [away from speaker and adobject
pronoun lhe as a second-person object pronoun:
dressee]
eu lhe amo.
In spoken BP, the rst two adjectives/pronouns have In parts of the South, in most of the North and most of
the Northeast, and in the city of Santos, the distinction
merged:
between semi-formal voc' and familiar tu' is still maintained, and object and possessive pronouns pattern likeEsse 'this (one)' [near the speaker] / 'that (one)'
wise. In the Paran state capital, Curitiba, 'tu' is not gen[near the addressee]
erally used.[17]
Aquele 'that (one)' [away from both]
In Rio de Janeiro and minor parts of the Northeast (interior of some states and some speakers from the coast),
Example:
both tu and voc (and associated object and possessive
pronouns) are used interchangeably with little or no difEsta a minha camisola nova. (EP)
ference (sometimes even in the same sentence).[18] In
Essa minha camiseta nova. (BP)
Salvador, tu is never used and is replaced by voc.
This is my new T-shirt.
Most Brazilians who use tu use it with the third-person
verb: tu vai ao banco. Tu with the second-person verb
Perhaps as a means of avoiding or clarifying some ambi- can still be found in Maranho, Pernambuco, Piau and
guities created by the fact that este ([st] > [s]) and esse Santa Catarina. A few cities in Rio Grande do Sul (but in
have merged into the same word, informal BP often uses the rest of the state speakers may or may not use it in more
the demonstrative pronoun with some adverb that indi- formal speech), mainly near the border with Uruguay,
cates its placement in relation to the addressee: if there have a slightly dierent pronunciation in some instances

5.8. DIFFERENCES IN THE INFORMAL SPOKEN LANGUAGE

(tu vieste becomes tu viesse), which is also present in Santa
Catarina and Pernambuco. In the states of Par and Amazonas, tu is used much more often than voc and is always
accompanied by a second-person verb.
In So Paulo, the use of tu in print and conversation is
no longervery common and is replaced by voc. However, So Paulo is now home to many immigrants of
Northeastern origin, who may employ tu quite often
in their everyday speech. Voc is predominant in most
of the Southeastern and Center Western regions; it is
almost entirely prevalent in the states of Minas Gerais
(apart from portions of the countryside, such as the region of So Joo da Ponte, where tu is also present[19] )
and Esprito Santo, but tu is frequent in Santos and all
coastal region of So Paulo state as well as some cities in
the countryside.

33

is my cat'. In Southeastern BP, especially in the standard

dialects of the cities of Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo, the
denite article is normally used as in Portugal, but many
speakers do not use it at the beginning of the sentence or
in titles: Minha novela, Meu tio matou um cara. In Northeastern BP dialects and in Central and Northern parts of
the state of Rio de Janeiro, (starting from Niteri), rural
parts of Minas Gerais, and all over Esprito Santo State,
speakers tend to but do not always drop the denite article, but both esse o meu gato and esse meu gato are
likely in speech.
Formal written Brazilian Portuguese tends, however, to
omit the denite article in accordance with prescriptive
grammar rules derived from Classical Portuguese even if
the alternative form is also considered correct, but many
teachers consider it inelegant.

In most of Brazil voc" is often reduced to even more

contracted forms, resulting oc (mostly in the Caipira di- Syntax Some of the examples on the right side of the
alect) and, especially, c because vo- is an unstressed syl- table below are colloquial or regional in Brazil. Literal
lable and so is dropped in rapid speech.
translations are provided to illustrate how word order
changes between varieties.
2nd singular person conjugation in Standard and Word order in the rst Brazilian example is frequent in
Brasilian Portuguese
European Portuguese too like in subordinate clauses like
Sabes que eu te amo You know that I love you", but not
in simple sentences like I love you. However, in PortuThird-person direct object pronouns In spoken in- gal, an object pronoun would never be placed at the start
formal registers of BP, the third-person object pronouns of a sentence, as in the second example. The example in
'o', 'a', 'os, and 'as, common in EP, are virtually nonexis- the bottom row of the table, with its deletion of reduntent and are simply left out or, when necessary and usually dant inections, is considered ungrammatical, but it is
only when referring to people, replaced by stressed sub- nonetheless dominant in Brazil in all social classes.
ject pronouns like ele he or isso that": Eu vi ele I saw
him rather than Eu o vi.
Use of prepositions
Seu and dele When voc is strictly a second-person
pronoun, the use of possessive seu/sua may turn some
phrases quite ambiguous since one would wonder whether
seu/sua refers to the second person voc or to the third
person ele/ela.

Just as in the case of English, whose various dialects

sometimes use dierent prepositions with the same verbs
or nouns (stand in/on line, in/on the street), BP usage
sometimes requires prepositions that would not be normally used in EP in the same context.

BP thus tends to use the third-person possessive 'seu' to

mean your since voc is a third-person pronoun and
Chamar de Chamar 'call' is normally used with the
uses 'dele', 'dela', 'deles, and 'delas (of him/her/them
preposition de in BP, especially when it means 'to deand placed after the noun) as third-person possessive
scribe someone as:
forms. If no ambiguity could arise (especially in narrative
texts), seu is also used to mean 'his or 'her'.
Chamei ele de ladro. (BP)
Both forms ('seu' or 'dele(s) /dela(s)') are considered
Chamei-lhe ladro. (EP)
grammatically correct innboth EP and BP.
I called him a thief.
Denite article before possessive In Portuguese, one
may or may not include the denite article before a possessive pronoun (meu livro or o meu livro, for instance).
The variants of use in each dialect of Portuguese are
mostly a matter of preference: it does not usually mean a
dialect completely abandoned either form.
In EP, a denite article normally accompanies a possessive when it comes before a noun: este o meu gato 'this

Em with verbs of movement When movement to a

place is described, EP uses the preposition a with the
verb, and BP uses em (contracted with an article, if necessary):
Fui na praa. (BP)
Fui praa. (EP)

34

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

I went to the square. [temporarily]

normally use a mixture of L- and H-variants, but remain

closer to the H-variant.

In both EP and BP, the preposition para can also be used

with such verbs with no dierence in meaning:

Most literary works are written in the H-variant. There

would have been attempts at writing in the L-variant
(such as the masterpiece Macunama, written by Brazilian modernist Mrio de Andrade and Grande Serto:
Fui para a praa. (BP, EP)
Veredas, by Joo Guimares Rosa), but, presently, the
I went to the square. [denitively]
L-variant is claimed to be used only in dialogue. Still,
many contemporary writers like using the H-variant even
in informal dialogue. This is also true of translated books,
which never use the L-variant, only the H one. Childrens
5.9 Diglossia
books seem to be more L-friendly, but, again, if they are
translated from another language (The Little Prince, for
According to some contemporary Brazilian linguists instance) they will use the H-variant only.
(Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Perini and most recently,
with great impact, Bagno), Brazilian Portuguese may be
a highly diglossic language. This theory claims that there 5.9.2 Prestige
is an L-variant (termed Brazilian Vernacular), which
would be the mother tongue of all Brazilians, and an H- This theory also posits that the matter of diglossia in
variant (standard Brazilian Portuguese) acquired through Brazil is further complicated by forces of political and
schooling. L-variant represents a simplied form of the cultural bias, though those are not clearly named. Lanlanguage (in terms of grammar, but not of phonetics) guage is sometimes a tool of social exclusion or social
that could have evolved from 16th-century Portuguese, choice.
inuenced by Amerindian (mostly Tupi) and African languages, while H-variant would be based on 19th-century Mrio A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, has said:
European Portuguese (and very similar to Standard EuroThere are two languages in Brazil. The one we
pean Portuguese, with only minor dierences in spelling
write (and which is called Portuguese), and
and grammar usage). Mrio A. Perini, a Brazilian linanother one that we speak (which is so despised
guist, even compares the depth of the dierences between
that there is not a name to call it). The latter is
L- and H- variants of Brazilian Portuguese with those bethe mother tongue of Brazilians, the former has
tween Standard Spanish and Standard Portuguese. Howto be learned in school, and a majority of popever, his proposal is not widely accepted by either gramulation does not manage to master it approprimarians or academics. Milton M. Azevedo wrote a chapately.... Personally, I do not object to us writing
ter on diglossia in his monograph: Portuguese language
Portuguese, but I think it is important to make
(A linguistic introduction), published by Cambridge Uniclear that Portuguese is (at least in Brazil) only
versity Press in 2005.
a written language. Our mother tongue is not
Portuguese, but Brazilian Vernacular. This is
not a slogan, nor a political statement, it is sim5.9.1 Usage
ply recognition of a fact.... There are linguistic teams working hard in order to give the full
From this point of view, the L-variant is the spoken form
description of the structure of the Vernacular.
of Brazilian Portuguese, which should be avoided only
So, there are hopes, that within some years, we
in very formal speech (court interrogation, political dewill have appropriate grammars of our mother
bate) while the H-variant is the written form of Braziltongue, the language that has been ignored, deian Portuguese, avoided only in informal writing (such
nied and despised for such a long time.
as songs lyrics, love letters, intimate friends correspondence). Even language professors frequently use the Lvariant while explaining students the structure and usage According to Milton M. Azevedo (Brazilian linguist):
of the H-variant; in essays, nevertheless, all students are
expected to use H-variant.
The relationship between Vernacular BrazilThe L-variant may be used in songs, movies, soap operas,
sitcoms and other television shows, although, at times,
the H-variant is used in historic lms or soap operas
to make the language used sound more elegant or archaic. There is a claim that the H-variant used to be preferred when dubbing foreign lms and series into Brazilian Portuguese, but nowadays the L-variant is preferred,
although this seems to lack evidence. Movie subtitles

ian Portuguese and the formal prescriptive variety fullls the basic conditions of Fergusons
denition [of diglossia]...[...] Considering the
diculty encountered by vernacular speakers
to acquire the standard, an understanding of
those relationships appears to have broad educational signicance. The teaching of Portuguese has traditionally meant imparting a

5.10. IMPACT
prescriptive formal standard based on a literary register (Cunha 1985: 24) that is often at
variance with the language with which students
are familiar. As in a diglossic situation, vernacular speakers must learn to read and write in a
dialect they neither speak nor fully understand,
a circumstance that may have a bearing on the
high dropout rate in elementary schools...
According to Bagno (1999) the two variants coexist and
intermingle quite seamlessly, but their status is not clearcut. Brazilian Vernacular is still frowned upon by most
grammarians and language teachers, with only remarkably few linguists championing its cause. Some of this
minority, of which Bagno is an example, appeal to their
readers by their ideas that grammarians would be detractors of the termed Brazilian Vernacular, by naming it a
corrupt form of the pure standard, an attitude which
they classify as linguistic prejudice. Their arguments
include the postulate that the Vernacular form simplies
some of the intricacies of standard Portuguese (verbal
conjugation, pronoun handling, plural forms, etc.).
Bagno denounces the prejudice against the vernacular in
what he terms the 8 Myths":
1. There is a striking uniformity in Brazilian Portuguese
2. A big amount of Brazilians speak Portuguese poorly
while in Portugal people speak it very well
3. Portuguese is dicult to learn and speak
4. People that have had poor education can't speak anything correctly
5. In the state of Maranho people speak a better Portuguese than elsewhere in Brazil
6. We should speak as closely as possible to the written
language

35
comparison, it is easier for many Brazilians to understand someone from a Spanish-speaking South
American country than someone from Portugal because the spoken varieties of Portuguese on either
side of the Atlantic have diverged to the point of
nearly being mutually unintelligible.
3. No language is dicult for those who speak it. Difculty appears when two conditions are met: the
standard language diverges from the vernacular and
a speaker of the vernacular tries to learn the standard version. This divergence is the precise reason why spelling and grammar reforms happen every now and then.
4. People with less education can speak the vernacular
or often several varieties of the vernacular, and they
speak it well. They might, however, have trouble in
speaking Standard Portuguese, but this is due to lack
of experience rather than to any inherent deciency
in their linguistic mastery.
5. The people of Maranho are not generally better
than fellow Brazilians from other states in speaking
Standard Portuguese, especially because that state is
one of the poorest and has one of the lowest literacy
rates.
6. It is the written language that must reect the spoken
and not vice versa: it is not the tail that wags the dog.
7. The knowledge of grammar is intuitive for those
who speak their native languages. Problems arise
when they begin to study the grammar of a foreign
language.
8. Rich and inuential people themselves often do
not follow the grammatical rules of Standard Portuguese. Standard Portuguese is mostly a jewel or
shibboleth for powerless middle-class careers (journalists, teachers, writers, actors, etc.).

7. The knowledge of grammar is essential to the corWhether Bagnos points are valid or not is open to debate,
rect and proper use of a language
especially the solutions he recommends for the problems
8. To master Standard Portuguese is the path to social he claims to have identied. Whereas some agree that
promotion
he has captured the feelings of the Brazilians towards
Brazils linguistic situation well, his book (Linguistic PrejIn opposition to the myths, Bagno counters that:
udice: What it Is, What To Do) has been heavily criticized
by some linguists and grammarians, due to his unortho1. The uniformity of Brazilian Portuguese is just about dox claims, sometimes asserted to be biased or unproven.
what linguistics would predict for such a large country whose population has not, generally, been literate for centuries and which has experienced consid- 5.10 Impact
erable foreign inuence, that is, this uniformity is
more apparent than real.
The cultural inuence of Brazilian Portuguese in the rest
2. Brazilians speak Standard Portuguese poorly be- of the Portuguese-speaking world has greatly increased
cause they speak a language that is suciently dif- in the last decades of the 20th century, due to the popferent from Standard Portuguese so that the lat- ularity of Brazilian music and Brazilian soap operas.
ter sounds almost foreign to them. In terms of Since Brazil joined Mercosul, the South American free

36
trade zone, Portuguese has been increasingly studied as a
foreign language in Spanish-speaking partner countries.
Many words of Brazilian origin (also used in other
Portuguese-speaking countries) have also entered into
English: samba, bossa nova, cruzeiro, milreis and
capoeira. While originally Angolan, the word samba
only became famous worldwide because of its popularity
in Brazil.
After independence in 1822, Brazilian idioms with
African and Amerindian inuences were brought to Portugal by returning Portuguese Brazilians (luso-brasileiros
in Portuguese).

5.11 Language codes

pt is a language code for Portuguese, dened by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2). There is
no ISO code for spoken or written Brazilian Portuguese.
bzs is a language code for the Brazilian Sign Language,
dened by ISO standards (see ISO 639-3).[20]
pt-BR is a language code for the Brazilian Portuguese, dened by Internet standards (see IETF language tag).

CHAPTER 5. BRAZILIAN PORTUGUESE

Azevedo, Milton (2005), Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Bagno, Marcos (2001), Portugus do Brasil:
Herana colonial e diglossia (PDF), Revista da
FAEEBA 15: 3747
Bagno, Marcos (2004), Portugus ou brasileiro? Um
convite pesquisa, So Paulo: Parbola
Bortoni-Ricardo, Stella Maris (2005), Ns
cheguemu na escola, e agora? Sociolingustica na
sala de aula, So Paulo: Parbola
Chilcote, Ronald H. (1967), Portuguese Africa, Englewood Clis, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
Cook, Manuela (2013) Portuguese Pronouns and
Other Forms of Address, from the Past into the Future - Structural, Semantic and Pragmatic Reections, Ellipsis, Volume 11, www.portuguese-apsa.
com/ellipsis
Cunha, Antnio Srgio Cavalcante da (2010),
Estrutura tpico-comentrio, a tradio gramatical
e o ensino de redao (PDF), Soletras 10: 5363

Portuguese language

Franceschini, Lucelene (2011), O uso dos

pronomes pessoais tu/voc em Concrdia SC,
Anais do VII Congresso Internacional da Abralin
(PDF), Curitiba

Academia Brasileira de Letras

Hernandes, Paulo (2000), Voc sabia? (11), Online

CELPE-Bras

IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geograa e Estatstica

(2011), Censo Demogrco 2010, Online

5.12 See also

Gaucho
List of English words of Portuguese origin
(Portuguese) List of word dierences, on the Portuguese Wiktionary
Portuguese grammar
Paulistano
Brazilian Portuguese phrasebook travel guide from
Wikivoyage

5.13 Bibliography
Andrade, Carlos Drummond de (1973), Consso, As impurezas do branco, Rio de Janeiro:
Olympio
Azevedo, Milton (1989), Vernacular Features in
Educated Speech in Brazilian Portuguese, Hispania
72 (4): 862872, doi:10.2307/343564

Kato, Mary (1993), Portugus brasileiro - uma viagem diacrnica, Campinas: Editora da UNICAMP
Lee, M. Kittiya (2005), Conversing in Colony: The
Braslica and the Vulgar in Portuguese America,
1500-1759 (Ph.D. Dissertation) (PDF), Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University
Mateus, Maria Helena Mira; Rodrigues, Celeste
(2003), A vibrante em coda no Portugus Europeu
(PDF), Instituto de Lingustica Terica e Computacional (online)
Mdolo, Marcelo (2001), As duas lnguas do
Brasil: Qual mesmo a lngua que falamos?", in
Pallamin, Vera; Furtado, Joaci Pereira, Conversas
no Ateli: Palestras sobre artes e humanidades, So
Paulo: FAU-USP, pp. 5169
Mota, Maria Alice (2008), A variao dos pronomes
tu e voc" no portugus oral de So Joo da Ponte
(MG) (Ph.D. Dissertation) (PDF), Belo Horizonte:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais

5.14. REFERENCES

37

Naro, Anthony Julius; Scherre, Maria Marta Pereira

(2007), Origens do portugus brasileiro, So Paulo:
Parbola

[14] Andrade (1973)

Orsini, Mnica Tavares (2004), As construes de

tpico no portugus do Brasil: Uma anlise sintticodiscursiva em tempo real, Rio de Janeiro: Crculo
Fluminense de Estudos Filolgicos e Lingsticos,
online

[16] Portuguese (n.d.)

