Fundamental Concepts of

EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
Roberto Villaverde

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Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor I'< Francis Group, an Informa business

Contents
Preface
Author

Chapter 1

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Introduction

1.1 Importance of Earthquake Engineering

1.2 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes
1.2.1 Ground Failures
1.2.2 Indirect Effects
1.2.3 Ground Shaking
1.3 Earthquake Forces
1.4 Design for Earthquake Forces
1.5 Definition and Scope
1.6 Historical Background
Further Readings

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Chapter 2

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Seismic Regions of the World

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

Introduction
World Seismicity
Seismicity of United States
Earthquake Statistics
2.4.1 Worldwide Earthquakes
2.4.2 U.S. Earthquakes
2.5 On-Line Seismicity Information
Further Readings

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Chapter 3

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3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12

Earthquake Genesis

Introduction
Types of Earthquakes
Earth Structure
Plate Tectonics Theory
Plate Interaction, Formation of Earth's Surface Features,
and Earthquake Generation
Cause of Plate Movement
Intraplate Earthquakes
Earthquake Faults
Earthquake-Generation Mechanism: Elastic Rebound Theory
Focus, Epicenter, Rupture Surface, and Fault Slip
Foreshocks and Aftershocks
Earthquake Prediction
3.12.1 Introduction
3.12.2 Historical Background
3.12.3 Seismic Gaps and Seismic Quiescence
3.12.4 Earthquake Precursors
3.12.5 Current Status of Earthquake Predictions

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Contents

Further Readings
Review Questions
Chapter 4

4.1
4.2

Earthquake Propagation

Introduction
Longitudinal Waves in Lang Rod
4.2.1 Differential Equation 01' Motion
4.2.2 Solution of Differential Equation
4.2.3 Solution in Terms of Initial Conditions
4.2.4 Solution Interpretation
4.2.5 Relationship between Particle Velocity and Wave Velocity
4.2.6 Transmitted and Refleeted Waves at Discontinuity
4.3 Shear Waves in Long Shear Beam
4.4 Harmonie Waves
4.4.1 Definition
4.4.2 Charaeteristics
4.5 Waves in Long Flexural Beam: Wave Dispersion
4.5.1 Differential Equation 01' Motion
4.5.2 Solution to Differential Equation 01' Motion
4.5.3 Apparent Waves and Group Velocity
4.6 Elastic Waves in Unbounded Three-Dimensional Medium: P and S Waves
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 Stresses and Strains in Three-Dimensional Solid
4.6.3 Differential Equations of Motion
4.6.4 First Particular Solution 01' Differential Equations of Motion
4.6.5 Interpretation of First Particular Solution of Equations of Motion
4.6.6 Second Partieular Solution of Differential Equations of Motion
4.6.7 Interpretation of Second Particular Solution of Equations of Motion
4.6.8 General Solution of Differential Equations of Motion
4.7 Elastic Waves in Elastic Half-Space: Rayleigh Waves
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Equations of Motion for Plane Waves
4.7.3 Solution of Decoupled Equations of Motion
4.7.4 Particle Motion Generated by Rayleigh Waves
4.8 Elastic Waves in Layered Half-Space: Love Waves
4.8.1 Introduction
4.8.2 Equations 01' Motion for Plane Waves
4.8.3 Solution of Equations of Motion
4.8.4 Particle Motion Generated by Love Waves
4.8.5 Dispersion 01' Love Waves
4.9 Reflection and Refraction of Body Waves
4.9.1 Introduction
4.9.2 Elements of Ray Theory
4.9.3 Relative Amplitudes of Ineident, Refraeted, and Reflected Waves
4.10 Attenuation ofWave Amplitude with Distance
4.10.1 Radiation Damping
4.10.2 Material Damping
Further Readings
Probleins

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Contents
Chapter 5

Measurement of Earthquakes

5.1
5.2
5.3

Introduction
Intensity Scales
Seismographs and Seismograms
5.3.1 Historical Background
5.3.2 Components and Design Features
5.3.3 Seismograms
5.4 Location of Earthquake Hypocenter
5.5 Magnitude Scales
5.5.1 Richter or Local Magnitude
5.5.2 Surface- and Body-Wave Magnitudes
5.6 Seismic Moment and Moment Magnitude
5.6.1 Scale Saturation
5.6.2 Seismic Moment
5.6.3 Moment Magnitude
5.7 Accelerographs and Accelerograms
5.7.1 Need for Strang Motion Recording Instruments
5.7.2 Accelerograph Components and Design Features
5.7.3 Accelerograms
5.7.4 Accelerogram Processing
5.7.5 Strang Motion Instrument Arrays
5.7.6 AcceIerograms from Near-Fault Sites
Further Readings
Problems
Chapter 6

