MATERIALSCIENCEQUESTIONANDANSWER (CONVENTIONALTYPE)

Q-1:
A-1:

What are coordination number of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.
CN of BCC structure is 8
CN of FCC structure is 12
CN of HCP structure is 12

BCC

FCC

HCP

Q-2:
A-2:

What are packing factors of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by
the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
APF of BCC structure is 0.68
APF of FCC structure is 0.74
APF of HCP structure is 0.74

Q-3:
A-3:

How many slip planes are there in BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
Crystal
BCC
FCC
HCP

Q-4:
A-4:

[1 2 0]

Slip Planes
{110}, {112}, {123}
{111}
Basal plane, Prismatic & Pyramidal planes

Show crystalographic directions [1 2 0], [1 3 3], [1 1 0 0], [1 2 0]

The length of the vector
projection on the axis x,
y and z respectably
a/2, b, 0c

Crystalographic Directions

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[1 3 3]

a/3, b, c

[1 1 0 0]

0.866a, -0.866a, 0a, 0c

[1 2 0]

a/2, -b, 0c

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Q-5:
A-5:

Show crystalographic planes [1 0 2], [2 2 1], [6 3 2], [10 1 0]

Crystalographic Planes
[1 0 2]

[ 2 2 1]

[632]

[10 1 0]
Plane
ABCD

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Q-6:
A-6:

Show Burgers vector in edge and screw dislocations.

Burgers vector in edge dislocations
Burgers vector in screw dislocations

Q-7:
A-7:

Why fine grained structure is harder than coarse grain structure?

The smaller the grain size, the more frequent is the pile up of dislocations. With decrease in grain
size, the mean distance of a dislocation can travel decreases, and soon starts pile up of dislocations at
grain boundaries. This leads to increase in yield strength of the material.

Q-8:
A-8:

What is the type of solid solution (a) copper and nickel (b) Iron and carbon
(a) copper and nickel
Cu-Ni forms a sunstitutional solid solution. If a melt of Cu and Ni with any composition is
cooled, a solid solution begins to freeze out. This solid solution is richer in Ni than the liquid
solution. As the two phase system of solid plus melt is cooled further, the mole fractin of Ni
decreases in both the solid solution and the liquid melt.
(b) Iron and carbon
Fe-C forms an interstitial solid solution; the C atoms occupy interstices in the crystal
structure of substance Fe. The Fe-Fe3C is characterized by five individual phases. Five
phases that exist in the Fe-C diagram are: ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, -austenite
(FCC) Fe-C solid solution, -ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or
cementite - an inter-metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution.

Q-9:
A-9:

Differentiate between the following; a) age hardening b) strain hardening c) precipitation

hardening.
a) Age hardening or c) precipitation hardening.
Age hardening is produced by solution treating and quenching an alloy. Term Age hardening is used
to describe the process because strength develops with time. Requisite for precipitation hardening to
take place is that second phase must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature. This limits the alloy systems which can be
strengthened by precipitation hardening. For example: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn
alloys. If the precipitation occurs at normal ambient temperatures, it is called natural aging. Some
alloy systems needed to be aged at higher temperatures and the process is known as artificial aging.
Most precipitation hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures, which may
lose their strength at elevated temperatures due to over-aging.
b) Strain hardening
Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed
plastically is called strain hardening or work hardening.
During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction with
each other resulting in increase in yield stress.

Dislocation density () and shear stress () are related as, = o + A

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Q-10: Explain the effect of mean stress on fatigue life.

A-10: Failure that occurs under fluctuating/cyclic loads Fatigue. Fatigue occurs at stresses that
considerable smaller than yield/tensile strength of the material. S-N testing is done under
alternating (completely reversed) loading and stress. Here mean stress (m) is zero. If mean stress is
present then fatigue life will change according to the following diagram.

Following empirical curves are used to estimate mean stress effects on fatigue life
a. Soderberg (USA, 1930)
b. Goodman (England, 1899)
c. Gerber (Germany, 1874)
d. Morrow (USA, 1960s)
Q-11: Explain the difference between Soderberg line and Goodman line.
A-11:

Alternating stress ( a ) =
Mean stress ( m ) =

max min
2

max + min
2

Yield strength = y
Ultimate TensileStrength = u

1.