[15] Mateus (2003)

[17] Franceschini (2011)

[18] Santos (2010)
[19] Mota (2008)

Perini, Mrio (2002), Modern Portuguese: A Refer- [20] Languages of Brazil - Ethnologue (ISO-3 codes) http://
ence Grammar, New Haven: Yale University Press
www.ethnologue.com/country/br/languages
Pontes, Eunice (1987), O tpico no portugus do
Brasil, Campinas, SP: Pontes Editores
Portuguese (Portugus), Omniglot (online), n.d.
Prista, Alexander da (1979), Say It in Portuguese
(European Usage), New York: Dover
Santos, Viviane Maia dos (2010), A constituio
de corpora orais para a anlise das formas de tratamento, Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL (PDF),
Palhoa, SC
Silva, e Mattos, Rosa Virgnia (2004), O portugus
do Brasil so dois, So Paulo: Parbola
Vasco, Srgio Leito (2003), Construes de tpico
no portugus brasileiro: Fala popular, Rio de
Janeiro: Crculo Fluminense de Estudos Filolgicos
e Lingsticos, online

5.14 References
[1] Portuguese (Brazil) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
[2] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Brazilian Portuguese. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology.
[3] http://saladeimprensa.ibge.gov.br/en/noticias?view=
noticia&id=1&busca=1&idnoticia=2204
[4] http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm
[5] http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/en_3.3.b.php
[6] Lee (2005)
[7] Chilcote (1967:57)
[8] Hernandes (2000)
[9] Naro & Scherre (2007)
[10] Pontes (1987)
[11] Orsini (2004)
[12] Vasco (2003)
[13] Cunha (2010)

Chapter 6

Portuguese language
Portuguese (portugus or, in full, lngua portuguesa)
is a Romance language and the sole ocial language of Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau,
Mozambique, Portugal, and So Tom and Prncipe.[4]
It also has co-ocial language status in East Timor,
Equatorial Guinea, and Macau. As the result of expansion
during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese
and Portuguese creole speakers are also found in Goa,
Daman and Diu in India;[5] in Batticaloa on the east coast
of Sri Lanka; in the Indonesian island of Flores; and in
Malacca in Malaysia.

6.1 History
Main article: History of the Portuguese language

When the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216

BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from
which all Romance languages descend. The language was
spread by Roman soldiers, settlers, and merchants, who
built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previous
Celtic or Celtiberian civilizations established long before
Portuguese is a part of the Ibero-Romance group that the Roman arrivals.
evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the me- Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire coldieval Kingdom of Galicia. With approximately 215 to lapsed in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was con220 million native speakers and 260 million total speak- quered by Germanic peoples (Migration Period). The ocers, Portuguese is usually listed as the sixth most na- cupiers, mainly Suebi and Visigoths who originally spoke
tively spoken language in the world, the third-most spo- Germanic languages, quickly adopted late Roman culture
ken European language in the world in terms of native and the Vulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula and over
speakers,[6] and a major language of the Southern Hemi- the next 300 years totally integrated in the local popusphere. It is also the most spoken language in South lations. After the Moorish invasion of 711 CE, Arabic
America and the second-most spoken in Latin America became the administrative and common language in the
after Spanish, and is an ocial language of the European conquered regions, but most of the remaining Christian
Union, Mercosul, the OAS and the African Union.
population continued to speak a form of Romance comSpanish author Miguel de Cervantes once called Por- monly known as Mozarabic which lasted three centuries
tuguese the sweet and gracious language and Spanish longer in Spain.
playwright Lope de Vega referred to it as sweet, while
the Brazilian writer Olavo Bilac poetically described it as
"a ltima or do Lcio, inculta e bela" (the last ower of
Latium, rustic and beautiful). Portuguese is also termed
the language of Cames, after one of the greatest literary gures in the Portuguese language, Lus Vaz de
Cames.[7][8][9]

Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known

today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese or Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval
Kingdom of Galicia, the rst among the Christian kingdoms after the start of the Reconquista of the Iberian
Peninsula. It is in Latin administrative documents of
the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words
In March 2006, the Museum of the Portuguese Lan- and phrases are rst recorded. This phase is known as
guage, an interactive museum about the Portuguese lan- Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century unguage, was founded in So Paulo, Brazil, the city with til the 12th-century independence of the County of Porthe Kingdom of Len, by then reigning over
the greatest number of Portuguese language speakers in tugal from
[12]
Galicia.
[10]
The museum is the rst of its kind in the
the world.
world.[10] In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a re, In the rst part of the Galician-Portuguese period (from
but there are plans to reconstruct it.[11]
the 12th to the 14th century), the language was increasingly used for documents and other written forms. For
some time, it was the language of preference for lyric poetry in Christian Hispania, much as Occitan was the language of the poetry of the troubadours in France. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King
38

6.2. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Afonso I of Portugal. In 1290, King Denis of Portugal
created the rst Portuguese university in Lisbon (the Estudos Gerais, later moved to Coimbra) and decreed that
Portuguese, then simply called the common language,
be known as the Portuguese language and used ocially.

39
in Brazil[14] and Portugal,[15] and 99.8% of the population of So Tom and Prncipe declared speaking Portuguese in the 1991 census. Perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively,[16] and 85%
are uent.[17] Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, and 60% are
uent, according to the 2007 census.[18] Portuguese is
also spoken natively by 30% of the population in GuineaBissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by
all.[19] No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all
the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks Cape Verdean Creole.

In the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and

16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the
Americas. By the mid-16th century, Portuguese had become a lingua franca in Asia and Africa, used not only
for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local ocials and Europeans of all
nationalities.
There are also signicant Portuguese speaking imin many countries including
Its spread was helped by mixed marriages between Por- migrant communities
[20]
[21]
Andorra
(15.4%),
Bermuda,
Canada (0.72% or
tuguese and local people, and by its association with
[22]
219,275
people
in
the
2006
census),
France (500,000
Roman Catholic missionary eorts, which led to the for[23]
[24]
people),
Japan
(400,000
people),
Jersey,[25]
mation of creole languages such as that called Kristang
refugees
in many parts of Asia (from the word cristo, Chris- Namibia (about 45% of the population, mainly
[26]
from
Angola
in
the
North
of
the
country),
Paraguay
tian). The language continued to be popular in parts of
or 636,000 people),[27] Macau (0.6% or 12,000
Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking (10.7% [28]
Switzerland (196,000 nationals in 2008),[29]
Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and people),
[30]
and the United States (0.35%
Indonesia preserved their language even after they were Venezuela (254,000).
of
the
population
or
1,228,126
speakers according to the
isolated from Portugal.
2007 American Community Survey),[31]
The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the
Portuguese India, namely Goa[32]
publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Re- In some parts of former
[33]
and Daman and Diu,
the language is still spoken by
sende, in 1516. The early times of Modern Portuguese,
about
10,000
people.
In
2014, an estimated 1,500 stuwhich spans the period from the 16th century to the
dents were learning Portuguese in Goa.[34]
present day, were characterized by an increase in the
number of learned words borrowed from Classical Latin
and Classical Greek due to the Renaissance, which greatly 6.2.1 Ocial status
enriched the lexicon.

6.2 Geographic distribution

Main article: List of countries where Portuguese is an ofcial language

The Community of Portuguese Language Countries[4]

Countries and regions where Portuguese has ocial status.

Multilingual sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in Oizumi,

Japan. Return immigration of Japanese Brazilians has led to a
large Portuguese-speaking community in the town.[13]

(in Portuguese Comunidade dos Pases de Lngua Portuguesa, with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of
the eight independent countries that have Portuguese as
an ocial language: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East
Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal and So
Tom and Prncipe.[4]

Equatorial Guinea made a formal application for full

membership to the CPLP in June 2010 and would be
Main article: Geographic distribution of Portuguese
required to add Portuguese as its third ocial language
(alongside Spanish and French), as required by the CPLP
Portuguese is the language of the majority of people for membership. The President of Equatorial Guinea,

40

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

Obiang Nguema Mbasog, and Prime Minister Ignacio

Milam Tang approved on 20 July 2011 a new Constitutional bill that intends to add Portuguese as an ocial
language of the country. As of 23 July 2012, the bill is
still awaiting ratication by the Peoples Representative
Chamber and it shall come into force 20 days after its
publication at the ocial states gazette.[35][36][37]
Portuguese is also one of the ocial languages of the Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of
China of Macau (alongside Chinese) and of several international organizations, including the Mercosur,[38] the
Organization of Ibero-American States,[39] the Union of
South American Nations,[40] the Organization of American States,[41] the African Union[42] and the European
Union.[43]

6.2.2

6.2.4 Future
According to estimates by UNESCO, Portuguese is the
fastest-growing European language after English and the
language has, according to the newspaper The Portugal
News publishing data given from UNESCO, the highest potential for growth as an international language in
southern Africa and South America.[50] The Portuguesespeaking African countries are expected to have a combined population of 83 million, and Brazil 350 million
by 2050. In total, the Portuguese-speaking countries will
have about 433[51] million people by the same year.[50]
Portuguese is truly a globalized language spoken ocially
in 5 continents, and as a second language by millions
worldwide.

Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of Mercosul with other South American nations,
Population of countries and juris- such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela,
dictions of Portuguese ocial or co- Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools
of those South American countries.
ocial language

Although early in the 21st century, after Macau was

According to The World Factbook country population es- ceded to China and Brazilian immigration to Japan
timates for 2013, the population of each of the nine ju- slowed down, the use of Portuguese was in decline in
risdictions is as follows (by descending order):
Asia, it is once again becoming a language of opportunity
This means that the population living in the Lusophone there, mostly because of increased diplomatic and nan[52]
ocial area is of 261,976,607 inhabitants. This num- cial ties with Portuguese-speaking countries in China,
ber does not include the Lusophone diaspora, estimated but also some interest in their cultures, mainly Koreans
at approximately 10 million people (including 4.5 million and Japanese about Brazil. Presently China is doing a
Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians, and half a million Cape great amount of trade with all of the Portuguese speaking
Verdeans, among others), although it is hard to obtain of- countries, and the Chinese themselves are learning Porcial accurate numbers of diasporic Portuguese speakers tuguese. These factors bode very well for the continued
because a signicant portion of these citizens are natural- growth of Portuguese as an important economic, internaized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are tional language.
children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. It is also important to note that a
large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted 6.3 Dialects
population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian and PALOP
Main articles: Portuguese dialects and Portuguese in the
emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of PorAmericas
tuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil.
Voc is used for educated, formal and colloquial respectThe Portuguese language therefore serves more than 250 ful speech in all Portuguese-speaking regions, apart from
million people daily, who have direct or indirect legal, the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, where its virtujuridical and social contact with it, varying from the only ally absent from the spoken language. Riograndense (or
language used in any contact, to only education, contact Gacho) Portuguese normally distinguishes formal from
with local or international administration, commerce and informal speech by verbal conjugation. Informal speech
services or the simple sight of road signs, public informa- employs tu followed by third person verbs, formal lantion and advertising in Portuguese.
guage retains the traditional second person.
Conjugation of tu has three dierent forms in Brazil (verb
to
see": "tu viste?", in the traditional second person, "tu
6.2.3 Portuguese as a foreign language
viu?", in the third person, and "tu visse?", in the innovaThe mandatory oering of Portuguese language in school tive second person), the conjugation used in the Brazilcurricula is observed in Uruguay[45] and Argentina.[46] ian states of Par, Santa Catarina and Maranho being
Other countries where Portuguese is taught at schools or is generally traditional second person, the kind that is used
being introduced now include Venezuela,[47] Zambia,[48] in other Portuguese-speaking countries and learned in
the Republic of the Congo,[49] Senegal,[49] Namibia,[26] Brazilian schools.
Swaziland,[49] and South Africa.[49]
The predominance of Southeastern-based media prod-

6.3. DIALECTS

The use of second person pronouns in the Lusosphere

41

The status of second person pronouns in Brazil. Red indicates

near exclusive use of voc". Mauve indicates decidedly predominant use of tu, but with near exclusive third person (voc"-like)
verbal conjugation. Brown indicates 50-50 tu/voc variation, being tu nearly always accompanied by third person (voc"-like)
verbal conjugation. Light blue indicates decidedly predominant
to near exclusive use of tu with reasonable frequency of second person (tu"-like) verbal conjugation. Yellow indicates balanced voc/tu distribution, being tu exclusively accompanied by
third person (voc"-like) verbal conjugation. Green indicates
balanced voc/tu distribution, tu being predominantly accompanied by third person (voc"-like) verbal conjugation.

dard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries. As

such, and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed
around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used
for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in many dialects of Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. However, the Santomean Portuguese in Africa may
Much ethnically diverse East Timor has ocialized Portuguese
be confused with a Brazilian dialect by its phonology and
as one of its languages
prosody.
Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.[55] There are some dierences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names
in local pronunciation.

ucts has established voc" as the pronoun of choice for

the second person singular in both writing and multimedia communications. However, in the city of Rio de
Janeiro, the countrys main cultural centre, the usage of
tu has been expanding ever since the end of the 20th
century (see , a linguistic research on the topic in Portuguese), being most frequent among youngsters and a 6.3.1 Brazil
number of studies have also shown an increase in its use
1. Caipira Spoken in the states of So Paulo (most
in a number of other Brazilian dialects .
markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southModern Standard European Portuguese (portugus paern Minas Gerais, northern Paran and southeastdro or portugus continental) is based on the Portuguese
ern Mato Grosso do Sul. Depending on the vispoken in the area including and surrounding the cities
sion of what constitutes caipira, Tringulo Mineiro,
of Coimbra and Lisbon, in central Portugal, while modborder areas of Gois and the remaining parts of
ern Standard Brazilian Portuguese (portugus neutro) is
Mato Grosso do Sul are included, and the fronbased on the Portuguese spoken in the area including
tier of caipira in Minas Gerais is expanded further
and surrounding the city of Rio de Janeiro, in southeastnortherly, though not reaching metropolitan Belo
ern Brazil,[53][54] which if vanished from its stereotypiHorizonte. It is often said that caipira appeared by
cal traits i.e. its strong European avor in phonology and
decreolization of the lngua braslica and the related
prosody, is linguistically a halfway between Brazilian dilngua geral paulista, then spoken in almost all of
alects and accents.
what is now So Paulo, a former lingua franca in
most of the contemporary Centro-Sul of Brazil beStandard European Portuguese is also the preferred stan-

42

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

fore the 18th century, brought by the bandeirantes,
interior pioneers of Colonial Brazil, closely related to its northern counterpart Nheengatu, and
that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.[56] It
has striking remarkable dierences in comparison
to other Brazilian dialects in phonology, prosody
and grammar, often stigmatized as being strongly
associated with a substandard variant, now mostly
rural.[57][58][59][60][61]

Santo and neighbouring eastern regions of Minas

Gerais. Fluminense formed in these previously
caipira-speaking areas due to the gradual inuence
of European migrants, causing many people to distance their speech from their original dialect and incorporate new terms.[68] Fluminense is sometimes
referred to as carioca, however carioca is a more
specic term referring to the accent of the Greater
Rio de Janeiro area by speakers with a uminense
dialect.

2. Cearense or costa norte ; is a dialect spoken more

sharply in the states of Cear and Piau. The variant of Cear includes fairly distinctive traits it shares
with the one spoken in Piau, though, such as distinctive regional phonology and vocabulary (for example, a debuccalization process stronger than that
of Portuguese, a dierent system of the vowel harmony that spans Brazil from uminense and mineiro
to amazofonia but is especially prevalent in nordestino, a very coherent coda sibilant palatalization as
those of Portugal and Rio de Janeiro but allowed in
fewer environments than in other accents of nordestino, a greater presence of dental stop palatalization
to palato-alveolar in comparison to other accents of
nordestino, among others, as well as a great number
of archaic Portuguese words).[62][63][64][65][66][67]

5. Gacho in Rio Grande do Sul, similar to sulista.

There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do
Sul, mainly due to the heavy inux of European
immigrants of diverse origins who have settled in
colonies throughout the state, and to the proximity
to Spanish-speaking nations. The gacho word in
itself is a Spanish loanword into Portuguese of obscure Indigenous Amerindian origins.

3. Baiano Found in Bahia, Sergipe, northern Minas

Gerais and border regions with Gois and Tocantins.
Similar to nordestino, it has a very characteristic
syllable-timed rhythm and the greatest tendency to
pronounce unstressed vowels as open-mid [] and
[].
Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country.

6. Mineiro Minas Gerais (not prevalent in the

Tringulo Mineiro). As the uminense area, its associated region was formerly a sparsely populated
land where caipira was spoken, but the discovery of
gold and gems made it the most prosperous Brazilian
region, what attracted Portuguese colonists, commoners from other parts of Brazil and their African
slaves. South-southwestern, southeastern and northern areas of the state have fairly distinctive speech,
actually approximating to caipira, uminense (popularly called, often pejoratively, carioca do brejo,
marsh carioca) and baiano respectively. Areas including and surrounding Belo Horizonte have a distinctive accent.
7.
Variants and sociolects of Brazilian Portuguese.

4.

Fluminense A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Esprito

Nordestino[69] more marked in the Serto (7),

where, in the 19th and 20th centuries and especially
in the area including and surrounding the serto (the
dry land after Agreste) of Pernambuco and southern
Cear, it could sound less comprehensible to speakers of other Portuguese dialects than Galician or
Rioplatense Spanish, and nowadays less distinctive

6.3. DIALECTS
from other variants in the metropolitan cities along
the coasts. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northern Maranho and
southern of Piau, and other that goes from Cear to
Alagoas.
8. Nortista or amazofonia Most of Amazon Basin
states i.e. Northern Brazil. Before the 20th century,
most people from the nordestino area eeing the
droughts and their associated poverty settled here,
so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the
city of Belm has a more European avor in phonology, prosody and grammar.
9. Paulistano Variants spoken around Greater So
Paulo in its maximum denition and more easterly
areas of So Paulo state, as well perhaps educated
speech from anywhere in the state of So Paulo
(where it coexists with caipira). Caipira is the hinterland sociolect of much of the Central-Southern
half of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historically low prestige in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in
So Paulo itself. Sociolinguistics, or what by times
is described as 'linguistic prejudice', often correlated
with classism,[70][71][72] is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of Adoniran
Barbosa. Also, the Paulistano accent was heavily inuenced by the presence of immigrants in the
city of So Paulo, especially the Italians.
10. Sertanejo Center-Western states, and also much
of Tocantins and Rondnia. It is closer to mineiro,
caipira, nordestino or nortista depending on the location.

