EE5406 Wireless

Network Protocols
Network Architectures
Dr. David Wong Tung Chong
Email: wongtc@i2r.a-star.edu.sg
Website: http://www1.i2r.a-star.edu.sg/~wongtc/course.html

Academic Year 2010/2011

Outline
Network Architectures

GSM (2G Cellular)

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)
UMTS (3G Cellular)
LTE (3.9G Cellular)
LTE Advanced (4G Cellular)
IEEE 802.16 WiMAX WMAN
IEEE 802.11 WLAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth WPAN
IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee WPAN
ECMA 368 (WiMedia) WPAN
IEEE 802.15.3c WPAN
ECMA 387 WPAN
2

GSM (2G Cellular)

AuC,
EIR

PSTN,
PLMN,
ISDN

VLR

HLR

OSS
GMSC

MSC
NSS

BTS

BTS

MT

BTS

BTS
BTS

BTS

MT

BSS

BSC

BSC

MT

MT

MT

MT

BSS base station subsystem

MT mobile terminal
NSS network and switching
subsystem
OSS operation and support
subsystem
BTS base transceiver
stations
BSC base station controller
AuC authentication center
EIR equipment identity
register
HLR home location register
VLR visitor location register
MSC mobile switching center
GMSC gateway MSC
PSTN public switched
telephone network
PLMN public land mobile
network
ISDN integrated services
digital network

Figure 1. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Network Architecture

3

GSM (2G Cellular)

The GSM system consists of three subsystems

Base station subsystem (BSS)
Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
Operation and support subsystem (OSS)

Base station subsystem (BSS)

BSS consists of
Base transceiver stations (BTSs)
Base station controller (BSC)

The role of the BSS is to provide transmission paths between the

mobiles and the NSS.
The BTS is the radio access point.
Each BTS serves one cell.
The main functions of the BSC are cell management, control of a
BTS and exchange functions.

GSM (2G Cellular)

Network and switching subsystem (NSS)

NSS includes switching and location management functions.
NSS consists of

mobile switching center (MSC)

home location register (HLR)
visitor location register (VLR)
gateway MSC (GMSC)
authentication center (AuC)
equipment identity register (EIR)

The MSC is a complete exchange with switching and signaling capabilities.

GMSC provides interface between the mobile network and public switched
telephone network (PSTN), public land mobile network (PLMN) and
integrated services digital network (ISDN).
MSC is capable of routing calls from the BTS and BSC to mobile users in
the same network (through BSC and BTS) or to users in the PSTN, PLMN
and ISDN (through GMSC) or to answering machines integrated within the
MSC.

GSM (2G Cellular)

HLR and VLR are databases for location management.
The HLR stores the identity and user data of all subscribers
belonging to the mobile operator for both local and aboard
(roaming) users.
The VLR contains the permanent data found in the HLR of the
users original network for all subscribers currently residing in its
MSC serving area.
That is, VLR contains data of its own subscribers of the network
that are in its serving area, as well as that (temporary data) of
roamers from other GSM networks.
The AuC is related to HLR and contains sets of parameters needed
for authentication procedures for the mobile stations.
EIR is an optional database that contains numbers of the mobile
phone equipments.
The purpose of EIR is to prevent usage of stolen mobile stations or
to bar malfunctioning equipment.
6

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

GSM core
HLR
PSTN,
PLMN,
ISDN

GMSC
MSC/VLR

BSS

SGSN

BSC

BTS

IP
backbone
network

MT

GGSN

GGSN

Internet

Data
network

BTS
BTS

MT

GPRS
core

MT

BSS base station subsystem

MT mobile terminal
BTS base transceiver stations
HLR home location register
VLR visitor location register
GMSC gateway mobile
switching center
PSTN public switched
telephone network
PLMN public land mobile
network
ISDN integrated services digital
network
SGSN serving GPRS support
node
GGSN gateway GPRS support
node

MT

Figure 2. General Packet Radio System (GPRS) Network Architecture

7

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

GPRS is a hardware and software upgrade to the existing GSM

system.
Two new network nodes are added:
Serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN)

