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NAME: OLA-FOLUWE DAMARIS ONAMIYOLUWA

REG NO: CSC/2013/147


FACULTY: TECHNOLOGY
DEPT: COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OPTION: COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
DATE: 02/12/2015

QUESTION 1:

Select any three (3) definitions of Artificial Intelligence and critique each of them in the
context of the four (4) world model. (3 pages max)

The Four World Model: is a view that distinguishes four kinds of world in existence and they
are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

World 0: this is the nucleus world upon which other worlds rest
World 1: the natural world i.e. not man-made
World 2: the created world
World 3: the virtual world.

This model claims that humans exist in the natural world while created things like computers,
houses, furniture etc. exist in the created world. The things made by members of world 2
exist in the virtual world (World 3). This model also claims that members of a world cannot
create things that are also members of that world. This implies that as humans, we cannot
create things that are members of our world.
Hence, if this is so, AI can only mimic the intelligence of members of the natural world i.e. it
can only be like, it cannot be the same as. The four world model will be used as a criteria to
critique three AI definitions in this assignment.
3
2
1
0

Fig 1. A Diagram Illustrating the Four-World Model.


Defining a term such as Artificial Intelligence is almost an impossible task because of the
many controversies around the precise definition of the words artificial and intelligence.
Intelligence or intelligent behaviour can be recognised when seen but there is no general and
acceptable definition of the word intelligence. It happens to be one of the words human
language cannot adequately define. Artificial on the other hand may be said to be any
phenomenon not natural. The question will be not natural in what sense; is it not created by
humans or not assisted by humans (or animals or other living things?).
Some definitions of Artificial Intelligence include:
1. By artificial intelligence I therefore mean the use of computer programs and
programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general
and human thought in particular. (Boden, Margaret (1977), Artificial Intelligence
and Natural Man (New York: Basic Books))
2. The field of artificial intelligence (AI) aims to reproduce human intelligence by
artificial means ( John N. Hooker (1990) A Postmodern critique of Artificial
Intelligence)
3. The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models.
(Charnlak & McDermott (1985))
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4. The goal of work in artificial intelligence is to build machines that perform tasks
normally requiring human intelligence. (Nilsson, Nils J. (1971), Problem Solving
Methods in Artificial Intelligence (New York: McGrawHill))
5. Artificial Intelligence is the use of special programming techniques known as
heuristics to understand and instruct the process of problem solving (Daniel et al
(1986))
6. The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of
intelligent behaviour (Luger and Stubblefield, 1993).
Now the critique;
1. The field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) aims to reproduce human intelligence by
artificial means (John N. Hooker (1990) A Postmodern critique of Artificial
Intelligence).
These definition of Artificial Intelligence tells the purpose or aim of the study which is to
reproduce the intelligence of humans (which are a member of the World 0- the natural world)
by artificial means. This definition limits the field of AI to the intelligence of humans. A
question to ask will be if the intelligence of a lizard who is a member of the natural world is
reproduced (Can it be referred to as AI?); this definition says no. I will say yes because
according to the context of the four-world view if a member of the natural world (humans)
are assumed to be intelligent then all natural entities in that world are intelligent.
However, this definition does not tell us by what means the purpose of the study will be
achieved. The artificial means can be generalised to mean any phenomenon not natural. It is
not specific about which artificial means to be used i.e. the kind of study AI is. The field of
Artificial Intelligence as we know it now uses the computational study of the problem solving
abilities of members of the natural word to reproduce their intelligence.
This definition states the object of study to be only humans which is wrong according to the
context of the four-world model. The four-world model assumes all members of the natural
world to be capable of intelligence because, one member of the natural world has to be
assumed intelligent to even know what intelligent means and how to recognize it.
As explained above, this definition can be said to be inadequate because of the reasons stated
above. Therefore, this definition will be termed incomplete and can be rephrased thus:
AI is a computational study that aims to reproduce natural intelligence (their problem
solving capability) by way of artificial means using computational tools.

2.

Artificial Intelligence is the use of special programming techniques known as


heuristics to understand and instruct the process of problem solving (Daniel et
al, 1986).

This definition tells us the kind of study AI is i.e. the use of heuristics in the process of
problem solving which is an important part of AI. This definition is not specific enough about
what kind of problems are to be solved in the field of AI. This definition does not have any
relation to the four-world model as it does not relate this process of problem solving to any
natural entity nor does it relate programming to intelligence.