Goodman Line

2.

Soderberg Line

a m
+
=1
e ut
a m
+
=1
e y

Most actual test data tend to fall above the Goodman line.
The Soderberg line is very conservative and seldom used.

Q-12: What are creep resistant alloy? Give composition of Nimonic 90 and Vitallium HS 21.
A-12: Creep resistant alloy
To make creep resistance alloy we have to strengthen the solid solution by mechanisms which cause
dislocation locking and those which contribute to lattice friction hardening.
The alloy can also be hardened by precipitation. Some solute alloying elements is added in reducing
the rate of climb and cross-slip processes.
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Example: The nickel alloy (Inconol, Nimonic), ferritic steel, austenitic steel 16-25-6, etc.
Composition of Nimonic 90
Cr-20%, Co-16%, Ti-2.3% Al-1.40 %, Fe-0.5%, C-0.08%, Mn-0.06%, Si-0.017% and Ni -58%
Composition of Vitallium HS 21
C 0.25%, Cr 27%, Ni 3 %, Mo 5%, Fe 1%, Mn 1%, Si -1%, Co - bal
Q-13: Differentiate between temper embrittlement and hydrogen embrittlement.
A-13: Temper embrittlement
Tempering of some steels may result in a reduction of toughness what is known as temper
embrittlement. This may be avoided by (1) compositional control, and/or (2) tempering above 575oC
or below 375oC , followed by quenching to room temperature. The effect is greatest in Martensite
structures, less severe in bainitic structures and least severe in pearlite structures. It appears to be
associated with the segregation of solute atoms to the grain boundaries lowering the boundary
strength. Impurities responsible for temper brittleness are: P, Sn, Sb and As. Si reduces the risk of
embrittlement by carbide formation. Mo has a stabilizing effect on carbides and is also used to
minimize the risk of temper brittleness in low alloy steels.
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is more failure than a form of corrosion, but it is often results from the
hydrogen, produced from corrosion. Atomic hydrogen produced during corrosion diffuses
interstitially through crystal lattice, and interferes with dislocation motion, leading to failure. It is
similar to stress corrosion in the sense that ductile materials experience brittle failures as a result.
Counter measures to hydrogen embrittlement include: heat treatment to reduce strength of the
alloy; removal of source of hydrogen; baking the component to drive out any dissolved hydrogen.
Q-14: What is diffusion couple? Give two examples.
A-14: Diffusion couple is made by two metals A and
B. Two containers of two metals are joined
together by removing the barrier between
them. This couple is heated for an extended
period at a higher temperature, but certainly
lower than the melting points of A and B, and
then cooled to room temperature. It is
observed that atoms A have migrated into
atoms B and atoms B have migrated into
atoms A. There is a net flow of atoms from
higher concentration to lower concentration
regions. This type of diffusion is known as
inter-diffusion or impurity diffusion.
Example
(i)
Copper and Nickel couple
Gold and Silver couple
(ii)

Fig. Diffusion couple of two metals

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Q-15: Explain how annealing and normalizing are diffusion controlled processes?
A-15: Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high
temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. Carbon atoms diffuse in BCC and FCC by
interstitial diffusion process. High temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time at
the high temperature (soaking time) must be long enough to allow the desired transformation to
occur.
Normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution.
It involves heating the component to attain single phase (e.g.: austenite in steels), then cooling in
open air atmosphere. In normalizing also high temperature allows diffusion process to occur fast.
Q-16: What is a Eutectic system? Explain copper/silver and lead/tin eutectics.
A-16: Many binary systems have components which have limited solid solubility, e.g.: Cu-Ag, Pb-Sn. The
regions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagram are called terminal solid solutions
as they appear at ends of the diagram.
Many of the binary systems with limited solubility are of eutectic type, which consists of specific
alloy composition known as eutectic composition that solidifies at a lower temperature than all other
compositions. This low temperature which corresponds to the lowest temperature at which the liquid
can exist when cooled under equilibrium conditions is known as eutectic temperature. The
corresponding point on the phase diagram is called eutectic point. When the liquid of eutectic
composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into
two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by and ). This transformation is
known as eutectic reaction and is written symbolically as:
Liquid (L) solid solution-1 () + solid solution-2 ()
This eutectic reaction is called invariant reaction as it occurs under equilibrium conditions at a
specific temperature and specific composition which can not be varied.
Thus, this reaction is represented by a thermal horizontal arrest in the cooling curve of an alloy of
eutectic composition. A typical eutectic type phase diagram is shown in figure-4 along with a cooling
curve.

