Addis Ababa Science & Technology University

Department of Civil Engineering

Hydraulic Structures II Lecture Notes
1

Introduction to River Engineering

1.1 General
Rivers are complex and dynamic systems. It often adjusts its roughness, velocity, slope,
depth, width, and plan form in response to human activities and perhaps changing

climatic, geologic, and hydrologic regimes. These adjustments may be rapid or slow
depending upon the sources and characters of the forces generating the adjustments.
When a river channel is modified locally, it may initiate changes in the channel and
flow characteristics that may propagate both upstream and downstream and throughout
tributary systems. These changes may occur over large distances and persist for long
times.

The study of river engineering is traditionally deals with all hydraulic engineering works
undertaken for the purposes of river straightening, flood protection, channelizing natural
watercourses, diverting water from its natural water course for different use, and

improving navigability. River hydraulics includes the evaluation of flow characteristics and
geomorphic (physical) behavior of river and changes in these due to natural or

manmade conditions. The analyses of river hydraulics are essential components of river
projects, and the results from these analyses are often critical for project formulation,

design, construction, and operation throughout projects life. For example, determination
of dams, spillways, levees, and guide banks requires both hydrological and hydraulic

computations. Major components of studies related to flood plain, flood control, channel
design, navigation, water quality assessment, and environmental impact assessment is
requires the prediction of stage, discharge and velocity as the function of time

anywhere in a river. Environmental aspects of river engineering often require the

prediction of stage, velocity distributions, sediment transport rates, and water quality
characteristics

to

evaluate

the

impacts

of

proposed

actions

on

future

river

characteristics.
Hydraulic Structures II Lecture Notes
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In this course, we shall discuss the various river engineering principles involved in
hydraulic

structures.

This

course,

therefore,

begins

by

broadening

on

the

river

morphology. And then methods of river training works are described along with their

design for river bank and bed protections. Finally, attention is turned to the design
principles of diversion headworks.

1.2 Introduction
Water collected together and flowing down slopes form a stream flow. The space
where a stream flow runs is a channel. A river is the general term for a channel and
the water in it. The area supplying water into a channel is a drainage basin. The
boundary between drainage basins is a watershed divide/ridge. A river system is
composed of the main stream and many tributaries. A drainage pattern is plan of river
system.

Rivers have always played an important role in human development and in shaping

civilizations. The primary function of a river is the conveyance of water and sediment.
In addition rivers have many functions, which include the following:
o Social/economic/cultural functions: River is used as: sources of water for water
supply, irrigation, hydropower, transportation and recreation; and means of waste
disposal.

o Ecological functions: River is also used as habitats for aquatic plants and animals.
Rivers are complex dynamic systems because of:
o They continuously change in their forms and patterns (shape, size, position) and
other morphological characteristics in space and time (spatial and temporal) due to
changes in water and sediment discharge.
o Interaction between hydrodynamics, morphodynamics and ecological processes.
The changes in water and sediment discharge may be caused by:

Natural forces: variation of discharge

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Anthropogenic elements: Human interference in the fluvial system

River developments: Hydraulic structures, river channelization, gravel and sand
mining;

Land

developments:

building.

land

use

change,

land

clearance

and

infrastructure

River morphology (fluvial morphology) is the study of the forms and patterns of rivers
and the processes that developed these forms by the action of the running water. It is
time dependent and varies particularly with factors such as discharge, water surface
slope, water velocity, depth and width of channel, sediment input and characteristics,

and river bed and bank materials. These factors are inter-related to each other. River
morphology can be substantially influenced by engineering works although this influence
is not necessarily beneficial.

River forms and patterns: river channel geometry, shape and size of channel
cross section.

River channel pattern/ plan form: Straight channel, meandering channel and
braided channel

1.3 Classifications of rivers

Rivers can be classified according to various criteria:

Based on variation of discharge in river:

a. Perennial Rivers. Perennial rivers have adequate discharge throughout the year.
These rivers obtain their supply from the melting of snow and from precipitation.

b. Non-perennial

rivers.

Non-perennial

rivers

dont

have

adequate

discharge

throughout the year. The flow is quite high during and after rainy season but
they carry little flow in non-rainy season.

c. Flashy rivers. If the flood rise and fall in a river is sudden, then it is called a
flashy river. Therefore, the flood flows occur suddenly, and rise and fall of water
level is very quick. The flood hydrographs are very steep, indicating sudden
floods.

