An Introduction to

Acoustic Emission Testing, AET

2014-June
Facilitators: Fion Zhang/ Charliechong

http://wins-ndt.com/oil-chem/spherical-tanks/

http://www.smt.sandvik.com/en/search/?q=stress+corrosion+cracking

Speaker: Fion Zhang

2014/6/13

Contents:
1. AE Codes and Standards
ASTM
ASME V
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reading 01,
Reading 02,
Reading 03,
Others reading.

ASME V Article Numbers:

Gen
RT
Nil
UT
UT
PT
MT
ET
Visual
LT
AE
Qualif.
ACFM

Article 1
Article 2
Article 3
Article 4 for welds
Article 5 for materials
Article 6
Article 7
Article 8
Article 9
Article 10
Article 11 (FRP) /Article 12 (Metallic) / Article 13 (Continuous)
Article 14
Article 15

ASTM Standards
1. ASTM E 1930 Standard Practice for Examination of Liquid-Filled
Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic
Emission
2. ASTM E 569 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of
Structures During Controlled Stimulation
3. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring of continuous
welding
4. ASTM F914 governs the procedures for examining insulated aerial
personnel devices.
5. ASTM E 1932 for the AE examination of small parts,
6. ASTM E1419-00 for the method of examining seamless, gas-filled,
pressure vessels.

Others Reading
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/63985/203279/Chapter-10-Acoustic-Emission-Testing
http://www.corrosionsource.com/(S(vf34kqncr0uklwzu0ioy5dz2))/FreeContent/3/Combatting+Liq
uid+Metal+Attack+by+Mercury+in+Ethylene+and+Cryogenic+Gas+PlantsTask+1+-+NonDestructive+Testing
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/index.php?id=2

Typical AET Signal

https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2196/1/Acoustic%20Emission%20Waveform%20Changes%202006.pdf

Typical AET Signal

Study Note 1:
http://www.geocities.ws/raobpc/AET.html

What is AE
Acoustic emission is the technical term for the noise emitted by materials and
structures when they are subjected to stress. Types of stresses can be
mechanical, thermal or chemical. This emission is caused by the rapid
release of energy within a material due to events such as crack initiation and
growth, crack opening and closure, dislocation movement, twinning, and
phase transformation in monolithic materials and fiber breakage and fibermatrix debonding in composites.
The subsequent extension occurring under an applied stress generates
transient elastic waves which propagate through the solid to the surface
where they can be detected by one or more sensors. The sensor is a
transducer that converts the mechanical wave into an electrical signal. In this
way information about the existence and location of possible sources is
obtained. Acoustic emission may be described as the "sound" emanating
from regions of localized deformation within a material.

Until about 1973, acoustic emission technology was primarily employed in the
non-destructive testing of such structures as pipelines, heat exchangers,
storage tanks, pressure vessels, and coolant circuits of nuclear reactor plants.
However, this technique was soon applied to the detection of defects in
rotating equipment bearings.

Acoustic Emission
Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to generation of transient elastic waves
during rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material.
The source of these emissions in metals is closely associated with the
dislocation movement accompanying plastic deformation and with the
initiation and extension of cracks in a structure under stress. ,
/().
.
Other sources of AE are: melting, phase transformation, thermal stresses,
cool down cracking and stress build up, twinning, fiber breakage and fibermatrix debonding in composites.
:
,,,,
http://www.geocities.ws/raobpc/AET.html

AE Technique
The AE technique (AET) is based on the detection and conversion of high
frequency elastic waves emanating from the source to electrical signals. This
is accomplished by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface
of the structure under test and loading the structure. The output of the
piezoelectric sensors (during stimulus) is amplified through a low-noise
preamplifier, filtered to remove any extraneous noise and further processed
by suitable electronics. AET can non-destructively predict early failure of
structures. Further, a whole structure can be monitored from a few locations
and while the structure is in operation. AET is widely used in industries for
detection of faults or leakage in pressure vessels, tanks, and piping systems
and also for on-line monitoring welding and corrosion. The difference
between AET and other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques is that AET
detects activities inside materials, while other techniques attempt to examine
the internal structures of materials by sending and receiving some form of
energy.

Types of AET
Acoustic emissions are broadly classified into two major types namely;
continuous type and
burst type.
The waveform of continuous type AE signal is similar to Gaussian random
noise, but the amplitude varies with acoustic emission activity. In metals
and alloys, this form of emission is considered to be associated with the
motion of dislocations. Burst type emissions are short duration pulses and
are associated with discrete release of high amplitude strain energy. In
metals, the burst type emissions are generated by twinning, micro yielding,
development of cracks.
Continuos type (Gaussian random noise) Motion of dislocation,
Burst type (discrete high amplitude strain energy) twinning, micro
yielding, development of cracks

AET Set-up

Continuous type- Gaussian random noise

Continuous type

Discrete Burst Type

Discrete Burst Type

Kaiser Effect
Plastic deformation is the primary source of AE in loaded metallic structures.
An important feature affecting the AE during deformation of a material is
Kaiser Effect, which states that additional AE occurs only when the stress
level exceeds previous stress level. A similar effect for composites is termed
as 'Falicity effect'.
Key words:

Kaiser effect
Falicity effect

Kaiser Effect- which states that additional AE occurs only when the stress
level exceeds previous stress level. A similar effect for composites is termed
as 'Falicity effect'.

http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=476

AE Parameters
Various parameters used in AET include: AE burst, threshold, ring down
count, cumulative counts, event duration, peak amplitude, rise time, energy
and rms voltage etc. Typical AE system consists of signal detection,
amplification & enhancement, data acquisition, processing and analysis units.

Sensors / Source Location Identification

The most commonly used sensors are resonance type piezoelectric
transducers with proper couplants. In some applications where sensors
cannot be fixed directly, waveguides are used. Sensors are calibrated for
frequency response and sensitivity before any application. The AE
technique captures the parameters and correlates with the defect
formation and failures. When more than one sensors is used,
AE source can be located based by measuring the signals arrival time to
each sensor. By comparing the signals arrival time at different sensors,
the source location can be calculated through triangulation and
other methods.
AE sources are usually classified based on activity and intensity
. A source is considered to be active if its event count continues to
increase with stimulus.
A source is considered to be critically active if the rate of change of its
count or emission rate consistently increases with increasing stimulation
.

AET Advantages
AE testing is a powerful aid to materials testing and the study of deformation,
fatigue crack growth, fracture, oxidation and corrosion. It gives an immediate
indication of the response and behaviour of a material under stress, intimately
connected with strength, damage and failure. A major advantage of AE
testing is that it does not require access to the whole examination area. In
large structures / vessels permanent sensors can be mounted for periodic
inspection for leak detection and structural integrity monitoring.
Typical advantages of AE technique include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

high sensitivity,
early and rapid detection of defects, leaks, cracks etc.,
on-line monitoring,
location of defective regions,
minimization of plant downtime for inspection,
no need for scanning the whole structural surface and
minor disturbance of insulation.

AET Limitations
On the negative side;
AET requires stimulus.
AE technique can only (1) qualitatively estimate the damage and predict (2)
how long the components will last. So,
other NDT methods are still needed for thorough examinations and for
obtaining quantitative information.
Plant environments are usually very noisy and the AE signals are usually
very weak. This situation calls for incorporation of signal discrimination and
noise reduction methods. In this regard, signal processing and frequency
domain analysis are expected to improve the situation.

A Few Typical Applications

Detection and location of leak paths in end-shield of reactors (frequency
analysis)
Identification of leaking pressure tube in reactors
Condition monitoring of 17 m Horton sphere during hydro testing (24
sensors)
On-line monitoring of welding process and fuel end-cap welds
Monitoring stress corrosion cracking, fatigue crack growth
Studying plastic deformation behaviour and fracture of SS304, SS316,
Inconel, PE-16 etc
Monitoring of oxidation process and spalling behaviour of metals and
alloys

Acoustic Emission Testing applications are most suitable for:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Aboveground Storage Tank Screening for Corrosion & Leaks

Pressure Containment Vessels (Columns, Bullets, Cat Crackers)
Horton Spheres & legs
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks and Piping
Offshore Platform Monitoring
Nuclear components inspection
Tube Trailers
Railroad tank cars
Bridge Critical Members monitoring
Pre- & Post-Stressed Concrete Beams
Reactor Piping
High Energy Seam Welded Hot Reheat Piping Systems in Power Plants.
On-Stream Monitoring
Remote Long Term Monitoring

http://www.techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Acoustic-Emission-Testing.cfm

Acoustic Emission Testing Advantages

1. Compared to conventional inspection methods the advantages of the
Acoustic Emission Testing technique are:
2. Tank bottom Testing without removal of product.
3. Inspection of Insulated Piping & Vessels
4. Real time monitoring during cool-down & start-ups
5. Real Time Monitoring Saves Money
6. Real Time Monitoring Improves Safety

