Hammurabi: 6th king of Babylonia, made code of laws, which is first written code of laws
h. Jews (Hebrews)
Semitic people settled in Judea long before 1000 B.C.
Hebrew Bible (Old testament) around 1000 BC
Prophets of Jews: Abraham, Mosses
Solomon: king of Hebrew Monarchy, builder of the first temple in Jerusalem
i. Spreading of Aryans
Tribes of fair and blue eyed Nordic race
Spread from central Europe to Asia
Inventions/ Developments during Bronze age
Discovery of bronze, Metal working, Glass working
Invention of Potato in Peru
Animal domestication: cattle, sheep, goats and asses
Cultivation
Navigation technology
Techniques of Yoga and meditation
Invention of first writing system (wage-shaped) by Sumerians
Invention of picture writing system by Egyptians
Invention of Semitics writing system by Hebrews by mixing Sumerian and Egyptian
writing
o All other major languages, e.g. Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, French, Arabic etc. derived
from Semitics
Construction of cities, temples, tombs, systematic irrigation, war chariots
b. Iron Age (1100 BC to 500 AD)
First use of iron for implements and weapons.
Historical sequences in Iron Age
a. Gautam Buddha (nearly 550 BC)
b. Confucius and Lao Tse in China (around 6th century BC)
c. Emperor Ashoka in India: spread Buddhism to Kashmir, Persia, Ceylon, China and Alexandria
(capital of Roman empire)
d. Jesus Christ
e. Victory of Aryan: from 900 to 600 BC over the whole ancient world: Semitic, Egyptian,
Greek, India except China
f. Greek civilization
Greek people: trades, travelers, enthusiastic
Greek Philosophers
Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, Archimedes
Bessemer process (1856) and open hearth process (1864) for processing of iron and steel
Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell (1876)
Steam turbine (1884)
Petrol car by Carl Benz (1888)
Internal combustion diesel engine by Rudolph Diesel (1893)
Wireless telegraphy by Marconi (1896)
Medical science and agricultural science advanced
In 1903 testing of the first air craft by Wright brothers in the USA, availability of
aeroplane for humans from 1909
Book on scientific management by Taylor in 1911
Moving-assembly-line techniques for car manufacturing by Ford (1913)
Project management techniques (Gantt Chart -1917)
Impact of industrial revolution
Mechanization: Change of power source from muscle power and animal power to steam
engine which was more economical, easier to handle and efficient than previous sources.
Social, cultural and economical change
Revolution in transport and communication
Easier and more comfortable life, better health condition
Advance in education, science, medicine, textile and agriculture
Relocation of large portions of the population from the countryside to the towns and cities
Growth in trade and business
Availability of great variety of materials
Rise of wealthy people
o Especially businessman became richer, while workers also got good wages.
Start of automation replacing human operations
Negative points: break up of joint family, women and child labor, gap between poor and
rich
Material growth and subsequent colonization
o Demand of raw materials and nationalist pride led colonization to produce and trade
goods
Dutch, Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (North and South America), French, England
Negative impact of colonization
Conflict and internal strife in colonized countries
Extraction of vast amounts of natural resources from the colonies by British Empire
1.4 Influence of First and Second World wars on technology
World War I (WWI) (1914-1918)
Main Causes
o Beginning: Beginning of war after the assassination of Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-
Hungarian throne, by, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria-Hungary . The retaliation by AustriaHungary against Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war
declarations. Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare.
Alliance of France, UK, Russia, Italy, US
Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary
o Continuing French resentment over the loss of territory to Germany in the 19th century
o The growing economic and military competition between Britain and Germany
o German desire to become more established countries of Europe.
End of war: The war was ended by several treaties, most notably the Treaty of Versailles, signed
on 28 June 1919.
Technical inventions during WWI
Chemical advancement: high explosive, poison gases, fixing of atmospheric N2
Telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks
Development of ship and aircraft, military weapons
Automatic rifle
Impact of world war I on technology
Development of the mechanical equipment and scientific development of weapons
accelerated
Between two wars (1918 to 1939)
The construction and developments were done throughout the world.
