This article was downloaded by: [Cumhuriyet University]

On: 07 February 2015, At: 23:01

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gpav20

Effects of paving conditions on built-in curling and

pavement performance
a

W. Hansen , Y. Wei , D. L. Smiley , Y. Peng & E. A. Jensen

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Michigan , 2350

Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
b

Michigan Department of Transportation , P. O. Box 30049, Lansing, MI, 48909, USA

Civil Engineering Department , Lawrence Technological , 21000 West Ten Mile Road,
Southfield, MI, 48075, USA
Published online: 24 Nov 2006.

To cite this article: W. Hansen , Y. Wei , D. L. Smiley , Y. Peng & E. A. Jensen (2006) Effects of paving conditions
on built-in curling and pavement performance, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 7:4, 291-296, DOI:
10.1080/10298430600798952
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298430600798952

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Downloaded from http://www.elearnica.ir

International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 2006, 291296

Effects of paving conditions on built-in curling and pavement

performance
W. HANSEN*, Y. WEI, D. L. SMILEY, Y. PENG and E. A. JENSEN{
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
Michigan Department of Transportation, P. O. Box 30049, Lansing, MI 48909, USA
{Civil Engineering Department, Lawrence Technological, 21000 West Ten Mile Road, Southfield, MI 48075, USA

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

(Received 4 October 2005; revised 27 March 2006)

The effective temperature difference between the slabs top and bottom at time of final set is an
important input parameter for the recently developed mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide
(M-EPDG). However, very limited guidelines are available for the selection of this parameter. The
major focus of this work is to quantify built-in curl from field temperature measurements for Michigan
pavements. The results of this study show that built-in curl can be substantial for hot weather paving
conditions. Early morning paving on a sunny summer day allows a maximum positive (i.e. top warmer
than bottom) temperature difference at time of final set due to maximum heat of hydration and added
solar radiation effects. The temperature difference between the slabs top and bottom was found to be
10 128C. Consequently, the slab stays flat and in full contact with the base from this time only if this
range is maintained. Unfortunately, this only occurs for a short time-period near mid-day, so the slab is
mostly in a permanently upward curled condition. For late fall temperature conditions, the difference
was slightly negative (about 2 28C) at time of set. Late fall construction therefore is favorable for
maintaining slab base contact. Despite combined built-in curl and daily curling changes, slab stress
predictions using finite element analysis (ISLAB2000) for multi-axle loading at joints found the total
stresses for a typical summertime 24 h period to be below the tensile stress necessary to initiate fatigue
failure (i.e. below 45% of the flexure strength). This suggests that additional slab uplift from moisture
warping is a factor for top down cracking to develop.
Keywords: Built-in curl; Corner uplift; Tensile stress; Top down cracking; Zero-stress temperature

1. Introduction
In concrete pavements, temperature differences between
the top and bottom of a slab cause curling deformations
and stresses (Westergaard 1926). Unless actual field
measurements are made, normally a maximum temperature gradient of 0.055 0.0778C/mm (2.5 3.58F/in.) is
assumed to occur during the day and about half of that is
assumed to occur over night (Huang 1993).
Temperature curling and moisture warping can significantly reduce slab base contact area and result in early
failure of jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCPs)
(Poblete et al. 1990, Darter et al. 1995, Yu et al. 1998,
Khazanovich et al. 2000a,b, Hansen et al. 2002).
Temperature curling of a slab is caused by a temperature
gradient existing along slab depth. Slabs curl upward when
the top is cooler than the bottom, with edges lifting from the
base and leaving an unsupported portion. Moisture warping
occurs when there is a difference in moisture between the