43
13. Carioca Not a dialect, but sociolects of the uminense variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to Greater Rio de Janeiro. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the Portuguese royal family ed in
the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and
the carioca sociolect, and the educated speech (in
Portuguese norma culta, which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with
marked recent Portuguese inuences, the nearest
ones among the countrys dialects along orianopolitano), so that not all people native to the state of Rio
de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but most carioca
speakers will use the standard variant not inuenced
by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending
on context (emphasis or formality, for example).
14. Brasiliense used in Braslia and its metropolitan
area.[73] It is not considered a dialect, but more of a
regional variant often deemed to be closer to uminense than the dialect commonly spoken in most
of Gois, sertanejo.
15. Arco do desorestamento or serra amaznica
Known in its region as the accent of the migrants,
it has similarities with caipira, sertanejo and often
sulista that make it diering from amazofonia (in
the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it
is placed along nordestino, baiano, mineiro and uminense). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various
other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land
oer in recently deforested areas.[74][75]
16. Recifense used in Recife and its metropolitan
area.

11. Sulista The variants spoken in the areas between 6.3.2 Portugal
the northern regions of Rio Grande do Sul and
southern regions of So Paulo state, encompassing
1.
Micaelense (Aores) (So Miguel)Azores.
most of southern Brazil. The city of Curitiba does
2.
AlentejanoAlentejo (Alentejan Portuguese)
have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative
majority of speakers around and in Florianpolis
3.
AlgarvioAlgarve (there is a particular dialect in
also speak this variant (many speak orianopolitano
a small part of western Algarve).
or manezinho da ilha instead, related to the Eu4.
Alto-MinhotoNorth of Braga (hinterland).
ropean Portuguese dialects spoken in Azores and
Madeira). Speech of northern Paran is closer to
5.
Baixo-Beiro; Alto-AlentejanoCentral Portugal
that of inland So Paulo.
(hinterland).
12. Florianopolitano Variants heavily inuenced by
European Portuguese spoken in Florianpolis city
(due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its insular regions) and much of its
metropolitan area, Grande Florianpolis, said to be
a continuum between those whose speech most resemble sulista dialects and those whose speech most
resemble uminense and European ones, called, often pejoratively, manezinho da ilha.

6.
7.

Beiro Central Portugal.

EstremenhoRegions of Coimbra, Leiria and
Lisbon (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra is not part of Estremadura, and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that not only are not
shared with the one of Coimbra, but also are signicantly distinct and recognizable to most native
speakers from elsewhere in Portugal).

44

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

SpainOliventian Portuguese and other varieties sometimes controversially deemed as separate

languages, such as Galician and Fala.

UruguayDialectos Portugueses del Uruguay

(DPU)

Dierences between dialects are mostly of accent and

vocabulary, but between the Brazilian dialects and
other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms,
there can also be some grammatical dierences. The
Portuguese-based creoles spoken in various parts of
Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages.

6.3.4 Characterization and peculiarities

Dialects of Portuguese in Portugal

8.

Madeirense (Madeiran)Madeira.

Portuguese, like Catalan and Sardinian, preserved the

stressed vowels of Vulgar Latin, which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat.,
Sard. pedra ; Fr. pierre, Sp. piedra, It. pietra, Ro. piatr,
from Lat. petra (stone); or Port. fogo, Cat. foc, Sard.
fogu; Sp. fuego, It. fuoco, Fr. feu, Ro. foc, from Lat.
focus (re). Another characteristic of early Portuguese
was the loss of intervocalic l and n, sometimes followed
by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the
insertion of an epenthetic vowel between them: cf. Lat.
salire (to jump), tenere (to hold), catena (chain),
Sp. salir, tener, cadena, Port. sair, ter, cadeia.

9.

NortenhoRegions of the districts of Braga, When the elided consonant was n, it often nasalized the
Porto and parts of Aveiro.
preceding vowel: cf. Lat. manum (hand), ranam
(frog), bonum (good), Port. mo, ra, bo (now mo,
10.
TransmontanoTrs-os-Montes e Alto Douro.
r, bom). This process was the source of most of the
languages distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the
Latin endings -anem, -anum and -onem became -o in
6.3.3 Other countries and dependencies
most cases, cf. Lat. canis (dog), germanus (brother),
ratio (reason) with Modern Port. co, irmo, razo,

Angola Angolano (Angolan Portuguese)

and their plurals -anes, -anos, -ones normally became
Cape Verde
Cabo-verdiano (Cape es, -os, -es, cf. ces, irmos, razes.
Verdean Portuguese)

The Portuguese language is also the only Romance language that developed the clitic case mesoclisis: cf. dar
East Timor Timorense (East Timorese te-ei (I'll give thee), amar-te-ei (I'll love you), contactPortuguese)
los-ei (I'll contact them). It was also the only Romance
language to develop the syntactic pluperfect past tense":

India Damaense (Damanese Portuguese)

cf. eu estivera (I had been), eu vivera (I had lived), vs
and Gos (Goan Portuguese)
vivreis (you had lived). These happen in some of the

Guinea-Bissau Guineense (Guinean Por- Slavic languages, Hungarian and Japanese only.
tuguese)

Macau

Mozambique
Portuguese)

So Tom and Prncipe

Tomean Portuguese)

Macaense (Macanese Portuguese)

Moambicano (Mozambican

6.4 Vocabulary

Main article: Portuguese vocabulary

Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived, directly
Santomense (So or through other Romance languages, from Latin. Nevertheless, because of its original Celtiberian heritage and

6.4. VOCABULARY

45

Library of the Mafra National Palace, Portugal

The Royal Portuguese Reading Room in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

A sign in the Museum of Macau

Baroque Library of the Coimbra University, Portugal

later the participation of Portugal in the Age of Discovery, it has some Gallaecian words and adopted loanwords
from all over the world.

In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman

Hispania) was conquered by the Germanic Suebi and
Visigoths. As they adopted the Roman civilization and
language, however, these people contributed with some
500 Germanic words to the lexicon. Many of these
words are related to warfaresuch as espora spur, estaca stake, and guerra war, from Gothic *spara,
*stakka, and *wirro, respectively. The Germanic languages inuence also exists in toponymic surnames and
patronymic surnames borne by Visigoth sovereigns and
their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such has
Ermesinde, Esposende and Resende where sinde and
sende are derived from the Germanic sinths (military
expedition) and in the case of Resende, the prex re
comes from Germanic reths (council). Other examples
of Portuguese names, surnames and town names of Germanic toponymic origin include Henrique, Henriques,
Vermoim, Mandim, Calquim, Baguim, Gemunde, Guetim, Sermonde and many more, are quite common mainly
in the old Suebi and later Visigothic dominated regions,
covering todays Northern half of Portugal and Galicia.

A number of Portuguese words can still be traced to the

pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal, which included the
Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes. Most of these
words derived from Celtic and are very often shared with
Galician since both languages share a common origin in
the medieval language of Galician-Portuguese. A few of
these words existed in Latin as loanwords from a Celtic
source, often Gaulish. Altogether these are over 1,000
words, a few verbs and toponymic names of towns, rivers, Between the 9th and early 13th centuries, Portuguese
acquired nearly 800 words from Arabic by inuence of
utensils and plants.

46
Moorish Iberia.They are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article a(l)-, and include many common words
such as aldeia village from alai`a (or from
Edictum Rothari: aldii, aldias),[76] alface lettuce from
alkhass, armazm warehouse from almakhzan, and azeite olive oil from azzait.
Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from
Asian languages. For instance, catana cutlass from
Japanese katana and ch tea from Chinese ch.
From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of
Portugal as intermediary in the Atlantic slave trade, and
the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola,
Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several
words of African and Amerind origin, especially names
for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former
colonies, many became current in European Portuguese
as well. From Kimbundu, for example, came kifumate >
cafun head caress (Brazil), kusula > caula youngest
child (Brazil), marimbondo tropical wasp (Brazil), and
kubungula > bungular to dance like a wizard (Angola). From South America came batata "potato", from
Taino; anans and abacaxi, from TupiGuarani nan and
Tupi ib cati, respectively (two species of pineapple), and
pipoca "popcorn" from Tupi and tucano "toucan" from
Guarani tucan.

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

cal Africanist and Indianist academia (that also has to
some degree inuenced the common sense of what gives
a dierent cultural identity of Brazilians in relation to the
Portuguese), so that its lexicon is almost identical (about
99%) to that of European Portuguese.[77][78][79]
Many Portuguese settlers to Colonial Brazil were from
northern and insular Portugal,[80] apart from some historically important illegal immigrants from elsewhere in Europe, such as Galicia, France and the Netherlands.[81] It
should be noted that Brazil received more European immigrants in its colonial history than the United States. Between 1500 and 1760, 700,000 Europeans (overwhelmingly Portuguese) settled in Brazil, while 530,000 Europeans settled in the United States for the same given
time.[82]

6.5 Classication and related languages

Finally, it has received a steady inux of loanwords from

other European languages, especially French and English
languages. These are by far the most important languages
when referring to loanwords. There are many examples such as: colchete/croch bracket"/"crochet, palet
jacket, batom lipstick, and l/lete steak"/"slice,
rua street respectively, from French crochet, paletot,
bton, let, rue; and bife steak, futebol, revlver, estoque, folclore, from English beef, football, revolver,
stock, folklore.
Examples from other European languages: macarro
pasta, piloto pilot, carroa carriage, and barraca
barrack, from Italian maccherone, pilota, carrozza, and
baracca; melena hair lock, ambre wet-cured ham
(in Portugal, in contrast with presunto dry-cured ham
from Latin prae-exsuctus dehydrated) or canned ham
(in Brazil, in contrast with non-canned, wet-cured presunto cozido and dry-cured presunto cru), and castelhano
Castilian, from Spanish melena mane, ambre and
castellano.
Before the last four decades, Brazilians adopted a greater
number of loanwords from Japanese and other European languages (due to the historical immigration affecting their demographics), and they were and are also
more willing to adopt foreign terms that come from
globalization than the Portuguese, while the degree of
African, Tupian and other Amerindian lexicon in Brazilian Portuguese is shown to be surprisingly lesser than
that commonly expected of the said variant by the lo-

Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Portuguese

(Galician-Portuguese) within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the year 1000 and 2000.

Main articles: Iberian Romance languages, GalicianPortuguese and Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese
Portuguese belongs to the West Iberian branch of the
Romance languages, and it has special ties with the following members of this group:
Galician, Fala and portunhol do pampa (the way riverense and its sibling dialects are referred to in Portuguese), its closest relatives.
Mirandese, Leonese, Asturian, Extremaduran and
Cantabrian (Astur-Leonese languages). Mirandese
is the only recognised regional language spoken in
Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only ocial language in Portugal).

6.5. CLASSIFICATION AND RELATED LANGUAGES

47
learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates
communication. There is an emerging literature focused
on such phenomena (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).[87]

6.5.1 Galician-Portuguese in Spain

Map showing mostly contemporary West Iberian and OccitanoRomance languages, as well many of their mainland European
dialects (take note that areas colored green, gold or pink/purple
represent languages deemed endangered by UNESCO, so this
may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, Galician, Eonavian, Mirandese and the Fala
as not only closely related but as dialect continuum, though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira
Canaries is not shown either).

Spanish and calo (the way cal, language of the

Iberian Romani, is referred to in Portuguese).
Portuguese and other Romance languages (namely
French and Italian) are not mutually intelligible, although
they share considerable similarities in both vocabulary
and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need
some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and Galician are mutually intelligible. Given that Portuguese has a larger phonemic inventory than Spanish, Portuguese is only moderately intelligible to many Spanish speakers, despite the strong
lexical and grammatical similarity (89%) between the
two.[83][84][85][86]

The closest language to Portuguese is Galician, spoken

in the autonomous community of Galicia (northwestern
Spain). The two were at one time a single language,
known today as Galician-Portuguese, but since the political separation of Portugal from Galicia they have diverged, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. But
there is still a linguistic continuity, the variant of Galician
referred to as galego-portugus baixo-limiao spoken in
several Galician villages between the municipalities of
Entrimo and Lobios and the transborder region of the
natural park of Peneda-Gers/Xurs. Considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged
from Cantabria to Mondego [...]".[88] As reported by UNESCO, due to the pressure of the Spanish language in
the standard ocial version of the Galician language, the
Galician language was in the verge of disappearing.[88]
According to Unescos philologist Tapani Salminen, the
proximity with the Portuguese language makes Galician
a special language that is protected due to its proximity to the Portuguese language.[89] Nevertheless, the core
vocabulary and grammar of Galician are still noticeably
closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. In particular, like Portuguese, it uses the future subjunctive,
the personal innitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility (estimated at 90% by R. A. Hall, Jr.,
1989)[90] is excellent between Galicians and northern
Portuguese, and also between Galicians and Brazilians.
Many linguists consider Galician to be a co-dialect of the
Portuguese language.

Another member of the Galician-Portuguese group, most

commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in
the Eonavian region in a western strip in Asturias and the
westernmost parts of the provinces of Len and Zamora,
Portunhol, a form of code-switching, has a more lively use along the frontier with Galicia, between the Eo and Navia
rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is called
and is more readily mentioned in popular culture in South
America. Said code-switching is not to be confused eonaviego or gallego-asturiano by its speakers.
with the portunhol spoken on the borders of Brazil with The Fala language, known by its speakers as xalims,
Uruguay (dialeto do pampa) and Paraguay (dialeto dos maegu, a fala de Xlima and chapurru and in Porbrasiguaios), and of Portugal with Spain (barranquenho), tuguese as a fala de Xlima, a fala da Estremadura, o
that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thou- galego da Estremadura, valego ou galaico-estremenho, is
sands of people, which have been heavily inuenced by another descendant of Galician-Portuguese, spoken by a
Spanish.[87]
small number of people in the Spanish towns of Valverde
Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance lan- del Fresno (Valverdi du Fresnu), Eljas (As Ellas) and San
guages, and perhaps the only Romance languages with Martn de Trevejo (Sa Martn de Trevellu) in the ausuch thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and tonomous community of Extremadura, near the border
lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have with Portugal.
formed, in which functional bilingual communication is There is a number of other places in Spain in which
achieved through attempting an approximation to the tar- the native language of the common people is a deget foreign language (known as 'Portunhol') without a scendant of the Galician-Portuguese group, such as La

48
Alamedilla, Cedillo (Cedilho), Herrera de Alcntara
(Ferreira d'Alcntara) and Olivenza (Olivena), but in
these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream.
It should be noticed that the diversity of dialects of the
Portuguese language is known since the time of medieval
Portuguese-Galician language when it coexisted with the
Lusitanian-Mozarabic dialect, spoken in the south of Portugal. The dialectal diversity becomes more evident in
the work of Ferno d'Oliveira, in the Grammatica da
Lingoagem Portuguesa, (1536), where he remarks that
the people of Portuguese regions of Beira, Alentejo, Estremadura, and Entre Douro e Minho, all speak dierently from each other. Also Contador d'Argote (1725)
distinguishes three main varieties of dialects: the local dialects, the dialects of time, and of profession (work jargon). Of local dialects he highlights ve main dialects:
the dialect of Estremadura, of Entre-Douro e Minho, of
Beira, of Algarve and of Trs-os-Montes. He also makes
reference to the overseas dialects, the rustic dialects, the
poetic dialect and that of prose.[91]

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

in Holy Week rituals. The JapanesePortuguese dictionary Nippo Jisho (1603) was the rst dictionary of
Japanese in a European language, a product of Jesuit
missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of
earlier Portuguese missionaries, the Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum (AnnamitePortuguese
Latin dictionary) of Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) introduced the modern orthography of Vietnamese, which is
based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese.
The Romanization of Chinese was also inuenced by
the Portuguese language (among others), particularly regarding Chinese surnames; one example is Mei. During 158388 Italian Jesuits Michele Ruggieri and Matteo
Ricci created a PortugueseChinese dictionarythe rst
ever EuropeanChinese dictionary.[94][95]
For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably
the rst to introduce the sweet orange in Europe, in
several modern Indo-European languages the fruit has
been named after them. Some examples are Albanian portokall, Bulgarian (portokal), Greek
(portokali), Macedonian portokal, Persian
( porteghal), and Romanian portocal.[96][97]
Related names can be found in other languages, such as
Arabic ( bourtouqal), Georgian
(p'ort'oxali), Turkish portakal and Amharic birtukan.[96]
Also, in southern Italian dialects (e.g. Neapolitan), an orange is portogallo or purtuallo, literally "(the) Portuguese
(one)", in contrast to standard Italian arancia.

In the kingdom of Portugal, Ladinho (or Lingoagem

Ladinha) was the name given to the pure Portuguese
language romance, without any mixture of Aravia or
Gerigona Judenga.[92] While the term lngua vulgar
was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided
to call it Portuguese language,[93] the erudite version
used and known as Galician-Portuguese (the language of
the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects
were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspec- 6.5.3 Derived languages
tive the Portuguese language was never just one dialect.
Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually Main article: Portuguese-based creole languages
two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past
there was Galician-Portuguese as the standard, coexistBeginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts
ing with other dialects.
between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and
Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of many pidgins with varying amounts of Por6.5.2 Inuence on other languages
tuguese inuence. As each of these pidgins became the
mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved
See also: List of English words of Portuguese origin,
into fully edged creole languages, which remained in use
Loan words in Malayalam Portuguese, Loan words in
in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until
Indonesian, Japanese words of Portuguese origin, List
the 18th century. Some Portuguese-based or Portugueseof Malay loanwords, Portuguese loanwords in Sinhala,
inuenced creoles are still spoken today, by over 3 million
Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil Portuguese, and Sri
people worldwide, especially people of partial Portuguese
Lanka Indo-Portuguese language
ancestry.
Portuguese has provided loanwords to many languages,
such as Indonesian, Manado Malay, Malayalam, Sri
Lankan Tamil and Sinhalese, Malay, Bengali, English,
Hindi, Swahili, Afrikaans, Konkani, Marathi, Tetum,
Xitsonga, Papiamentu, Japanese, Lanc-Patu (spoken in
northern Brazil), Esan and Sranan Tongo (spoken in Suriname). It left a strong inuence on the lngua braslica,
a TupiGuarani language, which was the most widely
spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken around Sikka in Flores Island, Indonesia.
In nearby Larantuka, Portuguese is used for prayers

6.6 Phonology
Main article: Portuguese phonology
Portuguese phonology is similar to those of languages
such as French (especially that of Quebec), the GalloItalic languages, Occitan, Catalan and Franco-Provenal,
unlike that of Spanish, which is similar to those of
Sardinian and Southern Italian dialects. Some would de-

6.7. GRAMMAR

49

scribe the phonology of Portuguese as a blend of Spanish,

Gallo-Romance (e.g. French) and the languages of northern Italy (especially Genoese), but with a deeper Celtic
inuence.[98]
There is a maximum of 9 oral vowels, 2 semivowels and
21 consonants; though some varieties of the language
have fewer phonemes. There are also ve nasal vowels,
which some linguists regard as allophones of the oral vowels.

