ON
WAVES
ELECTRIC DISCHARGES,
AND IMPULSES,
AND
OTHER TRANSIENTS
BY
A.M., PH.D.
\\
E.G.
rH
Library
COPYRIGHT, 1911,
BY THE
Stanbopc Hfress
F. H.
GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON,
U.S.A.
PREFACE.
IN the following I am trying to give a short outline of those
phenomena which have become the most important to the electrical engineer, as on their understanding and control depends the
further successful advance of electrical engineering.
The art has
now so far advanced that the phenomena of the steady flow of
749213
a familiarity
PREFACE.
vi
mend
thereby of the physical nature materially assists in the understanding of their mathematical representation, which latter
obviously is necessary for their numerical calculation and predetermination.
depend.
In the preparation of the work, I have been materially assisted
by Mr. C. M. Davis, M.E.E., who kindly corrected and edited
the manuscript and illustrations, and to whom I wish to express
my
thanks.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
LECTURE
I.
Electric
sient.
3.
way
Fundamental condition
of
Electric
vanced, of more
4.
5.
transients.
of
pendulum;
LECTURE
II.
Phenomena
of electric
10
flow:
power dissipation in conductor; electric field consisting of magnetic field surrounding conductor and electrostatic or dielectric field issuing from conductor.
7.
power
8.
The
field.
and
The conception
of quantity of electricity,
condenser; the conception of quantity of
magnetism.
10. Magnetic circuit and dielectric circuit.
Magnetomotive force,
magnetizing force, magnetic field intensity, and magnetic density.
Magnetic materials.
Permeability.
vii
CONTENTS.
Vlll
PAGE
Electromotive force,
lectric field.
and
tric,
electric circuit.
LECTURE III.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS
RENT CIRCUITS
13.
IN
CONTINUOUS-CUR19
transient
Single-energy
4>,
i,
of inductive circuit.
e,
by choosing the
starting
moment
its
NumerThe three
Simplification
as zero of time.
14.
tion of
Exponen-
field.
Calcula-
duration.
LECTURE IV.
SINGLE-ENERGY
RENT CIRCUITS
TRANSIENTS
OF
ALTERNATING-CUR30
alternating current; dependence of the transient on the phase; maxiand zero value.
mum
field,
and
its
construction.
The
19.
and
its
industrial bearing.
short-circuit current of
Momentary
magnetic
field flux,
synchronous alternator,
The magnetic
field transient at
Its
on the armature currents, and on the field current. Numerical relation bet ween the transients of magnetic flux, armature currents,
armature reaction, and field current. The starting transient of the
armature currents. The transient full-frequency pulsation of the
effect
CONTENTS.
ix
PAGE
current caused
field
by
it.
phenomena
of
field.
a poly-
circuit.
The
21.
The
of field current.
The armature transient depending on the
phase of the wave. Combination of full-frequency transient and
double-frequency permanent pulsation of field current, and the
shape of the field current resulting therefrom. Potential difference
and
LECTURE V.
and
its
industrial bearing.
...
52
23.
tion,
bearing.
LECTURE VI.
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS
59
25.
Pulsation of energy during transient. Relation between maxicurrent and maximum voltage. The natural impedance and
mum
Calculation of
maximum
and
voltage.
The
27.
magnetic and of the dielectric transient. The dissipation expoThe complete equation of the
nent, and its usual approximation.
double-energy transient. Calculation of numerical instance.
LECTURE VII.
LINE OSCILLATIONS
72
CONTENTS.
PAGE
29.
tion as quarter
wave
length.
stants.
The different frequencies and wave lengths of the quarterwave oscillation; of the half- wave oscillation.
Its importance in compound
32. The velocity unit of length.
circuits.
Period, frequency, time, and distance angles, and the
31.
TRAVELING WAVES
LECTURE VIII.
88
The power
33.
its
equation.
The
traveling
The power-
35.
The
front.
LECTURE IX.
38.
The
oscillation
108
of
circuit,
its
The
pound
circuit.
CONTENTS.
xi
PAGE
41.
oscillating circuit.
transition point.
LECTURE X.
INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITY OF ROUND PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
Definition of inductance
43.
the dielectric
field.