Characterization of Strang Ground Motions

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Peak Ground Acceleration
6.3 Strong-Motion Duration
6.4 Response Spectrum
6.4.1 Background
6.4.2 Definition
6.4.3 Importance of Response Spectrum
6.4.4 Tripartite Representation
6.4.5 Computation of Response Spectra
6.5 Nonlinear Response Spectrum
6.5.1 Background
6.5.2 Load-Deformation Curves under Severe Cyclic Loading
6.5.3 Definition
6.5.4 Graphical Representation
6.5.5 Computation of Nonlinear Response Spectrum
6.6 Fourier Spectrum
6.6.1 Theoretical Background
6.6.1.1 Fourier Series
6.6.1.2 Exponential Fourier Series
6.6.1.3 Fourier Transform
6.6.2 Definition
6.6.3 Total Energy and Fourier Spectrum
6.6.4 Relationship between Fourier and Undamped Velocity Response Spectra

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6.6.5 Computation of Fourier Spectrum
6.6.6 Fast Fourier Transform
6.7 Power Spectral Density
6.8 Single-Parameter Measures of Ground Motion Intensity
6.8.1 Introductory Remarks
6.8.2 Root Mean Square Acceleration
6.8.3 Housner Spectral Intensity
6.8.4 Arias Intensity
6.8.5 Araya-Saragoni Intensity
6.9 Design-Spectrum-Compatible Time Histories
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 7

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7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Seismic Hazard Assessment.

Introduction
Identification of Seismic Sources
Factors Affecting Ground Motion Characteristics at Site
Ground Motion Intensity at Given Site: Attenuation Laws
7.4.1 Background
7.4.2 Boare, Joyner, and Fumal Equations far Shallow Crustal
Earthquakes in Active Regions
7.4.3 Campbell Equations for Shallow Crustal Earthquakes
in Active Regions
7.4.4 Youngs, Chiou, Silva, and Humphrey Equations
for Subduction-Zone Earthquakes
7.5 Magnitude-Recurrence Relationships
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Gutenberg-Richter Recurrence Law
7.5.3 Bounded Gutenberg-Richter Recurrence Law
7.5.4 Characteristic Earthquake Recurrence Law
7.6 Ground Motion Intensity in Given Time Interval...
7.6.1 Introduction
7.6.2 Poisson Probabilistic Model
7.6.3 Probability of Exceeding Given Ground Motion Intensity
in Given Time Interva 1..
7.6.4 Exceedance Probability Curves
7.6.5 Frequency-Intensity Curves
7.7 Semiprobabilistic Seismic Hazard Evaluation
7.8 Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Evaluation
7.8.1 Introduction
7.8.2 Probability Distribution of Source-to-Site Distance
7.8.3 Probability Distribution of Earthquake Magnitude
7.8.4 Probability of Exceeding Specified Value of Ground
Motion Parameter
7.8.5 Annual Probability ofExceeding Specified Ground
Motion Intensity Level
7.9 Seismic Zonation Maps
7.10 Microzonation Maps
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 8

XI

Influence of Local Site Conditions

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

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Problem Identi ficat ion

Effect of Site Conditions on Ground Motion Characteristics
Evaluation of Site Effects Using Statistical Correlations
Evaluation of Site Effects Using Analytical Techniques
8.4.1 Introductory Remarks
8.4.2 One-Dimensional Continuous Model
8.4.3 One-Dimensional Lumped-Mass Model
8.4.4 One-Dimensional Continuous Model: Solution in Frequency Domain
8.4.4.1 Case I: Homogeneous, Undamped Soil on Rigid Rock
8.4.4.2 Case II: Homogeneous, Damped Soil on Rigid Rock
8.4.4.3 Case III: Homogeneous, Damped Soil on Flexible Rock
8.4.4.4 Case IV: Layered, Damped Soil on Flexible Rock
8.4.5 Nonlinear Site Response
8.5 Determination of Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio
8.5.1 Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Sands
8.5.2 Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Gravels
8.5.3 Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Saturated Clays
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 9