6.6.1

Vowels

i,

u,

e,

o,
,

Chart of monophthongs of the Portuguese of Lisbon, with its /,

/ in central schwa position.

Like Catalan and German, Portuguese uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables:
isolated vowels tend to be raised, and in some cases centralized, when unstressed.

6.6.2

Consonants

Phonetic notes

is typically a uvular trill []; however, a pronunciation as a voiced uvular fricative [] may be becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a voiceless uvular fricative [], and the original pronunciation as an alveolar trill [r] also remains
very common in various dialects.[107] A common realization of the word-initial // in the Lisbon accent
is a voiced uvular trill fricative [].[108] In Brazil, //
can be velar, uvular, or glottal and may be voiceless
unless between voiced sounds;[109] it is usually pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x], a voiceless
glottal fricative [h] or voiceless uvular fricative [].
See also Guttural R in Portuguese.
/s/ and /z/ are normally lamino-alveolar, as in English. However, a number of dialects in northern Portugal pronounce /s/ and /z/ as apico-alveolar
sibilants (sounding somewhat like a soft [] or []),
as in the Romance languages of northern Iberia. A
very few northeastern Portugal dialects still maintain
the medieval distinction between apical and laminal
sibilants (written s/ss and c//z, respectively).
As a phoneme, /t/ only occurs in loanwords, with a
tendency for speakers to substitute in //. However,
[t] is an allophone of /t/ before /i/ in a number of
Brazilian dialects. Similarly, [d] is an allophone of
/d/ in the same contexts.
In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops
/b/, /d/, // are usually lenited to fricatives [],
[], and [] respectively, except at the beginning of
words, or after nasal vowels;[110][111] a similar process occurs in Spanish.

6.7 Grammar
Main article: Portuguese grammar

A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the

verb. Morphologically, more verbal inections from clasSemivowels contrast with unstressed high vowels in sical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any
verbal conjugation, as in (eu) rio /i.u/ and (ele) riu other major Romance language. Portuguese and Spanish
/iw/.[103] Phonologists discuss whether their nature grammar are very close grammar-wise, but Portuguese
has some innovations not found in other Romance lanis vowel or consonant.[104]
guages (except Galician and the Fala):
In most of Brazil and Angola, the consonant here The present perfect has an iterative sense unique to
after denoted as // is realized as a nasal palatal ap which nasalizes the vowel that prethe Galician-Portuguese language group. It denotes
proximant [j],
[105][106]
an action or a series of actions that began in the past
cedes it: [nju].
and are expected to keep repeating in the future. For
instance, the sentence Tenho tentado falar com ela
Bisol (2005:122) proposes that Portuguese poswould be translated to I have been trying to talk to
sesses labio-velar stops /k/ and // as additional
her, not I have tried to talk to her. On the other
phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and
hand, the correct translation of the question Have
/w/.[102]
you heard the latest news?" is not *Tem ouvido a
The consonant hereafter denoted as // has a variety
ltima notcia?, but Ouviu a ltima notcia?, since
of realizations depending on dialect. In Europe, it
no repetition is implied.[112]

50

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

Vernacular Portuguese still uses the future

subjunctive mood, which developed from medieval
West Iberian Romance. In present-day Spanish
and Galician, this mood has almost entirely fallen
into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in
dependent clauses that denote a condition that must
be fullled in the future so that the independent
clause will occur. English normally employs the
present tense under the same circumstances:

International Portuguese Language Institute

List of countries where Portuguese is an ocial language
List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an ocial language
List of Portuguese-language poets
Mozambican Portuguese

Se eu for eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.

Portuguese in Asia and Oceania

If I should be elected president, I will change

the law.

Portuguese poetry

Quando fores mais velho, vais entender.

Portuol

When you grow older, you will understand.

6.10 References
The personal innitive: innitives can inect according to their subject in person and number, often
showing who is expected to perform a certain action;
cf. melhor voltares It is better [for you] to go
back, melhor voltarmos It is better [for us] to go
back. Perhaps for this reason, innitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese
than in other Romance languages.

6.8 Writing system

Main article: Portuguese orthography
Portuguese is written with 26 letters of the Latin
script, making use of ve diacritics to denote stress,
vowel height, contraction, nasalization, and etymological assibilation (acute accent, circumex, grave accent,
tilde, and cedilla). The trema was also formerly used
in Brazilian Portuguese, and can still be encountered in
older texts.[113] Accented characters and digraphs are not
counted as separate letters for collation purposes.

6.8.1

Spelling reforms

Main article: Reforms of Portuguese orthography

6.9 See also

[1] Portuguese language. University of Leicester. Retrieved 30 June 2014.

[2] See Galician language#Classication and relation with
Portuguese
[3] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Portuguese.
Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology.
[4] Estados-membros da CPLP (in Portuguese). 28 February 2011.
[5] Michael Swan; Bernard Smith (2001). Portuguese
Speakers. Learner English: a Teachers Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge University Press.
[6] CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[7] Henry Edward Watts. Miguel de Cervantes: His Life &
Works.
[8] Joseph T. Shipley (1946). Encyclopedia of Literature.
Philosophical Library. p. 1188.
[9] Prem Poddar; Rajeev S. Patke; Lars Jensen (2008). Introduction: The Myths and Realities of Portuguese (Post)
Colonial Society. A historical companion to postcolonial
literatures: continental Europe and its empires. Edinburgh
University Press. p. 431. ISBN 0-7486-2394-9.
[10] NOVAimagem.co.pt / Portugal em Linha (8 March 2006).
Museu da Lngua Portuguesa aberto ao pblico no dia
20. Noticiaslusofonas.com. Retrieved 23 July 2012.

Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages

(Portuguese section)

[11] Brazil: Fire engulfs Portuguese language museum in Sao

Paulo, one killed. International Business Times. December 22, 2015.

Angolan literature

[12] County of Portugal

Brazilian literature

[13] Carvalho, Daniela de (1 February 2013). Migrants and

Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin. ISBN 9781-135-78765-3.

European Portuguese

6.10. REFERENCES

[14] Portuguese language in Brazil. Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 23 July 2012.

[15] Special Eurobarometer 243 Europeans and their Languages"" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. p. 6. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
[16] Angola: Language Situation (2005). Keith Brown, ed.
Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
[17] Medeiros, Adelardo. Portuguese in Africa Angola
[18] A. D. Medeiros, Adelardo. Portuguese in Africa
Mozambique. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[19] A. D. Medeiros, Adelardo. Portuguese in Africa
Guinea-Bissau. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[20] 13,100 Portuguese nationals in 2010 according to
Population par nationalit on the site of the Dpartement
des Statistiques d'Andorre
[21] Bermuda. World InfoZone. Retrieved 21 April 2010.

51

[36] Decreto sobre el portugues como idioma ocial Pgina

Ocial del Gobierno de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial (PDF). Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[37] Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (25 July 2010). El Presidente Obiang asiste a la Cumbre de la CPLP Pgina Ocial del Gobierno de la Repblica de Guinea Ecuatorial.
Guineaecuatorialpress.com. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[38] Ocial languages of Mercosul as agreed in the Protocol
of Ouro Preto". Actrav.itcilo.org. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[39] Ocial statute of the organization. Oei.es. Retrieved
23 July 2012.
[40] Artculo 23 for the ocial languages Archived 8 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
[41] General Assembly of the OAS, Amendments to the Rules
of Procedure of the General Assembly, 5 June 2000
[42] Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive
Act of the African Union

[22] Population by mother tongue, by province and territory

(2006 Census)". Statistics Canada.

[43] Languages in Europe Ocial EU Languages. EUROPA web portal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 12 October 2009.

[23] ~500,000 use it as their mother tongue in the 2012 estimate, see Rpartition des trangers par nationalit

[44] The World Factbook Field Listing Population CIA.

Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 14 January 2015.

[24] Japo: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam lngua portuguesa (in Portuguese). 2008.

[45] Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory

(in Portuguese). 5 November 2007. Retrieved 13 July
2010.

[25] 4.6% according to the 2001 census, see. Cia.gov. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[26] Carin Pretorius Developed CEIT Development CC.
The Namibian. The Namibian.
[27] Paraguay Ethnologue.
[28] Languages of Macau.
[29] Fibbi, Rosita (2010). Les Portugais en Suisse (PDF).
Oce fdral des migrations. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
[30] See Languages of Venezuela.
[31] Carvalho, Ana Maria (2010). Portuguese in the USA.
In Potowski, Kim. Language Diversity in the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-521-745338.
[32] Portuguese Language in Goa. Colaco.net. Retrieved 21
April 2010.
[33] The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman
and Diu. Rjmacau.com. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
[34] 1.500 pessoas estudam portugus em Goa. Revistamacau.com. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
[35] Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (20 July 2010). El portugus
ser el tercer idioma ocial de la Repblica de Guinea
Ecuatorial Pgina Ocial del Gobierno de la Repblica
de Guinea Ecuatorial. Guineaecuatorialpress.com. Retrieved 23 July 2012.

[46] Portuguese will be mandatory in high school (in Spanish). 21 January 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[47] Portuguese language will be option in the ocial
Venezuelan teachings (in Portuguese). 24 May 2009.
Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[48] Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic
school (in Portuguese). 26 May 2009. Retrieved 13 July
2010.
[49] Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools (in Portuguese). 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 7
August 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[50] Portuguese language gaining popularity. Anglopress
Edices e Publicidade Lda. 5 May 2007. Retrieved 18
May 2011.
[51] http://www.exactinvest.dk/media/2466/mapping_
speakers_of_portuguese_around_the_world.pdf
[52] Leach, Michael (2007). talking Portuguese; China and
East Timor. Arena Magazine. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
[53] (Portuguese) The process of Norm change for the good
pronunciation of the Portuguese language in chant and
dramatics in Brazil during 1938, 1858 and 2007
[54] (Portuguese) Carioca accent is the standard The socalled supremacy of the carioca speech, an issue of
norm

52

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

[55] Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese. Instituto

Cames. Retrieved 12 June 2015.

[75] Fala NORTE. Fala UNASP Centro Universitrio Adventista de So Paulo. Retrieved 25 September 2012.

[56] Nheengatu and caipira dialect. Sosaci.org. Retrieved

23 July 2012.

[76] Rothari -Edictus (PDF). Retrieved 12 June 2015.

[57] (Portuguese) Acoustic-phonetic characteristics of the

Brazilian Portugueses retroex /r/: data from respondents
in Pato Branco, Paran. Irineu da Silva Ferraz. Pages 19
21
[58] (Portuguese) Syllable coda /r/ in the capital of the
paulista hinterland: sociolinguistic analysis. Cndida
Mara Britto LEITE. Page 111 (page 2 in the attached
PDF)
[59] (Portuguese) Callou, Dinah. Leite, Yonne. Iniciao
Fontica e Fonologia. Jorge Zahar Editora 2001, p. 24
[60] (Portuguese) To know a language is really about separating correct from awry? Language is a living organism that
varies by context and goes far beyond a collection of rules
and norms of how to speak and write Museu da Lngua
Portuguesa. Archived 22 December 2012 at the Wayback
Machine.
[61] (Portuguese) Linguistic prejudice and the surprising (academic and formal) unity of Brazilian Portuguese
[62] http://www.protexto.ufc.br/genero_academico/artigo_
cientifico/AAC12.doc
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67] Revisitando a palatalizao no portugus brasileiro
Silva Revista de Estudos da Linguagem. ufmg.br.
[68] Learn about Portuguese language. Sibila. Retrieved 27
November 2012.
[69] Note: the speaker of this sound le is from Rio de Janeiro,
and he is talking about his experience with nordestino and
nortista accents.
[70] por Caipira Z Do Mr dia 17 de maio de 2011, 6 Comentrios. O MEC, o portugus errado e a linguistica... |
Imprena. Imprenca.com. Archived from the original
on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[71] Cartilha Do Mec Ensina Erro De Portugus. Saindo da
Matrix. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[72] Livro do MEC ensina o portugus errado ou apenas valoriza as formas lingusticas?". Jornal de Beltro (in Portuguese). 26 May 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[73] Sotaque branco. Meia Maratona Internacional CAIXA
de Braslia. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
[74] O Que ? Amaznia. Associao de Defesa do Meio
Ambiente Araucria (AMAR). Retrieved 25 September
2012.

[77] da Prista, Alexander (1979). Say It in Portuguese. Courier

Dover Publications. p. vii. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[78] Keller, Karen (2006). Portuguese for Dummies. p. 9. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[79] Swan, Michael; Smith, Bernard (2001). Learner English.
Cambridge University Press. p. 113. Retrieved 12 June
2015.
[80] Florentino, Manolo, and Machado, Cacilda. (Portuguese)
Essay about Portuguese immigration and the patterns of
miscegenation in Brazil in the 19th and 20rh centuries
(PDF le)
[81] (Portuguese) Eduardo Fonseca, the Dutch Brazilians
Brazilians in the Netherlands
[82] Renato Pinto Venncio, Presena portuguesa: de colonizadores a imigrantes i.e. Portuguese presence: from
colonizers to immigrants, chap. 3 of Brasil: 500 anos
de povoamento (IBGE). Relevant extract available here
Archived 24 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
[83] Jensen, John B. (1989). On the Mutual Intelligibility
of Spanish and Portuguese. Hispania 72 (4): 848852.
doi:10.2307/343562. JSTOR 343562.
[84] Penny, Ralph (2000). Variation and Change in Spanish.
Cambridge University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-521-780454.
[85] Dalby, Andrew (1998).
Dictionary of Languages:
The Denitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages.
Columbia University Press. p. 501. ISBN 0-231-115687.
[86] Ginsburgh, Victor; Weber, Shlomo (2011). How Many
Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity. Princeton University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0691-13689-9.
[87] Lipski, John M (2006). Face, Timothy L; Klee, Carol
A, eds. Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuol/portunhol'" (PDF). Selected Proceedings of the 8th
Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project): 122. Retrieved 2015-0621.
[88] A Fala Galego-Portuguesa Da Baiza Limia e Castro Laboreiro (PDF). Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[89] Grupo El Correo Gallego. O galego deixa de ser unha
das linguas. Galicia Hoxe Noticias en galego a diario.
Retrieved 30 May 2015.
[90] Galician. Ethnologue. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
[91] Jernimo Cantador de Argote e a Dialectologia Portuguesa (continuao)". Lusograas. Retrieved 30 May
2015.
[92] Diccionario da lingua portugueza.
2015.

Retrieved 30 May

6.10. REFERENCES

53

[93] D.Dinis: o Rei a Lngua e o Reino (PDF). Retrieved 12 [111]

June 2015.
[112]
[94] Camus, Yves. Jesuits Journeys in Chinese Studies
(PDF). Retrieved 12 June 2015.

Mateus & d'Andrade (2000:11)

Squartini, Mario (1998) Verbal Periphrases in Romance
Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization ISBN 3-11016160-5

[95] Dicionrio PortugusChins : Pu Han ci dian: [113] http://www.brazil-help.com/recent_changes.htm

PortugueseChinese dictionary, by Michele Ruggieri,
Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001,
Histria da Lingua Portuguesa Instituto Cames
Biblioteca Nacional. ISBN 97-2565-298-3. Partial preview available on Google Books
A Lngua Portuguesa in Universidade Federal do Rio
[96] Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting
Citrus Names. University of Melbourne <http://www.
search.unimelb.edu.au>. Retrieved 11 December 2012.

Grande do Norte, Brazil

6.10.1 Literature

[97] Ostergren, Robert C. & Le Bosse, Mathias (2011). The

Europeans, Second Edition: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment. Guilford Press. p. 129. ISBN
978-1-60918-140-6.

Poesia e Prosa Medievais, by Maria Ema Tarracha

Ferreira, Ulisseia 1998, 3rd ed., ISBN 978-9-72568124-4.

[98] Handbook of the International Phonetic Association pp.