The law
and
of capacity.
of superposition of fields,
and
its
use
for calculation.
and
46.
of
velocity
of
light.
Relation
velocity of propagation.
47. Conductor with ground
between inductance,
return,
Limitations of
inductance,
its
capacity,
and
and capacity.
application.
Correction
and approximation.
49. Mutual capacity between circuits.
Symmetrical circuits and
Grounded circuit.
asymmetrical circuits.
Inductance and capacity of two50. The three-phase circuit.
wire single-phase circuit, of single-wire circuit with ground return,
and of three-wire three-phase circuit. Asymmetrical arrangement
of three-phase circuit.
with three-phase
circuit.
119
I.
Electrical
flow, that
is,
electric
power.
Two
electric
classes of
phenomena
Fig.
1.
lights, or
i',
and possibly
When
the
AND IMPULSES.
DISCHARGES, WAVES
is
is
Immediately
after
the closing of
the switch, however, current flows for a more or less short time.
With the condition of the circuit unchanged: the same generator
voltage, the switch S closed on the same circuit, the current
nevertheless changes, increasing from zero, at the moment of
closing the switch S, to a maximum, and then decreasing again to
zero, while the
condenser charges from zero voltage to the generathen here meet a transient phenomenon, in the
We
tor voltage.
Commonly, transient and permanent phenomena are superimposed upon each other. For instance, if in the circuit Fig. 1
we close the switch S connecting a fan motor F, at the moment of
closing the switch S the current in the fan-motor circuit is zero.
It rapidly rises to a maximum, the motor starts, its speed increases
while the current decreases, until finally speed and current become
constant; that is, the permanent condition is reached.
transient, therefore, appears as intermediate between two
permanent conditions: in the above instance, the fan motor dis-
The
connected, and the fan motor running at full speed. The question
arises, why the effect of a change in the conditions of an
then
electric circuit
short,
is
in generator, line, and load does not represent the entire phenomenon. While electric power flows over the line A there is a magnetic
,
field
"
electrostatic or
"dielectric
lamp
1,
The permanent
filaments.
of the incandescent
thus represents not only flow of power, but also storage of energy.
When the switch S is open, and no power flows, no energy is
If we now close the switch, before the
stored in the system.
Fig. 3.
the stored energy has to be supplied from the source of power; that
in supplying the stored energy, flows not
is, for a short time power,
only through the circuit, but also from the circuit into the space
surrounding the conductors, etc. This flow of power, which supenergy stored in the permanent condition of the circuit,
plies the
is
supplied,
and
in Fig. 3,
and
a transient.
Inversely,
if
we
Thus the
transient
is
the
is
It
3.
cal
permanent condition
of standstill
and the
final
permanent con-
filling,
of the fan
column
amount
under
stores energy.
is
differs
which requires a
change of the stored energy, of whatever form this energy may be,
leads to a transient.
Electrical transients have been studied more than transients of
other forms of energy because
:
investigation.
(b) The theoretical
side
of
electrical
of
engineering
most other
is
further
sciences,
and
The
and very little work has been done, and very little is known, on
these more complex electrical transients.
Assume that in an electric circuit we have a transient current, as represented by curve i in Fig. 4 that is, some change of
;
except that
i,
^; that
j
is,
all
by the
ratio
i'=iX*ii
ii
i;
i' .
i'
started.
i,
At
this
are the
moment
same
t,
t'
2,
the conditions
as the conditions in
the second case, of current i at the moment t\; that is, from t
onward, curve i is the same as curve i' from time i\ onward. Since
f
t!
Curve
Fig. 4.
is
of Simple Transient:
Decay
of Current.
proportional to i from any point t onward, curve i' is proporsame curve i from t\ onward. Hence, at time t\, it is
tional to the
But
since
and
-^
CLL\
i2
at
diz
dii ^. i%
dti
dti
t\
ii
are the
same
as -r
and
at time
dv
t,
it
follows:
di
dii i
or,
di
where
- -r;1
ii
di
at
constant,
-r is negative.
at
As
in Fig. 4:
~aJi
1^
dii
_
~
ii,
tan
<f>
_~
_1_
.