top and bottom surfaces of concrete slab. The slab surface

can dry out, but below about 50 mm from the surface, the
moisture level remains at a relatively constant high level.
This results in upward warping of the slab. A part of the
drying shrinkage in PCC is reversible. The irreversible
shrinkage causes permanent moisture warping and the
reversible part causes seasonal variation in moisture
warping (Janssen 1986, Rao 2001, Suprenant 2002).
In most cases, upward curved shape of a concrete
pavement is evident at an early age and can consequently
influence the slabs long-term performance (Eisenmann
and Leykauf 1990, Springenschmid and Hiller 1998,
Yu et al. 1998, Khazanovich et al. 2000a,b, National
Ready Mix Concrete Association 2004, Guo et al. 2005).
Built-in curl, a permanent form of curling formed in young
pavement, has been reported (Franklin et al. 1969,
Eisenmann and Leykauf 1990, Poblete et al. 1990). This
condition is prevalent during hot weather construction if a
high positive temperature differential exists through the

*Corresponding author. Tel: 1-734-763-9660. Fax: 1-734-764-4292. Email: whansen@umich.edu

International Journal of Pavement Engineering
ISSN 1029-8436 print/ISSN 1477-268X online q 2006 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/10298430600798952

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

292

W. Hansen et al.

slab thickness at time of final set; upward corner and edge

curling may occur shortly thereafter when the temperature
gradient dissipates. The construction curl reaches its
maximum under a morning placement condition, because
the maximum heat of hydration and the maximum solar
radiation coincide at about the same time resulting in a
large positive temperature gradient when the slab hardens
(Rhodes 1950).
Rhodes (1950) and Eisenmann and Leykauf (1990)
found that the built-in temperature gradient from
construction is of the same importance in its effect on
upward curling as the daily temperature gradient. Springenschmid and Hiller (1998) developed test methods to
study the influence of built-in temperature gradient on slab
deformation and contact conditions. Field and analytical
studies in the US also confirmed the importance of this
effect (Yu et al. 1998, Rao et al. 2001).
The effective temperature difference due to permanent
curl/warp is an important input parameter for the recently
developed M-EPDG (NCHRP 2003). However, very
limited guidelines are available for the selection of this
parameter.
In this study, temperature results from field-instrumented pavements for summer and fall construction in
Michigan are presented. These temperatures are used to
determine the respective magnitude of construction curl
for summer and fall construction. This study evaluated the
effects of construction conditions (summer vs. fall paving)
on construction curl, slab uplift, fatigue stress and zerostress temperature of JPCPs.

2. Measured field temperature gradient for summer

and fall construction in Michigan
Two JPCP projects, constructed on a hot and sunny day in
early summer and on a cold and cloudy day in late fall,
were investigated to determine the effect of paving
conditions on the magnitude of built-in curl. Both projects
were instrumented with wireless temperature sensors,
which were programmed to collect temperature data from
start of construction in 30 min intervals. The concrete
section used for sensor placement was hand-scooped
immediately after placement. The sensors were placed at
four different depths at the same location (mid-slab and
approximately 0.6 m from the longitudinal edge with
shoulder) starting from the top of the base, then
approximately 50, 100, 150 and 200 mm above from the
slab bottom. One sensor was located off the shoulder for
ambient temperature measurements.
Temperatures at the slabs top and bottom surface,
where no sensors were instrumented, were extrapolated
using the nearest sensor from the top and bottom of the
slab. Figure 1(a) and (b) show the temperature gradients
at four different times after paving for summer and fall
construction, respectively. Based on the field measurements, the temperature difference at the top and bottom
PCC slab surfaces is found to be positive for summer

Figure 1. Field measured temperature profiles along slab depth after

paving (a) summer construction, I-94 JPCP project, (b) fall construction,
US-23 project, temperature data provided by Tim Stallard, MDOT.

construction and it changes from positive to negative

for fall construction within the first few hours after
placement.
The temperature difference at the time of final set was
found to be of great significance as it determines the slab
base contact condition of later ages. The final set time is
affected by the concrete temperature. Figure 2 shows the
relationship between final set time of mortar and curing
temperature tested in the laboratory. This relationship is
used to estimate the final set time of concrete in the field
by converting field pavement temperature into a reference
temperature using maturity concept (ASTM 1995). Based
on the field measured pavement temperature and maturity
concept, the final set time is calculated as 4.5 h for summer
construction and 8.5 h for fall construction in this study.
The temperature differences at final set for summer and
fall construction are shown in figure 1. A positive

Figure 2. Final set time of mortar under different curing temperatures.