126130

Bases TemticasLngua, Literatura e Cultura Portuguesa in Instituto Cames

[99] Cruz-Ferreira (1995:91)

Portuguese literature in The Catholic Encyclopedia

[100] Barbosa & Albano (2004:228229)

[101] Sobre os Ditongos do Portugus Europeu. Carvalho,
Joana. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto.
Page 20 (page 10 of PDF le). Citation: A concluso
ser que nos encontramos em presena de dois segmentos
fonolgicos /k/ e //, respetivamente, com uma articulao voclica. Bisol (2005:122), tal como Freitas (1997),
arma que no estamos em presena de um ataque ramicado. Neste caso, a glide, juntamente com a vogal que a
sucede, forma um ditongo no nvel ps-lexical. Esta concluso implica um aumento do nmero de segmentos no
inventrio segmental fonolgico do portugus.
[102] Bisol (2005:122). Citation: A proposta que a sequencia
consoante velar + glide posterior seja indicada no lxico
como uma unidade monofonemtica /k/ e //. O glide
que, nete caso, situa-se no ataque no-ramicado, forma
com a vogal seguinte um ditongo crescente em nvel ps
lexical. Ditongos crescentes somente se formam neste nvel.
Em resumo, a consoante velar e o glide posterior, quando
seguidos de a/o, formam uma s unidade fonolgica, ou
seja, um segmento consonantal com articulao secundria
voclica, em outros termos, um segmento complexo.
[103] Rodrigues (2012:3940)
[104] Bisol (2005:123)
[105] Thomas (1974:8)
[106] Perini, Mrio Alberto (2002), Modern Portuguese (A Reference Grammar), New Haven: Yale University Press,
ISBN 978-0-300-09155-7
[107] Mateus & d'Andrade (2000:56, 11)
[108] Grnnum (2005:157)
[109] Barbosa & Albano (2004:228)
[110] Cruz-Ferreira (1995:92)

6.10.2 Phonology, orthography and grammar

Barbosa, Plnio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004).
Brazilian Portuguese.
Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 227232.
doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756.
Bergstrm, Magnus & Reis, Neves Pronturio Ortogrco Editorial Notcias, 2004.
Bisol, Leda (2005), Introduo a estudos de fonologia do portugus brasileiro (in Portuguese), Porto
Alegre Rio Grande do Sul: EDIPUCRS, ISBN 857430-529-4
Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995).
European Portuguese.
Journal of the International Phonetic Association 25 (2):
9094.
doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223.
Grnnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen
og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
Mateus, Maria Helena; d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000),
The Phonology of Portuguese, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 0-19-823581-X
Rodrigues, Marisandra Costa (2012), Encontros
Voclicos Finais em Portugus: Descrio e Anlise
Otimalista (PDF) (thesis), Universidade Federal do
Rio de Janeiro
Thomas, Earl W. (1974), A Grammar of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese, Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt
University Press, ISBN 0-8265-1197-X

54

CHAPTER 6. PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE

A pronncia do portugus europeuEuropean Portuguese Pronunciation

Dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Cames
Audio samples of the dialects of Portugal
Audio samples of the dialects from outside Europe
Portuguese Grammar

6.10.3

Reference dictionaries

Antnio Houaiss (2000), Dicionrio Houaiss da Lngua Portuguesa (228,500 entries).

Aurlio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira, Novo Dicionrio da Lngua Portuguesa (1809pp)
EnglishPortugueseChinese Dictionary (Freeware
for Windows/Linux/Mac)

6.10.4

Linguistic studies

Cook, Manuela. Portuguese Pronouns and Other

Forms of Address, from the Past into the Future
Structural, Semantic and Pragmatic Reections, Ellipsis, vol. 11, APSA, www.portuguese-apsa.com/
ellipsis, 2013
Cook, Manuela (1997). Uma Teoria de Interpretao das Formas de Tratamento na Lngua Portuguesa. Hispania 80 (3): 451464.
doi:10.2307/345821. JSTOR 345821.
Cook, Manuela. On the Portuguese Forms of Address: From Vossa Merc" to Voc", Portuguese
Studies Review 3.2, Durham: University of New
Hampshire, 1995
Lindley Cintra, Lus F. Nova Proposta de Classicao dos Dialectos Galego- Portugueses (PDF)
Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos
Filolgicos, 1971.

6.11 External links

Portuguese language at DMOZ

Chapter 7

History of Portugal
The history of Portugal dates back to the Early Middle
Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the
status of a world power during Europes "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire, including possessions in
South America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Over the following two centuries, Portugal kept most of its colonies,
but gradually lost much of its wealth and status as the
Dutch, English, and French took an increasing share of
the spice and slave trades by surrounding or conquering
the widely scattered Portuguese trading posts and territories.

which ows into the Atlantic Ocean in the north of what

is now Portugal. Around 200 BC, the Romans took
the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the
Second Punic War, and in the process conquered Cale
and renamed it Portus Cale (Port of Cale). During the
Dark Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known
by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale.

In 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and
the near bankruptcy of the state, a military coup in
1926 installed a dictatorship that remained until another
coup in 1974. The new government instituted sweeping
democratic reforms and granted independence to all of
Portugals African colonies in 1975.

In any case, the particle Portu in the word Portucale was

used as the basis of Porto, the modern name for the city
located on the site of the ancient city of Cale at the mouth
of the Douro River. And port became the name in English
of the wine from the Douro Valley region around Porto.
The name Cale is today reected in Gaia (Vila Nova de
Gaia), a city on the left bank of the river.

The name Portucale evolved into Portugale during the

7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, that term
was used extensively to refer to the region between the
rivers Douro and Minho, the Minho owing along what
Signs of military decline began with two disastrous bat- would become the northern Portugal-Spain border. By
tles: the Battle of Alccer Quibir in Morocco in 1578 the 11th and 12th century, Portugale was already referred
and Spains abortive attempt to conquer England in 1588 to as Portugal.
by means of the Spanish Armada Portugal was then in The etymology of the name Cale is somewhat mysteria dynastic union with Spain and contributed ships to the ous, although the most plausible origin points to Cale[2] is
Spanish invasion eet. The country was further weak- a Celtic name, like many others found in the region. The
ened by the destruction of much of its capital city in an word cale or cala meant port, an inlet or harbour,
earthquake in 1755, occupation during the Napoleonic and implied the existence of an older Celtic harbour.[3]
Wars and the loss of its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. This sounds like a plausible origin as for instance the
From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, Gaelic word for harbour is indeed Cala.[4] Others arnearly two million Portuguese left Portugal to live in gue it is the stem of Gallaecia. Another theory claims it
Brazil and the United States.[1]
derives from the word Caladunum.[5]

Portugal is a founding member of the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the 7.2
European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It entered
the European Economic Community (now the European
7.2.1
Union) in 1986.

Early history
Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Iberia

7.1 Etymology

The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by

Neanderthals, and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed
The word Portugal derives from the Roman-Celtic place the northern Iberian peninsula.[6] Neanderthals probably
name Portus Cale. Cale was the name of an early arrived 100,000 years BP. A Neanderthal tooth found at
settlement located at the mouth of the Douro River, Nova da Columbiera cave in Estremadura is one of the
55

56

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

oldest human fossils so far discovered. Homo sapiens took several centuries. The Roman provinces that covsapiens arrived in Portugal in around 35,000 years ago ered present-day Portugal were Lusitania in the south and
and spread rapidly throughout the country.[7]
Gallaecia in the north.
Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal leaving a remarkable
cultural footprint. The Cynetes developed a written language leaving stelae mainly found in the south of Portugal.

Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day

Portugal. Some of the urban remains are quite large, such
as Conmbriga and Mirbriga. Several works of engineering, such as baths, temples, bridges, roads, circuses,
Early in the rst millennium BC, several waves of Celts theatres, and laymans homes are preserved throughout
invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried the country. Coins, sarcophagi, and ceramics are also nuwith the local populations to form several dierent ethnic merous.
groups, with many tribes. The Celtic presence in Portu- Following the fall of Rome, the Kingdom of the Suebi and
gal is traceable in broad outline, through archaeological the Visigothic Kingdom controlled the territory between
and linguistic evidence. They dominated much of north- the 5th and 7th centuries.
ern and central Portugal; but in the south they were unable to establish their stronghold, which retained its nonIndo-European character until the Roman conquest.[8] In 7.3 Romanization
southern Portugal, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements were also founded by PhoenicianFurther information: Roman conquest of Hispania and
Carthaginians.
Romanization of Hispania
Romanization began with the arrival of the Roman army

7.2.2

Ancient history

Main article: Ancient Portugal

CI

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MIROBRIGEN

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AUSETANI

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PAESICI SELINI
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CI

Iberia before Carthaginian conquests

c. 300 B.C.

Linguistic groups:
Turdetanian
Tartessian (residual)
Celtic
Iberian
Aquitanian (Proto-Basque)
Indo-european (pre-Celtic)

Ethno-geographic groups:

Turdetani
MANTESANI

Major groups
Secondary communities

Main colonial foundings:

The Roman Provinces Lusitania and Gallaecia, after the reorganization of Diocletian AD 298

Phoenician / Carthaginian
Greek

in the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC during the Second

Punic War against Carthage. The Romans sought to conquer Lusitania, a territory south of the Douro river and
Spanish Estremadura, with its capital at Emerita Augusta
[9]
Archaeological artifact from the work developed in (now Mrida, Spain).
the area of Citnia de Briteiros
Mining was the primary factor that made the Romans interested in conquering the region: one of Romes strateCross or cruzado in Citnia de Briteiros
gic objectives was to cut o Carthaginian access to the
Informative plaque of the proto-historic settlement Iberian copper, tin, gold, and silver mines. The Romans
intensely exploited the Aljustrel (Vipasca) and Santo
of Citnia de Briteiros
Domingo mines in the Iberian Pyrite Belt which extends
Another artifact from Citnia de Briteiros
to Seville.[10]

The main language areas in Iberia, circa 300 BC.

A pedra formosa

While the south of what is now Portugal was relatively

easily occupied by the Romans, the conquest of the north
Numerous pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula was achieved only with diculty due to resistance from
inhabited the territory when a Roman invasion occurred Serra da Estrela by Celts and Lusitanians led by Viriatus,
in the 3rd century BC. The Romanization of Hispania who managed to resist Roman expansion for years.[9]

7.4. GERMANIC INVASIONS

57

Viriatus, a shepherd from Serra da Estrela who was expert

in guerrilla tactics, waged relentless war against the Romans, defeating several successive Roman generals, until he was assassinated in 140 BC by traitors bought by
the Romans. Viriatus has long been hailed as the rst
truly heroic gure in proto-Portuguese history. However
those living in more settled Romanized parts of Southern Portugal and Lusitania would have begged to differ as he would often raid these regions victimizing the
inhabitants.[9][11]
The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was complete
two centuries after the Romans arrival, when they defeated the remaining Cantabri, Astures and Gallaeci in
the Cantabrian Wars in the time of Emperor Augustus (19
BC). In 74 CE Vespasian granted Latin Rights to most
municipalities of Lusitania. In 212 CE, the Constitutio Pennsula Ibrica c.560 d.C. Suebi territory with its capital
Antoniniana gave Roman citizenship to all free subjects in Braga (Blue); Visigothic territory with its capital in Toledo
of the empire and, at the end of the century, the emperor (Ocher)
Diocletian founded the province of Gallaecia, which included modern-day northern Portugal.[9]
As well as mining, the Romans also developed agriculture, on some of the best agricultural land in the empire.
In what is now Alentejo, vines and cereals were cultivated, and shing was intensively pursued in the coastal
belt of the Algarve, Pvoa de Varzim, Matosinhos, Troia
and the coast of Lisbon, for the manufacture of garum
that was exported by Roman trade routes to the entire empire. Business transactions were facilitated by
coinage and the construction of an extensive road network, bridges and aqueducts, such as Trajans bridge in
Aquae Flaviae (now Chaves).[12]
Roman rule brought geographical mobility to the inhabitants of Portugal and increased their interaction with
the rest of the world as well as internally. Soldiers often served in dierent regions and eventually settled far
from their birthplace, while the development of mining
attracted migration into the mining areas.[11]
The Romans founded numerous cities, such as Olisipo
(Lisbon), Bracara Augusta (Braga), Aeminium (Coimbra) and Pax Julia (Beja),[13] and left important cultural
legacies in what is now Portugal. Vulgar Latin (the basis
of the Portuguese language) became the dominant language of the region, and Christianity spread throughout
Lusitania from the third century.

7.4 Germanic invasions

Visigothic Hispania and its regional divisions in 700, prior to the

Muslim conquest.

Visigoths to the south.[15] The Suebi and the Visigoths

were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in the territories corresponding to modern Portugal.
As elsewhere in Western Europe, there was a sharp decline in urban life during the Dark Ages.[16]
Roman institutions disappeared in the wake of the
Germanic invasions with the exception of ecclesiastical
organizations, which were fostered by the Suebi in the
fth century and adopted by the Visigoths afterwards.
Although the Suebi and Visigoths were initially followers
of Arianism and Priscillianism, they adopted Catholicism
from the local inhabitants. St. Martin of Braga was a particularly inuential evangelist at this time.[15]

In 409, with the decline of the Roman Empire, the Iberian

Peninsula was occupied by Germanic tribes that the Romans referred to as Barbarians.[14] In 411, with a federation contract with Emperor Honorius, many of these
people settled in Hispania. An important group was made
up of the Suebi and Vandals in Gallaecia, who founded a In 429, the Visigoths moved south to expel the Alans and
Suebi Kingdom with its capital in Braga. They came to Vandals and founded a kingdom with its capital in Toledo.
dominate Aeminium (Coimbra) as well, and there were From 470, conict between the Suebi and Visigoths in-

58

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

creased. In 585 the Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered in what was to become Portugal, they mainly consisted
Braga and annexed Gallaecia. From that time, the Iberian of the old Roman province of Lusitania (Central and
Peninsula was unied under a Visigothic Kingdom.[15]
Southern regions) while Gallaecia (northern regions) reWith the Visigoths settled in the newly formed kingdom, maining unsubdued. Until the Berber revolt in the 730s
a new class emerged that had been unknown in Roman al-Andalus was treated as a dependency of Umayyad
until the
times: a nobility, which played a tremendous social and North Africa. Subsequently, links were strained
[18]
Caliphate
was
overthrown
in
the
late
740s.
political role during the Middle Ages. It was also under the Visigoths that the Church began to play a very
important part within the state. Since the Visigoths did
not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on
Catholic bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws established during the Visigothic monarchy were thus made by councils of bishops, and the clergy
started to emerge as a high-ranking class.

The invading Medieval Muslim Moors who conquered

and destroyed the Christian Visigothic Kingdom in
the Iberian Peninsula were mainly Berbers from North
Africa, but they were joined by Arabs from the Middle
East.

7.5.1 Beginning of the Reconquista

7.5 Middle Ages and the Reconquista (7111249)

Main articles: Al-Andalus, Reconquista and History of
Portugal (11391279)
During the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I,

Mrtola's mosque was transformed into a church in 1238.

the Berber commander Tariq ibn-Ziyad led a small force

that landed at Gibraltar on April 30, 711, ostensibly to intervene in a Visigothic civil war. After a decisive victory
over King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete on July 19,
711, Tariq ibn-Ziyad, joined by Arab governor Musa ibn
Nusayr of Ifriqiya, brought most of the Visigothic Kingdom under Muslim occupation in a seven-year campaign.
The Visigothic resistance to this invasion was ineective,
though it needed siege to sack a couple of cities. The main
reason the cities were overwhelmed so easily is not easily
explained since the only surviving sources were Muslims
whose accounts were anecdotal.[17] The Visigothic territories included what is today Spain, Portugal, Andorra,
Gibraltar, and the southwestern part of France anciently
known as Septimania. The invading Moors wanted to
conquer and convert Europe to Islam, so they crossed the
Pyrenees to use Visigothic Septimania as a base of operations.

Monument of Pelagius at Covadonga where he won the Battle

of Covadonga and initiates the Christian Reconquista of Iberia
from the Islamic Moors.

In 718 AD, a Visigothic noble named Pelagius was

elected leader by many of the ousted Visigoth nobles.
Pelagius called for the remnant of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and re-group
in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, better
known today as the Cantabrian Mountains, a small mountain region in modern northwestern Spain adjacent to the
Bay of Biscay. He planned to use the Cantabrian Mountain range as a place of refuge and protection from the invaders and as a springboard to reconquer lands from the
Moors. After defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722 AD, Pelagius was proclaimed king, founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting the
war of reconquest known in Portuguese (and Spanish) as
Muslims called their conquests in Iberia 'al-Andalus' and the Reconquista.[19]

7.5. MIDDLE AGES AND THE RECONQUISTA (7111249)

Currently historians and archaeologists generally agree
that Northern Portugal, between the Minho and the
Douro rivers, kept a signicant share of its population,
in social and political Christian area that until the late 9th
century there were no acting state powers. However, in
the late 9th century, the region is part of a structure of
powers, the Galician-Asturian, Leonese and Portuguese
power structures.[20]

7.5.2

Creation of the County of Portugal

At the end of the ninth century, a small minor county

based in the area of Portus Cale is established by Vmara
Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III, king of Len,
Galicia and Asturias. After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the several counties that made up its
realms, King Alfonso III named Vmara Peres as the rst
Count. Since the rule of Count Diogo Fernandes, the
county increased in size and importance and, from the
10th century onward, with Count Gonalo Mendes as
Magnus Dux Portucalensium (Grand Duke of the Portuguese), the Portuguese counts started using the title
of duke, indicating even larger importance and territory.
The region became known simultaneously as Portucale,
Portugale, and Portugalia the County of Portugal.[21]
The Kingdom of Asturias was later divided as a result
of dynastic disputes; the northern region of Portugal became part of the Kingdom of Galicia and later part of the
Kingdom of Len.
Suebi-Visigothic arts and architecture, in particular
sculpture, had shown a natural continuity with the Roman
period. With the Reconquista, new artistic trends took
hold, with Galician-Asturian inuences more visible than
the Leonese. The Portuguese group was characterized by
a general return to classicism. The county courts of Viseu
and Coimbra played a very important role in this process.
Mozarabic architecture was found in the south, in Lisbon and beyond, while in the Christian realms GalicianPortuguese and Asturian architecture prevailed.[20]
As a vassal of the Kingdom of Len, Portugal grew in
power and territory and occasionally gained de facto independence during weak Leonese reigns and count Mendo
Gonalves even became regent of the Kingdom of Leon
between 999 and 1008. In 1070, the Portuguese count
Nuno Mendes wished the Portuguese title and fought the
Battle of Pedroso on February 18, 1071, with Garcia II
of Galicia, who gained the Galician title, which included
Portugal, after the 1065 partition of the Leonese realms.
The battle resulted in Nuno Mendes death and the declaration of Garcia as King of Portugal, the rst person
to claim this title.[22] Garcia started to styled himself as
King of Portugal and Galicia (Garcia Rex Portugallie
et Galleciae). Garcias brothers Sancho II of Castile and
Alfonso VI of Leon united and annexed Garcias Kingdom during that same year who agreed to split it among
themselves, however the king of Castille was killed by a
noble in that same year. Alfonso took Castile for him-

59

self and Garcia recovered his kingdom of Portugal and

Galicia, but in 1073 the Alfonso VI gathered all power
and started to style himself as Imperator totius Hispani
(Emperor of All Hispania) since 1077. When the Emperor died, the Crown was left for his daughter Urraca,
while Teresa inherited the County of Portugal and, in
1095, Portugal broke away from the Kingdom of Galicia.
Its territories, consisting largely of mountains, moorland
and forests, were bounded on the north by the Minho, and
on the south by the Mondego River.