SGSN is responsible for the delivery of packets from/to mobile

stations within its service area.
Its main tasks are
Mobility management:
Location management
Attachment/detachment

Packet routing
Logical link management
Authentication
Charging functions

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

GGSN acts as an interface between the GPRS packet network

and external packet-based networks like the Internet.
It converts protocol data packet (PDP) address from the external
packet-based networks to the GSM address of the specified
user and vice versa.
For each session in GPRS, a PDP context to describe the
session is created.
It describes
PDP type (e.g., IPv4)
PDP address

assigned to the mobile station for that session only

Requested quality of service (QoS) profile

Address of the GGSN

the access node to that packet network

There may be several SGSNs or GGSNs.

All GPRS support nodes are connected through an IP-based
GPRS backbone network.

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

HLR stores the followings:

User profile
Current SGSN address
PDP address(es)
e.g., IP address for communication with Internet

MSC/VLR is extended with additional functions that allows

coordination between GSM circuit-switched services (e.g., telephony)
and GPRS packet-switched services.

Packet-switched services
Real-time multimedia
World Wide Web (WWW)
File download
E-mail

Each of these services has different QoS requirements.

10

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

GPRS QoS profiles

Service precedence
High priority
Normal priority
Low priority

Reliability - Transmission characteristics of the GPRS network

Loss probability
Duplication
Misinsertion
Handling of corruption of packets

Delay
Average delay
Maximum delay
95% of all transfer

Throughput
Mean bit rate
Maximum bit rate

11

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

GPRS has three states for location management:

Idle
Ready
Standby

In idle state, the network does not know the location of the
mobile station and no PDP context is associated with the
station.
When the mobile station sends or receives packets, it is in ready
state.
In this state the network knows which cell the user is in.
After being silent for a period of time, mobile station reaches
standby state.

12

GPRS (2G+ Cellular)

To locate a mobile,
In standby state
a GSM location area is divided into several routing areas (RAs)
the network performs paging in the current RA

In ready state
there is no need for paging

In idle state
the network is paging all BTSs in the current location of the mobile
station

GPRS utilizes the same radio access network as GSM.

Third generation mobile networks have defined different radio
interfaces to provide higher bit rate services to users.

13

UMTS (3G Cellular)

MT

MT

CS domain

Node B
:
:

RNC

MSC/
VLR

GMSC

Node B

PSTN,
PLMN,
ISDN

MT
:
:

HLR

Node B
:
:
MT

RNC

Node B
UTRAN

PS domain
GGSN

Internet

GGSN

Other data
network

SGSN

Core network

External networks

MT mobile terminal
Node B a network component
that serves one cell
RNC radio network controller
HLR home location register
VLR visitor location register
MSC mobile switching center
GMSC gateway MSC
CS circuit-switched
PS packet-switched
PSTN public switched
telephone network
PLMN public land mobile
network
ISDN integrated services
digital network
SGSN serving GPRS support
node
GGSN gateway GPRS support
node
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network

Figure 3. Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Network Architecture

14

UMTS (3G Cellular)

UMTSs basic architecture is split into two domains:
User equipment (UE) domain
Infrastructure domain

UE is used by users to access UMTS services.

It includes identity module and mobile equipment.
The mobile equipment performs radio communication
with the network and contains applications for the
services.
The infrastructure domain is further split into two
domains:
Network access (NA) domain
Core network (CN) domain
15

UMTS (3G Cellular)

The NA domain consists of physical entities (nodes), which

manage the radio resources.
The CN domain consists of physical entities, which provide
support for the features and telecommunication services like call
management, mobility management, etc.
There are two types of NA:
Base station subsystem (BSS)
Radio network system (RNS)

BSS is the GSM radio access network solution, which is also

used by GPRS.
BSS consists of the base station controller (BSC) and base
transceiver stations (BTSs).
Each BTS serves one cell.
Usually several BTSs are grouped in a base station and place
on a single site.
16

UMTS (3G Cellular)

For UTRAN, network elements are responsible for

Radio resource management
Handover management
Power control

RNS is the network system, which corresponds to the GSM BSS.