Tank AET

End of Reading

Study Note 2:
Sidney Mindess
University of British Columbia
Chapter 16: Acoustic Emission Methods

16
Acoustic Emission
Methods

http://unina.stidue.net/Politecnico%20di%20Milano/Inge
gneria%20Strutturale/Corsi/Felicetti%20%20Structural%20assessment%20and%20residual%20
bearing%20capacity/books/Handbook%20of%20NDT%
20of%20Concrete/1485_C16.pdf

Dam

http://www.boomsbeat.com/articles/116/20140118/tianzi-mountains-china.htm

Dam

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6

Introduction
Historical Background
Theoretical Considerations
Evaluation of Acoustic Emission Signals
Instrumentation and Test Procedures
Parameters Affecting Acoustic Emissions from Concrete
The Kaiser Effect Effect of Loading Devices Signal
Attenuation Specimen Geometry Type of aggregate Concrete Strength
16.7 Laboratory Studies of Acoustic Emission
Fracture Mechanics Studies Type of Cracks Fracture Process
Zone (Crack Source) Location Strength vs. Acoustic Emission
Relationships Drying Shrinkage Fiber Reinforced Cements
and Concretes High Alumina Cement Thermal Cracking
Bond in Reinforced Concrete Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel
in Concrete
16.8 Field Studies of Acoustic Emission
16.9 Conclusions

Foreword:
Acoustic emission refers to the sounds, both audible and sub-audible, that are
generated when a material undergoes irreversible changes, such as those
due to cracking. Acoustic emissions (AE) from concrete have been studied for
the past 30 years, and can provide useful information on concrete properties.
This review deals with the parameters affecting acoustic emissions from
concrete, including discussions of the Kaiser effect, specimen geometry, and
concrete properties. There follows an extensive discussion of the use of AE to
monitor cracking in concrete, whether due to (1) externally applied loads, (2)
drying shrinkage, or (3) thermal stresses. AE studies on reinforced concrete
are also described. While AE is very useful laboratory technique for the study
of concrete properties, its use in the field remains problematic.

16.1 Introduction
It is common experience that the failure of a concrete specimen under load is
accompanied by a considerable amount of audible noise. In certain
circumstances, some audible noise is generated even before ultimate failure
occurs. With very simple equipment a microphone placed against the
specimen, an amplifier, and an oscillograph subaudible sounds can be
detected at stress levels of perhaps 50% of the ultimate strength; with the
sophisticated equipment available today, sound can be detected at much
lower loads, in some cases below 10% of the ultimate strength. These sounds,
both audible and subaudible, are referred to as acoustic emission. In general,
acoustic emissions are defined as the class of phenomena whereby transient
elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of energy from localized
sources within a material. These waves propagate through the material, and
their arrival at the surfaces can be detected by piezoelectric transducers.
Keywords: Audible & Sub-audible sounds

Acoustic emissions, which occur in most materials, are caused by irreversible

changes, such as (1) dislocation movement, (2) twinning, (3) phase
transformations, (4) crack initiation, and propagation, (5) debonding between
continuous and dispersed phases in composite materials, and so on.
In concrete, since the first three of these mechanisms do not occur, acoustic
emission is due primarily to:
1. Cracking processes
2. Slip between concrete and steel reinforcement
3. Fracture or debonding of fibers in fiber-reinforced concrete

16.2 Historical Background

The initial published studies of acoustic emission phenomena, in the early
1940s, dealt with the problem of predicting rockbursts in mines; this technique
is still very widely used in the field of rock mechanics, in both field and
laboratory studies. The first significant investigation of acoustic emission from
metals (steel, zinc, aluminum, copper, and lead) was carried out by Kaiser.
Among many other things, he observed what has since become known as the
Kaiser effect: the absence of detectable acoustic emission at a fixed
sensitivity level, until previously applied stress levels are exceeded. While
this effect is not present in all materials, it is a very important observation, and
it will be referred to again later in this review. The first study of acoustic
emission from concrete specimens under stress appears to have been carried
out by Rsch, who noted that during cycles of loading and unloading below
about 70 to 85% of the ultimate failure load, acoustic emissions were
produced only when the previous maximum load was reached (the Kaiser
effect). At about the same time, but independently, LHermite also measured
acoustic emission from concrete, finding that a sharp increase in acoustic
emission coincided with the point at which Poissons ratio also began to
increase (i.e., at the onset of significant matrix cracking in the concrete).

In 1965, however, Robinson used more sensitive equipment to show that

acoustic emission occurred at much lower load levels than had been reported
earlier, and hence, could be used to monitor earlier microcracking (such as
that involved in the growth of bond cracks in the interfacial region between
cement and aggregate). In 1970, Wells built a still more sensitive apparatus,
with which he could monitor acoustic emissions in the frequency range from
about 2 to 20 kHz. However, he was unable to obtain truly reproducible
records for the various specimen types that he tested, probably due to the
difficulties in eliminating external noise from the testing machine. Also in 1970,
Green reported a much more extensive series of tests, recording acoustic
emission frequencies up to 100 kHz. Green was the first to show clearly that
acoustic emissions from concrete are related to failure processes within the
material; using source location techniques, he was also able to determine the
locations of defects. It was this work that indicated that acoustic emissions
could be used as an early warning of failure. Green also noted the Kaiser
effect, which suggested to him that acoustic emission techniques could be
used to indicate the previous maximum stress to which the concrete had been
subjected. As we will see below, however, a true Kaiser effect appears not to
exist for concrete.

Green also noted the Kaiser effect, which suggested to him that acoustic
emission techniques could be used to indicate the previous maximum stress
to which the concrete had been subjected. As we will see below, however, a
true Kaiser effect appears not to exist for concrete.

Nevertheless, even after this pioneering work, progress in applying acoustic

emission techniques remains slow. An extensive review by Diederichs et al.
(et al means: and others), covers the literature on acoustic emissions from
concrete up to 1983. However, as late as 1976, Malhotra noted that there was
little published data in this area, and that acoustic emission methods are in
their infancy. Even in January, 1988, a thorough computer-aided search of
the literature found only some 90 papers dealing with acoustic emissions from
concrete over about the previous 10 years; while this is almost certainly not a
complete list, it does indicate that there is much work to be carried out before
acoustic emission monitoring becomes a common technique for testing
concrete. Indeed, there are still no standard test methods which have even
been suggested for this purpose.

16.3 Theoretical Considerations

When an acoustic emission event occurs at a source with the material, due to
(1) inelastic deformation or (2) to cracking, the stress waves travel directly
from the source to the receiver as body waves. Surface waves may then arise
from mode conversion. When the stress waves arrive at the receiver, the
transducer responds to the surface motions that occur.
It should be noted that the signal captured by the recording device may be
affected by:

the nature of the stress pulse generated by the source,

the geometry of the test specimen, and
the characteristics of the receiver,

making it difficult to interpret the recorded waveforms.

Two basic types of acoustic emission signals can be generated (Figure 16.1):
Continuous emission is a qualitative description of the sustained signal
level produced by rapidly occurring acoustic emission events. These are
generated by events such as plastic deformations in metals, which occur
in a reasonably continuous manner.
Burt emission is a qualitative description of the discrete signal related to
an individual emission event occurring within the matrial,1 such as that
which may occur during crack growth or fracture in brittle materials.
These burst signals are characteristic of the acoustic emission events
resulting from the loading of cementitious materials.

FIGURE 16.1 The two basic types of acoustic emission signals. (A) Continuous
emission. (B) Burst emission.

16.4 Evaluation of Acoustic Emission Signals

A typical acoustic emission signal from concrete is shown in Figure 16.2.12
However, when such acoustic events are examined in much greater detail, as
shown in Figure 16.3,13 the complexity of the signal becomes even more
apparent; the scatter in noise, shown in Figure 16.3, makes it difficult to
determine exactly the time of arrival of the signal; this means that very
sophisticated equipment must be used to get the most information out of the
acoustic emission signals. In addition, to obtain reasonable sensitivity, the
acoustic emission signals must be amplified. In concrete, typically, system
gains in the range of 80 to 100 decibels (dB) are used.

FIGURE 16.2 A typical acoustic emission signal from concrete. (From

Berthelot, J.M. et al., private communication, 1987. With permission.)

FIGURE 16.3 Typical view of an acoustic emission event as displayed in an

oscilloscope screen. (Adapted from Maji, A. and Shah, S.P., Exp. Mech., 26,
1, 1988, p. 27.)

FIGURE 16.2 A typical acoustic emission signal from concrete. (From

Berthelot, J.M. et al., private communication, 1987. With permission.)

There are a number of different ways in which acoustic emission signals may
be evaluated.
Acoustic Emission Counting (ring-down counting)
This is the simplest way in which an acoustic emission event may be
characterized. It is the number of times the acoustic emission signal exceeds
a preset threshold during any selected portion of a test, and is illustrated in
Figure 16.4. A monitoring system may record:

FIGURE 16.4 The principle of acoustic emission counting (ring-down counting).