7.5.3 Foundation of the Kingdom of Portugal

At the end of the 11th century, the Burgundian knight
Henry became count of Portugal and defended its independence by merging the County of Portugal and the
County of Coimbra. His eorts were assisted by a civil
war that raged between Len and Castile and distracted
his enemies.
Henrys son Afonso Henriques took control of the county
upon his death. The city of Braga, the unocial Catholic
centre of the Iberian Peninsula, faced new competition
from other regions. Lords of the cities of Coimbra and
Porto fought with Braga's clergy and demanded the independence of the reconstituted county.
Portugal traces its national origin to 24 June 1128 with
the Battle of So Mamede. Afonso proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal, and in 1139 King of Portugal.
In 1143, the Kingdom of Len recognised him as King
of Portugal by the Treaty of Zamora. In 1179, the papal bull Manifestis Probatum of Pope Alexander III ofcially recognised Afonso I as King. After the Battle of
So Mamede, the rst capital of Portugal was Guimares,
from which the rst king ruled. Later, when Portugal was
already ocially independent, he ruled from Coimbra.

7.5.4 Armation of Portugal

Main article: History of Portugal (12791415)
The Algarve, the southernmost region of Portugal, was
nally conquered from the Moors in 1249, and in 1255
the capital shifted to Lisbon.[23] Neighboring Spain would
not complete its Reconquista until 1492, almost 250 years
later.[24]
Portugals land boundaries have been notably stable for
the rest of the countrys history. The border with Spain
has remained almost unchanged since the 13th century.
The Treaty of Windsor (1386) created an alliance between Portugal and England that remains in eect to this
day. Since early times, shing and overseas commerce
have been the main economic activities. Henry the Navigator's interest in exploration, together with some technological developments in navigation, made Portugals over-

60

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

seas expansion possible and led to great advances in ge- Joo Gonalves Zarco and Tristo Vaz Teixeira, were
ographic, mathematical, scientic knowledge and naval driven by a storm to an island that they called Porto Santo
technology.
(Holy Port) in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. In 1419, Joo Gonalves Zarco disembarked on
the Island of Madeira. Uninhabited Madeira was colonized
by the Portuguese in 1420.[27]
7.6 Naval exploration and PorBetween 1427 and 1431, most of the Azores were discovered and these uninhabited islands were colonized by
the Portuguese in 1445. Portuguese expeditions may
have attempted to colonize the Canary Islands as early
Main articles: History of Portugal (14151578) and as 1336, but the Crown of Castile objected to any Portuguese claim to them. Castile began its own conquest
Portuguese Empire
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal became of the Canaries in 1402. Castile expelled the last Portuguese from the Canary islands in 1459, and they would
eventually become part of the Spanish Empire.[28]

tuguese Empire
centuries)

(15th16th

In 1434, Gil Eanes passed Cape Bojador, south of

Morocco. The trip marked the beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. Before this event, very little was known in Europe about what lay beyond the cape.
At the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the
14th, those who tried to venture there became lost, which
gave birth to legends of sea monsters. Some setbacks occurred: in 1436 the Canaries were ocially recognized as
Portuguese discoveries and explorations: rst arrival places and Castilian by the Pope earlier they had been recognized
dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean as Portuguese; in 1438, the Portuguese were defeated in
(blue); territories of the Portuguese Empire under King John III a military expedition to Tangier.
rule (15211557) (green). The disputed discovery of Australia
is not shown.

a leading European power that ranked with England,

France and Spain in terms of economic, political and
cultural inuence. Though not dominant in European
aairs, Portugal did have an extensive colonial trading empire throughout the world backed by a powerful
thalassocracy.
The beginnings of the Portuguese Empire can be traced
to July 25, 1415, when the Portuguese Armada set sail for
the rich Islamic trading center of Ceuta in North Africa.
The Armada was accompanied by King John I, his sons
Prince Duarte (a future king), Prince Pedro, and Prince
Henry the Navigator, and the legendary Portuguese hero
Nuno lvares Pereira.[25] On 21 August 1415, Ceuta was
conquered by Portugal, and the long-lived Portuguese
Empire was founded.[26]

These setbacks did not deter the Portuguese from pursuing their exploratory eorts. In 1448, on the small island
of Arguim o the coast of Mauritania, an important castle was built to function as a feitoria, or trading post, for
commerce with inland Africa. Some years before, the
rst African gold was brought to Portugal, circumventing
the Arab caravans that crossed the Sahara. Some time
later, the caravels explored the Gulf of Guinea, which
led to the discovery of several uninhabited islands: Cape
Verde, Ferno Po, So Tom, Prncipe and Annobn.[29]

On November 13, 1460, Prince Henry the Navigator

died.[30] He had been the leading patron of maritime
exploration by Portugal and immediately following his
death, exploration lapsed. Henrys patronage had shown
that prots could be made from the trade that followed the
discovery of new lands. Accordingly, when exploration
commenced again, private merchants led the way in attempting to stretch trade routes further down the African
The conquest of Ceuta was facilitated by a major civil
coast.[30]
war that had been engaging the Muslims of the Magrib
(North Africa) since 1411.[26] This civil war prevented In the 1470s, Portuguese trading ships reached the Gold
a re-capture of Ceuta from the Portuguese, when the Coast.[30] In 1471, the Portuguese captured Tangier, after
king of Granada Muhammed IX, the Left-Handed, laid years of attempts. Eleven years later the fortress of So
siege to Ceuta and attempted to coordinate forces in Mo- Jorge da Mina in the town of Elmina on the Gold Coast in
rocco and attract aid and assistance for the eort from the Gulf of Guinea was built. Christopher Columbus set
Tunis.[27] The Muslim attempt to retake Ceuta was ulti- sail aboard the eet of ships taking materials and building
mately unsuccessful and Ceuta remained the rst part of crews to Elmina in December 1481. In 1483, Diogo Co
the new Portuguese Empire.[27] Further steps were taken reached and explored the Congo River.
that would soon expand the Portuguese Empire much further.
In 1418 two of Prince Henry the Navigator's captains,

7.6. NAVAL EXPLORATION AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRE (15TH16TH CENTURIES)

7.6.1

61

Discovery of the sea route to India local Sephardic Jews, along with those refugees who had
come from Castile and Aragon after 1492. In addition,
and the Treaty of Tordesillas

In 1484, Portugal ocially rejected Columbus idea of

reaching India from the west, because it was seen as
unfeasible. Some historians have claimed that the Portuguese had already performed fairly accurate calculations concerning the size of the world and therefore knew
that sailing west to reach the Indies would require a far
longer journey than navigating to the east. However, this
continues to be debated. Thus began a long-lasting dispute that eventually resulted in the signing of the Treaty
of Tordesillas with Castile in 1494. The treaty divided
the (largely undiscovered) New World equally between
the Portuguese and the Castilians, along a north-south
meridian line 370 leagues (1770 km/1100 miles) west of
the Cape Verde islands, with all lands to the east belonging to Portugal and all lands to the west to Castile.

many Jews were forcibly converted to Catholicism and

remained as Conversos. Many Jews remained secretly
Jewish, in danger of persecution by the Portuguese Inquisition. In 1506, 3,000 New Christians were massacred in
Lisbon.[32]
In the spring of 1500, Pedro lvares Cabral set sail from
Cape Verde with 13 ships and crews and a list of nobles
that included Nicolau Coelho, Bartolomeu Dias and his
brother Diogo, Duarte Pacheco Pereira (author of the Esmeraldo) along with various other nobles, nine chaplains
and some 1,200 men.[33] From Cape Verde they sailed
southwest across the Atlantic. On April 22, 1500, they
caught sight of land in the distance.[33] They disembarked
and claimed this new land for Portugal. This was the
coast of what would later become the Portuguese colony
of Brazil.[33]
However, the real goal of the expedition was to open sea
trade to the empires of the east. Trade with the east
had eectively been cut o since the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Accordingly, Cabral turned away
from exploring the coast of the new land of Brazil and
sailed southeast, back across the Atlantic and around the
Cape of Good Hope. Cabral reached Sofala on the east
coast of Africa in July 1500.[33] In 1505, a Portuguese fort
was established here and the land around the fort would
later become the Portuguese colony of Mozambique.[34]
Cabrals eet then sailed east and landed in Calicut in
India in September 1500.[35] Here they traded for pepper and, more signicantly, opened European sea trade
with the empires of the east. No longer would the Muslim Ottoman occupation of Constantinople form a barrier between Europe and the east. Ten years later in
1510, Afonso de Albuquerque, after attempting and failing to capture and occupy Zamorin's Calicut militarily,
conquered Goa on the west coast of India.[36]

Joo da Nova discovered Ascension Island in 1501 and

Saint Helena in 1502; Tristo da Cunha was the rst to
sight the archipelago still known by his name in 1506. In
1505, Francisco de Almeida was engaged to improve Portuguese trade with the far east. Accordingly, he sailed to
East Africa. Several small Islamic states along the coast
Map of Brazil issued by Portuguese explorers in 1519.
of Mozambique Kilwa, Brava and Mombasa were
destroyed or became subjects or allies of Portugal.[37]
With the expedition beyond the Cape of Good Hope by
Almeida then sailed on to Cochin, made peace with the
Bartolomeu Dias in 1487[31] the richness of India was
ruler and built a stone fort there.[37]
now accessible. Indeed, the cape takes its name from the
promise of rich trade with the east. Between 1498 and
1501, Pro de Barcelos and Joo Fernandes Lavrador explored North America. At the same time, Pro da Cov- Portuguese Empire
ilh reached Ethiopia by land. Vasco da Gama sailed for
India, and arrived at Calicut on 20 May 1498, returning Further information: Portuguese Empire
in glory to Portugal the next year.[30] The Monastery of
Jernimos was built, dedicated to the discovery of the By the 16th century, the two million people who lived
route to India.
in the original Portuguese lands ruled a vast empire
At the end of the 15th century, Portugal expelled some with many millions of inhabitants in the Americas,

62

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

7.7 1580 succession crisis, Iberian

Union and decline of the Empire
Main articles: Portuguese succession crisis of 1580,
Iberian Union and DutchPortuguese War

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the rst Europeans who

managed to reach it, initiating the Nanban (southern barbarian) period of active commercial and cultural exchange between
Japan and the West.

On 4 August 1578, while ghting in Morocco, young

King Sebastian died in the Battle of Alccer Quibir
without an heir, and his body was not found.[41] The
late kings elderly great-uncle, Cardinal Henry, became
king.[42] Henry I died a mere two years later on 31 January 1580.[43][44] The death of the latter, without any appointed heirs, led to the Portuguese succession crisis of
1580.[45] Portugal was worried about the maintenance of
its independence and sought help to nd a new king.

One of the claimants to the throne, Antnio, Prior of

Crato, a bastard son of Infante Louis, Duke of Beja and
only grandson through the male line of king Manuel I of
Portugal, lacked support from the clergy and most of the
Africa, the Middle East and Asia. From 1514, the Por- nobility, but was acclaimed as King in Santarm and in
tuguese had reached China and Japan. In the Indian some other towns in June 1580.[46][47]
Ocean and Arabian Sea, one of Cabrals ships discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by Philip II of Spain, through his mother Isabella of PortuTristo da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in gal also a grandson of Manuel I, also claimed the throne
1507, Socotra occupied in 1506, and in the same year and did not recognize Antnio as king of Portugal. The
king appointed Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke
Loureno de Almeida visited Ceylon.
of Alba, as captain general of his army.[48] The duke was
In the Red Sea, Massawa was the most northerly point fre- 73 years old and ill at the time.[49] Fernando mustered
quented by the Portuguese until 1541, when a eet under his forces, estimated at 20,000 men,[50] in Badajoz, and
Estevo da Gama penetrated as far as Suez. Hormuz, in in June of 1580 crossed the Spanish-Portuguese border
the Persian Gulf, was seized by Afonso de Albuquerque and moving toward Lisbon. The Duke of Alba met little
in 1515, who also entered into diplomatic relations with resistance and in July set up his forces at Cascais, west
Persia. In 1521, a force under Antonio Correia conquered of Lisbon. By mid-August, the Duke was only 10 kiloBahrain and ushered in a period of almost 80 years of meters from the city. West of the small brook Alcntara,
Portuguese rule of the Persian Gulf archipelago[38]
the Spanish encountered a Portuguese force on the eastOn the Asiatic mainland, the rst trading stations were ern side of it, commanded by Antnio, Prior of Crato
established by Pedro lvares Cabral at Cochin and Cali- (a grandson of King Manuel I of Portugal who had procut (1501); more important were the conquests of Goa claimed himself King) and his lieutenant Francisco de
(1510) and Malacca (1511) by Afonso de Albuquerque, Portugal, 3rd Count of Vimioso. In late August the Duke
and the acquisition of Diu (1535) by Martim Afonso de of Alba defeated Antnios force, a ragtag army assemSousa. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent Duarte Fer- bled in a hurry and composed mainly of local peasants,
nandes as envoy to Siam (now Thailand) in 1511, and dis- and freed slaves at the Battle of Alcntara.[51] This batpatched to the Moluccas two expeditions (1512, 1514), tle ended in a decisive victory for the Spanish army, both
which founded the Portuguese dominion in Maritime on land and sea. Two days later, the Duke of Alba capSoutheast Asia.[39]
tured Lisbon, and on 25 March 1581, Philip II of Spain
The Portuguese established their base in the Spice Is- was crowned King of Portugal in Tomar as Philip I. This
Union
lands on the island of Ambon.[40] Ferno Pires de An- cleared the way for Philip, to create an Iberian
[52]
spanning
all
of
Iberia
under
the
Spanish
crown.
drade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with
China, where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to
occupy Macau. Japan, accidentally reached by three Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of
merchants and missionaries. In 1522 one of the ships in
the expedition that Ferdinand Magellan organized in the
Spanish service completed the rst circumnavigation of
the globe.

Philip rewarded Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke

of Alba with the titles of 1st Viceroy of Portugal on 18
July 1580 and Constable of Portugal in 1581. With these
titles Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba,
represented the Spanish monarch in Portugal and was second in hierarchy only after King Philip, in Portugal. Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, held both

7.8. PORTUGUESE RESTORATION WAR (16401668)

titles until his death in 1582.[53]
The Portuguese and Spanish Empires came under a single rule, but resistance to Spanish rule in Portugal did
not come to an end. The Prior of Crato held out in the
Azores until 1583, and he continued to seek to recover
the throne actively until his death in 1595. Impostors
claimed to be King Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and
1598. "Sebastianism", the myth that the young king will
return to Portugal on a foggy day, has prevailed until modern times.

7.7.1

63

7.8 Portuguese Restoration War

(16401668)
Main article: Portuguese Restoration War
At home, life was calm and serene under the rst two
Spanish kings, Philip II and Philip III; they maintained
Portugals status, gave excellent positions to Portuguese
nobles in the Spanish courts, and Portugal maintained an
independent law, currency and government. It was even
proposed to move the Spanish capital to Lisbon. Later,
Philip IV tried to make Portugal a Spanish province, and
Portuguese nobles lost power.

Decline of the Portuguese Empire Because of this, as well as the general strain on the nances of the Spanish throne as a result of the Thirty
under the Philippine Dynasty

After the 16th century, Portugal gradually saw its wealth

and inuence decrease. Portugal was ocially an autonomous state, but, in actuality, the country was in a
personal union with the Spanish crown from 1580 to
1640.[54] The Council of Portugal remained independent
inasmuch as it was one of the key administrative units of
the Castilian monarchy, legally on equal terms with the
Council of the Indies.[55]
The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and Spains enemies became Portugals. England had been an ally of Portugal since the
Treaty of Windsor in 1386, but war between Spain and
England led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugals oldest ally and the loss of Hormuz. From 1595
to 1663, the DutchPortuguese War led to invasions of
many countries in Asia and competition for commercial interests in Japan, Africa and South America. In
1624, the Dutch seized Salvador, the capital of Brazil;[56]
in 1630, they seized Pernambuco in northern Brazil.[56]
The Treaty of 1654 returned Pernambuco to Portuguese
control.[57] Both the English and the Dutch continued to
aspire to dominate both the Atlantic slave trade and the
spice trade with the Far East.
The Dutch intrusion into Brazil was long-lasting and troublesome to Portugal. The Dutch captured the entire
coast except that of Bahia and much of the interior of
the contemporary Northeastern Brazilian states of Bahia,
Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraba, Rio Grande do
Norte and Cear, while Dutch privateers sacked Portuguese ships in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Beginning with a major SpanishPortuguese military operation in 1625, this trend was reversed, and it laid
the foundations for the recovery of remaining Dutchcontrolled areas. The other smaller, less developed areas
were recovered in stages and relieved of Dutch piracy in
the next two decades by local resistance and Portuguese
expeditions. After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in
1640, Portugal would re-establish its authority over some
lost territories of the Portuguese Empire.

Years War, the Duke of Braganza, one of the great native noblemen and a descendant of King Manuel I, was
proclaimed King of Portugal as John IV on 1 December 1640, and a war of independence against Spain was
launched. The governors of Ceuta did not accept the new
king; rather, they maintained their allegiance to Philip III.
Although Portugal had substantially attained its independence in 1640, the Spanish continued to try to re-assert
their control for the next twenty-eight years, only recognizing the new Portuguese dynasty in 1668.
In the 17th century, many Portuguese emigrated to Brazil.
From 1709, John V prohibited emigration, since Portugal
had lost a sizable proportion of its population. Brazil was
elevated to a vice-kingdom.