However, RNS is significantly different from the GSM access
operation.
RNS consists of the radio network controller (RNC), which controls
the radio access nodes called Node B.
A Node B is a network component that serves one cell.
There are different types of Node B like macrocells, microcells and
picocells with different requirements in traffic, coverage and services.

17

UMTS (3G Cellular)

There are two types of Node B:

Node B FDD
Node B TDD

Node B FDD is planned for wider coverage area (macrocells,

microcells).
Node B TDD is targeted to hot spot in coverage.
The core network consists of two domains:
circuit-switched (CS) domain
packet-switched (PS) domain

These two domains in CN are overlapping in some common

elements.
CS mode is the GSM mode of operation, while PS mode is
supported by GPRS.
The entities specific to CS domain are MSC and GMSC.
The entities specific to PS domain are GGSN and SGSN.
18

UMTS (3G Cellular)

There are entities shared by both the CS and PS domains:

HSS is a master database for a given user with the following

information:

Home subscriber server (HSS)

Authentication center (AuC)
Equipment identity register (EIR)
Visitor location register (VLR)
SMS-support nodes

user identification (numbering, address information)

user security information (authentication, authorization)
user location information
user profile information (to services the user has access)

HLRs for CS and PS domains are subsets of HSS.

HSS also provides IP multimedia functionality in the core network.
Other common entities have similar functions as described for GSM
and GPRS.

19

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

MT

Other Access
Types (WLAN,)
MT

eNode B
IMS
Serving
GW

MGW

PDN GW

eNode B

P/I/S-CSCF

MT

MGCF

PCRF

:
:

IP network

eNode B
MME
EPC
MT

eNode B
E-UTRAN

HSS

PSTN

External networks

MT mobile terminal
eNode B an evolved network
component that serves one cell
Serving GW serving gateway
MME mobility management entity
HSS home subscriber server
PDN GW packet data network
gateway
PCRF policy and charging rules
functions
EPC evolved packet core
WLAN wireless local area network
P/I/S-CSCF
proxy/interrogating/serving call
session control function
MGCF media gateway control
function
MGW media gateway
IMS IP multimedia subsystem
IP internet protocol
PSTN public switched telephone
network
E-UTRAN Evolved UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access
Network

Figure 4. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Network Architecture

20

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

In the evolved UMTS evolution, also known as Evolved Packet System

(EPS), the new blocks are
the Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN), also known as the evolved access
network.
and the Evolved Packet Core (EPC), also known as the evolved packet core
network.

E-UTRAN consists of a networks of evolved nodeBs (eNodeBs).

There is no centralized controller in E-UTRAN.
Thus, the E-UTRAN architecture is known to be flat.
The eNodeBs are normally connected to each other by an interface
known as X2.
The eNodeBs are connected to the mobility management entity (MME)
by an interface known as S1-MME and to the serving gateway (GW) by
an interface known as S1-U.
The protocols that is running between the eNodeBs and the MT (or user
equipment (UE)) are known as the Access Stratum (AS) protocols.
21

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

The E-UTRAN is responsible for all radio-related functions like

Radio Resource Management
All functions related to the radio bearers

Radio bearer control

Radio admission control
Scheduling
Dynamic allocation of resources to UEs in both the uplink and downlink

Header Compression
Compress IP packet headers
Otherwise, significant overhead for small packets such as voice over IP
(VoIP)

Security
Encrypted all data that are sent over the radio interface

Connectivity to the EPC

This consists of the signalling towards the MME and the bearer path
towards the serving GW.
22

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

The EPC consists of several functional entities

Mobility management entity (MME)

Serving gateway (GW)
Packet data network (PDN) gateway
Policy and charging rules function (PCRF)

MME
In charge of all the control plane functions related to subscriber and session
management
Security procedures
Terminal-to-network session handling
Idle terminal location management

The MME is connected to the home subscriber server (HSS) through

an interface known as S6.
HSS is the concatenation of the home location register (HLR) and the
authentication center (AuC).
HSS supports the database containing all subscription information.
23

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

Serving GW
Termination point of packet data interface towards E-UTRAN
Serves as local mobility anchor when UEs move across eNodeBs
Packets are routed through this point for intra E-UTRAN mobility and
mobility with other 3GPP technologies such as 2G GSM and 3G UMTS.