1. The total number of counts (e.g., 13 counts in Figure 16.4). Since the
shape of a burst emission is generally a damped sinusoid, pulses of higher
amplitude will generate more counts.
2. The count rate. This is the number of counts per unit of time; it is
particularly useful when very large numbers of counts are recorded.
3. The mean pulse amplitude. This may be determined by using a root-mean
square meter, and is an indication of the amount of energy being
dissipated.
Clearly, the information obtained using this method of analysis depends upon
both the gain and the threshold setting. Ring-down counting is affected
greatly by the characteristics of the transducer, and the geometry of the
test specimen (which may cause internal reflections) and may not be
indicative of the nature of the acoustic emission event. In addition, there is
no obvious way of determining the amount of energy released by a single
event, or the total number of separate acoustic events giving rise to the
counts.

Event counting Circuitry is available which counts each acoustic emission

event only once, by recognizing the end of each burst emission in terms of a
predetermined length of time since the last count (i.e., since the most recent
crossing of the threshold). In Figure 16.4, for instance, the number of events
is three. This method records the number of events, which may be very
important, but provides no information about the amplitudes involved.
Rise time This is the interval between the time of first occurrence of
signals above the level of the background noise and the time at which the
maximum amplitude is reached. This may assist in determining the type of
damage mechanism.
Signal duration This is the duration of a single acoustic emission event;
this too may be related to the type of damage mechanism.

Amplitude distribution This provides the distribution of peak amplitudes.

This may assist in identifying the sources of the emission events that are
occurring.
Frequency analysis This refers to the frequency spectrum of individual
acoustic emission events. This technique, generally requiring a fast Fourier
transformation analysis of the acoustic emission waves, may help
discriminate between different types of events. Unfortunately, a frequency
analysis may sometimes simply be a function of the response of the
transducer, and thus reveal little of the true nature of the pulse.
Energy analysis This is an indication of the energy released by an
acoustic emission event; it may be measured in a number of ways, depending
on the equipment, but it is essentially the area under the amplitude vs. time
curve (Figure 16.4) for each burst. Alternatively, the area under the envelope
of the amplitude vs. time curve may be measured for each burst.

Defect location By using a number of transducers to monitor acoustic

emission events, and determining the time differences between the detection
of each event at different transducer positions, the location of the acoustic
emission event may be determined by using triangulation techniques. Work
by Maji and Shah, for instance, has indicated that this technique may be
accurate to within about 5 mm.
Analysis of the wave-form Most recently, it has been suggested that an
elaborate signals processing technique (deconvolution) applied to the waveform of an acoustic emission event can provide information regarding the
volume, orientation, and type of microcrack. Ideally, since all of these
methods of data analysis provide different information, one would wish to
measure them all. However, this is neither necessary nor economically
feasible. In the discussion that follows, it will become clear that the more
elaborate methods of analysis are useful in fundamental laboratory
investigations, but may be inappropriate for practical applications.

Signal Evaluation: Analysis of the wave-form

http://sirius.mtm.kuleuven.be/Research/NDT/AcousticEmissions/index.html

Signal Evaluation: Acoustic Emission Counting (ring-down counting)

Ring-down count= 13

Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration

Raise time
mV/s

Signal duration s

Event counts = 3 in unit time

Signal Evaluation: Amplitude Distribution- Triangulation to locate source

Signal Evaluation: Amplitude Distribution- Triangulation to locate source

http://iopscience.iop.org/0964-1726/21/3/035009;jsessionid=DE0B79359A6ADDA1365CAC54ABA381A2.c2

Signal Evaluation: Frequency analysis

Signal Evaluation:
Energy analysis- it is essentially the area under the amplitude vs. time curve
Note: all areas under curves or only areas above threshold.

Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration

ring-down counting

Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration

16.5 Instrumentation and Test Procedures

Instrumentation (and, where necessary, the associated computer software) is
available, from a number of different manufacturers, to carry out all of the
methods of signal analysis described above. It might be added that advances
in instrumentation have outpaced our understanding of the nature of the
elastic waves resulting from microcracking in concrete. The main elements of
a modern acoustic emission detection system are shown schematically in
Figure 16.5.

FIGURE 16.5 The main elements of a modern acoustic emission detection system.

A brief description of the most important parts of this system is as follows:

1. Transducers: Piezoelectric transducers (generally made of lead zirconate
titanate, PZT) are used to convert the surface displacements into electric
signals. The voltage output from the transducers is directly proportional to
the strain in the PZT, which depends in turn on the amplitude of the
surface waves. Since these transducers are high impedance devices, they
yield relatively low signals, typically less than 100V. There are basically
two types of transducers. (a) Wide-band transducers are sensitive to
acoustic events with frequency responses covering a wide range, often
several hundred kHz. (b) Narrow-band transducers are restricted to a
much narrower range of frequencies, using bandpass filters. Of course, the
transducers must be properly coupled to the specimen, often using some
form of silicone grease as the coupling medium.

PZT:- If the p.d or the stress is changing the resulting effect also changes. Therefore if
an alternating potential difference with a frequency equal to the resonant frequency of
the crystal is applied across it the crystal will oscillate. A number of crystalline
materials show this effect examples of these are quartz, barium titanate, lithium
sulphate, lead metaniobate, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and polyvinylidine difluoride.
Piezoelectric transducers can act as both as a transmitter and a detector of vibrations.
However there are certain conditions. The crystal must stop vibrating as soon as the
alternating potential difference is switched off so that they can detect the reflected
pulse. For this reason a piece of damping material with an acoustic impedance the
same as that of the crystal is mounted at the back of the crystal. (See Figure 2).The
transducer is made with a crystal that has a thickness of one half of the
wavelength of the ultrasound, resonating at its fundamental frequency. A layer of
gel is needed between the transducer and the body to get good acoustic coupling (see
acoustic impedance).

http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Medical%20physics/text/Piezoelectric_transducer/index.html

The transducer is made with a crystal that has a thickness of one half of the
wavelength of the ultrasound, resonating at its fundamental frequency.
Example: Frequency= 519Hz, Wavelength = Speed/ frequency =
5890/519=11.35mm. The thickness of the transducer= 5.7mm approx.

s= 5890m/s

http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/thickness-gage/appendices-velocities/

AET
Transducer
In 0.1KHz~2.0KHz

UT Transducers 2.0~5.0 MHz

2. Preamplifier: Because of the low voltage output, the leads from the
transducer to the preamplifier must be as short as possible; often, the
preamplifier is integrated within the transducer itself. Typically, the gain in the
preamplifier is in the range 40 to 60 dB. (Note: The decibel scale measures
only relative amplitudes. Using this scale:

where Vis the output amplitude and Vi is the input amplitude. That is, a gain
of 40 dB will increase the input amplitude by a factor of 100; a gain of 60 dB
will increase the input amplitude by a factor of 1000, and so on.)

3. Passband filters are used to suppress the acoustic emission signals that
lie outside of the frequency range of interest.
4. The main amplifier further amplifies the signals, typically with a gain of an
additional 20 to 60 dB.
5. The discriminator is used to set the threshold voltage above which signals
are counted.
The remainder of the electronic equipment depends upon the way in which
the acoustic emission data are to be recorded, analyzed, and displayed.
Acoustic emission testing may be carried out in the laboratory or in the field.
Basically, one or more acoustic emission transducers are attached to the
specimen. The specimen is then loaded slowly, and the resulting acoustic
emissions are recorded.

There are generally two categories of tests:

1. To use the acoustic emission signals to learn something about the internal
structure of the material, and how structural changes (i.e., damage) occur
during the process of loading. In this case, the specimens are generally
loaded to failure.
2. To establish whether the material or the structure meet certain design or
fabrication criteria. In this case, the load is increased only to some
predetermined level (proof loading). The amount and nature of the
acoustic emissions may be used to establish the integrity of the specimen
or structure, and may also sometimes be used to predict the service life.

16.6 Parameters Affecting Acoustic Emissions from Concrete

16.6.1 The Kaiser Effect
The earliest acoustic emission studies of concrete, such as the work of Rsch,
indicated that a true Kaiser effect (see above) exists for concrete; that is,
acoustic emissions were found not to occur in concrete that had been
unloaded until the previously applied maximum stress had been exceeded on
reloading. This was true, however, only for stress levels below about 75 to
85% of the ultimate strength of the material; for higher stresses, acoustic
emissions began again at stresses somewhat lower than the previous
maximum stress. Subsequently, a number of other investigators have also
concluded that concrete exhibits a Kaiser effect, at least for stresses below
the peak stress of the material.
Key points:
For concrete This was true, however, only for stress levels below about 75 to
85% of the ultimate strength of the material

Spooner and Dougill confirmed that this effect did not occur beyond the peak
of the stress-strain curve (i.e., in the descending portion of the stress-strain
curve), where acoustic emissions occurred again before the previous
maximum strain was reached. It has also been suggested that a form of the
Kaiser effect occurs as well for cyclic thermal stresses in concrete, and for
drying and wetting cycles. On the other hand, Nielsen and Griffin have
reported that the Kaiser effect is only a very temporary effect in concrete; with
only a few hours of rest between loading cycles, acoustic emissions are again
recorded during reloading to the previous maximum stress. They therefore
concluded that the Kaiser effect is not a reliable indicator of the loading
history for plain concrete. Thus, it is unlikely that the Kaiser effect could be
used in practice to determine the previous maximum stress that a structural
member has been subjected to.