7.9 Pombaline era

Main articles: History of Portugal (16401777) and
Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal
In 1738, Sebastio de Melo, the talented son of a Lisbon squire, began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese
Ambassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen
consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of
Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his rst wife died,
she arranged the widowed de Melos second marriage to
the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef,
Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was
not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John
V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was
fond of de Melo, and with the Maria Annas approval,
he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Aairs. As
the Kings condence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state.
By 1755, Sebastio de Melo was made Prime Minister.
Impressed by British economic success he had witnessed
while Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar
economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in

64

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

ber 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9.
The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and
the subsequent tsunami and ensuing res. Sebastio de
Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately
embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote:
What now? We bury the dead and feed the living.
Despite the calamity, Lisbon suered no epidemics and
within less than one year was already being rebuilt. The
new downtown of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for
tests, and the eects of an earthquake were simulated by
marching troops around the models. The buildings and
big squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon still
remain as one of Lisbons tourist attractions: They represent the worlds rst quake-proof buildings. Sebastio de
Melo also made an important contribution to the study of
seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every
parish in the country.

Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastio de Melo became a
powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his
Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, Count enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with
of Oeiras
the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was
wounded in an attempted assassination. The Tvora famPortugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorga- ily and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed
nized the army and the navy; restructured the University after a quick trial. The Jesuits were expelled from the
of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against dierent country and their assets conscated by the crown. Sebastio de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every
Christian sects in Portugal.
person involved, even women and children. This was the
nal stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and
ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies.
Based upon his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.

This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in ames

and a tsunami overwhelming the ships in the harbor.

But Sebastio de Melos greatest reforms were economic

and nancial, with the creation of several companies and
guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He demarcated the region for production of port to ensure the
wines quality, and this was the rst attempt to control
wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with
a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of
Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the
countrys tax system. These reforms gained him enemies
in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility,
who despised him as a social upstart.

Following the Tvora aair, the new Count of Oeiras

knew no opposition. Made Marquis of Pombal in 1770,
he eectively ruled Portugal until Joseph Is death in
1779. However, historians also argue that Pombals enlightenment, while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual
liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and prot.[58]
The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the
Marquis (See Tvora aair), and forbade him from coming within 20 miles of her, thus curtailing his inuence.

7.9.1 Portuguese-led invasion of Spain in

1707
Main article: War of the Spanish Succession

In 1707, as part of the War of the Spanish Succession,

Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 Novem- a joint Portuguese, Dutch, and British army, led by the

7.11. THE FIRST REPUBLIC (19101926)

Marquis of Minas, D. Antnio Lus de Sousa, conquered
Madrid and acclaimed the Archduke Charles of Austria
as King Charles III of Spain. Along the route to Madrid,
the army led by the Marquis of Minas was successful
in conquering Ciudad Rodrigo and Salamanca. Later in
the following year, Madrid was reconquered by Spanish
troops loyal to the Bourbons.[59]

7.9.2

The Ghost War

Main article: Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)

In 1762 France and Spain tried to urge Portugal to join the
Bourbon Family Compact by claiming that Great Britain
had become too powerful due to its successes in the Seven
Years War. Joseph refused to accept this and protested
that his 1704 alliance with Britain was no threat.
In spring 1762 Spanish and French troops invaded Portugal from the north as far as the Douro, while a second column sponsored the Siege of Almeida, captured the city,
and threatened to advance on Lisbon. The arrival of a
force of British troops helped the Portuguese army commanded by the Count of Lippe by blocking the FrancoSpanish advance and driving them back across the border following the Battle of Valencia de Alcntara. At the
Treaty of Paris in 1763, Spain agreed to hand Almeida
back to Portugal.

7.10 Crises of the nineteenth century

Main articles: History of Portugal (17771834) and
History of Portugal (18341910)
In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon Bonaparte's demand
to accede to the Continental System of embargo against
the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General
Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured on 8 December
1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War helped
in maintaining Portuguese independence; the last French
troops were expelled in 1812. The war cost Portugal
the town of Olivena,[60] now governed by Spain. Rio
de Janeiro in Brazil was the Portuguese capital between
1808 and 1821. In 1820 constitutionalist insurrections
took place at Oporto (24 August) and Lisbon (15 September). Lisbon regained its status as the capital of Portugal
when Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in
1822.
The death of John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil, briey became
Pedro IV of Portugal, but neither the Portuguese nor the
Brazilians wanted a unied monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favor of his 7-yearold daughter, Maria da Glria, on the condition that when

65
she came of age she would marry his brother, Miguel.
Dissatisfaction at Pedros constitutional reforms led the
absolutist faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to the
Liberal Wars in which Pedro eventually forced Miguel to
abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter
on throne as Queen Maria II.
The 1890 British Ultimatum was delivered to Portugal
on 11 January of that year, an attempt to force the retreat of Portuguese military forces in the land between the
Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most
of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia). The area had
been claimed by Portugal, which included it in its "Pink
Map", but this clashed with British aspirations to create
a railroad link between Cairo and Cape Town, thereby
linking its colonies from the north of Africa to the very
south. This diplomatic clash lead to several waves of
protest and prompted the downfall of the Portuguese government. The 1890 British Ultimatum was considered by
Portuguese historians and politicians at that time to be
the most outrageous and infamous action of the British
against her oldest ally.[61]
After 1815, the Portuguese expanded their trading ports
along the African coast, moving inland to take control
of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, in part because many foreign slave ships
were ying the Portuguese ag. In Portuguese India,
trade ourished in the colony of Goa, with its subsidiary
colonies of Macau, near Hong Kong on the China coast,
and Timor, north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language
into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head
to Brazil.[62][63]

7.11 The First Republic (1910

1926)
Main article: First Portuguese Republic
The First Republic has, over the course of the recent past,
lost many historians to the Estado Novo. As a result, it
is dicult to attempt a global synthesis of the republican period in view of the important gaps that still persist
in our knowledge of its political history. As far as the
5 October 1910 Revolution is concerned, a number of
valuable studies have been made,[64] rst among which
ranks Vasco Pulido Valentes polemical thesis. This historian posited the Jacobin and urban nature of the revolution carried out by the Portuguese Republican Party
(PRP) and claimed that the PRP had turned the republican regime into a de facto dictatorship.[65] This vision
clashes with an older interpretation of the First Republic
as a progressive and increasingly democratic regime that
presented a clear contrast to Antnio de Oliveira Salazar's
ensuing dictatorship.[66]

66

7.11.1

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

Religion

The First Republic was intensely anti-clerical. They were

secularists and indeed were following liberal tradition
of disestablishing the powerful role the Catholic Church
once held. Historian Stanley Payne points out, The majority of Republicans took the position that Catholicism
was the number one enemy of individual list middleclass radicalism and must be completely broken as a
source of inuence in Portugal.[67] Under the leadership
of Afonso Costa, the justice minister, the revolution immediately targeted the Catholic Church: churches were
plundered, convents were attacked and clergy were harassed. Scarcely had the provisional government been installed when it began devoting its entire attention to an
anti-religious policy, in spite of the disastrous economic
situation. On 10 October ve days after the inauguration of the Republic the new government decreed that
all convents, monasteries and religious orders were to be
suppressed. All residents of religious institutions were
expelled and their goods conscated. The Jesuits were
forced to forfeit their Portuguese citizenship.
A series of anti-Catholic laws and decrees followed each
other in rapid succession. On 3 November, a law legalizing divorce was passed and then there were laws to recognize the legitimacy of children born outside wedlock,
authorize cremation, secularize cemeteries, suppress religious teaching in the schools and prohibit the wearing
of the cassock. In addition, the ringing of church bells
to signal times of worship was subjected to certain restraints, and the public celebration of religious feasts was
suppressed. The government also interfered in the running of seminaries, reserving the right to appoint professors and determine curricula. This whole series of laws
authored by Afonso Costa culminated in the law of Separation of Church and State, which was passed on 20 April
1911.

should the attempt to establish the political, social, and

economic context made by M. Villaverde Cabral (1988).
The PRP viewed the outbreak of the First World War as a
unique opportunity to achieve a number of goals: putting
an end to the twin threats of a Spanish invasion of Portugal and of foreign occupation of the African colonies
and, at the internal level, creating a national consensus
around the regime and even around the party.[70] These
domestic objectives were not met, since participation in
the conict was not the subject of a national consensus
and since it did not therefore serve to mobilise the population. Quite the opposite occurred: existing lines of political and ideological fracture were deepened by Portugals
intervention in the First World War.[71] The lack of consensus around Portugals intervention in turn made possible the appearance of two dictatorships, led by General
Pimenta de Castro (JanuaryMay 1915) and Sidnio Pais
(December 1917 December 1918).
Sidonismo, also known as Dezembrismo (Decemberism), aroused a strong interest among historians,
largely as a result of the elements of modernity that
it contained.[72][73][74][75][76][77] Antnio Jos Telo has
made clear the way in which this regime predated some
of the political solutions invented by the totalitarian and
fascist dictatorships of the 1920s and 1930s.[78] Sidnio
Pais undertook the rescue of traditional values, notably
the Ptria (Homeland), and attempted to rule in a
charismatic fashion.

A move was made to abolish traditional political parties and to alter the existing mode of national representation in parliament (which, it was claimed, exacerbated divisions within the Ptria) through the creation
of a corporative Senate, the founding of a single-party
(the National Republican Party), and the attribution of a
mobilising function to the leader. The state carved out
an economically interventionist role for itself while, at
the same time, repressing working-class movements and
leftist republicans. Sidnio Pais also attempted to restore public order and to overcome some of the rifts of
7.11.2 Constitution
the recent past, making the republic more acceptable to
A republican constitution was approved in 1911, inaugu- monarchists and Catholics.
rating a parliamentary regime with reduced presidential
powers and two chambers of parliament.[68] The Republic provoked important fractures within Portuguese soci- 7.11.3 Political instability
ety, notably among the essentially monarchist rural population, in the trade unions, and in the Church. Even the The vacuum of power created by Sidnio Paiss
PRP had to endure the secession of its more moderate el- murder[79] on 14 December 1918, led the country to
ements, who formed conservative republican parties like a brief civil war. The monarchys restoration was prothe Evolutionist Party and the Republican Union. In spite claimed in the north of Portugal (known as the Monarchy
of these splits, the PRP, led by Afonso Costa, preserved of the North) on 19 January 1919, and four days later a
its dominance, largely due to a brand of clientelist politics monarchist insurrection broke out in Lisbon. A repubinherited from the monarchy.[69] In view of these tactics, lican coalition government, led by Jos Relvas, coordia number of opposition forces were forced to resort to vi- nated the struggle against the monarchists by loyal army
olence in order to enjoy the fruits of power. There are units and armed civilians. After a series of clashes the
few recent studies of this period of the Republics exis- monarchists were denitively chased from Oporto on 13
tence, known as the old Republic. Nevertheless, an essay February 1919. This military victory allowed the PRP to
by Vasco Pulido Valente should be consulted (1997a), as return to government and to emerge triumphant from the

7.11. THE FIRST REPUBLIC (19101926)

67

elections held later that year, having won the usual abso- from the contest with an absolute majority. Discontent
lute majority.
with this situation had not, however, disappeared. Numerous accusations of corruption, and the manifest failure to resolve pressing social concerns wore down the
more visible PRP leaders while making the oppositions
attacks more deadly. At the same time, moreover, all political parties suered from growing internal factionalism,
especially the PRP itself. The party system was fractured
and discredited.[69][81]
This is clearly shown by the fact that regular PRP victories at the ballot box did not lead to stable government. Between 1910 and 1926 there were forty-ve governments. The opposition of presidents to single-party
governments, internal dissent within the PRP, the partys
almost non-existent internal discipline, and its desire to
group together and lead all republican forces made any
governments task practically impossible. Many dierent
formulas were attempted, including single-party governments, coalitions, and presidential executives, but none
succeeded. Force was clearly the sole means open to
the opposition if the PRP wanted to enjoy the fruits of
power.[82][83]

Ocial portrait of President Antnio Jos de Almeida, by

Henrique Medina.

7.11.4 Evaluation of the republican experiment

Historians have emphasized the failure and collapse of the

It was during this restoration of the old republic that an republican dream by the 1920s. Sardica summarizes the
attempted reform was carried out in order to provide the consensus of historians:
regime with greater stability. In August 1919 a conservative president was elected Antnio Jos de Almeida
within a few years, large parts of the key
(whose Evolutionist party had come together in wartime
economic forces, intellectuals, opinion-makers
with the PRP to form a awed, because incomplete, Saand middle classes changed from left to right,
cred Union) and his oce was given the power to distrading the unfullled utopia of a developing
solve parliament. Relations with the Holy See, restored
and civic republicanism for notions of order,
by Sidnio Pais, were preserved. The president used his
stability and security. For many who had
new power to resolve a crisis of government in May 1921,
helped, supported or simply cheered the Renaming a Liberal government (the Liberal party being the
public in 1910, hoping that the new politiresult of the postwar fusion of Evolutionists and Unioncal situation would repair the monarchys aws
ists) to prepare the forthcoming elections.
(government instability, nancial crisis, economic backwardness and civic anomie), the
These were held on 10 July 1921, with victory going, as
conclusion to be drawn, in the 1920s, was
was usually the case, to the party in power. However,
that the remedy for national maladies called
Liberal government did not last long. On 19 October a
for much more than the simple removal of the
military pronunciamento was carried out during which
king....The First Republic collapsed and died
and apparently against the wishes of the coups leaders
as a result of the confrontation between raised
a number of prominent conservative gures, including
hopes and meager deeds.[84]
Prime Minister Antnio Granjo, were assassinated. This
event, known as the night of blood[80] left a deep wound
among political elites and public opinion. There could Sardica, however, also points up the permanent impact of
be no greater demonstration of the essential fragility of the republican experiment:
the Republics institutions and proof that the regime was
democratic in name only, since it did not even admit the
Despite its overall failure, the First Republic
possibility of the rotation in power characteristic of the
endowed twentieth-century Portugal with an
elitist regimes of the nineteenth century.
insurpassable and enduring legacya renewed
civil law, the basis for an educational revoluA new round of elections on 29 January 1922 inaugurated
tion, the principle of separation between State
a fresh period of stability: the PRP once again emerged

68

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

and Church, the overseas empire (only brought
to an end in 1975), and a strong symbolic culture whose materializations (the national ag,
the national anthem and the naming of streets)
nobody has dared to alter and which still dene the present-day collective identity of the
Portuguese. The Republics prime legacy was
indeed that of memory.[85]

7.11.5

28 May 1926 coup d'tat

some historians the First Republic was a progressive and

increasingly democratic regime. For others it was essentially a prolongation of the liberal and elitist regimes of
the 19th century. A third group chooses to highlight the
regimes revolutionary, Jacobin and dictatorial nature.

7.12 Estado Novo (19331974)

Main article: Estado Novo (Portugal)

Main article: 28 May 1926 coup d'tat

By the mid-1920s the domestic and international scenes

Gomes da Costa and his troops march victorious into Lisbon on

6 June 1926.

began to favour another authoritarian solution, wherein

a strengthened executive might restore political and social order. Since the oppositions constitutional route to
Portuguese colonies in Africa by the time of the Colonial War.
power was blocked by the various means deployed by the
PRP to protect itself, it turned to the army for support.
The political awareness of the armed forces had grown
during the war, and many of their leaders had not forgiven
the PRP for sending them to a war they did not want to 7.12.1 Salazar dictatorship
ght.[86]
They seemed to represent, to conservative forces, the last
bastion of order against the chaos that was taking over
the country. Links were established between conservative gures and military ocers, who added their own
political and corporative demands to the already complex
equation. The 28 May 1926 coup d'tat enjoyed the support of most army units and even of most political parties.
As had been the case in December 1917, the population
of Lisbon did not rise to defend the Republic, leaving it
at the mercy of the army.[86]

Political chaos, several strikes, harsh relations with the

Church, and considerable economic problems aggravated
by a disastrous military intervention in the First World
War led to the military 28 May 1926 coup d'tat. This
coup installed the Second Republic, which started as
the Ditadura Nacional (National Dictatorship) and became the Estado Novo (New State) in 1933, led by
economist Antnio de Oliveira Salazar. He transformed
Portugal into a sort of Fascist regime that evolved into a
single-party corporative regime. Portugal, although neuThere are few global and up-to-date studies of this tur- tral, informally aided the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil
bulent third phase of the Republics existence.[87][88][89] War (193639).
Nevertheless, much has been written about the
crisis and fall of the regime and the 28 May
movement.[83][90][91][92][93][94] The First Republic
continues to be the subject of an intense debate. A
historiographical balance sheet by Armando Malheiro
da Silva (2000) identies three main interpretations. For

Salazars policy after the war was to provide a certain level

of liberalization in politics, in terms of organized opposition with more freedom of the press. Opposition parties
were tolerated to an extent, but they were also controlled,
limited, and manipulated, with the result that they split
into factions and never formed a united opposition.[95]

7.13. THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1974)

7.12.2

World War II

Portugal was ocially neutral in World War II, but in

practice Salazar collaborated with the British and sold
them rubber and tungsten.[96] In late 1943 he allowed the
Allies to establish air bases in the Azores to ght German
U-boats. He helped Spain avoid German control. Tungsten was a major product, and he sold to Germany until
June 1944, when the threat of a German attack on Portugal was minimal.[97] He worked to regain control of East
Timor after the Japanese seized it.[98] He admitted several
thousand Jewish refugees. Lisbon maintained air connections with Britain and the U.S. Lisbon was a hotbed
of spies and served as the base for the International Red
Cross in its distribution of relief supplies to POWs.

7.12.3

Colonies

In 1961 the Portuguese army was involved in armed

action in its colony in Goa against an Indian invasion
(see Operation Vijay). The operations resulted in a humiliating Portuguese defeat and the loss of the colonies
in India. Independence movements also became active in Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique and
Portuguese Guinea; the Portuguese Colonial War started.
Portugal, during this period, was never an outcast, and
was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European
Free Trade Association (EFTA).
After the death of Salazar in 1970, his replacement by
Marcelo Caetano oered a certain hope that the regime
would open up, the primavera marcelista (Marcelist
spring). However the colonial wars in Africa continued,
political prisoners remained incarcerated, freedom of association was not restored, censorship was only slightly
eased and the elections remained tightly controlled.