Built-in curling and pavement performance

293

temperature difference of about 118C at final set (4.5 h

after placement) is found for summer construction.
Whenever the temperature difference in the slab at later
ages falls below 118C, the slab will curl upward. Thus, for
later age curling analysis, it is assumed that hot weather
construction has resulted in a built-in temperature
difference between top and bottom of 2 118C. For fall
construction project, a negative temperature difference of
2 1.68C is observed at final set (8.5 h after placement).
Thus, slabs constructed during this period will curl
permanently downward if a zero-temperature difference is
measured at later ages.

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

3. Finite element modeling of JPCPs transverse crack

resistance
3.1 Slab uplift
In this study, the field measured slab temperatures were
used to analyze pavement performance using finite
element software ISLAB2000. ISLAB2000 assumes that
the PCC slab is flat when no temperature gradient or axle
load acts on the slab. As was discussed above, this
assumption is violated for in situ conditions. To account
for the effect of construction curl on slabs performance,
an effective daily temperature difference is used as an
input into ISLAB2000. The effective temperature
difference was obtained by adding the built-in temperature difference of 2 118C (for summer construction) or
1.68C (for fall construction) to the daily temperature
differences.
In figure 3, the effective temperature difference, which
accounts for the built-in temperature gradient, is plotted
together with the measured temperature difference
between top and bottom. The effective temperature
difference during a 24 h cycle for summer temperature
conditions is below zero all the time indicating a permanent
slab uplift condition. A maximum effective temperature
difference of 2 188C can be reached in concrete pavements
at early morning hs during a summer day in Michigan. A
full slab base contact condition is not achieved during the
several 24 h temperature cycles shown in figure 3(a). Late
fall construction on the other hand has minimal effect on the
daily curl as seen from figure 3(b).
It is known that poor curing and dry hot weather
accelerate moisture loss from the surface region of a
concrete slab. Moisture gradient warping will result in slab
corner uplift thus increasing loss of slab support at joints.
Accurate modeling of slab uplift from drying shrinkage
gradient is not realistic due to the complexities involved in
determining moisture gradients for hot and cold weather
construction conditions. It has been reported (Darter et al.
1995) that slab corners during the dry season can be
upward curled equivalent to a negative temperature
gradient of about 0.011 0.0158C/mm. Therefore, the
combined effects of daily temperature cycles, construction
conditions (summer paving vs. fall paving) and moisture

Figure 3. Daily and effective temperature difference for (a) summer and
(b) fall construction.

warping on slab uplift can be determined using FEM

program by inputting a total equivalent temperature
gradient (Ruiz et al. 2001, NCHRP 2003, Rao and Roesler
2005). The total equivalent temperature gradient is
calculated by superimposing each temperature gradient
and can be written as equation (1):
DT total T top; daily 2 T bottom; daily 2 T top; final set
2 T bottom; final set DT warping equivalent

Where DTtotal, total equivalent temperature difference

resulted from combined effects of daily temperature
difference, built-in temperature difference and moisture
warping; Ttop, daily, top surface temperature due to daily
environmental temperature cycles; Tbottom, daily, bottom
surface temperature due to daily environmental temperature cycles; Ttop, final-set, top surface temperature at final
set; Tbottom, final-set, bottom surface temperature at final set;
and DTwarping-equivalent, equivalent temperature difference
due to moisture warping
The modeling on slab uplift is conducted using
ISLAB2000, a finite element program specifically
developed for concrete pavements (Khazanovich et al.
2000a,b). The modeling parameters were determined from
the field and laboratory testing and are listed as follows:
The slab is 305 mm (12.5 in) in thickness, 4.57 m (15 ft)
in length. Youngs modulus, E, is 24,138 MPa
(3.5 106 psi). Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