PDN GW
Termination point of packet data interface towards PDN.
Anchor point for sessions towards the PDN.
Supports policy enforcement features (which apply operatordefined rules for resource allocation and usage)
Packet filtering (like deep packet inspection for virus signature
detection)
Evolved charging support (like per URL charging)

URL is an address of a web page on the world wide web

(WWW).
24

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

Policy and charging rule functions (PCRF)

Responsible for policy control decision-making and for controlling
the flow-based charging functionalities in the PDN GW.
Provides QoS authorization of data flow through PDN GW.
Ensures users subscription profile.

The IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) is a generic platform

offering IP-based multimedia services.
The call session control function (CSCF) play a key role in IMS
architecture.
CSCF has three types
Proxy
Interrogating
Serving

CSCF establishes, terminates and modifies IMS sessions.

25

LTE (3.9G Cellular)

Multimedia gateway control function (MGCF)

Supports call control protocol conversion.
Supports media gateway (MGW).
Supports interrogating CSCF.

MGW
Responsible for media conversion.
Responsible for bearer control.
Payload processing (e.g., codec, echo canceller, ).

26

MT

RN

LTE Advanced (4G Cellular)

Other Access
Types (WLAN,)

MT

eNode B
IMS
Serving
GW

MGW

PDN GW

eNode B

P/I/S-CSCF

MT

MGCF

PCRF
MME
IP network

HeNode B
HeNB
-GW
EPC
MT

HeNode B
E-UTRAN

MT

HSS

PSTN

External networks

MT mobile terminal
RN relay node
eNode B an evolved network
component that serves one cell
HeNodeB an evolved network
component that serves one
femtocell
Serving GW serving gateway
MME mobility management entity
HSS home subscriber server
PDN GW packet data network gateway
PCRF policy and charging rules
functions
EPC evolved packet core
WLAN wireless local area network
P/I/S-CSCF proxy/interrogating/serving
call session control function
MGCF media gateway control function
MGW media gateway
IMS IP multimedia subsystem
IP internet protocol
PSTN public switched telephone
network
E-UTRAN Evolved UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network

Figure 5. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Advanced Network Architecture

27

LTE Advanced (4G Cellular)

The E-UTRAN for LTE Advanced can support Home eNodeB

(HeNodeB) which is also known as a femtocell.
HeNodeB are basically eNodeB of lower cost for indoor coverage
improvement.
HeNodeB can be connected to the evolved packet core (ECP) directly or
via a HeNodeB gateway (GW) which provides support for a large number
of HeNodeBs.

The E-UTRAN for LTE Advanced is also considering support of relay

nodes and enhanced relaying strategies for increased coverage, higher
data rates and better QoS performance and fairness for different users.
The EPC is not undergoing major changes from the standardized
system and architecture evolution (SAE) project.
28

IEEE 802.16 WiMAX WMAN

CSN
ASN

Internet

CSN

ASN GW

PSTN
Other
operator
CSN

Wimax BS

Wimax BSs

PMP
mode

Mesh mode
MS

MHR mode

RN

MS
MS

RN

RN

3G

MS
MS

RN

BS base station
RN relay node
MS mobile
subscriber/station
ASN access services
network
ASN GW ASN gateway
CSN core services
network
PSTN public switched
telephone network
PMP point-to-multipoint
MHR multi-hop relay

MS

MS

MS
MS

MS

MS

Figure 6. IEEE 802.16 WiMAX Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN) Network
Architecture

29

IEEE 802.16 WiMAX WMAN

The access services network (ASN) is the access network of

WiMAX.
ASN provides the interface between the user and the core
services network (CSN).
ASN
Handover
Authentication through the proxy authentication, authorization and
accounting (AAA) server
Radio resource management
Interoperability with other ASNs
Relay of functionality between CSN and mobile station (MS), e.g.,
IP address allocation

30

IEEE 802.16 WiMAX WMAN

ASN gateway
Connection and mobility management.
Interservice provider network boundaries through processing of
subscriber control and bearer data traffic.
Serves as an extensible authentication protocol (EAP)
authenticator for subscriber identity.
Acts as a remote authentication dial-in user service (RADIUS)
client to the operators AAA servers.