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d. Virgin rivers. In arid zones (deserts), a river water may completely dry before it
joins another river or the ocean. Such a river is called a virgin river. After

flowing for a certain distance from its source, the water of such a river

disappears due to percolation or due to excessive evaporation.

Based on stability of river: Stable Rivers, Aggrading Rivers, and Degrading Rivers.

a. Aggrading rivers. If the river is collecting sediment and is building up its bed, it
is called an aggrading or an accreting type. An aggrading river is a silting river
(Fig. 1-1). Such a river increases its bed slope, which is called building up of
slope. The silting may be due to various reasons such as heavy sediment load;

construction of obstruction across the river, such as a dam or a weir; sudden

intrusion of sediment from a tributaries; etc. This type of river, usually, has straight
and wide reaches with shoals in the middle, which shift with floods, dividing the
flow into a number of braided river channels.

Figure 1-1. Aggrading and degrading Rivers

b. Degrading rivers. If the river bed is constantly getting scoured (eroded) to produce
and dissipate available excess land slope, then the river is known as a degrading
river (fig. 1-1).

c. Stable River. A river which does not change its alignment, slope and its regime
significantly is called a stable river.

Based on the location of river:

a. Mountainous rivers. The rivers that flow in hilly and mountainous regions.

b. Rivers in flood plains. After the boulder stage, a river enters the flood plains
having alluvial soil. The bed and banks of the rivers in flood plains are made up
of sand and silt.

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c. Delta Rivers. When river enters a deltaic plain, it splits into a number of small
branches due to very flat slopes. There is shoal formation and braiding of the
channels in the delta rivers.

Figure 1-2. Delta River formations

d. Tidal rivers. Just before joining a sea or an ocean, the river becomes a tidal
river. In a tidal river, there are periodic changes in water levels due to tides. The

river receives the sea water during flood tides, but during outgoing tides, it
delivers water back to the sea.

Based on the plan-form of river:

a. Straight rivers. These rivers are straight in plan and have cross-sectional shape of
a trough. The maximum velocity of flow usually occurs in the middle of the

section. Straight rivers may exist in the mountainous region, but they are rare in
flood plains.

Figure 1-3. Straight channels

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b. Meandering rivers. Meandering rivers follow a winding, crooked course. They

consist of a series of bends of alternative curvature in the plan. The successive

curves are connected by small straight reaches of the river, called cross-overs or
crossings.

Figure 1-4. Meandering patterns

c. Braided rivers. A braided river flows into two or more channels around alluvial
islands developed due to deposition of silt.

Figure 1-5. Braided river patterns

1.4 Sediment and Morphological processes

A river develops various landforms through channel (river morphological) processes. The
main

channel

processes

or

fluvial

processes

are

erosion,

transportation

and

sedimentation. Erosion predominates in the upper reach area of a drainage basin, and

valleys composed of channels and slopes are formed. Sediment load is deposited to
form an alluvial plain.

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Understanding of sediment transport and morphological processes are essential for

integrated river management and river engineering. If the transport capacity of the river
is affect by water management structures such as diversion of water from river or
storing water in a reservoir, deposition of sediments may occur. For this reason,

sufficient understanding of the sediment transport and morphological processes in the

river is a must for good river management.
Some of the reasons why good understanding of sediment transport process is
important are:

Morphological boundary conditions for design of hydraulics structures and river

training works: For the design of such engineering structures boundary conditions

have to be specified. These are the discharge, maximum and minimum water
levels, current velocities, the lowest bed levels that may occur in the river and the

future changes in the morphological characteristics of the river near the structure.
These levels and possible changes are affected by gradients in the sediment
transport rates. This requires understanding of the interaction between flow, sediment
and structure.

Reservoirs

Sedimentation:

Many

reservoirs

are

suffering

from

excessive

sedimentation. This is often due to the fact that either the upstream sediment
supply was never considered or that the seriousness of this process was
underestimated. In addition, changes in sediment yield due to changed land use in
the upstream catchment can cause detrimental sedimentation. To remedy the
negative effects (loss I storage capacity), it requires changes in the operation of

the reservoir, sometimes with drastic consequences, e.g. the reduction of the power
production.