Eutectic system of Copper and Silver

In the Copper-silver binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt%
Cu at 779oC

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Eutectic reactions for copper-silver

L (71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt% Cu)

cooling
R
heating

(8.0 wt% Ag + 92 wt% Cu) +

(91.2 wt% Ag + 8.8 wt% Cu)

Eutectic system of Lead and Tin

In the lead-tin binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb at
183oC

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Eutectic reactions for Lead and tin

L (61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb)

cooling
R
heating

(18.3 wt% Sn + 81.7 wt% Pb) +

(97.8 wt% Sn + 2.2 wt% Pb)

Q-17: What are hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, explain.

A-17: Hypoeutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is less than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
Hypereutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is more than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.

Q-18: What is 0.8% C, steel, what are its special properties?

A-18: Steel which contains 0.8% C is known as eutectoid composition. In the solid state when
cooled below 723oC a eutectic reaction takes place one solid phase (-iron) having eutectoid (0.8% C)
composition transforms into two different solid phases ferrite and Fe3C (cementite). This
particular composition of ferrite and cementite is known as pearlite.

Q-19: What is tempered martensite?

A-19: Cooling the austenized steel to temperature
just above Ms temperature, holding it there
until temperature is uniform, followed by
cooling at a moderate rate to room
temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure
is tempered Martensite

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Q-20: What is the driving force in the formation of Spheroidite?

A-20: The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area.
Q-21: What is the difference between martempering and austempering?
A-21: Martempering is a modified quenching procedure used to minimize distortion and cracking that
may develop during uneven cooling of the heat-treated material. It involves cooling the austenized
steel to temperature just above Ms temperature, holding it there until temperature is uniform,
followed by cooling at a moderate rate to room temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure of martempered steel is tempered Martensite.

Austempering is different from martempering in the sense that it involves austenite-to bainite
transformation. Thus, the structure of austempered steel is bainite. Advantages of austempering are
improved ductility; decreased distortion and disadvantages are need for special molten bath; process
can be applied to limited number of steels.

Q-22: What is the difference between nitriding and carbonitriding processes?

A-22: Nitriding
Nitriding is carried out in the ferritic region. No phase change occurs after nitriding. The part to be
nitrided should posses the required core properties prior to nitriding. During nitriding, pure
ammonia decomposes to yield nitrogen which enters the steel. The solubility of nitrogen in ferrite is
small. Most of the nitrogen, that enters the steel, forms hard nitrides (e.g., Fe3N). The temperature
of nitriding is 500-590oC. The time for a case depth of 0.02 mm is about 2 hr. In addition to providing
outstanding wear resistance, the nitride layer increases the resistance of carbon steel to corrosion in
moist atmospheres.
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Carbonitriding
Carbonitriding is a lower cost surface hardening process that provides a thin, high hardness case on
lower hardenability steels. Carbonitriding involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into the
base steel. The carbon provides the base metal with a high carbon surface, and the nitrogen provides
the case with an added boost of hardenability to insure full case hardness. The addition of nitrogen
makes the carbonitriding process especially suited to plain, low carbon steel that would not
otherwise respond to standard carburizing. Carbonitriding is usually carried out in a temperature
range of 820-900C in a gaseous atmosphere adding between 0.5 to 0.8% carbon and 0.2-0.4% (< 5%)
nitrogen to the surface of plain carbon steel or low alloy steel.
Q-23: What are the high-strength low-alloy steel?
A-23:
High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical
properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition
but rather to specific mechanical properties.
They have low carbon content between 0.050.25% to retain formability and weldability.
Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities
of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium,
molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare
earth elements, or zirconium.
Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes.
These steels are not strengthened by heat treatment due to low carbon content.
Q-24: Give composition and use of (a) Hadfield steel (b) Maraging steel (c) Spring Steel (d) Rail
Steel (e) Invar Steel
A-24:
Composition
Use
(a) Hadfield steel
C 1.1 to 1.4%, Mn 11-14%, rest Fe
Jaw crusher plate, Nuts and
bolts, Chains
(b) Maraging steel
C <0.03%, Ni-25%, Co 7-10%, Mo 3 -5%, Ti Aircraft under carriage parts,
1.75 %, Al- 0.2%, other trace, rest Fe
portable bridges and booster
motor in missile
(c) Spring Steel
C 0.55 0.65%, Si 0.1 0.35%, Mn 0.7 1.0 Spring
%, Cr 0.4 0.6%, Ni 0.4 0.7%, Mo 0.15
0.25%, rest Fe