Kaiser Effect- Concrete

For concrete This

was true, however,
only for stress
levels below about
75 to 85% of the
ultimate strength
of the material

that this effect did not

occur beyond the
peak of the stressstrain curve (i.e., in
the descending
portion of the stressstrain curve), where
acoustic emissions
occurred again
before the previous
maximum strain was
reached.

Spooner and Dougill conclusion on Kaiser Effect- Concrete:

They therefore concluded that the Kaiser effect is not a

reliable indicator of the loading history for plain concrete.

16.6.2 Effect of Loading Devices

As is well known, the end restraint of a compression specimen of concrete
due to the friction between the ends of the specimen and the loading platens
can have a considerable effect on the apparent strength of the concrete.
These differences are also reflected in the acoustic emissions measured
when different types of loading devices are used. For instance, in
compression testing with stiff steel platens, most of the acoustic emission
appears at stresses beyond about half of the ultimate stress; with more
flexible platens, such as brush platens, significant acoustic emission appears
at about 20% of the ultimate stress. This undoubtedly reflects the different
crack patterns that develop with different types of platens, but it nonetheless
makes inter-laboratory comparisons, and indeed even studies on different
specimen geometries within the same laboratory, very difficult.

16.6.3 Signal Attenuation

The elastic stress waves that are generated by cracking attenuate as they
propagate through the concrete. Thus, large acoustic emission events that
take place in the concrete far from a pick-up transducer may not exceed the
threshold excitation voltage due to this attenuation, while much smaller
events may be recorded if they occur close to the transducer. Very little
information is available on acoustic emission attenuation rates in concrete. It
has been shown that more mature cements show an increasing capacity to
transmit acoustic emissions.20 Related to this, Mindess23 has suggested that
the total counts to failure for concrete specimens in compression are much
higher for older specimens, which may also be explained by the better
transmission through older concretes.

As a practical matter, the maximum distance between piezoelectric

transducers, or between the transducers and the source of the acoustic
emission event, should not be very large. Berthelot and Robert required an
array of transducers arranged in a 40-cm square mesh to locate acoustic
emission events reasonably accurately. They found that for ordinary concrete,
with a fifth transducer placed in the center of the 40 x 40-cm square mesh,
only about 40% of the events detected by the central transducer were also
detected by the four transducers at the corners; with high strength concrete,
this proportion increased to 60 to 70%. Rossi also found that a 40-cm square
mesh was needed for a proper determination of acoustic emission events.
Although more distant events can, of course, be recorded, there is no way of
knowing how many events are lost due to attenuation. This is an area that
requires much more study.

16.6.4 Specimen Geometry

It has been shown that smaller specimens appear to give rise to greater
levels of acoustic emission than do larger ones. The reasons for this are not
clear, although the observation may be related to the attenuation effect
described above. After an acoustic emission event occurs, the stress waves
not only travel from the source to the sensor, but also undergo (1) reflection,
(2) diffraction, and (3) mode conversions within the material. The basic
problem of wave propagation within a bounded solid certainly requires further
study, but there have apparently been no comparative tests on different
specimen geometries.

16.6.5 Type of Aggregate

It is not certain whether the mineralogy of the aggregate has any effect on
acoustic emission. It has been reported that concretes with a smaller
maximum aggregate size produce a greater number of acoustic emission
counts than those with a larger aggregate size;10 however, the total energy
released by the finer aggregate concrete is reduced. This is attributed to the
observation that concretes made with smaller aggregates start to crack at
lower stresses; in concretes with larger aggregate particles, on the other hand,
individual acoustic events emit higher energies. For concretes made with
lightweight aggregates, the total number of counts is also greater than for
normal weight concrete, perhaps because of cracking occurring in the
aggregates themselves.

16.6.6 Concrete Strength

It has been shown that the total number of counts to the maximum load is
greater for higher strength concretes. However, as was mentioned earlier, for
similar strength levels the total counts to failure appears to be much higher for
older concretes.

16.7 Laboratory Studies of Acoustic Emission

By far the greatest number of acoustic emission studies of concrete have
been carried out in the laboratory, and have been largely theoretical in
nature:
1. To determine whether acoustic emission analysis could be applied to
cementitious systems
2. To learn something about crack propagation in concrete

16.7.1 Fracture Mechanics Studies

A number of studies have shown that acoustic emission can be related to
crack growth or fracture mechanics parameters in cements, mortars, and
oncretes. Evans et al. showed that acoustic emission could be correlated with
crack velocity in mortars. Morita and Kato and Nadeau, Bennett, and
Mindess20 were able to relate total acoustic emission counts to Kc (the
fracture toughness). In addition, Lenain and Bunsell found that the number of
emissions could be related to the sixth power of the stress intensity factor, K.
Izumi et al. showed that acoustic emissions could also be related to the strain
energy release rate, G. In all cases, however, these correlations are purely
empirical; no one has yet developed a fundamental relationship between
acoustic emission events and fracture parameters, and it is unlikely that such
a relationship exists.

16.7.2 Type of Cracks

A number of attempts have been made to relate acoustic events of different
frequencies, or of different energies, to different types of cracking in concrete.
For instance, Saeki et al.,31 by looking at the energy levels of the acoustic
emissions at different levels of loading, concluded that the first stage of
cracking, due to the development of bond cracks between the cement paste
and the aggregate, emitted high energy signals; the second stage, which they
termed crack arrest, emitted low energy signals; the final stage, in which
cracks extended through the mortar, was again associated with high energy
acoustic events. Similarly, Tanigawa and Kobayashi32 used acoustic
energies to distinguish the onset of the proportional limit, the initiation stress
and the critical stress. On the other hand, Tanigawa et al.11 tried to relate
the fracture type (pore closure, tensile cracking, and shear slip) to the power
spectra and frequency components of the acoustic events. The difficulty with
these and similar approaches is that they tried to relate differences in the
recorded acoustic events to preconceived notions of the
nature of cracking in concrete; direct cause and effect relationships were
never observed.

16.7.3 Fracture Process Zone (Crack Source) Location

Perhaps the greatest current interest in acoustic emission analysis is its use
in locating fracture processes, and in monitoring the damage that concrete
undergoes as cracks progress. Okada et al.33,34 showed that the location of
crack sources obtained from differences in the arrival times of acoustic
emissions was in good agreement with the observed fracture surface. At
about the same time, Chhuy et al.35 and Lenain and Bunsell29 were able to
determine the length of the damaged zone ahead of the tip of a propagating
crack using one-dimensional acoustic emission location techniques. In
subsequent work, Chhuy et al.,36 using more elaborate equipment and
analytical techniques, were able to determine damage both before the
initiation of a visible crack and after subsequent crack extension. Berthelot
and Robert24,37 and Rossi25 used acoustic emission to monitor concrete
damage as well.

They found that, while the number of acoustic events showed the progression
of damage both ahead and behind the crack front, this technique alone could
not provide a quantitative description of the cracking. However, using more
elaborate techniques, including amplitude analysis and measurements of
signal duration, Berthelot and Robert24 concluded that acoustic emission
testing is practically the only technique which can provide a quantitative
description of the progression in real time of concrete damage within test
specimens. Later, much more sophisticated signals processing techniques
were applied to acoustic emission analysis. In 1981, Michaels et al.15 and
Niwa et al.38 developed deconvolution techniques to analyze
acoustic waveforms, in order to provide a stress-time history of the source of
an acoustic event. Similar deconvolution techniques were subsequently used
by Maji and Shah13,39 to determine the volume, orientation and type of
microcrack, as well as the source of the acoustic events. Such sophisticated
techniques have the potential eventually to be used to provide a detailed
picture of the fracture processes occurring within concrete specimens.