Sediment problems at Intakes: Many canals of irrigation projects suffer from

excessive sedimentation, which is entering through the head works. This is because
of:

The sediment transport in the river was not properly assessed and
appears to be much higher than anticipated;

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The morphological changes have taken place after construction of the

intake structures.

Remedial measures are rehabilitation of the intake structure or regular cleaning of

canals, which both are very expensive.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): To assess the potential impacts
of hydraulic structures and river training works not only their hydraulic
impacts should be assessed but also possible morphological changes
(degradation, aggradations, changes

in flood plain sedimentation, etc.)

should be identified. This assessment can only be done when sufficient

understanding is available on sediment transport processes.
1.4.1 Erosion
Running water carries sediment (i.e., soil particles) by two processes. One is erosion
and the other is corrosion.

Erosion: Erosion is a hydraulic action and is derived from the energy of running
water. Gravel being brought by running water scours the channel and removes
sediment from the river bed. Erosion makes a channel broader and deeper.

Corrosion. Stream water reacts chemically with rocks and dissolves them. This
process is called corrosion.

1.4.2 Transportation
The higher the velocity of water, the more capacity a river has for transporting

sediment load. There are three different processes in transporting sediment load. They
are corrosion, suspension and traction.

Corrosion: it is the process in which stream water corrodes rocks and brings them
invisibly into solution.

Suspensions: fine materials such as clay, silt, fine sand and materials lighter than
water are transported in the water or on the water surface without contact with the

river bed. This process is called suspension, and materials carried in suspension
are the suspended loads. Suspended load creates the turbidity of stream water.
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Traction: Gravel of larger diameter slides or rolls, and sand hops or bounds on a
river bed. These processes are called traction. Sediment load carried by traction is
known as bed load.

1.4.3 Sedimentation
A flood caused by heavy rain carries a huge volume of bed load from mountains to
the river plain. When a flood flows from the mountains to a plain, the capacity to
transport bed load is suddenly reduced. Particles of bed load are deposited in order of

their size, and an alluvial plain is formed. An alluvial fan composed of gravel is
formed in the uppermost reaches of an alluvial plain.

The surface of an alluvial fan

is like a segment of a cone. The radial profile toward the lower reach is concave and

the cross sectional profile is convex. A delta being developed near a river mouth
consists of fine materials and sand. The morphology of a delta is derived from the
interaction of fluvial and marine processes. A flood plain consisting of natural levees

and back swamps occupies the transitional area between an alluvial fan and a delta.
A natural levee is composed of sand and silt. Clayey deposits distribute in back
swamps are lower and wetter than natural levees.

1.5 Channels in alluvial plains

Alluvial streams are those, which flow through sandy material, shape their channel
through it and carry water and sediment. In dealing with alluvial streams the material

in the bed and banks of the channel is generally assumed to be non-cohesive, though
some of the fine sediment in transport may settle on the banks and make the bank
material cohesive.
Every channel has its own characteristics. However, channels show some common
characteristics in areas of similar landform.

Channels in mountains. Channels running in a mountainous area are characterized

as follow:

River bed materials are rock or gravel;

The channel patterns is straight or braided;

Debris flow and traction transport heavy sediment loads; and
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 The gradient of river beds is steep.

Channels in alluvial plains. Characteristics of channels in alluvial plains differ on

an alluvial fan, a flood plain and a delta.

River bed materials are gravelly on an alluvial fan, sandy on a flood plain
and muddy on a delta.

Gravelly sediments show a braided channel pattern and are moved by

traction.

A sand bed channel usually meanders in flood plains but straight in some
case. Traction or suspension is predominating in these channels.

Channels bifurcate on a delta and the bifurcated channels are usually

straight, cut channels meander in the upper reaches. Muddy sediment loads
are carried by suspension.

1.6 Behaviors of Rivers

The main factors which is responsible for moldering the behavior of rivers is silt and
sediment that flows in the river.