This definition is lacking because it does not tell us the object of study i.e. who is being
studied and the purpose of the study. The object of study in AI is any member of the natural
world and the purpose of study is to mimic their problem solving abilities. The object of a
study is very important in any field of study as this gives a bound on what can or cannot be
studied
The aim of AI is to mimic or reproduce the problem solving abilities of members of the
natural world through the use of computation which includes but is not limited to heuristics
as perceived from the above definition. Other aspects of computation will come into play
during the reproduction of human intelligence so heuristics cannot be the only technique used
in AI even though it may be the major technique used.
As explained above this definition is not a full definition of Artificial Intelligence and may be
rephrased thus:
AI is the use of computation such as special programming techniques known as
heuristics to understand and instruct the process solving ability of the natural world members
in order to mimic or reproduce it.

3. The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of


intelligent behaviour (Luger and Stubblefield, 1993).
The definition above explains what is done with intelligent behaviour automation i.e
converting it to an electro-mechanical computing device. It also defines AI as a branch of
computer science which is quite good but not good enough as AI is not only a pure branch of
computer science like programming or computer architecture but a field on its own that is
heavily dependent not only on computer science but also on major fields like electromechanical engineering, psychology, philosophy, sociology, cognitive science etc.
This definition does not explicitly state the object of study even though we know it is
intelligent behaviour; but intelligent behaviour of what? trees, dragons etc. The context of
the study is not well defined as to whose intelligent behaviour is being automated. The
intelligent behaviour of entities in the natural world (world 0) in the context of the four world
model is what is being automated. This definition somehow is ambiguous as to who can
exhibit intelligent behaviour.
This definition does not explicitly tells us why we are automating intelligent behaviour i.e the
purpose of AI. The purpose of Artificial Intelligence is to mimic the intelligent behaviour of
members of the natural world by way of automation. This intelligent behaviour is exhibited in
their problem solving abilities and capabilities.
This definition can be said to be ambiguous and will be rephrased as follows:
AI is a field dependent on computer science that is concerned with the automation of
intelligent behaviour as observed from members of the natural world.

QUESTION 2:
Discuss the Turing test of intelligence and provide at least two (2) limitations for why it is not
a sufficient test for human intelligence.

The Turing test of intelligence is ascribed to Alan Turing who wrote a paper titled Computer
Machinery and Intelligence in 1950. The paper was silently retitled Can a machine think?
some years later by a publisher. Alan Turing was a British mathematician and computer
scientist who proposed that instead of asking if machines could think, the question could be
rephrased to if machines can exhibit intelligent behaviour such as cognitive abilities and
decision making.
The Turing test consists of three participants, two competing entities and an interrogator
(judge). He proposed a first phase of the imitation game where the two competing entities
were a man and a woman who were trying to convince the judge (a human) that they were
either i.e. the man was the woman and the woman was the man. The test was supposed to be
performed only through teletype where the test could not be based on any other factor apart
from their cognitive abilities. The interrogator was to ask the other two participants questions
in which their answers was to be used to judge and make decisions about their gender.
The second phase of the imitation game was to replace one of the competing entities either
the man or woman with a machine (computer) and ask the interrogator to ask questions and
guess by the answers to the questions who was human and who was a machine. The ability of
the machine to imitate a human in answering the questions and not its speed or accuracy was
the objective of the Turing test. This implies that the machine could deliberately introduce
some errors in calculations in order to imitate mans level of accuracy and also the machine
could pause before answering question in order to imitate mans speed during thinking. After
the conversation through teletype, the interrogator has to decide which of the competing
entity was human or machine. If the machine could fool the interrogator i.e. deceive the
interrogator into thinking it was human or if the interrogator could not determine who was
human or machine, the machine can then be said to be intelligent.

Machine

Human

Interrogator (Judge)

Fig 2. A Diagram Illustrating the Phase 2 of the Turing Test of Human Intelligence

The limitations of the Turing test of intelligence include:


1. The mechanism of human language cannot articulate the mystery of the human person
The mechanism of language is used to communicate using words either spoken or gestured
with hands and structured with grammar often with a writing system. Human language is
used to communicate human thoughts, intentions, actions and decisions. Communication
between humans is an important phenomenon in our world and distinguishes us from other
animal or plant species. Intelligence is measured by the right use of human language in the
Turing test which is not all encompassing.
The human person including our emotions, feelings, perceptions etc. cannot be fully
articulated by the human language. For example how sweet is sweet? Is your definition of
sweet the same as my definition of sweet? How is the computer supposed to exhibit emotions
such as fear, anger, happiness, joy, ecstasy etc. using words? yet the right attitude towards
these emotions is said to be a cue for intelligence and is a major part of the human person.
If the human language cannot fully articulate the mystery of human person, then the Turing
test cannot conclude that a machine is intelligent because it was able to construct sentences
together in human language and answer questions as if it were a human. Even though thats a
feat for the computer (machine i.e. natural language processing) but its no feat for a human
because an average adult can do the same and better.