294

W. Hansen et al.

during a typical summer day in Michigan for the four

climate loading cases shown in figure 4. Combined effect
of daily temperature gradient, summer construction and
moisture warping results in the largest slab corner uplift of
2500 microns, which occurs during early morning hours
and slab curls upward for the entire day. For summer
construction and daily temperature gradient without
warping being involved, slabs curl upward for most time
of the day and are flat during a short period around 3 p.m.
Thus, significant upward curling stresses can develop
associated with hot weather construction.
3.2 Fatigue stresses

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

Figure 4. Temperature difference for different climate loading cases

during a typical summer day, h 318 mm.

(CTE) of concrete is 10 1026/8C (5.6 1026/8F).The

subgrade reaction k is 68 kPa/mm (250 pci). The current
temperature used in equation (1) is from field measurements at seven different times during a typical summer
day in Michigan. Temperature profiles at final set for
summer and fall construction are taken from figure 1.
The total equivalent temperature differences, calculated using equation (1) are shown in figure 4 for four
climate loading cases: summer 24 h temperature gradient
only; summer 24 h temperature gradient and fall
construction; summer 24 h temperature gradient and
summer construction; and summer 24 h temperature
gradient and summer construction and moisture warping.
Summer construction and/or moisture warping shifts the
24 h temperature difference downward to negative values
resulting in a large maximum negative temperature
difference, fall construction shifts the later age 24 h
temperature cycles only slightly in the opposite direction.
Daily temperature gradient, construction condition and
moisture warping can all add together to cause a large slab
upward curling and tensile stresses at the top of the slab
which could lead to top down transverse cracking (Darter
et al. 1995) or even longitudinal or corner cracking (Hiller
and Roesler 2005). Figure 5 shows the slab corner uplift

Finite element analysis was conducted to investigate the

induced stresses in JPCP when truck loading is applied
at joints and outer edge for the four climate loading
cases. The modeling parameters are the same as in the
previous section. For top down transverse cracking, the
most critical loading position is directly above the
unsupported portion of slab due to upward curling and
warping near the joint corners. Thus, simultaneous joint
loading is the most critical loading condition (Khazanovich et al. 2000a,b, Hansen et al. 2002, Hiller and
Roesler 2002). Figure 6(a) demonstrates the critical
truck loading configuration used in this study taken from
the Michigan weight and axle load limits (www.truckingsafety.org/guidebook). The critical truck loading
position was obtained by moving the truck in 0.5 m
increment along the traffic direction. Six successive
JPCP slabs were used in modeling. A joint load transfer
efficiency (LTE) value of 100% was assumed. Finite
element-based stress contour predictions show that the
maximum total stresses are found at mid-slab and outer
edge, as shown in figure 6(c).
The maximum tensile stresses exceed the lower fatigue
limit for combined effects of summer daily temperature
gradient, built-in curl, moisture warping and truck
loading as seen in figure 7. The lower fatigue limit
(2.2 MPa) corresponding to 45% of the flexural tensile
strength (4.8 MPa), is shown. It appears that drying
shrinkage tips the scale towards top down fatigue
cracking. Fall time paving, on the other hand, can be
beneficial in terms of preventing top down transverse
cracking, as less slab uplift and tensile stresses are
generated in concrete slab.
3.3 Zero-stress temperature

Figure 5. Slab corner uplifts during a typical summer day under the four
climate loading cases shown in figure 4.