16.7.4 Strength vs. Acoustic Emission Relationships

Since concrete quality is most frequently characterized by its strength, many
studies have been directed towards determining a relationship between
acoustic emission activity and strength. For instance, Tanigawa and
Kobayashi32 concluded that the compressive strength of concrete can be
approximately estimated by the accumulated AE counts at relatively low
stress level. Indeed, they suggested that acoustic emission techniques might
provide a useful nondestructive test method for concrete strength. Earlier,
Fertis40 had concluded that acoustic emissions could be used to determine
not only strength, but also static and dynamic material behavior. Rebic,41 too,
found that there is a relationship between the critical load at which the
concrete begins to be damaged, which can be determined from acoustic
emission measurements, and the ultimate strength; thus, acoustic emission
analysis might be used as a predictor of concrete strength. Sadowska-Boczar
et al.42 tried to quantify the strength vs. acoustic emission relationship using
the equation

Sadowska-Boczar et al.42 tried to quantify the strength vs. acoustic emission

relationship using the equation:

Where:
Fr is the rupture strength,
Fp is the stress corresponding to the first acoustic emission signal, and
a and b are constants for a given material and loading conditions.
Using this linear relationship, which they found to fit their data reasonably well,
they suggested that the observation of acoustic emissions at low stresses
would permit an estimation of strength, as well as providing some
characterization of porosity and critical flaw size.

Unfortunately, the routine use of

acoustic emissions as an
estimator of strength seems to be
an unlikely prospect, in large part
because of the scatter in the data,
as has been noted by Fertis.40 As
an example of the scatter in data.
Figure 16.623 indicates the
variability in the strength vs. total
acoustic emission counts
relationship; the within-batch
variability is even more severe, as
shown in Figure 16.7.23

FIGURE 16.6 Logarithm of total acoustic emission counts vs.

compressive strength of concrete cubes. (From Mindess, S., Int.
J. Cem. Comp. Lightweight Concr., 4, 173, 1982. With
permission.)

FIGURE 16.7 Within-batch variability of total acoustic emission counts vs. applied compressive
stress on concretecubes. (From Mindess, S., Int. J. Cem. Comp. Lightweight Concr., 4, 173,
1982. With permission.)

16.7.5 Drying Shrinkage

16.7.6 Fiber Reinforced Cements and Concretes
16.7.7 High Alumina Cement
16.7.8 Thermal Cracking
16.7.9 Bond in Reinforced Concrete
16.7.10 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
Read text for details
http://unina.stidue.net/Politecnico%20di%20Milano/Inge
gneria%20Strutturale/Corsi/Felicetti%20%20Structural%20assessment%20and%20residual%20
bearing%20capacity/books/Handbook%20of%20NDT%
20of%20Concrete/1485_C16.pdf

16.8 Field Studies of Acoustic Emission

As shown in the previous section, acoustic emission analysis has been used
in the laboratory to study a wide range of problems. Unfortunately, its use
in the field has been severely limited; only a very few papers on field
application have appeared, and these are largely speculation on future
possibilities. The way in which acoustic emission data might be used to
provide information about the condition of a specimen or a structure has
been described by Cole;54 his analysis may be summarized as follows:
1. Is there any acoustic emission at a certain load level? If no, then no
damage is occurring under these conditions; if yes, then damage is
occurring.
2. Is acoustic emission continuing while the load is held constant at the
maximum load level? If no, no damage due to creep is occurring; if yes,
creep damage is occurring. Further, if the count rate is increasing, then
failure may occur fairly soon.

3. Have high amplitude acoustic emissions events occurred? If no, individual

fracture events have been relatively minor; if yes, major fracture events
have occurred.
4. Does acoustic emission occur if the structure has been unloaded and is
then reloaded to the previous maximum load? If no, there is no damage or
crack propagation under low cycle fatigue; if yes, internal damage exists
and the damage sites continue to spread even under low loads.
5. Does the acoustic emission occur only from a particular area? If no, the
entire structure is being damaged; if yes, the damage is localized.
6. Is the acoustic emission in a local area very localized? if no, damage is
dispersed over a significant area; if yes, there is a highly localized stress
concentration causing the damage.

16.9 Conclusions
From the discussion above, it appears that acoustic emission techniques may
be very useful in the laboratory to supplement other measurements of
concrete properties. However, their use in the field remains problematic.
Many of the earlier studies held out high hopes for acoustic emission
monitoring of structures. For instance, McCabe et al.17 suggested that, if a
structure was loaded, the absence of acoustic emissions would indicate that it
was safe under the existing load conditions; a low level of acoustic emissions
would indicate that the structure should be monitored carefully, while a high
level of acoustic emission could indicate that the structure was unsafe. But
this is hardly a satisfactory approach, since it does not provide any help with
quantitative analysis. In any event, even the sophisticated (and expensive)
equipment now available still provides uncertain results when applied to
structures, because of our lack of knowledge about the characteristics of
acoustic emissions due to different causes, and because of the possibility of
extraneous noise (vibration, loading devices, and so on).

Another serious drawback is that acoustic emissions are only generated

when the loads on a structure are increased, and this poses considerable
practical problems. Thus, one must still conclude, with regret, that acoustic
emission analysis has not yet been well developed as a technique for the
evaluation of phenomena taking place in concrete in structures.18

End of Reading

Study Note 3:
Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/AE/AE_Intro.htm

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves

produced by a sudden redistribution of stress in a material. When a
structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or
temperature), localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of
stress waves, which propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors.
With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers
(10-12 m) can be identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

earthquakes and rock bursts to

the initiation and growth of cracks,
slip and dislocation movements,
melting,
twinning, and
phase transformations

in metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and de-bonding

contribute to acoustic emissions.

AEs have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood, and
concrete, among other materials. Detection and analysis of AE signals can
supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a
discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission
Testing (AET),
It has many industrial applications e.g.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

assessing structural integrity,

detecting flaws,
testing for leaks, or
monitoring weld quality and
is used extensively as a research tool.

Twinning

AET

Acoustic Emission is unlike most other nondestructive testing (NDT)

techniques in two regards. The first difference pertains to the origin of the
signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AET
simply listens for the energy released by the object. AE tests are often
performed on structures while in operation, as this provides adequate loading
for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions.
The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes,
in a material. This is particularly meaningful because only active features (e.g.
crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to discern between developing and
stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go
undetected altogether if the loading is not high enough to cause an acoustic
event.
Furthermore, AE testing usually provides an immediate indication relating to
the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other advantages of AET
include fast and complete volumetric inspection using multiple sensors,
permanent sensor mounting for process control, and no need to disassemble
and clean a specimen.

Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is

contained in a structure. In order to obtain quantitative results about size,
depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often ultrasonic
testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service
environments which contribute extraneous noise to the signals. For
successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction are crucial.

A Brief History of AE Testing

Although acoustic emissions can be created in a controlled environment, they
can also occur naturally. Therefore, as a means of quality control, the origin of
AE is hard to pinpoint. As early as 6,500 BC, potters were known to listen for
audible sounds during the cooling of their ceramics, signifying structural
failure. In metal working, the term "tin cry" (audible emissions produced by the
mechanical twinning of pure tin during plastic deformation) was coined
around 3,700 BC by tin smelters in Asia Minor. The first documented
observations of AE appear to have been made in the 8th century by Arabian
alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan. In a book, Hayyan wrote that Jupiter (tin) gives
off a harsh sound when worked, while Mars (iron) sounds much during
forging. Many texts in the late 19th century referred to the audible emissions
made by materials such as tin, iron, cadmium and zinc. One noteworthy
correlation between different metals and their acoustic emissions came from
Czochralski, who witnessed the relationship between tin and zinc cry and
twinning. Later, Albert Portevin and Francois Le Chatelier observed AE
emissions from a stressed Al-Cu-Mn (Aluminum-Copper-Manganese) alloy.

The next 20 years brought further verification with the work of Robert
Anderson (tensile testing of an aluminum alloy beyond its yield point), Erich
Scheil (linked the formation of martensite in steel to audible noise), and
Friedrich Forster, who with Scheil related an audible noise to the formation of
martensite in high-nickel steel. Experimentation continued throughout the
mid-1900s, culminating in the PhD thesis written by Joseph Kaiser entitled
"Results and Conclusions from Measurements of Sound in Metallic Materials
under Tensile Stress. Soon after becoming aware of Kaisers efforts,
Bradford Schofield initiated the first research program in the United States to
look at the materials engineering applications of AE. Fittingly, Kaisers
research is generally recognized as the beginning of modern day acoustic
emission testing.

Theory - AE Sources
As mentioned in the Introduction, acoustic emissions can result from the
initiation and growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, twinning, or
phase transformations in metals. In any case, AEs originate with stress.
When a stress is exerted on a material, a strain is induced in the material as
well. Depending on the magnitude of the stress and the properties of the
material, an object may return to its original dimensions or be permanently
deformed after the stress is removed. These two conditions are known as
elastic and plastic deformation, respectively.

The most detectible acoustic emissions take place when a loaded material
undergoes plastic deformation or when a material is loaded at or near its yield
stress. On the microscopic level, as plastic deformation occurs, atomic planes
slip past each other through the movement of dislocations. These atomicscale deformations release energy in the form of elastic waves which can be
thought of as naturally generated ultrasound traveling through the object.
When cracks exist in a metal, the stress levels present in front of the crack tip
can be several times higher than the surrounding area. Therefore, AE activity
will also be observed when the material ahead of the crack tip undergoes
plastic deformation (micro-yielding).