2. Writing and reading (Literacy) cannot be said to be a key criteria for intelligence
Literacy cannot be used as a key criteria for intelligence as it is a learned skill and not a
natural skill. If humans were taught to read and write, then computers can also be
programmed to read and write and that should not be a criteria to evaluate intelligence.
Intelligence is an innate ability of human beings and therefore cannot be evaluated by a
learned skill.
The Turing test assumes that literacy is a key criteria for intelligence as intelligence is a
cognitive ability that may be sharpened by education whether formal or informal and can be
exhibited by illiterate human beings. The fact that an entity whether human or machine is
literate doesnt make it intelligent rather its ability and capability for problem solving,
capacity for values and judgement, capacity for thinking and reasoning etc. is what makes it
to be considered intelligent. This explains why some illiterate human beings especially our
fore-fathers in Africa have demonstrated high levels of intelligence through their use of
proverbs, riddles and common-sense attitude towards life and other issues in general even
without stepping inside the four walls of an educational institution.

QUESTION 3:
Discuss any three (3) dilemma in AI and state why their definitive resolution is central to the
works in AI.

A dilemma is an issue or situation that presents difficult predicament for the cause of action
or flow of thought (argument) to follow in advancing a precise solution to a problem.
The dilemmas to be discussed are as follows:
1. Whole-Part Dilemma
This is the dilemma of an system A comprising of three entities x, y, z which are functional
parts of the system A such that they define A. Isolating the components x, y or z for study is
not the same as studying these components in A because the components interact with each
other when in A. This means you cannot describe a system in isolation of its components yet
you cannot describe any component alone without it being in the system.
You cannot describe the part of a whole from a whole is not the same as describing the part
of a whole in a whole but is similar i.e. it is an approximation and is known as the
Circumscription Approach.
This can be illustrated using the pie model and the piece in pie model

Fig 3. A Figure Illustrating the Whole-Part Model


The definitive resolution of this dilemma to Artificial Intelligence is that if only a particular
intelligent characteristic is isolated in a human person to be studied and reproduced, it is not
the same, it is only similar to that characteristic in the human person because it has been
isolated from the whole i.e. part of the whole cannot be studied apart from the whole.
2. Run-away Behaviour
Given a continuously evolving entity E which is operating ceaselessly and whose operation
cannot be arrested and given further that some assumption can be made about the origin of its
activity. Can we generate a precise (complete, consistent and coherent) description of its
behaviour? The answer is no because something in spatial (space) and temporal (time)
cannot be arrested.
Human intelligence, the human person and intelligence in general is a continuum and cannot
be arrested to be modelled for AI as intelligence is a continuously evolving phenomenon. The
moment it is arrested to be modelled, it is no longer current.
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Also no matter how deep and accurate the study of a human being can be, it can never
capture the entire human person and if it cannot then it should not be termed complete.
The definitive resolution in this dilemma is that a behavioural study should be well defined
from the problem definition of the study. If not the study will be too detailed and become
trivial and not useful.

3. Signified Signifier Dilemma


According to Ferdinand de Saussure, a sign is made up of a matched signifier-signified pair;
where the signified is a concept, thing or object which the signifier refers to and the signifier
is the word, term or anything else used to refer to the actual object.
For example, a tree could mean different things to different people. Apart from the fact that
the word tree could mean different things to say, a Lumberjack and a Computer Scientist; a
tree, as drawn below, may have different significance and value to different people, at
different times. The tree would imply a source of raw material to a Carpenter, it could be a
habitation to a bird, an ornamental element to the horticulturist and many other things to
different people. It all depends on the needs of the person. It may even mean different things
to the same person at different times based on their needs or state of mind.
This signifier-signified dilemma shows the inadequacy of language. Language exists to bring
order to nature as a means of communication, and so concepts may vary in meaning to
various people. This is especially obvious when dealing with abstract things such as
emotions, ideas, feelings, the words love, anger, pain etc. This dilemma could cause
differences between an application user and application programmer.
The definitive resolution to this dilemma is to make a sign explicit enough to reduce
ambiguity and differences in meaning to different people.

Fig 4. A Picture Illustrating the Signifier-Signified Dilemma.

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