(d) Rail Steel

C 0.4 0.6 %, Mn -1.5%, rest Fe

(e) Invar Steel

Ni 32%, Fe-68%

Rail
Precision measuring
instrument, survey measuring
tapes

Q-25: What is nodular cast Iron? How it is made?

A-25: Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these
materials. Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite
to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or
pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than gray cast irons.
Q-26: What is Superalloy? Give composition and use of Waspalloy, and Inconel?
A-26: Superalloys as a class constitute the currently reigning aristocrats of the metallurgical world. They
are the alloys which have made jet flight possible, and they show what can be achieved by drawing
together and exploiting all the resources of modern physical and process metallurgy in the pursuit of
a very challenging objective.
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Applications of Superalloy?
Gas Turbine Engines
Blades, vanes, disks, combustors

Space Vehicles
Rocket motors

Nuclear Reactors

Submarines

Petroleum Equipment
Composition
Waspalloy
Cr-19%, Co-13%, Ti-3%, Al 1.4%, Zr 0.06 %,
C 0.08%, rest Ni
Inconel
Cr 15%, Ti 2.4%, Al 1%, Nb 1%, Ta 1%, Fe
7%, C 0.04%, rest Ni

Use

For
high
temperature
application upto 900oC
For
high
temperature
application upto 820oC

Q-27: What are PTFE, Nylon 6, Nylon 610, Perspex, where they are used?
A-27:
What is?
Use
PTFE
Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE) or Teflon. It Anticorrosive seals, chemical
is chemically inert in almost all pipes and valves, bearings, anti
environments,
excellent
electrical adhesive coatings, high
properties; low coefficient of friction; may be temperature electronic parts.
used to 260oC; relatively weak and poor
cold-flow properties.

Nylon 6

Nylon 6 or polycaprolactam or cast nylon is

polymer developed
to
reproduce
the
properties of nylon 6,6. Unlike most
other nylons, nylon 6 is not a condensation
polymer, but instead is formed by ringopening polymerization.