CSN
Transport, authentication and switching part of the network.
Represents the core network in WiMAX.
Consists of home agent (HA), AAA system and IP servers
(gateways to other networks like Internet, public switched
telephone network (PSTN), 3G, etc.)

31

IEEE 802.11 WLAN

Infrastructure Mode
Extended
service set
IEEE 802.x LAN
Portal

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area network

Distribution
system

Basic
service
set

AP/STA1

Basic
service
set

STA2

STA4

STA6

STA3

AP/STA5

STA8
STA7

Figure 7. IEEE 802.11 WLAN (Infrastructure Mode) Network Architecture

32

IEEE 802.11 WLAN

Infrastructure Mode

The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a basic service set

(BSS).
BSS consists of a number of stations (STAs) executing the same
medium access control (MAC) protocol and competing for access to
the same shared wireless medium.
A BSS may be isolated or it may be connected to a backbone
distribution system (DS) through an access point (AP).
The access point functions as a bridge.
The MAC protocol may be fully distributed or controlled by a central
coordination function housed in the access point.
The BSS generally corresponds to a cell.
The DS can be a switch, a wired network or a wireless network.
The figure above shows the simplest configuration, where each
station belongs to a single BSS.
That is, each station is within wireless range only of other stations
within the same BSS.
It is also possible for two BSSs to overlapped geographically, so that
a single station could participate in more than one BSS.

33

IEEE 802.11 WLAN

Infrastructure Mode

Furthermore, the association between a station and a BSS is dynamic.

Stations may turn off, come within range, and go out of range.
An extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic service
sets (BSSs) interconnected by a distribution system (DS).
Typically, the distribution system is a wired backbone LAN but can be
any communications network.
The extended service set appears as a single logical LAN to the logical
link control (LLC) level.
Figure 7 shows the access point (AP) is implemented as part of a
station.
The AP is the logic within a station that provides access to the DS by
providing DS services in addition to acting as a station.
A portal is used to integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a
traditional wired LAN (IEEE 802.x).
The portal logic is implemented in a device such as a bridge or a router,
that is part of the wired LAN, and is attached to the distribution system
(DS).
34

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Ad Hoc

Mode
STA1

STA2

STA4

STA station

STA3

Figure 8. IEEE 802.11 WLAN (Ad Hoc Mode) Network Architecture

35

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Ad Hoc

Mode
In the ad hoc network architecture, stations
are connected directly to each other in an ad
hoc manner without an AP.
This is like a mesh network topology or
sometimes known as peer-to-peer network
topology.
This mode of operation is also known as an
independent BSS (IBSS).
36

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Wireless

Mesh Mode
Extended
service set
IEEE 802.x LAN
Portal
Distribution
system
AP/STA5

B
S
S

STA2

STA4
STA3

B
S
S

AP/
STA
9

STA
10
STA11

B
S
S

AP/
STA
12

STA6

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area
network
BSS basic service
set

STA8 B
S
STA7
S

STA
13
STA14

Figure 9. IEEE 802.11 WLAN (Wireless Mesh Mode) Network Architecture

37

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Wireless

Mesh Mode
In the wireless mesh network topology, the
distribution system can be a wireless mesh
network among the access points.

38

IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth WPAN

Wired
LAN
PSTN

Bluetooth
piconet

Cellular
Network

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area network
PSTN public switched
telephone network
BTS base transceiver station

BTS

Figure 10. Bluetooth Network Architecture

39

IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth WPAN

Bluetooth can be used to connect different devices
like mobile phone, printer, walkman, etc., to a
laptop in a small personal area network called a
piconet.
The laptop can be connected to the LAN via an
access point.
A mobile phone can also be connected to a base
station in a cellular network which in turn is
connected to a PSTN.
40

IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee WPAN

PANC Personal area network
coordinator
PANC
PANC

Full-function device (FFD)

Reduced-function device (RFD)

(a)

(b)

Figure 11. IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee Network Topologies (a) star; (b) peer-to-peer
41

IEEE 802.15.4 Zigbee WPAN

The PAN coordinator is the principal controller of a PAN.