Two sources of fatigue cracks also cause AEs. The first source is emissive
particles (e.g. nonmetallic inclusions) at the origin of the crack tip. Since these
particles are less ductile than the surrounding material, they tend to break
more easily when the metal is strained, resulting in an AE signal. The second
source is the propagation of the crack tip that occurs through the movement
of dislocations and small-scale cleavage produced by triaxial stresses.
The amount of energy released by an acoustic emission and the amplitude of
the waveform are related to the magnitude and velocity of the source event.
The amplitude of the emission is proportional to the velocity of crack
propagation and the amount of surface area created. Large, discrete crack
jumps will produce larger AE signals than cracks that propagate slowly over
the same distance.
Detection and conversion of these elastic waves to electrical signals is the
basis of AE testing. Analysis of these signals yield valuable information
regarding the origin and importance of a discontinuity in a material. As
discussed in the following section, specialized equipment is necessary to
detect the wave energy and decipher which signals are meaningful.

http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v10/n11/full/nmat3167.html

Activity of AE Sources in Structural Loading

AE signals generated under different loading patterns can provide valuable
information concerning the structural integrity of a material. Load levels that
have been previously exerted on a material do not produce AE activity. In
other words, discontinuities created in a material do not expand or move until
that former stress is exceeded. This phenomenon, known as the Kaiser Effect,
can be seen in the load versus AE plot to the right. As the object is loaded,
acoustic emission events accumulate (segment AB). When the load is
removed and reapplied (segment BCB), AE events do not occur again until
the load at point B is exceeded. As the load exerted on the material is
increased again (BD), AEs are generated and stop when the load is removed.
However, at point F, the applied load is high enough to cause significant
emissions even though the previous maximum load (D) was not reached.
This phenomenon is known as the Felicity Effect. This effect can be
quantified using the Felicity Ratio, which is the load where considerable AE
resumes, divided by the maximum applied load (F/D).

Kaiser/Felicity effects

Felicity effect F/D

Kaiser effect

Knowledge of the Kaiser Effect and Felicity Effect can be used to determine if
major structural defects are present. This can be achieved by applying
constant loads (relative to the design loads exerted on the material) and
listening to see if emissions continue to occur while the load is held. As
shown in the figure, if AE signals continue to be detected during the holding
of these loads (GH), it is likely that substantial structural defects are present.
In addition, a material may contain critical defects if an identical load is
reapplied and AE signals continue to be detected. Another guideline
governing AEs is the Dunegan corollary, which states that if acoustic
emissions are observed prior to a previous maximum load, some type of new
damage must have occurred. (Note: Time dependent processes like corrosion
and hydrogen embrittlement tend to render the Kaiser Effect useless)
Dict:
Corollary: something that results from something else.

Emissions are observed prior to a previous maximum load;

Felicity effect,
Dunegan corollary

Keywords:
Kaiser effect,
Felicity effect,
Dunegan corollary

Noise
The sensitivity of an acoustic emission system is often limited by the amount
of background noise nearby. Noise in AE testing refers to any undesirable
signals detected by the sensors. Examples of these signals include frictional
sources (e.g. loose bolts or movable connectors that shift when exposed to
wind loads) and impact sources (e.g. rain, flying objects or wind-driven dust)
in bridges. Sources of noise may also be present in applications where the
area being tested may be disturbed by mechanical vibrations (e.g. pumps).
To compensate for the effects of background noise, various procedures can
be implemented. Some possible approaches involve fabricating special
sensors with electronic gates for noise blocking, taking precautions to place
sensors as far away as possible from noise sources, and electronic filtering
(either using signal arrival times or differences in the spectral content of true
AE signals and background noise).

Pseudo Sources
In addition to the AE source mechanisms described above, pseudo source
mechanisms produce AE signals that are detected by AE equipment.
Examples include liquefaction and solidification, friction in rotating bearings,
solid-solid phase transformations, leaks, cavitation, and the realignment or
growth of magnetic domains (See Barkhausen Effect).

Wave Propagation
A primitive wave released at the AE source
is illustrated in the figure right. The
displacement waveform is a step-like
function corresponding to the permanent
change associated with the source process.
The analogous velocity and stress
waveforms are essentially pulse-like. The
width and height of the primitive pulse
depend on the dynamics of the source
process. Source processes such as
microscopic crack jumps and precipitate
fractures are usually completed in a fraction
of a microsecond or a few microseconds,
which explains why the pulse is short in
duration. The amplitude and energy of the
primitive pulse vary over an enormous range
from submicroscopic dislocation movements
to gross crack jumps.

Primitive AE wave
released at a source. The
primitive wave is
essentially a stress pulse
corresponding to a
permanent displacement
of the material. The
ordinate quantities refer to
a point in the material.

Waves radiates from the

source in all directions, often
having a strong directionality
depending on the nature of the
source process, as shown in
the second figure. Rapid
movement is necessary if a
sizeable amount of the elastic
energy liberated during
deformation is to appear as an
acoustic emission.

Angular dependence of acoustic emission radiated from a growing

microcrack. Most of the energy is directed in the 90 and 270o directions,
perpendicular to the crack surfaces.

Angular dependence of acoustic emission radiated from a growing

microcrack. Most of the energy is directed in the 90 and 270o directions,
perpendicular to the crack surfaces.

As these primitive waves travel through a material, their form is changed

considerably. Elastic wave source and elastic wave motion theories are being
investigated to determine the complicated relationship between the AE
source pulse and the corresponding movement at the detection site. The
ultimate goal of studies of the interaction between elastic waves and material
structure is to accurately develop a description of the source event from the
output signal of a distant sensor.
However, most materials-oriented researchers and NDT inspectors are not
concerned with the intricate knowledge of each source event. Instead, they
are primarily interested in the broader, statistical aspects of AE. Because of
this, they prefer to use narrow band (resonant) sensors which detect only a
small portion of the broadband of frequencies emitted by an AE. These
sensors are capable of measuring hundreds of signals each second, in
contrast to the more expensive high-fidelity sensors used in source function
analysis. More information on sensors will be discussed later in the
Equipment section.

The signal that is detected by a sensor is a combination of many parts of the

waveform initially emitted. Acoustic emission source motion is completed in a
few millionths of a second. As the AE leaves the source, the waveform travels
in a spherically spreading pattern and is reflected off the boundaries of the
object. Signals that are in phase with each other as they reach the sensor
produce constructive interference which usually results in the highest peak of
the waveform being detected. The typical time interval from when an AE wave
reflects around the test piece (repeatedly exciting the sensor) until it decays,
ranges from the order of 100 microseconds in a highly damped, nonmetallic
material to tens of milliseconds in a lightly damped metallic material.
Decay Time:
highly damped, nonmetallic material order of 100 microseconds (s-6)
lightly damped metallic material tens of milliseconds (s-3)

Decay time

Decay Time:
highly damped, nonmetallic material order of 100 microseconds (s-6)
lightly damped metallic material tens of milliseconds (s-3)

Attenuation
The intensity of an AE signal detected by a sensor is considerably lower than
the intensity that would have been observed in the close proximity of the
source. This is due to attenuation. There are three main causes of attenuation,
beginning with geometric spreading. As an AE spreads from its source in a
plate-like material, its amplitude decays by 30% every time it doubles its
distance from the source. In three-dimensional structures, the signal decays
on the order of 50%. This can be traced back to the simple conservation of
energy. Another cause of attenuation is material damping, as alluded to in the
previous paragraph. While an AE wave passes through a material, its elastic
and kinetic energies are absorbed and converted into heat. The third cause of
attenuation is wave scattering. Geometric discontinuities (e.g. twin
boundaries, nonmetallic inclusions, or grain boundaries) and structural
boundaries both reflect some of the wave energy that was initially transmitted.
Attenuation:
Spread (30% for 2D, 50% for 3D for each doubling of distance from source),
Material damping,
Wave scattering at interfaces

Attenuation:
1. Spread (30% for 2D, 50% for 3D for each doubling of distance from
source),
2. Material damping,
3. Wave scattering at interfaces

2
3

Measurements of the effects of attenuation on an AE signal can be performed

with a simple apparatus known as a Hsu-Nielson Source. This consists of a
mechanical pencil with either 0.3 or 0.5 mm 2H lead that is passed through a
cone-shaped Teflon shoe designed to place the lead in contact with the
surface of a material at a 30 degree angle. When the pencil lead is pressed
and broken against the material, it creates a small, local deformation that is
relieved in the form of a stress wave, similar to the type of AE signal produced
by a crack. By using this method, simulated AE sources can be created at
various sites on a structure to determine the optimal position for the
placement of sensors and to ensure that all areas of interest are within the
detection range of the sensor or sensors.

http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=474

Wave Mode and Velocity

As mentioned earlier, using AE inspection in conjunction with other NDE
techniques can be an effective method in gauging the location and nature of
defects. Since source locations are determined by the time required for the
wave to travel through the material to a sensor, it is important that the velocity
of the propagating waves be accurately calculated. This is not an easy task
since wave propagation depends on the material in question and the wave
mode being detected. For many applications, Lamb waves are of primary
concern because they are able to give the best indication of wave
propagation from a source whose distance from the sensor is larger than the
thickness of the material. For additional information on Lamb waves, see the
wave mode page in the Ultrasonic Inspection section.