Another consequence of hot weather construction is a

large inelastic compressive creep during the first heating
cycle, which will result in a greater joint opening upon
cooling than fall construction. This is concluded from
laboratory tests of a fully-restrained concrete specimen
(800 mm length by 100 mm width and 100 mm height)
subjected to a similar heating cooling temperature
history as in the field. During this time, the thermal stress
in the specimen is recorded continuously using a load cell

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

Built-in curling and pavement performance

295

Figure 6. Tensile stresses at slab top surface under combined truck and temperature loading.

while the specimen is 100% restrained. The zero-stress

temperature is an indicator of inelastic behavior when
compared to temperature at final set. Hot weather
construction results in a substantially higher zero-stress
temperature than the final set temperature. It is concluded
from the measurements that summer construction can
cause high zero-stress temperature, which is 8 108C
higher than the temperature at final set. However, creep
associated with fall construction is small and shifts the
zero-stress temperature 1 28C below the final set
temperature. This means that later age joint opening is
much smaller and thus beneficial for LTE and long-term
performance of PCC pavement constructed during fall.
Figure 8 shows the temperature and stress development in
a concrete specimen for summer and late fall construction

Figure 7. Tensile stresses at slab top surface under combined climate

and truck loadings.

simulations. The zero-stress temperatures obtained from

laboratory tests agree with previous findings (NCHRP
2003) for hot weather construction.

4. Summary and conclusions

The major focus of this work is to quantify built-in curl
from field temperature measurements for Michigan
pavements.
A built-in temperature gradient for summertime
temperature conditions was found to be of the same
importance in its effect on upward curling as the daily
temperature gradient. These findings are in agreement
with those of Eisenmann and Leykauf (1990). The result is
an unfavorable slab shape that forms permanent slab uplift
at transverse joints and outer edges, leading to associated
loss of slab support. Late fall construction on the other
hand is favorable for maintaining permanent slab base
contact as it reduced the combined slab uplift from daily
temperature curl.
Finite element analysis using ISLAB2000 for multiaxle loading at joints corresponding to a loss of slab
support condition shows that total daily stresses (from
built-in curl, daily temperature curl and heavy axle
loading) are below the tensile stress necessary for
initiating fatigue failure (i.e. below 45% of the flexure
strength). However, if an equivalent negative temperature
gradient based on data from the literature corresponding to
adverse differential drying shrinkage is included in the
analysis (Darter et al. 1995), then, fatigue failure resulting
in top down, mid-slab cracking beginning at the outer
edge is predicted for a JPCP project with substantial builtin curl from hot weather paving.
Laboratory stress tests on a concrete specimen show
that early-age compressive creep is substantial for hot

296

W. Hansen et al.

Downloaded by [Cumhuriyet University] at 23:01 07 February 2015

Figure 8. Stress temperature testing for summer and fall construction simulations.

weather paving conditions as it shifts the zero-stress

temperature substantially (8 108C) above the temperature
at time of final set, while creep associated with cold
weather paving is insignificant and the zero-stress
temperature is shifted slightly below (1 28C) the final
set temperature.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Michigan Department of
Transportation (MDOT) for sponsoring the project PCC
Pavement Acceptance Criteria for new Construction when
Built-in Curling Exists, UM project number F009839047121. The authors thank Tim Stallard, MDOT, for
providing the field temperature results. The opinions and
findings by the authors do not necessarily reflect the views
or policies of the Michigan Department of Transportation.
This work does not constitute a standard, specification, or
regulation by MDOT.
References
ASTM, Estimating concrete strength by the maturity method, C107487.
Annual Book of ASTM Standard, 1995.
Darter, M.I., Hall, K.T. and Kuo, C.M., Support under portland cement
concrete pavements. NCHRP Report 372, pp. 150, 1995.
Eisenmann, J. and Leykauf, G., Effect of paving temperatures on
pavement performance. 2nd International Workshop on the Design
and Evaluation of Concrete Pavements, pp. 419 431, 1990
(Siguenza, Spain).
Franklin, R.E., The effect of weather conditions on early strains in
concrete slabs, RRL Report No. LR266, Crowthorne, Berkshire, UK,
1969.
Guo, E.H., Dong, M.M. and Daiutolo, H., Curling under different
environmental variations as monitored in a singel concrete slab.
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Concrete
Pavements, Innovations for Concrete Pavement: Technology Transfer
for the Next Generation, August 14 18, pp. 11891203, 2005
(Colorado).
Hansen, W., Smiley, D., Peng, Y. and Jensen, E.A., Validating topdown
premature transverse slab cracking in jointed plain concrete pavement
(JPCP). Transportation Research Record 1809, pp. 52 59, 2002
(Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC).
Hiller, J.E. and Roesler, J.R., Transverse joint analysis for use in
mechanistic-empirical design of rigid pavements. Transportation