'
is
chosen, as
is,
c is
Since
di
cdt;
that
or
= ct
= Ae~
+ C,
ct
,
i~#:':*5
>
that
is,
the curve
is
the exponential.
is the expression of the
simplest
This explains its common occurrence in elec-
proportional to the
amount
of radiating material;
it is ~-r-
cm,
Cit
is
Two
classes of transients
may
occur:
Energy may be stored in one form only, and the only energy
change which can occur thus is an increase or a decrease of the
1.
stored energy.
2.
Energy
may be
stored in two or
more
different forms,
and the
to another.
An
instance of the
of a train, or
ical
a ship,
here energy can be stored only as mechanthe transient thus consists of an increase of
etc.
momentum, and
Seconds
10
20
Thus
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Deceleration of Ship.
Fig. 5.
deceleration.
30
also in a low-voltage electric circuit of neglican be stored only in the magnetic field, and
An instance
with the
is the pendulum, Fig. 6
elevation, all the stored energy is
potential energy of gravita-
weight at rest in
maximum
tion.
Then,
energy or dissipated.
during the rise of the weight,
that part of the energy which
Fig. 6.
Double-energy Transient
of
Pendulum.
kinetic energy, at a;
is
and
gradually dissipated,
in this
by a
manner the
calculation of the
calculation of
transient
phenomena.
line,
permanent phenomena in
than are the study and
However, only the pheare really permanent.
periodically
and as mechanical
it
the current,
the stored energy, etc. The theory of alternating-current phenomena, as periodic transients, thus has been more difficult than
that of continuous-current phenomena, until methods were devised
to treat the periodic transients of the alternating-current circuit
"
effective
as permanent phenomena, by the conception of the
the
introduction
of
the
and
more
completely by
general
values,"
number
or complex quantity, which represents the periodic funcby a constant numerical value. In this feature lies
tion of time
tion, etc.,
LECTURE
THE ELECTRIC
7.
line
II.
FIELD.
power over
sented
tain
phenomena
occur: magnetic
Fig. 8.
not
is
Fig. 7.
and
The conductor
flux,
circles,
as
shown
in Fig. 8.
By
11
An
electrostatic, or,
lines in Fig. 9.
as
more properly
from the conductors, that is, a dielectric flux passes between the
conductors, which is measured by the number of lines of dielectric
force ty.
With a
shown dotted
in Fig. 8.
By
the return
shown dotted
in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9.
field of
the dielectric
electric field,
field of
of
the conductor.
The magnetic
= Li.
(1)
The magnetic
field
power, p, must
is current times voltage,
p =
e'i.
(2)
12
To produce
consumed by self-induction.
Since no power is required to maintain the
(3)
:'
or
but power is
must be propor-
field,
by
(1),
(4)
If i
-r
and therefore
that
or
is,
by
(2)
and
w=
w=
Li
e'
are negative;
dt,
(4),
di;
hence
L*
w=
(^
is
(5)
field
$ = Li
of the circuit.
9.
The
field.
voltage
is
called the
The
To produce
i'e.
circuit.
(6)
To produce
it,
Since power
(7)
r
field ty of
13
or
by
(6),
i'
If e
that
and therefore
is,
^ decrease,
(9)
C^.
de
and therefore
-j-
is
The energy
w=j*pdt,
or
by
(7)
and
are negative;
circuit.
is
(10)
(9),
w=
hence
=
is
Cede;
rw
(ID
field
t=
Ce
of the circuit.
magnetic
field;
in the
as
force.
14
dielectric,
of dielectric
fields
un-
necessarily complicated.
But
as charging the conductor with a quantity of magnetism.
while the latter conception, together with the notion of a quantity
of
magnetism,
etc.,
of the magnetic field by the lines of magnetic force, the terminology of electrostatics of many textbooks still speaks of electric
magnetic energy.
All the lines of magnetic force are closed upon themselves,
the lines of dielectric force terminate at conductors, as seen in
Fig. 8, and the magnetic field and the dielectric field thus can be
10.
all
ampere
If
F=
is
the m.m.f.,
ni.