Equipment- Probe

Case

Damping
materials

Electrode
Piezoelectric element

Wear plate

Couplants
Specimen

Equipment- Probe

Equipment
Acoustic emission testing can be performed in the field with portable
instruments or in a stationary laboratory setting. Typically, systems contain a
sensor, preamplifier, filter, and amplifier, along with measurement, display,
and storage equipment (e.g. oscilloscopes, voltmeters, and personal
computers). Acoustic emission sensors respond to dynamic motion that is
caused by an AE event. This is achieved through transducers which convert
mechanical movement into an electrical voltage signal. The transducer
element in an AE sensor is almost always a piezoelectric crystal, which is
commonly made from a ceramic such as Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT).
Transducers are selected based on operating frequency, sensitivity and
environmental characteristics, and are grouped into two classes: resonant
and broadband. The majority of AE equipment is responsive to movement in
its typical operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz. For materials with
high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower frequencies may be used to
better distinguish AE signals. The opposite holds true as well.

Key Points:
Two classes: resonant and broadband.
The majority of AE equipment is responsive to movement in its typical
operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
For materials with high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower
frequencies may be used to better distinguish AE signals. The opposite
holds true as well.

Ideally, the AE signal that reaches the mainframe will be free of background
noise and electromagnetic interference. Unfortunately, this is not realistic.
However, sensors and preamplifiers are designed to help eliminate unwanted
signals. First, the preamplifier boosts the voltage to provide gain and cable
drive capability. To minimize interference, a preamplifier is placed close to the
transducer; in fact, many transducers today are equipped with integrated
preamplifiers. Next, the signal is relayed to a bandpass filter for elimination of
low frequencies (common to background noise) and high frequencies.
Following completion of this process, the signal travels to the acoustic system
mainframe and eventually to a computer or similar device for analysis and
storage. Depending on noise conditions, further filtering or amplification at the
mainframe may still be necessary.

Schematic Diagram of a Basic Four-channel Acoustic Emission Testing

System

FIGURE 16.5 The main elements of a modern acoustic emission detection system.

After passing the AE system mainframe, the signal comes to a

detection/measurement circuit as shown in the figure directly above. Note that
multiple-measurement circuits can be used in multiple sensor/channel
systems for source location purposes (to be described later). At the
measurement circuitry, the shape of the conditioned signal is compared with a
threshold voltage value that has been programmed by the operator. Signals
are either continuous (analogous to Gaussian, random noise with amplitudes
varying according to the magnitude of the AE events) or burst-type. Each time
the threshold voltage is exceeded, the measurement circuit releases a digital
pulse. The first pulse is used to signify the beginning of a hit. (A hit is used to
describe the AE event that is detected by a particular sensor. One AE event
can cause a system with numerous channels to record multiple hits.) Pulses
will continue to be generated while the signal exceeds the threshold voltage.
Once this process has stopped for a predetermined amount of time, the hit is
finished (as far as the circuitry is concerned). The data from the hit is then
read into a microcomputer and the measurement circuit is reset.

Hit Driven AE Systems and Measurement of Signal Features

Although several AE system designs are available (combining various options,
sensitivity, and cost), most AE systems use a hit-driven architecture. The hitdriven design is able to efficiently measure all detected signals and record
digital descriptions for each individual feature (detailed later in this section).
During periods of inactivity, the system lies dormant. Once a new signal is
detected, the system records the hit or hits, and the data is logged for present
and/or future display.
Also common to most AE systems is the ability to perform routine tasks that
are valuable for AE inspection. These tasks include quantitative signal
measurements with corresponding time and/or load readings, discrimination
between real and false signals (noise), and the collection of statistical
information about the parameters of each signal.

AET

AET

AE Signal Features
With the equipment configured and setup complete, AE testing may begin.
The sensor is coupled to the test surface and held in place with tape or
adhesive. An operator then monitors the signals which are excited by the
induced stresses in the object. When a useful transient, or burst signal is
correctly obtained, parameters like amplitude, counts, measured area under
the rectified signal envelope (MARSE), duration, and rise time can be
gathered. Each of the AE signal feature shown in the image is described
below.
Abbreviation:
measured area under the rectified signal envelope (MARSE)

AET Signals

Amplitude, A, is the greatest measured voltage in a waveform and is

measured in decibels (dB). This is an important parameter in acoustic
emission inspection because it determines the detectability of the signal.
Signals with amplitudes below the operator-defined, minimum threshold will
not be recorded.
Rise time, R, is the time interval between the first threshold crossing and the
signal peak. This parameter is related to the propagation of the wave between
the source of the acoustic emission event and the sensor. Therefore, rise time
is used for qualification of signals and as a criterion for noise filter.
Duration, D, is the time difference between the first and last threshold
crossings. Duration can be used to identify different types of sources and to
filter out noise. Like counts (N), this parameter relies upon the magnitude of
the signal and the acoustics of the material.

MARSE, E, sometimes referred to as energy counts, is the measure of the

area under the envelope of the rectified linear voltage time signal from the
transducer. This can be thought of as the relative signal amplitude and is
useful because the energy of the emission can be determined. MARSE is
also sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the signal, but does not use
counts or user defined thresholds and operating frequencies. MARSE is
regularly used in the measurements of acoustic emissions.
Counts, N, refers to the number of pulses emitted by the measurement
circuitry if the signal amplitude is greater than the threshold. Depending on
the magnitude of the AE event and the characteristics of the material, one hit
may produce one or many counts. While this is a relatively simple parameter
to collect, it usually needs to be combined with amplitude and/or duration
measurements to provide quality information about the shape of a signal

Data Display
Software-based AE systems are able to generate graphical displays for
analysis of the signals recorded during AE inspection. These displays provide
valuable information about the detected events and can be classified into four
categories:

location,
activity,
intensity, and
data quality (crossplots).

Location displays identify the origin of the detected AE events. These can be
graphed by X coordinates, X-Y coordinates, or by channel for linear
computed-source location, planar computed-source location, and zone
location techniques.

Examples of each graph are shown to the right.

Activity displays show AE activity as a function of time
on an X-Y plot (figure below left).

Each bar on the graphs represents a specified amount

of time. For example, a one-hour test could be divided
into 100 time increments. All activity measured within
a given 36 second interval would be displayed in a
given histogram bar. Either axis may be displayed
logarithmically in the event of high AE activity or long
testing periods. In addition to showing measured
activity over a single time period, cumulative activity
displays (figure below right) can be created to show the
total amount of activity detected during a test. This
display is valuable for measuring the total emission
quantity and the average rate of emission.

Intensity displays are used to give statistical

information concerning the magnitude of the
detected signals. As can be seen in the
amplitude distribution graph to the near right,
the number of hits is plotted at each
amplitude increment (expressed in dBs)
beyond the user-defined threshold. These
graphs can be used to determine whether a
few large signals or many small ones created
the detected AE signal energy. In addition, if
the Y-axis is plotted logarithmically, the
shape of the amplitude distribution can be
interpreted to determine the activity of a crack
(e.g. a linear distribution indicates growth).

The fourth category of AE displays, crossplots, is

used for evaluating the quality of the data
collected. Counts versus amplitude, duration
versus amplitude, and counts versus duration are
frequently used crossplots. As shown in the final
figure, each hit is marked as a single point,
indicating the correlation between the two signal
features. The recognized signals from AE events
typically form a diagonal band since larger signals
usually generate higher counts. Because noise
signals caused by electromagnetic interference do
not have as many threshold-crossing pulses as
typical AE source events, the hits are located
below the main band. Conversely, signals caused
by friction or leaks have more threshold-crossing
pulses than typical AE source events and are
subsequently located above the main band. In the
case of ambiguous data, expertise is necessary in
separating desirable

Amplitude/counts
Signal Analysis

The recognized signals from AE events typically form a

diagonal band since larger signals usually generate higher
counts. Because noise signals caused by electromagnetic
interference do not have as many threshold-crossing pulses
as typical AE source events,

Conversely, signals caused by

friction or leaks have more
threshold-crossing pulses than
typical AE source events and are
subsequently located above the
main band.