Research Record 1809, pp. 4251, 2002 (Transportation Research

Board: Washington, DC).
Hiller, J.E. and Roesler, J.R., Determination of critical concrete pavement
fatigue damage locations using influence lines. J. Transp. Eng. ASCE,
2005, 131(8), 599607.
Huang, Y.H., Pavement Design and Analysis, 1993 (Prentice Hall: New
Jercey).
Janssen, D.J., Moisture in portland cement concrete. Transportation
Research Record 1121, pp. 4044, 1986 (Transportation Research
Board: Washington, DC).
Khazanovich, L., Yu, H.T. and Beckemeyer, C.A., Application of ISLAB
for forensic studies. 2nd Int. Symp. 3D Finite Element Pavement
Analysis, Design & Research, 2000a (Charleston, Virginia).
Khazanovich, L., Yu, H.T., Rao, S., Galasova, K., Shats, E. and Jones, R.,
ISLAB2000finite element analysis program for rigid and
composite pavements. Users Guide, 2000b (ERES Division of
ARA, Inc. Champaign, IL).
National Ready Mix Concrete Association, CIP19curling of concrete
slabs, concrete in practice, 2004, www.nrmca.org
NCHRP, Guide for mechanistic-empirical design for new and
rehabilitated pavement structures. Appendix KKTransverse Cracking of JPCP, 2003 (Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council).
Poblete, M., Garcia, A., David, J., Ceza, P. and Espinosa, R., Moisture
effects on the behavior of PCC pavements. Proceedings, 2nd
International Workshop on the Design and the Evaluation of
Concrete Pavements, 1990 (Siguenza, Spain).
Rao, S. and Roesler, J.R., Characterizing effective built-in curling from
concrete pavement field measurements. J. Transp. Eng. ASCE, 2005,
131(4), 320 327.
Rao, C., Barenberg, E.J., Snyder, M.B. and Schmidt, S., Effects of
temperature and moisture on the response of jointed concrete
pavements. Proceedings, 7th International Conference on Concrete
Pavements, 2001 (Orlando, Florida).
Rhodes, C.C., Curing Concrete Pavements with Membranes. Research
Report No. 145, 1950 (Michigan Department of Transportation).
Ruiz, J.M., Kim, P.J., Schindler, A.K. and Rasmussen, R.O., Validation of
HIPERPAV for prediction of early-age jointed concrete pavement
behavior. Transportation Research Record 1778, pp. 1725, 2001
(Washington, DC).
Springenschmid, R. and Hiller, E., Influence of temperature during curing
on stresses in concrete pavements. Proceedings, 8th International
Symposium of Concrete Roads, 1998 (Lisbon).
Westergaard, H.M., Analysis of stresses in concrete pavement due to
variations of temperature, Proceedings, Highway Research Board,
Vol. 6, pp. 201215, 1926.
Yu, H.T, Darter, M.I., Smith, K.D., Jiang, J. and Khazanovich, L.,
Performance of Concrete Pavements, Vol IIIImproving Concrete
Pavement Performance, Report No. FHWA-RD-95-111, 1997
(Federal Highway Administration: Washington, DC).
Yu, H.T., Khazanovich, L., Darter, M.I. and Ardani, A., Analysis of
concrete pavement responses to temperature and wheel loads
measured from instrumented slabs. Transportation Research Record
1639, 1998 (Washington, DC).