The available energy of the flow is utilized in

transporting the sediment load as well as in overcoming the resistance due to the
viscous action and the roughness of bed and sides. The sediment carried by river

poses numerous problems, such as; increasing of flood levels, silting of reservoirs,
silting up of a river into a number of interrelated channels, etc. Therefore, the behavior
of river can results in the variation of the shape of river cross section and/or its plan

form. Aggradations, degradation, scour and deposition of sediment around beds, and
meandering are a few examples of such changes.
1.6.1 Straight reaches
In a straight reach of a river, the river cross section is in the shape of a trough, with
high velocity flow in the middle of the section (fig. 1-6). The water surface level will
be lower in the middle and higher at the edges because of the velocity is higher in

the middle. Due to the existence of this transverse gradient from sides toward the
center, transverse rotary currents get developed. However, straight reaches are very few
in alluvial rivers.
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Figure 1-6. Cross-section of straight reaches

1.6.2 Bends in Alluvial Channel

Bends usually develop in alluvial rivers. Bends are characterized by scouring on the
concave side and silting on the convex side, as shown in figure 1-7. Because of

curved flow lines around the bed, the flow is subjected to centrifugal forces and
hence, there is a transverse slope of the water surface due to the super elevation of
the water surface at the concave bank.

As a result, the bottom water (moving with

relatively smaller velocity) moves from the concave bank to the convex bank and also
carries with it the bed material and deposits it near the convex bank. To replace the

bottom water, water dives in from the top at the concave bank and flows along the
bottom carrying sand and silt to the convex bank where it is deposited. This
secondary motion is primarily responsible for the erosion of the sediment on the

concave bank and the deposition of the sediment on the convex bank. The depth of
flow in a river at the bend thus becomes deeper at the concave bank.

Figure 1-7. The movement of water in a river bends

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1.6.3 Meanders
The continued action of the secondary flow developed around river bends causes
further erosion and deposition of the sediment, respectively, on the concave and

convex banks of river. Thus, the river bends become sharper and the river attains a
meander pattern and becomes a meandering river. Meander patterns are usually
associated with wide flood plains comprising easily erodible material.
The formation of successive bends of reverse order may lead to the formation of a

complete S curve called meander. When consecutive curves of reverse order connected
with short straight reaches called crossings are developed in a river reach, the river is
stated to be a meandering river (Figure 1-8). In order to study the behavior of a
meandering river, the river may be supposed to follow a sine curve.
There are four variables, which govern the meandering process. They are: valley slope;
silt grade and silt charge; discharge; and bed and side materials and their susceptibility
to erosion. All these factors considerably affect the meandering patterns, and all of
them are interdependent.
The latest and widely accepted theory behind meandering is based upon the extra
turbulence generated by the excess of river sediment during floods. During floods, the
river carries tremendous amount of silt charge. Is has been established that when the

silt charge is in excess of quantity required for stability, the river starts building up its
slope by depositing the silt on the bed. In other words, the river reach becomes an

aggrading or of accreting type. Accretion is the primary process, which consequently

leads to meandering.

Figure 1-8.Meandering Rivers and their Parameters

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The various meandering parameters are shown in the figure 1-8 and defined as follow:

Meander Length (). It is the tangential distance between the corresponding

points of a meander.

Meander Belt ( ). It is the distance between the outer edges of clockwise

and anti-clockwise loops the meander.

Meander Ratio. It is the ratio of meander belt to meander length.

Tortuosity. It is the ratio of the length along the channel to the direct length of
the river reach.

Crossings or Cross-overs. It

is

the

short

straight

reaches

of

the

river,

connecting two consecutive clockwise and anti-clockwise loops of meandering

river.
1.6.4 Cut-Off
. Cutoffs can be defined as a process by which an alluvial river flowing along bends
abandons a particular bend and establishes its main flow along a comparatively
straighter and shorter channel, as shown in figure 1-9. During the development of

meanders, there is always a lateral movement of the meanders due to their gradual
lengthening. Increased frictional losses and bank resistance tend to stop this lateral
movement. When the bend and the bank resistance become too large for continued
stretching of the loop, the flow finds it easier to cut across the neck than to flow
along the loop. This results in a cutoff. Thus, cutoff is a natural way of counter

balancing the effect of the ever-increasing length of a river course due to the
development of meander. Alternatively, cutoff may be artificially induced for some there
purpose (we will see in chapter 2).

Figure 1-9. Cutoff development

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