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Design Response Spectrum

9.1
9.2

Introduction
Peak Ground Acceleration and Response Spectrum Shape Method
9.2.1 Elastic Design Spectrum
9.2.2 Inelastic Design Spectrum
9.3 Newmark-Hall Approach
9.3.1 Background
9.3.2 Elastic Design Spectra
9.3.3 Inelastic Design Spectra
9.4 Direct Statistical Correlations
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 10

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Structural Response by Response Spectrum Method

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Modal Superposition Method
10.2.1 Discrete Model.
10.2.2 Equation of Motion
10.2.3 Transformation of Equation of Motion
10.2.4 Solution of rth Independent Equation
10.2.5 Structural Response in Terms of Modal Responses
10.2.6 Maximum Structural Response
10.3 Maximum Structural Response Using Response Spectra
10.3.1 Maximum Modal Responses in Terms of Response Spectrum Ordinates
10.3.2 Approximate Rules to Estimate Maximum System Response
10.3.2.1 Double-Sum Combination Rule
10.3.2.2 Square Root of the Sum of the Squares
10.3.2.3 Rosenblueth's Rule

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10.3.2.4 Complete Quadratie Combination

10.3.2.5 Singh and Maldonado's Rule
10.3.2.6 Comparative Studies
10.3.2.7 Final Remarks
10.4 Properties of Modal Partieipation Faetors
10.5 Determination of Modal Damping Ratios
10.6 Summary of Response Speetrum Method
10.7 Response Speetrum Method Based on Modal Aeeeieration Method
10.8 Response Speetrum Method for Multieomponent Ground Motions
10.8.1 Introduetion
10.8.2 Equation of Motion
10.8.3 Transformation of Equation of Motion
10.8.4 Solution of rth Independent Equation
10.8.5 Struetura1 Response in Terms of Modal Responses
10.8.6 Maximum Modal Responses in Terms of Response Speetrum Ordinates
10.8.7 Approximate Rule to Estimate Maximum System Response
10.9 Response Speetrum Method for Spatially Varying Ground Motions
Further Readings
Problems

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Struetural Response by Step-by-Step Integration Methods

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Chapter 11

11.1 Introduetion
11.2 General Classifieation
11.3 Central Differenee Method
11.4 Houbolt Method
11.5 Constant Average Aeeeieration Method
11.6 Linear Aeeeieration Method
11.7 Wilson-8 Method
11.8 Newmark- Method
11.9 Stability and Aeeuraey Issues
11.9.1 Introduetory Remarks
11.9.2 Numerieal Stability
11.9.3 Aeeuraey
11.10 Analysis of Nonlinear Systems
11.10.1 Introduetion
11.10.2 Ineremental Equations of Motion
11.10.3 Solution of Ineremental Equation of Motion
11.10.3.1 Solution by Central Differenees Method
11.10.3.2 Solution by Newmark- Method
11.10.4 Updating of Stiffness Matrix: Elastoplastie Case
11.10.5 Sourees of Error and Correetive Teehniques
11.11 Final Remarks
Further Readings
Problems
Chapter 12

12.1
12.2

Struetural Response by Equivalent Lateral Foree Proeedure

Introduetion
Derivation ofProeedure
12.2.1 Overview
12.2.2 Maximum Modal Lateral Forees

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12.2.3 Modal Base Shear

12.2.4 Modal Lateral Forees in Terms of Base Shear
12.2.5 Basic Assumptions
12.2.6 Approximate Maximum Lateral Forces
12.2.7 Approximate Fundamental Natural Period
12.3 Application of Procedure
12.4 Limitations of Proeedure
12.5 NonJinear Statie Procedure
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 13

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Struetural Response Considering Soil-Strueture Interaetion