Inventions of radar (1922), talking film (1922), helicopter (1924), Electronic TV (1927),
Jet Engine (1937)
The Second World War (1939 to 1945)
Causes
a. Hitlers Aims to dominate Europe and the World
b. The aggression of Hitlers Allies: Italy and Japan
c. Democratic (USA, Britain and France) powers were passive
d. The League of Nations failed to keep peace
Sequences
Involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers organized into
two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis
Axis: Germany, Japan, Italy
Allies: UK, France, Poland, Russia, China, USA etc.
Starting with the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and subsequent declarations of war
on Germany by the United Kingdom, France and the British Dominions
Ended with Allies victory in 1945
Inventions/ Technical developments
Development of military weapons
Jet plane, Crewless plane, Modern rockets, Helicopters
Advance in tank design
Advance in communication
Airplanes used to carry bombs.
Development of nuclear weapons
Development of artificial harbors
Oil pipelines under the English Channel.
Acquaintance of atomic energy
The modern era of automatic digital computer began during world war II
o 1939 to 1944: first automatic digital computer
Impact
New technological developments in speed and arms advanced.
Emergence of the Soviet Union and the United States as the superpowers.
Creation of the United Nations
Decolonization movement
Integration of western Europe
Beginning of computer age
Negative impacts of world wars
Loss of life: Great human disaster
Destruction of property
Air, water and soil pollution
Spreading of disease
1.5 Information age (1945 to present)
Sequences
Post industrial era: information age
Liberation of colonized countries aftermath of war
Development of computer technology (modern computer in 1950)
Introduction of era of global satellite communication
1957: start of globalization of information revolution after Sputnik launched by Russians
Human beings in space (1961)
revolution.
In computer age, we are dealing with the conceptual space connected by electronics
rather than physical space connected by motor car
Combined technology of telephone, computer and television have merged into an
information and communication system
Information economy: Real, renewable and self generating economy
Revolution in communication technology due to sophisticated information technology
Application of technology to old industrial tasks and then gradually to new tasks
Focus on better education
Continuation of manufacturing industries, only change from physical to more intellectual
functions
Marx theory of labor value has replaced by knowledge theory of value.
Majority of professional workers involved in information sector: e.g. teachers, lawyers,
engineers, computer programmers, system analysts, architects, accountants, doctors, nurses,
social workers, librarians, newspaper reporters, managers, insurance people, bankers
Information is wealth like capital in industrial society
The new source of power is not money in the hands of a few, but information in the
hands of many
Scientific research expanded many folds due to information age: many journal papers,
technical literatures
Robot doing skilled and unskilled job
Easy access to vast amount of information due to internet
Challenges of information society
Information age not absolute
Erosion in employment opportunities due to computer and robot
Challenge to make people computer literate
Challenge to control computer related theft, fraud
Challenge to implement rules and regulations for information sharing
2.8 Information as source of knowledge and power
Publication of millions of pages of scientific journals and technical literature per year
Billions of websites in the internet to provide information
Increase in scientific works
Increased use of computer even in undeveloped countries like Nepal
In an information economy, value is increased not by labor, but by knowledge
Emerging communication network fueling the information society
Information always worked to enhance the knowledge
From the information we acquire knowledge power and therefore the source of
Radioactive substances
Others: color, odor, taste
Impact of water pollution
Health hazard due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria from domestic sewage, toxic
materials and industrial waste
Water borne diseases: typhoid, cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis
Economic loss: disturbance recreation, aesthetics, agriculture, industry, property
Impact on aquatic and plant life
Prevention of pollution
Treatment of sewage
Treatment of industrial waste
Providing training and technical facilities in industry to treat waste water
Not using water source for discharging sewage
Rules and regulations for controlling pollution
Proper planning of towns
Sewage disposal method
1. Natural methods
Dilution: discharging into water course e.g. sea, river or lake, self purification in due
course of time
Land treatment: spreading sewage on land, two ways: filtration, sewage farming
2. Artificial method: Sewage treatment method for removal of suspended solids, pathogens
Cause, Effect and remedial measures of various water pollutants
Physical
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|1. Suspended solids
|Clay, silt, organic matters,
|Turbidity, color, odor
|Treatment:
Settling,
|
|(turbidity)
|inorganic matter, minerals, algae,|
|coagulation,
filtration
|
|
|fungi
|
|
|
|2. Color
|Dissolved organic matters,
|Objectionable from aesthetic |Treatment
method, such as |
|
|inorganic matter and minerals, |and psychological point of |aeration,
treatment with
|
|
|industrial waste
|view, no health effect
|activated
carbon, oxidation |
|
|
|
|of organic matters
|
|3. Taste and odor
|Dead or living microorganisms, |Bad smell, not suitable
for |
|
|
|dissolved gases e.g. H2S,
|drinking
|
|
|minerals, e.g. Nacl, industrial |
|
|
|
|waste
|
|
|
Biological
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|1. Pathogenic organisms
|Human and animal fecal|Water-borne diseases, e.g.