69
its Overseas Provinces (Provncias Ultramarinas in Portuguese) in Africa (Portuguese Mozambique, Portuguese
Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Cape Verde and
Portuguese So Tom and Prncipe). Nearly 1 million
Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent left these
former colonies as refugees.[99]
In that same year, Indonesia invaded and annexed the Portuguese province of Portuguese Timor (East Timor) in
Asia before independence could be granted. The massive
exodus of the Portuguese military and citizens from Angola and Mozambique, would prompt an era of chaos and
severe destruction in those territories after independence
from Portugal in 1975. From May 1974 to the end of the
1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens from Portugals
African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and
Mozambique) left those territories as destitute refugees
the retornados.[100][101]
The newly independent countries were ravaged by brutal
civil wars in the following decades the Angolan Civil
War (19752002) and Mozambican Civil War (1977
1992) responsible for millions of deaths and refugees.
The Asian dependency of Macau, after an agreement in
1986, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1999. Portugal applied international pressure to secure East Timors
independence from Indonesia, as East Timor was still
legally a Portuguese dependency, and recognized as such
by the United Nations. After a referendum in 1999, East
Timor voted for independence, which Portugal recognized in 2002.
With the 197576 independence of its colonies (apart
from Macau), the 560-year-old Portuguese Empire effectively ended. Simultaneously 15 years of war eort
also came to an end; many Portuguese returned from the
colonies (the retornados) and came to comprise a sizeable
proportion of the population: approximately 580,000 of
Portugals 9.8 million citizens in 1981.[102] This opened
new paths for the countrys future just as others closed. In
1986, Portugal entered the European Economic Community and left the European Free Trade Association which
had been founded by Portugal and its partners in 1960.
The country joined the euro in 1999. The Portuguese
Empire ended de facto in 1999 when Macau was returned
to China, and de jure in 2002 when East Timor became
independent.

The regime retained its characteristic traits: censorship,

corporativeness, with a market economy dominated by
a handful of economical groups, continuous surveillance
and intimidation of several sectors of society through
the use of a political police and techniques instilling
fear (such as arbitrary imprisonment, systematic political
persecution and even assassination of anti-regime insurgents).
From 1974 through 2014, Portugal experienced 25 governments. The Portuguese economy once again declined,
exacerbated by external debt, as well as nancial and budgetary problems. Portugal has since resorted to three
7.13 The Third Republic (1974)
economic programmes seeking international nancial aid
from the IMF. In 1977-78, Portugal requested assistance
Main articles: Processo Revolucionrio Em Curso and
to mitigate decits and sharp increases in unemployment.
Third Portuguese Republic
In 1983, Portugal again requested IMF support to cope
with a recession, high interest rates abroad, trade imThe "Carnation Revolution" of 1974, an eectively balances, and high decits. In 2009 Portugals budget
bloodless left-wing military coup, installed the Third decit hit a record 9.3 per cent of GDP. In 2011, the PorRepublic. Broad democratic reforms were imple- tuguese economy collapsed sparking a sharp rise in bormented. In 1975, Portugal granted independence to

70

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

rowing costs, forcing Lisbon to seek a bailout. Portugal [15] Koller, Erwin; Laitenberger, Hugo (1998). Schwaben.
ISBN 9783823350910.
then agreed a three-year, 78-billion-euro ($116 billion)
bailout with the European Union and IMF. In 2013, Portugal recorded all-time high debt levels, 129 per cent of [16] Knutsen, Torbjrn L (1999). The Rise & Fall of World
Orders. ISBN 9780719040580.
the countrys GDP.
[17] Disney (2009), p. 53
[18] Disney (2009), pp. 5354

7.14 See also

[19] Livermore (1969), pp. 3233

Economic history of Portugal

List of Portuguese Cortes

[20] Fontes, Lus. O Norte de Portugal ente os sculos VIII

e X: balano e perspectivas de investigao (in Portuguese). Archaeology Unit of the Minho University. Retrieved April 19, 2013.

List of Portuguese monarchs

[21] Ribeiro & Hermano (2004)

Kings of Portugal family tree

[22] Ribeiro & Hermano (2004), p. 44

List of Prime Ministers of Portugal

[23] Livermore (1969), p. 76

Monuments of Portugal

[24] Hallett (1970), pp. 4748

Presidents of Portugal

[25] Livermore (1969), pp. 106107

Timeline of Portuguese history

[26] Livermore (1969), p. 108

History of Portugal (7111112)

[27] Livermore (1969), p. 109

7.15 Notes

[28] Hallett (1970), p. 249

[1] Portugal Seeks Balance of Emigration, Immigration.

Migrationinformation.org. 2002-08-09. Retrieved 201008-22.
[2] Local etymology: a derivative ... Google Books.
Books.google.com. 1859. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
[3] Celtic Linguistics. Books.google.com. 1706.
9780415204798. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

ISBN

[29] Hallett (1970), p. 248

[30] Hallett (1970), p. 164
[31] Livermore (1969), p. 129
[32] Rebecca Weiner, The Virtual Jewish History Tour Portugal
[33] Livermore (1969), pp. 138139

[4] http://www.faclair.com/?txtSearch=Cala

[34] Hallett (1970), p. 217

[5] Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.

Books.google.com. 1856. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

[35] Livermore (1969), p. 139

[6] David Birmingham (2003), p.11

[36] Percival Spear, India: A Modern History (University of

Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1961) pp. 162163.

[7] Disney (2009), p. 5

[8] Disney (2009), p. 15
[9] http://www.infopedia.pt/\protect\char"0024\
relaxromanizacao-da-peninsula-iberica

[37] Livermore (1969), p. 140

[38] Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007
p37
[39] Livermore (1969), p. 142

[10] http://www.portugalromano.com/category/
tema-exploracao-mineira/

[40] Brown (2003), p. 33

[11] Disney (2009)

[41] Livermore (1969), pp. 157158

[12] http://www.portugalromano.com/

[42] Livermore (1969), p. 158

[13] http://www.portugalromano.com/category/
cidades-romanas-em-portugal/

[43] Livermore (1969), p. 161

[14] Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). The History of Portugal. ISBN 9780313311062.

[44] De Baena Parada, Juan. Eptome de la vida, y hechos de

don Sebastin Dezimo Sexto Rey de Portugal. 1692. P.
113/120.

7.15. NOTES

71

[45] Marqus de Pidal. Marqus de Miraores. Salv, Miguel.

Coleccin de documentos inditos para la historia de Espaa. Academia de la Historia. Tomo XL. Madrid. 1862.
P. 230.

[72] Jos Brando, 1990

[46]

[75] Armando Silva, 1999

[47]

[76] Samara, 2003

[48] Disposition of Philip II about giving the duke the control

of the army, op. cit., vol. XXXII, pags. 7-9.

[77] Santos, 2003

[49] Ruth MacKay, The Baker Who Pretended to Be King of

Portugal, (University of Chicago Press, 2012), 49.
[50] Ruth MacKay, The Baker Who Pretended to Be King of
Portugal, 50.
[51] Tony Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E, 2007
p.25
[52] John Huxtable Elliott. Espaa en Europa: Estudios de
historia comparada: escritos seleccionados. Universitat de
Valncia. 2002. Pginas 79-80.
[53] Belda Plans, Juan. Grandes personajes el Siglo de Oro
espaol. Palabra. 2013. P. 29.
[54] Livermore (1969), pp. 163172
[55] Elliott (2002), p. 274
[56] Livermore (1969), pp. 170
[57] Livermore (1969), pp. 184

[73] Ramalho, 1998

[74] Ribeiro de Meneses, 1998

[78] Teixeira, 2000, pp. 1124

[79] Medina, 1994
[80] Brando, 1991
[81] Joo Silva, 1997
[82] Schwartzman, 1989
[83] Pinto, 2000
[84] Jos Miguel Sardica, The Memory of the Portuguese
First Republic throughout the Twentieth Century (2011)
E-Journal of Portuguese History (Summer 2011) 9#1 pp
127. online
[85] Jos Miguel Sardica, The Memory of the Portuguese
First Republic throughout the Twentieth Century (2011)
[86] Ferreira, 1992a
[87] Marques, 1973
[88] Telo, 1980

[58] Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 83, 91
108, 16062.

[89] Telo, 1984

[59] http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/pessoais/castelobramco_
comentarios.html

[91] Cabral, 1993

[60] Ertl, Alan W. (2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Precis of Continental Integration. Dissertation.com. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-59942-9830.
[61] Joo Ferreira Duarte, The Politics of Non-Translation: A
Case Study in Anglo-Portuguese Relations
[62] Livermore (1969), pp. 299306
[63] Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire,
18251975: A Study in Economic Imperialism (1985)
[64] Wheeler, 1972
[65] Pulido Valente, 1982
[66] Oliveira Marques, 1991
[67] Payne, A history of Spain and Portugal (1973) 2: 559
[68] Miranda, 2001
[69] Lopes, 1994
[70] Teixeira, 1996a
[71] Ribeiro de Meneses, 2000

[90] Cruz, 1986

[92] Rosas, 1997

[93] Martins, 1998
[94] Afonso, 2001
[95] Dawn L. Raby, Controlled, Limited and Manipulated
Opposition Under a Dictatorial Regime: Portugal, 19459, European History Quarterly (1989) 19#1 pp 63-84.
doi: 10.1177/026569148901900103
[96] William Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Portuguese Empire and the 'Battle for Rubber' in the Second World War,
Portuguese Studies Review (2011), 19#1 pp 177196
[97] Douglas L. Wheeler, The Price of Neutrality: Portugal,
the Wolfram Question, and World War II, Luso-Brazilian
Review (1986) 23#1 pp 107127 and 23#2 pp 97111
[98] Sonny B. Davis, Salazar, Timor, and Portuguese Neutrality in World War II, Portuguese Studies Review (2005)
13#1 pp 449476.
[99] Portugal Emigration, Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A
Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of
Congress, 1993.
[100] Flight from Angola, The Economist (August 16, 1975).

72

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

[101] Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time (Monday, July

7, 1975).

Maxwell, Kenneth. Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge University Press, 1995)

[102] Andrea L. Smith (August 1, 2002). Europes Invisible Migrants. ISBN 905356571X. Thus among the 580,000 Portuguese enumerated in the 1981 census who had lived in
the African colonies prior to 1975, 60 percent had been
born in Portugal.

Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. History of Portugal:

Vol. 1: from Lusitania to empire; Vol. 2: from empire to corporate state (1972).

7.15.1

Bibliography

Brown, Colin (2003). A Short History of Indonesia:

The Unlikely Nation. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen
& Unwin. ISBN 9781865088389.
Disney, A. R. (2009). A History of Portugal and
the Portuguese Empire, vol. 1: Portugal. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 9780521603973.
Elliott, J. H. (2002). Imperial Spain 14691716.
London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-100703-6.
Hallett, Robin (1970). Africa to 1875: a Modern
History. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press.
Livermore, Harold V. (1969). A New History of
Portugal. Cambridge University Press.
Ribeiro, ngelo; Hermano, Jos (2004). Histria de
Portugal I a Formao do Territrio [History of
Portugal the Formation of the Territory] (in Portuguese). QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-106-6.

7.16 Further reading

Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). The History of
Portugal online
Birmingham, David. A Concise History of Portugal
(Cambridge, 1993)
Correia, Slvia & Helena Pinto Janeiro. War Culture in the First World War: on the Portuguese Participation, E-Journal of Portuguese history (2013)
11#2 Five articles on Portugal in the First World
War
Figueiredo, Antonio de. Portugal: Fifty Years of
Dictatorship (Harmondsworth Penguin, 1976).
Grissom, James. (2012) Portugal A Brief History
excerpt and text search
Kay, Hugh. Salazar and Modern Portugal (London,
1970)
Machado, Diamantino P. The Structure of Portuguese Society: The Failure of Fascism (1991), political history 19181974 online

Nowell, Charles E. A History of Portugal (1952)

online
Payne, Stanley G. A History of Spain and Portugal (2
vol 1973) full text online vol 2 after 1700; standard
scholarly history; chapter 23

7.16.1 Empire
Boxer, Charles R.. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 14151825 (1969)
Clarence-Smith, William Gervase. The Third Portuguese Empire, 18251975: A Study in Economic
Imperialism (1985)
Crowley, Roger. Conquerors: How Portugal Forged
the First Global Empire (2015) online review
Disney, A.R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2: From Beginnings to 1807:
the Portuguese empire (2009) excerpt and text search
Elbl, Martin Malcolm. Portuguese Tangier (1471
1662): Colonial Urban Fabric as Cross-Cultural
Skeleton (Baywolf Press, 2013) excerpt and text
search
Newitt, Malyn. The First Portuguese Colonial Empire (University of Exeter Press, 1986) online
Paquette, Gabriel. Imperial Portugal in the Age
of Atlantic Revolutions: The Luso-Brazilian World,
c. 17701850 (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
466 pp. online review
Russell-Wood, A. J.R. The Portuguese Empire
14151808 (Manchester, 1992),
Jorge Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas,
Pioneers of Globalization - Why the Portuguese Surprised the World, Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978989-615-056-3

7.16.2 Historiography
Campos Matos, Srgio. History of Historiography
and National Memory in Portugal, History Compass
(Oct 2012) 10#10 pp 765777.
de Carvalho Homem, Armando Lus. A. H. de
Oliveira Marques (19332007): Historiography and
Citizenship, E-Journal of Portuguese History (Winter 2007) 5#2 pp 19.

7.17. EXTERNAL LINKS

Sardica, Jos Miguel. The Memory of the Portuguese First Republic throughout the Twentieth
Century, E-Journal of Portuguese History (Summer
2011) 9#1 pp 127. online

7.17 External links

Wikimedia Atlas of Portugal
Portugal Chronology World History Database
History of Portugal: Primary documents
The Ave Valley, Northern Portugal: an archaeological survey of Iron Age and Roman settlement in Internet Archaeology

73

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CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

7.18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.18.1

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Bender235, Kwamikagami, Aaronbrick, Wareh, Duk, Embryomystic, Angr, Karmosin, BD2412, Dinosaurdarrell, Akhenaten0, Gdrbot,
NTBot~enwiki, RussBot, The Ogre, Stallions2010, Deville, Kungfuadam, Tom Morris, Jb05-rsh, Psolrzan, Alex earlier account, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Hmains, Caniago, Blakes Star, Capmo, Joseph Solis in Australia, Provocateur, CmdrObot, Morgantzp, FilipeS, Wachowich,
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Steinbach, Waldir, Toussaint, Behemoth, Koavf, Amire80, Bgwhite, RussBot, Guslacerda, Aeusoes1, The Ogre, Itaj Sherman, FF2010,
Andyluciano~enwiki, AGToth, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Shunpiker, Khoikhoi, Fuhghettaboutit, Aaker, John, Muata,
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Cassowary, Ian Pitchford, Agiesbrecht, Intgr, Visor, Mhking, YurikBot, RussBot, Fsolda~enwiki, The Ogre, Grafen, Retired username,
Itaj Sherman, S. Neuman, Emmyceru, Zzuuzz, GraemeL, Globe-trotter, Diogo sfreitas, Garion96, Cotoco, Luna Whistler, Sardanaphalus,
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Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Betacommand, Fetofs, Bluebot, Yak314, Rex Germanus, Elagatis, Arges, Vogensen, Chlewbot, JonHarder, Shunpiker, Kittybrewster, Grover cleveland, Khoikhoi, Foros2000, Rescbr, Dantadd, Victor Lopes, Aaker, HQCentral, ClaudioMB, Breno, Antonielly, Muukalainen, JHunterJ, Erin Billy, Lenineleal, Monni95, Muata, Lomibz, Jack O'Neill, KirrVlad, Saxbryn, Caiaa, Missionary,
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76

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF PORTUGAL

stopreststop, Susana2807, FifthMore~enwiki, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Alyssakorea, RenatoDep, Alcacer1, Xqbot, XX unfunfriday
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7.18.2

77

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78

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File:Portuguese_arrival_in_Japan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Portuguese_arrival_in_Japan.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Portuguese_colonial_war_map1.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Portuguese_colonial_war_
map1.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png
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Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

7.18. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portuguesesV2.png
*Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portugueses.png:
Tokle

79

Original
artist:
Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portuguesesV2.png:
*Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorations.png:
*Portuguese_Empire_map.jpg:

File:Portuguese_vowel_chart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Portuguese_vowel_chart.svg License:

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Portuguese_vowel_chart.png Original artist: Portuguese_vowel_chart.png: Jerey Connell (IceKarma)
File:Portugueselanguagedialects-Brazil.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/
Portugueselanguagedialects-Brazil.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: O mapa em questo foi elaborado primariamente
tendo como base as obras de Antenor Nascentes, com enriquecimentos bibliogrcos em: Amadeu Amaral (O Dialeto Caipira, 1920),
Mrio Marroquim (A Lngua do Nordeste, 1945) e Seram Neto (Introduo ao estudo da lngua portuguesa no Brasil, 1950). O esboo
inicial do mapa teve como base a proposio de Nascentes, como pode ser observada aqui: [1]. S que como observa a prpria UFPE, no
projeto Zonas Dialetais Brasileiras, o que existe como mapa dialetal, est simplicado e envelhecido, pois no abarcou importantes
zonas como o sulista, caipira e o gacho. Desde ento vrios estudos tem tentado identicar as novas variantes e proposto sua localizao
de inuencia geogrca dentro do territrio brasileiro. Original artist: PedroPVZ
File:Portugueselanguagedialects-Portugal.png
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Tkgd2007
File:RealGabinetePortuguesLeitura1.jpg
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Fulviusbsas
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Portuguese.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Phastolph
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II.png License: CC0 Contributors: Scherre et al (2009 apud MARTINS, 2010) Original artist: Maria Marta Pereira Scherre and rariteh
File:Shield_of_the_Kingdom_of_Portugal_(1481-1910).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Shield_
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This le was derived from Sprachen Osttimors.png:
<a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sprachen_Osttimors.png'
class='image'><img
alt='Sprachen
Osttimors.png'
src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Sprachen_Osttimors.png/50px-Sprachen_Osttimors.png'
width='50'
height='33'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Sprachen_Osttimors.png/75px-Sprachen_Osttimors.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Sprachen_Osttimors.png/100px-Sprachen_Osttimors.png 2x' data-lewidth='1354' data-le-height='900' /></a>
Original artist: Sprachen_Osttimors.png: J. Patrick Fischer
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domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

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