Because noise signals caused by

electromagnetic interference do not have as
many threshold-crossing pulses as typical AE
source events, the hits are located below the
main band

AE Source Location Techniques

Multi-Channel Source Location Techniques:
Locating the source of significant acoustic emissions is often the main goal of
an inspection. Although the magnitude of the damage may be unknown after
AE analysis, follow up testing at source locations can provide these answers.
As previously mentioned, many AE systems are capable of using multiple
sensors/channels during testing, allowing them to record a hit from a single
AE event. These AE systems can be used to determine the location of an
event source. As hits are recorded by each sensor/channel, the source can
be located by knowing the velocity of the wave in the material and the
difference in hit arrival times among the sensors, as measured by hardware
circuitry or computer software. By properly spacing the sensors in this manner,
it is possible to inspect an entire structure with relatively few sensors.

Source location techniques assume that AE waves travel at a constant

velocity in a material. However, various effects may alter the expected
velocity of the AE waves (e.g. reflections and multiple wave modes) and can
affect the accuracy of this technique. Therefore, the geometric effects of the
structure being tested and the operating frequency of the AE system must be
considered when determining whether a particular source location technique
is feasible for a given test structure.
Keywords:
reflections and multiple wave modes

 Linear Location Technique

Several source location techniques have
been developed based on this method.
One of the commonly used computedsource location techniques is the linear
location principle shown to the right.
Linear location is often used to evaluate
struts on truss bridges. When the
source is located at the midpoint, the
time of arrival difference for the wave at
the two sensors is zero. If the source is
closer to one of the sensors, a
difference in arrival times is measured.
To calculate the distance of the source location from the midpoint, the arrival
time is multiplied by the wave velocity. Whether the location lies to the right
or left of the midpoint is determined by which sensor first records the hit.
This is a linear relationship and applies to any event sources between the
sensors.

Because the above scenario implicitly assumes that the source is on a line
passing through the two sensors, it is only valid for a linear problem. When
using AE to identify a source location in a planar material, three or more
sensors are used, and the optimal position of the source is between the
sensors. Two categories of source location analysis are used for this situation:
zonal location and point location.

 Zonal Location Technique

As the name implies, zonal location aims to trace the
waves to a specific zone or region around a sensor.
This method is used in anisotropic materials or in
other structures where sensors are spaced relatively
far apart or when high material attenuation affects the
quality of signals at multiple sensors. Zones can be
lengths, areas or volumes depending on the
dimensions of the array. A planar sensor array with
detection by one sensor is shown in the upper right
figure. The source can be assumed to be within the
region and less than halfway between sensors.

When additional sensors are applied, (1) arrival times and (2) amplitudes help
pinpoint the source zone. The ordered pair in lower right figure represents the
two sensors detecting the signal in the zone and the order of signal arrival at
each sensor. When relating signal strength to peak amplitude, the largest
peak amplitude is assumed to come from the nearest sensor, second largest
from the next closest sensor and so forth.

 Point Location
In order for point location to be justified, signals must be detected in a
minimum number of sensors: (1) two for linear, (2) three for planar, (3) four for
volumetric. Accurate arrival times must also be available. Arrival times are
often found by using peak amplitude or the first threshold crossing. The
velocity of wave propagation and exact position of the sensors are necessary
criteria as well. Equations can then be derived using sensor array geometry
or more complex algebra to locate more specific points of interest.

AE Barkhausen Techniques
The Barkhausen effect
The Barkhausen effect refers to the sudden
change in size of ferromagnetic domains
that occur during magnetization or
demagnetization. During magnetization,
favorably oriented domains develop at the
cost of less favorably oriented domains.
These two factors result in minute jumps of
magnetization when a ferromagnetic
sample (e.g. iron) is exposed to an
increasing magnetic field (see figure).
Domain wall motion itself is determined by
many factors like microstructure, grain
boundaries, inclusions, and stress and
strain. By the same token, the Barkhausen
effect is too a function of stress and strain.

Barkhausen Noise
Barkhausen noise can be heard if a coil of wire is wrapped around the sample
undergoing magnetization. Abrupt movements in the magnetic field produce
spiking current pulses in the coil. When amplified, the clicks can be compared
to Rice Krispies or the crumbling a candy wrapper. The amount of
Barkhausen noise is influenced by material imperfections and dislocations
and is likewise dependent on the mechanical properties of a material.
Currently, materials exposed to high energy particles (nuclear reactors) or
cyclic mechanical stresses (pipelines) are available for nondestructive
evaluation using Barkhausen noise, one of the many branches of AE testing.

Hysterisis Loop- magnetization or demagnetization.

Barkhausen noise
generated if the magnetic
field was induced on the
areas with discontinuiies
(throughout the whole loop)

Applications
Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather information
about a material or structure. Acoustic Emission testing (AET) is be applied
to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, bridges,
aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic
components. It is also used in process control applications such as
monitoring welding processes. A few examples of AET applications follow.
Weld Monitoring
During the welding process, temperature changes induce stresses between
the weld and the base metal. These stresses are often relieved by heat
treating the weld. However, in some cases tempering the weld is not possible
and minor cracking occurs. Amazingly, cracking can continue for up to 10
days after the weld has been completed. Using stainless steel welds with
known inclusions and accelerometers for detection purposes and background
noise monitoring, it was found by W. D. Jolly (1969) that low level signals and
more sizeable bursts were related to the growth of microfissures and larger
cracks respectively. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring
of continuous welding.

Bucket Truck (Cherry Pickers) Integrity Evaluation

Accidents, overloads and fatigue can all occur when operating bucket trucks
or other aerial equipment. If a mechanical or structural defect is ignored,
serious injury or fatality can result. In 1976, the Georgia Power Company
pioneered the aerial manlift device inspection. Testing by independent labs
and electrical utilities followed. Although originally intended to examine only
the boom sections, the method is now used for inspecting the pedestal, pins,
and various other components. Normally, the AE tests are second in a chain
of inspections which start with visual checks. If necessary, follow-up tests
take the form of magnetic particle, dye penetrant, or ultrasonic inspections.
Experienced personnel can perform five to ten tests per day, saving valuable
time and money along the way. ASTM F914 governs the procedures for
examining insulated aerial personnel devices.

AET Application

Gas Trailer Tubes

Acoustic emission testing on pressurized jumbo tube trailers was authorized
by the Department of Transportation in 1983. Instead of using hydrostatic
retesting, where tubes must be removed from service and disassembled, AET
allows for in situ testing. A 10% over-pressurization is performed at a normal
filling station with AE sensors attached to the tubes at each end. A
multichannel acoustic system is used to detection and mapped source
locations. Suspect locations are further evaluated using ultrasonic inspection,
and when defects are confirmed the tube is removed from use. AET can
detect subcritical flaws whereas hydrostatic testing cannot detect cracks until
they cause rupture of the tube. Because of the high stresses in the
circumferential direction of the tubes, tests are geared toward finding
longitudinal fatigue cracks.

Bridges
Bridges contain many welds, joints and connections, and a combination of
load and environmental factors heavily influence damage mechanisms such
as fatigue cracking and metal thinning due to corrosion. Bridges receive a
visual inspection about every two years and when damage is detected, the
bridge is either shut down, its weight capacity is lowered, or it is singled out
for more frequent monitoring. Acoustic Emission is increasingly being used
for bridge monitoring applications because it can continuously gather data
and detect changes that may be due to damage without requiring lane
closures or bridge shutdown. In fact, traffic flow is commonly used to load or
stress the bridge for the AE testing.

Aerospace Structures
Most aerospace structures consist of complex assemblies of components that
have been design to carry significant loads while being as light as
possible. This combination of requirements leads to many parts that can
tolerate only a minor amount of damage before failing. This fact makes
detection of damage extremely important but components are often packed
tightly together making access for inspections difficult. AET has found
applications in monitoring the health of aerospace structures because
sensors can be attached in easily accessed areas that are remotely located
from damage prone sites. AET has been used in laboratory structural tests,
as well as in flight test applications. NASA's Wing Leading Edge Impact
Detection System is partially based on AE technology. The image to the right
(above) shows a technician applying AE transducers on the inside of the
Space Shuttle Discovery wing structure. The impact detection system was
developed to alert NASA officials to events such as the sprayed-on-foam
insulation impact that damaged the Space Shuttle Columbia's wing leading
edge during launch and lead to its breakup on reentry to the Earth's
atmosphere.

Others
Fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, in particular glass-fiber
reinforced parts or structures (e.g. fan blades)
Material research (e.g. investigation of material properties, breakdown
mechanisms, and damage behavior)
Inspection and quality assurance, (e.g. wood drying processes, scratch
tests)
Real-time leakage test and location within various components (small
valves, steam lines, tank bottoms)
Detection and location of high-voltage partial discharges in transformers
Railroad tank car and rocket motor testing
There are a number of standards and guidelines that describe AE testing and
application procedures as supplied by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM). Examples are ASTM E 1932 for the AE
examination of small parts and ASTM E1419-00 for the method of
examining seamless, gas-filled, pressure vessels.