13.1 Problem Definition

13.2 Kinematic and Inertial Interaetion
13.3 Vibration of Foundations on Elastie Halfspaee
13.3.1 Introductory Remarks
13.3.2 Displaeements under Statie Point Loads
13.3.3 Displacements and Rotations under Static Distributed Loads
13.3.4 Soil Spring Constants
13.3.5 Displaeements and Rotations under Dynamic Loads
13.3.6 Vibrations of Rectangular Foundations
13.4 Lumped-Parameter Models
13.4.1 Hsieh's Equations
13.4.2 Lysmer and Hall Analogs
13.5 Coupled Roeking and Horizontal Vibrations of Rigid Cireular Foundations
13.6 Vibration of Rigid Cireular Foundations Supported by E1astie Layer
13.7 Vibration of Embedded Foundations
13.8 Foundation Vibrations by Method of Impedanees
13.9 Material or Internal Damping in Soils
13.10 Vibrations of Foundations on Viseoelastie Halfspaee
13.11 Simplified Equivalent Single-Degree-of-Freedom System Method
13.12 Advaneed Methods of Analysis
13.12.1 Introduction
13.12.2 Direct Method
13.12.3 Substructure Method
13.12.4 Computer Programs
13.13 Experimental Verifieation
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 14 Seismic Response of Nonstructural Elements

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14.1 Introduetion
14.2 Importanee of Nonstruetural Elements
14.3 General Physieal Charaeteristics
14.4 General Response Characteristies
14.5 Mode1ing of Nonstruetural Elements
14.6 Methods of Analysis
14.7 Floor Response Spectrum Method
14.8 Modal Synthesis Method

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14.8.1
14.8.2

Introduction
Mode Shapes and Natural Frequencies of Combined System
14.8.2.1 Primary System
14.8.2.2 Secondary System
14.8.2.3 Compatibility Requirements
14.8.2.4 Eigenvalue Problem
14.8.2.5 Mode Shapes of Combined System in Terms of Modal
Coordinates
14.8.3 Approximate Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes of
Combined System
14.8.4 Damping Ratios of Combined System
14.8.5 Maximum Elastic Response of Nonstructural Element
14.8.6 Effect of Structura1 and Nonstructural Nonlinear Behavior
Further Readings
Problems
Chapter 15

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

15.5

Seismic Protection with Base Isolation

Introduction
Basic Concept.
Historical Perspective
Isolation Bearings
15.4.1 Introduction
15.4.2 Laminated Rubber Bearings
15.4.2.1 Low-Damping Rubber Bearings
15.4.2.2 Lead-Rubber Bearings
15.4.2.3 High-Damping Rubber Bearings
15.4.3 Sliding Bearings
15.4.3.1 Electricite-de-France Bearing
15.4.3.2 TASS Bearing
15.4.3.3 Friction Pendulum Bearing
15.4.4 Helica1 Steel Springs
Methods of Analysis
15.5.1 Linear Two-Degree-of-Freedom Model
15.5.1.1 Equations ofMotion
15.5.1.2 Natural Frequencies
15.5.1.3 Mode Shapes
15.5.1.4 Modal Participation Factors
15.5.1.5 Uncoupled Equations of Motion
15.5.1.6 Damping Ratios
15.5.1.7 Maximum Response
15.5.2 Rigid Structure Single-Degree-of-Freedom ModeL
15.5.3 Linear Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Model
15.5.3.1 Equations of Motion
15.5.3.2 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
15.5.3.3 Approximate Maximum Response
15.5.4 Linear Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Model with
Nonclassical Damping
15.5.5 Equivalent Linear Model
15.5.5.1 Effective Stiffness
15.5.5.2 Effective Damping Ratio

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15.6 Implementation Issues

Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 16

Seismic Protection with Energy Dissipating Devices

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16.1 Introduction
16.2 Basic Concepts
16.3 Energy Dissipating Devices
16.3.1 Introduction
16.3.2 Friction Dampers
16.3.3 Viscoelastic Dampers
16.3.4 Fluid Dampers
16.3.5 Yielding Metallic Dampers
16.4 Analysis of Structures with Added Dampers
16.4.1 Overview
16.4.2 Seismic Response of Simple Structure with Added Dampers
16.4.2.1 Viscoelastic Damper.
16.4.2.2 Fluid Damper
16.4.2.3 Friction or Yielding Steel Damper
16.4.3 Seismic Response of Multistory Structures with Added Dampers
16.4.3.1 Viscoelastic Dampers
16.4.3.2 Fluid Dampers
16.4.3.3 Friction or Yielding Steel Dampers
16.5 Implementation Issues
Further Readings
Problems

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Chapter 17 Seismic Code Provisions