cholera, |Disinfection, e.g. by boiling, by
|
|
|waste
|typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, |ultraviolet rays, by
using ozone,
|
|
|
|diarrhea, vomiting
|potassium per magnate,
chlorination
|
Chemical pollutants
a. Some chemicals
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|Acidity/alkalinity
|Presence of acid or alkali |Acidic water: tuberculosis,
corrosion|Neutralizing
|
|(PH)
|
|Alkaline water: incrustation,
|
|PH = log10[1/H+]
|
|sediment
deposits
|
|
|Calcium and Magnesium
|Natural
|Hardness
|Water
softening
|
|Chloride
|Natural, pollution from sea |Not significant in small
amount, |Treatment method, such as
|
|(In the form of NaCl)
|water, brine or industrial and |salty taste,
corrosion
|dilution, reverse osmosis,
|
|
|domestic waste
|
|distillation
|
|Sulfate
|Natural
|Not significant in small amount, |Treatment
method, such as reverse|
|
|
|Laxative effect, hardness, taste |osmosis,
distillation
|
|Fluoride
|Water additive for promoting |1.5ppm, de-fluoridation (e.g. |
|
process)
|Phosphate
precipitation
|
|of teeth
|lime-soda
|
|Natural, agriculture, boiler |Algal growth
|
|water, laundries
|Chemical
|
b. Dissolved gas
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|Dissolved oxygen
|Absorption from atmosphere
|Positive effect:
taste
|Chemical method for treatment e.g. |
|
|
|Negative: corrosion
|using Sodium sulfite,
boiling
|
|Dissolved CO2
|Absorption from atmosphere
|Bad taste, odor,
corrosion
|Treatment method, such as aeration |
|Dissolved H2S
|Natural: due to Sulfur reducing |Bad taste, odor,
corrosion
|Treatment method, such as aeration,|
|
|bacteria, hot water heater
|
|activated carbon,
oxidation
|
|
|fitted with Magnesium
|
|
|
c. Forms of Nitrogen
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|Nitrite, Nitrate
|Runoff from fertilizer use,
|Effect to infants, blue-baby |Treatment
method, such as
|
|
|leaching from septic tanks, sewage,|syndrome, algal growth
|biological
treatment, distillation,|
|
|erosion of natural deposits
|
|reverse
osmosis
|
|Ammonia
|Metabolic, agriculture
|Not of immediate health
|Treatment
method, such as
|
|
|
|relevance, Pollution, growth |biological treatment,
aeration |
|
|
|of algae
|
|
d. Agrochemicals
|Impurity/pollutants
measures
|Pesticide
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
|
|Agriculture use |Positive: Increase in crop production
|Pest
management by eco-friendly
|
|
|
|Negative: water pollution, effect to other |manner, e.g. crop
rotation, multi-crop|
|
|
|animals, birds, including human health |agriculture, natural
predator,
|
|
|
|
|parasites, pathogens for controlling |
|
|
|
|pest, sterilization
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Chemical fertilizer
|Agriculture use |Positive: Increase in crop production
|Use of
organic fertilizers (manure, |
|
|
|Negative: water pollution, algal growth |compost), use of
minimum level of |
|
|
|
|inorganic fertilizer
|
e. Metals
|Impurity/pollutants
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|Iron and Manganese
|Natural deposits, iron pipes
|Taste, color and
turbidity, |Treatment method, such as |
|
|
|staining of clothes,
|aeration, oxidation
|
|
|
|incrustation in water mains |
|
|Copper
|Corrosion of household plumbing |Liver or kidney damage, effect
|Corrosion control
|
|
|systems; erosion of natural
|on lungs, restriction in
the |
|
|
|deposits
|growth of aquatic plants
|
|
|Zinc
|Natural deposits
|Not water hazard
|Treatment method,
such as |
|
|
|overdose: vomiting, dizziness |coagulation,
filtration
|
|Aluminum
