Indus Valley Civilization.

TheearliesttracesofcivilizationintheIndiansubcontinentaretobefoundinplaces
along,orclose,totheIndusriver.Excavationsfirstconductedin192122,inthe
ancientcitiesofHarappaandMohenjodaro,bothnowinPakistan,pointedtoahighly
complexcivilizationthatfirstdevelopedsome4,5005,000yearsago,andsubsequent
archaeologicalandhistoricalresearchhasnowfurnisheduswithamoredetailed
pictureoftheIndusValleyCivilizationanditsinhabitants.TheIndusValleypeople
weremostlikelyDravidians,whomayhavebeenpusheddownintosouthIndiawhen
theAryans,withtheirmoreadvancedmilitarytechnology,commencedtheir
migrationstoIndiaaround2,000BCE.ThoughtheIndusValleyscriptremains
undeciphereddowntothepresentday,thenumeroussealsdiscoveredduringthe
excavations,aswellasstatuaryandpottery,nottomentiontheruinsofnumerous
IndusValleycities,haveenabledscholarstoconstructareasonablyplausibleaccount
oftheIndusValleyCivilization.
Somekindofcentralizedstate,andcertainlyfairlyextensivetownplanning,is
suggestedbythelayoutofthegreatcitiesofHarappaandMohenjodaro.Thesame
kindofburntbrickappearstohavebeenusedintheconstructionofbuildingsincities
thatwereasmuchasseveralhundredmilesapart.Theweightsandmeasuresshowa
veryconsiderableregularity.TheIndusValleypeopledomesticatedanimals,and
harvestedvariouscrops,suchascotton,sesame,peas,barley,andcotton.Theymay
alsohavebeenaseafaringpeople,anditisratherinterestingthatIndusValleyseals
havebeendugupinsuchplacesasSumer.Inmostrespects,theIndusValley
Civilizationappearstohavebeenurban,defyingboththepredominantideaofIndiaas
aneternallyandessentiallyagriculturalcivilization,aswellasthenotionthatthe
changefromruraltourbanrepresentssomethingofalogicalprogression.The
IndusValleypeoplehadamerchantclassthat,evidencesuggests,engagedin
extensivetrading.
NeitherHarappanorMohenjodaroshowanyevidenceoffirealtars,andconsequently
onecanreasonablyconjecturethatthevariousritualsaroundthefirewhichareso
criticalinHinduismwereintroducedlaterbytheAryans.TheIndusValleypeopledo
notappeartohavebeeninpossessionofthehorse:thereisnoosteologicalevidence
ofhorseremainsintheIndiansubcontinentbefore2,000BCE,whentheAryansfirst

cametoIndia,andonHarappansealsandterracottafigures,horsesdonotappear.
OtherthanthearchaeologicalruinsofHarappaandMohenjodaro,thesesealsprovide
themostdetailedcluesaboutthecharacteroftheIndusValleypeople.Bullsand
elephantsdoappearontheseseals,butthehornedbull,mostscholarsareagreed,
shouldnotbetakentobecongruentwithNandi,orShivasbull.Thehornedbull
appearsinnumerousCentralAsianfiguresaswell;itisalsoimportanttonotethat
ShivaisnotoneofthegodsinvokedintheRigVeda.ThereveredcowoftheHindus
alsodoesnotappearontheseals.Thewomenportrayedonthesealsareshownwith
elaboratecoiffures,sportingheavyjewelry,suggestingthattheIndusValleypeople
wereanurbanepeoplewithcultivatedtastesandarefinedaestheticsensibility.Afew
thousandsealshavebeendiscoveredinIndusValleycities,showingsome400
pictographs:toofewinnumberforthelanguagetohavebeenideographic,andtoo
manyforthelanguagetohavebeenphonetic.
TheIndusValleycivilizationraisesagreatmany,largelyunresolved,questions.Why
didthiscivilization,consideringitssophistication,notspreadbeyondtheIndus
Valley?Ingeneral,theareawheretheIndusvalleycitiesdevelopedisarid,andone
cansurmisethaturbandevelopmenttookplacealongariverthatflewthrougha
virtualdesert.TheIndusValleypeopledidnotdevelopagricultureonanylargescale,
andconsequentlydidnothavetoclearawayaheavygrowthofforest.Nordidthey
havethetechnologyforthat,sincetheywereconfinedtousingbronzeorstone
implements.Theydidnotpracticecanalirrigationanddidnothavetheheavyplough.
Mostsignificantly,underwhatcircumstancesdidtheIndusValleycitiesundergoa
decline?ThefirstattacksonoutlyingvillagesbyAryansappeartohavetakenplace
around2,000BCEnearBaluchistan,andofthemajorcities,atleastHarappawas
quitelikelyoverrunbytheAryans.IntheRigVedathereismentionofaVedicwar
god,Indra,destroyingsomefortsandcitadels,whichcouldhaveincludedHarappa
andsomeotherIndusValleycities.Theconventionalhistoricalnarrativespeaksofa
cataclysmicblowthatstrucktheIndusValleyCivilizationaround1,600BCE,butthat
wouldnotexplainwhysettlementsatadistanceofseveralhundredmilesfromeach
otherwerealleradicated.Themostcompellinghistoricalnarrativestillsuggeststhat
thedemiseandeventualdisappearanceoftheIndusValleyCivilization,whichowed
somethingtointernaldecline,nonethelesswasfacilitatedbythearrivalinIndiaofthe
Aryans.