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17.1
17.2

17.3

17.4

17.5

Introduction
General Requirements
17.2.1 Allowable Seismic-Force-Resisting Systems
17.2.2 Load Combinations
17.2.3 Story Drift Limits
17.2.4 Direction of Earthquake Loads
Design Ground Motion
17.3.1 Overview
17.3.2 Ground Motion Intensity Maps
17.3.3 Site-Specific Response Spectra
17.3.4 Site Classes and Site Coefficients
17.3.5 Design Spectral Accelerations
17.3.6 Design Response Spectrum
Analysis Procedures
17.4.1 Overview
17.4.2 Occupancy Categories and Importance Factors
17.4.3 Seismic Design Category
17.4.4 Structural Irregularities
17.4.5 Allowable Analysis Procedures
17.4.6 Mathematical Model
Simplified Method

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17.6

Contents

Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure

17.6.1 Overview
17.6.2 Base Shear.
17.6.3 Natural Period
17.6.4 Equivalent Lateral Forces
17.6.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution
17.6.6 Overturning Moment
17.6.7 Story Drift Determination
17.6.8 P-Delta Effects
17.7 Modal Response Spectrum Analysis
17.7.1 Modal Properties
17.7.2 Modal Base Shears
17.7.3 Modal Lateral Forces and Drifts
17.7.4 Design Values
17.8 Linear Response Time-History Analysis
17.9 Nonlinear Response Time-History Analysis
17.10 Soil-Structure Interaction Effects
17.10.1 Introduction
17.10.2 Modifications to Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
17.10.2.1 Base Shear
17.10.2.2 Effective Building Period
17.10.2.3 Effective Damping Ratio
17.10.2.4 Vertical Distribution of Base Shear
17.10.2.5 Story Shears, Overturning Moments, and Torsional Moments
17.10.2.6 Lateral Displacements
17.10.3 Modifications to Modal Analysis Procedure
17.10.3.1 Modal Base Shears
17.10.3.2 Modal Lateral Forces, Story Shears, and Overturning Moments
17.10.3.3 Modal Lateral Displacements
17.10.3.4 Design Values
17.11 Nonstructural Components
17.12 Base-Isolated Structures
17.12.1 Overview
17.12.2 General Requirements
17.12.3 Effective Natural Periods and Minimum Displacements
17.12.4 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
17.12.4.1 Conditions for Use
17.12.4.2 Minimum Displacements
17.12.4.3 Minimum Lateral Forces
17.12.4.4 Drift Limits
17.12.5 Dynamic Analysis
17.12.5.1 Choice of Procedure
17.12.5.2 Input Earthquake
17.12.5.3 Response Spectrum Analysis
17.12.5.4 Time-History Analysis
17.12.5.5 Minimum Displacements
17.12.5.6 Minimum Lateral Forces
17.12.5.7 Drift Limits
17.12.6 Required Testing of Isolation System Components
17.12.7 Effective Stiffness and Effective Damping of Iso1ating System
17.12.8 Peer Review

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17.13 Structures with Added Damping Devices

17.13.1 Overview
17.13.2 General Requirements
17.13.3 Methods of Analysis
17.13.4 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
17.13.4.1 Conditions for Use
17.13.4.2 Mode1ing
17.13.4.3 Base Shear
17.13.4.4 Design Lateral Forces
17.13.4.5 Floor Deflections, Story Drifts, and Story Ve10cities
17.13.4.6 Story Drift Limits
17.13.4.7 Design Forces in Damping System
17.13.5 Response Spectrum Procedure
17.13.5.1 Conditions for Use
17.13.5.2 Modeling
17.13.5.3 Base Shear
17.13.5.4 Design Lateral Forces
17.13.5.5 F100r Deflections, Story Drifts, and Story Ve10cities
17.13.5.6 Story Drift Limits
17.13.5.7 Design Forces in Damping System
17.13.6 Nonlinear Procedures
17.13.7 Response Modification Due to Damping Increase
17.13.8 Effective Damping
17.13.8.1 Inherent Damping
17.13.8.2 Hysteretic Damping
17.13.8.3 Viscous Damping
17.13.9 Effective Ducti1ity Demand
17.13.10 Combination of Load Effects
17.13.11 Required Testing of Damping Devices
17.13.12 Peer Review
Further Readings
Problems

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Appendix
Index

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