|Natural deposits, treatment using |Neurological
disorders
|Treatment method, such as |
|
|Aluminium sulphate as coagulant |
|reverse osmosis,
softening |
f. Some toxic metals
|Impurity/
|Cause
|Effect
|Remedial
measures
|
|pollutants
|
|
|
|Arsenic
|Natural, Industrial effluents (glass |Toxic, respiratory and skin
|
|Use of low
Noise pollution: unwanted sound which produce undesirable physiological and psychological
effect.
Source
Traffic: air traffic, road traffic and seashore and inland water traffic
Industries
Others: loudspeaker, siren, shouting, ringing bell, general daily activities
Effect
General discomfort
Reduction in efficiency of persons
Psychological effect
Effect on sleep, recreation and personal communication
Reduction in gastric activity, dizziness, rise in breathing
Irritation, anxiety and stress
Lack of concentration
Mental fatigue
Effect of prolonged exposure: Physical damage to ear, temporary/permanent hearing loss,
or nervous breakdown, increase in blood pressure
Countermeasures
Protection of the recipient: use of air plugs or air muffs
Increasing path distance
Noise barriers: absorptive materials, e.g. heavy drapes, carpets, special ceiling, wall
acoustic material
Reduction of noise at the source
Rules and regulations
3.5 Global warming (Greenhouse effect)
Global warming
Rise in global mean temperature of the earth
Solar energy: short wave radiation
Energy radiated from the earths surface: long wave radiation
Greenhouse effect
Concept of conventional greenhouse with glass: transmit short wave radiation, opaque to
long wave radiation
Greenhouse effect: effect caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in which short
wave radiation is transmitted to the earths surface, but the long wave radiation from the earth is
absorbed thereby increasing the temperature
Greenhouse gases
Group of about 20 gases responsible for the greenhouse effect through their ability to
absorb long wave terrestrial radiation
occupy less than 1% of total volume of atmosphere
Major greenhouse gases
CO2: major, responsible 60% of total GHG
CH4
NOx, mainly N2O: responsible 7% of total GHG
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): responsible 25% of total GHG
O3
Water vapor
Cause of global warming: Enhancement of green house effect due to anthropogenic activities
Sources of GHG
CO2: Burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), large scale deforestation
CH4: large scale decomposition of organic matter in swamps, rice paddy, livestock yards,
cattle rising, biomass burning
N2O: soil and fertilizer, groundwater and oceans, combustion
CFC: using refrigerant, air-conditioning, fire extinguisher, cleaning solvent, blowing
agent, aerosol spray
O3: upper natural environment
Prediction of global warming
Using global circulation models (GCM): computer analysis of mathematical equations that
model earths atmosphere
Impact of global warming
Rise in temperature: 0.3 to 0.6 deg c in the last century
Sea level rise: due to thermal expansion of water on oceans and melting of ice caps and
glaciers, 1-2 mm/year over the last century, flooding of coastal areas, beach erosion, saltwater
intrusion into coastal areas
Effect on water resources: change in the pattern of evaporation and precipitation, increase
in evaporation and precipitation, more precipitation on the form of rain, increase in runoff
Effect on storms and desertification: more storms, expansion of deserts and sub-arid areas
with higher evaporation
Socio-economic effect: chances of disease due to high temperature, increase in poverty
due to flood and drought