Synthetic fibers

Nylon 610

Polyhexamethylene sebacamide

Flexible tubes

Perspex

PMMA-polymethyle methacrylate

Domestic article

Q-28: What are conducting polymers and conducting ceramics? Give 2 examples of each.
A-28: Conducting Polymers
Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators. However,
conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix composites can be
obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 400oC),
and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. . The most recent research in this has been the
development of highly conducting polymers with good stability and acceptable processing attributes.
Example: Polyacetylene, Polyphenylene, Polypyrroles
Conducting Ceramics
Conductive ceramics, advanced industrial materials that, owing to modifications in their structure,
serve as electrical conductors. Like metals, conducting ceramics have overlapping electron energy
bands and are therefore excellent electronic conductors. They constitute complex systems based on
oxide and non-oxide phases.
Examples: lead oxide (PbO), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), bismuth ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7)
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Q-29: What are silicon carbide and silicon nitride, what are their strength and hardness?
A-29: Silicon carbide (SiC)
It is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. It is used as
coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive
material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a
semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.
Ultimate tensile strength of SiC is 300 MPa
Hardness of SiC is 2500 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
It has properties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat lower, and found applications in such as
automotive and gas turbine engines.
Ultimate tensile strength of Si3N4 is 580 MPa
Hardness of Si3N4 is 2300 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Q-30: What are dispersion strengthened and particulate composites? Give two examples of
each.
A-30: Dispersion-strengthened composites
In this composite, particles are of 0.01-0.1 m in size.
Strengthening occurs as a result of dislocation motion hindrance. It is similar to that of
precipitation hardening in metals.
Matrix bears the major portion of the applied load, while dispersoids obstruct the motion of
dislocations.
Example: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP
(sintered aluminium powder) where aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of
alumina (Al2O3).
Particulate composites
These composites contain large number of coarse particles.
These composites are designed to produce combination of properties rather than increase the
strength.
Mechanical properties are characterized by rule-of-mixtures.
Particulate composites are usually made of all three conventional engineering materials, namely
metals, polymers and ceramics.
Example: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded cobalt or nickel based cutting
tools. Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used for automotive
applications including pistons and brake applications.
Q-31: Describe the following
(a) Ceramic matrix composite
(b) Metal matrix composite
(c) Carbon Carbon Composite
A-31: (a) Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
They are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup of technical ceramics. They consist
of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic
(CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material,
whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be considered a ceramic material.
(b) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt,
copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

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(c) Carbon Carbon Composite

It is a composite material consisting of carbon fibre reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was
developed for the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It has been used in the brake
systems of Formula One racing cars. Carboncarbon is well-suited to structural applications at high
temperatures, or where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion is
needed.
Q-32: Explain the following in corrosion
(a) Redox
(b) Electrolyte
A-32:

(a) Redox corrosion

Corrosion of metals is the most common type of corrosion and is a process involving an exchange
of electrons between two substances, one of them being the metal. In this process, the metal
usually loses electrons, becoming oxidized, while the other substance gains electrons, becoming
reduced. For this reason, corrosion is classified as an oxidation-reduction or redox reaction.
While many redox reactions are extremely important and beneficial to society (for example, those
that are used to make batteries), the redox reactions involved in corrosion are destructive.
(b) Electrolyte corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion takes place in the presence of an electrolyte, which is simply a fluid
conducting electricity, by migration of ions. Water generally contains mineral ions, hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions. In this case of atmospheric corrosion, humidity in the air does the job of an
electrolyte.

Q-33: Explain (a) Degradation of polymer (b) Corrosion of ceramics

A-33: (a) Degradation of polymer
As other engineering materials, polymers also deteriorated during their service. However, in
contrast to electrochemical nature of metal corrosion, polymer degradation is of
physiochemical in nature.
As polymer structures are complex, so are the mechanisms involved in their deterioration.
Many factors involved in degradation of polymers, like temperature, radiation,
environment, moisture, bacteria or external loads/stress.
Polymers degrade mainly in three forms swelling and dissolution, bond rupture, and
weathering.
(b) Corrosion of ceramics
As ceramics are made of metals and non-metals, they can be considered as already corroded.
Ceramics do get deteriorated during their service under extreme temperatures and external
loads.
Factors effecting life of ceramic components include: temperature, external loads, vibrations,
environment, etc.
Life span of ceramics can be increased by controlling the environment they are exposed to;
operational loads and temperatures; altering the component design.
Q-34: Give composition and uses of Permalloy and Cammalloy
A-34:
Composition
Use
Permalloy
45 Permalloy (55%Fe-45%Ni),
Application of soft magnets (Permalloy)
include: cores for electro-magnets, electric
79 Permalloy (79% Ni-4% Mo-17 %Fe),
motors, transformers, generators, and
other electrical equipment.
Cammalloy
66.5% Ni, 30% Cu, 3.5% Fe
Soft magnetic material, Curie point is
100oC
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