PANC is a full-function device (FFD).
PANC can initiate a communication, terminate the
communication and route it around the network.
An IEEE 802.15.4 network has exactly one PANC.
An FFD can connect to both FFDs and reduced-function devices
(RFDs).
A RFD can connect to only a FFD.
Simple applications of a RFD are a light sensor and a lighting
controller.
A FFD can take up roles of a coordinator and a router.
42

ECMA 368 (WiMedia) WPAN

Wired
LAN
PSTN

ECMA
368
piconet

Cellular
Network

PNC

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area network
PSTN public switched
telephone network
BTS base transceiver station
PNC piconet coordinator

BTS

Figure 12. ECMA 368 Network Architecture

43

ECMA 368 (WiMedia) WPAN

WiMedia can be used to connect different devices like mobile phone,

printer, storage device, MP3/4 player, etc., to a laptop in a small
wireless personal area network (WPAN) such as a piconet as known in
Bluetooth.
A WPAN for WiMedia is shown in Figure 12.
The connectivity between the laptop and the devices can be done using
Wireless USB.
Wireless USB makes use of a type of reservation known as Private
Distributed Reservation Protocol in WiMedia medium access control.
The laptop can be connected to the local area network (LAN) via an
access point.
A mobile phone can also be connected to a base station in a cellular
network which in turn is connected to a public switched telephone
network (PSTN).
This example shows a star topology but WiMedia does not need to be
in this topology only.
As it has a distributed medium access control, WiMedia can have other
topologies, e.g., those with mesh-connectivity.

44

IEEE 802.15.3c WPAN

Wired
LAN
PSTN

IEEE
802.15.3c
piconet

Cellular
Network

PNC

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area network
PSTN public switched
telephone network
BTS base transceiver station
PNC piconet coordinator

BTS
HDTV

Figure 13. IEEE 802.15.3c Network Architecture

45

IEEE 802.15.3c WPAN

The PHY specifies three modes and one common mode.
The three PHY modes are as follows:
Single carrier (SC) mode optimized for low power and low
complexity.
High-speed interface (HSI) mode optimized for low-latency
bidirectional data transfer.
Audio/video (AV) mode optimized for the delivery of
uncompressed, high-definition video and audio.

Also defined as a part of the alternate PHY is commonmode signaling, which is a PHY mode that allows devices
using different PHY modes to communicate.
46

ECMA 387 WPAN

AP access point
STA station
LAN local area network
PNC piconet coordinator
HDTV high definition television

Wired
LAN

PNC

ECMA
387
piconet

A
B

HDTV

HDTV

HDTV
A

HDTV

(a)

B
A

(b)

Figure 14. ECMA 387 Network Topologies (a) star; (b) mesh (types A and B devices)

47

ECMA 387 WPAN

The standard provides high rate wireless personal area
network (including point-to-point) transport for both bulk
data transfer and multimedia streaming.
The key usage cases and applications are:
High definition (uncompressed / lightly compressed) AV
streaming
Wireless docking station
Short Range Sync & Go.

The standard defines two device types that interoperate

with their own types independently and that can coexist
and interoperate with the other types.
Thus, it offers a heterogeneous network solution that
provides interoperability between all device types.
48

ECMA 387 WPAN

The two device types are defined as follows:

A type A device offers video streaming and WPAN applications in 10meter range line-of-sight (LOS)/non-line-of-sight (NLOS) multipath
environments.
It uses high gain trainable antennas.
This device type is considered as the high end - high performance
device.
A second type B device offers video and data applications over shorter
range (1-3 meters) point-to-point LOS links with non-trainable
antennas.
It is considered as the economy device and trades off range and
NLOS performance in favour of low cost implementation and low
power consumption.

49

References

David Tung Chong Wong, Peng-Yong Kong, Ying-Chang Liang, Kee Chaing
Chua and Jon W. Mark, Wireless Broadband Networks, John Wiley and Sons,
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