(12)
by F,
=
7
(13)
mation, in
cgs.
unit of current.)
(14)
*
The
factor 4 *
THE ELECTRIC
15
FIELD.
that
lines of
3C in
& =
where ju
and is called the permeability.
any material
cm 2
pro-
is
(15)
/z3C,
"
magnetic conductivity,"
or very nearly so for most
materials, with the exception of very few, the so-called magnetic
materials: iron, cobalt, nickel, oxygen, and some alloys and oxides
is
flux
is
$ =
if
Obviously,
and
the magnetic
A.
field is
(16)
(16)
'-"
the magnetic flux $ would be derived by integrating the
densities (B over the total section of the magnetic circuit.
In
(16),
ii.
To produce
which
measured
is
dielectric circuit
gradient,
and
The
in volts.
then
is
is
G=
f-
(18)-
the
field intensity at
TT
has
TT
into
An attempt
quantities.
magnetic units were already too well
many magnetic
failed, as the
established.
The factor 1Q- 1 also appears undesirable, but when the electrical units
were introduced the absolute unit appeared as too large a value of current as
practical unit, and one-tenth of it was chosen as unit, and called "ampere."
16
This gives the average voltage gradient, while the actual gradient
an ummiform
in
field,
as that between
two conductors,
then
is
the
dielectric-field intensity,
less dense,
varies,
portion of
and
D = KK
would be the
dielectric density,
where
(20)
K is
close
and
is
approximation for
air
and
other gases,
1
~9
VL
where
v
is
10 10
customary, however, and convenient, to use the permitempty space as unity: K = 1. This changes the unit of
tivity of
dielectric-field intensity
by the
factor
and
gives: dielectric-field
intensity,
=
dielectric density,
D=
T^-oJ
4 Try 2
(21)
KK,
(22)
^ = AD.
solids
(23)
As
following Table
*
The
factor 4
TT
I.
I.
17
18
TABLE
Magnetic Circuit.
II.
LECTURE
III.
CURRENT
13.
The
CIRCUITS.
which energy can be stored in one form only, as in this case the
change of stored energy can consist only of an increase or decrease
but no surge or oscillation between several forms of energy can
Such circuits are most of the low- and medium-voltage
exist.
220 volts, 600 volts, and 2200 volts. In them the capaccircuits,
ity is small, due to the limited extent of the circuit, resulting from
the low voltage, and at the low voltage the dielectric energy thus
;
is
negligible, that
the magnetic
is,
by
field.
of high resistance,
would
also give
may
be very considervery
small
inductance,
considerable
__
eo
'
jar.
a magnetic
now
field
A current i =
Q
$0 10~ 8
=-is
(but
and
Assuming
20
constants
the
of
the
coil
circuit,
as
for
instance
by
short-
A, with no
voltage impressed upon the coil, and thus no power supplied to it,
current i and magnetic flux
of the coil must finally be zero.
<
fore,
Fig. 11.
line
From
current.
e
ri.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
21
This
is
d<&
.
In the
first
-j-
has
full
value
at the first
3>
moment
moment
thus also
magnetic flux
full
value
still
iQ.
Hence,
must be
The
flux, current,
(1)
<, i, and e decrease most rapidly at first, and then slower and
slower, but can theoretically never become zero, though practically they become negligible in a finite time.
that
Zet
Whatever, therefore,
of the curves of $,
i,
=w
may
and
e,
10- 8
Li Q
(2)
= Li
be the same, and equal to w
If then the current i would continue to decrease at its initial
rate, as shown dotted in Fig. 115 (as could be caused, for instance,
by a gradual increase of the resistance of the coil circuit), the
.
22
shown dotted
in Fig. 11C.
would be
and
e T,
seen above,
it
since
The area
it is
=
and, combining (2) and
(3), i
is
ri.r,
cancels,
of T:
.:'
That
the
is,
netic flux
and
>';
T-\-
decrease of current, and therefore of magof induced voltage, is such that if the decrease
initial
become zero
(4)
flux,
T=
The
they would
is,
and magnetic
when maintained
time
T=
-=
become
we may determine
It is preferable,
half, or to one-tenth, etc., of its initial value.
to
estimate
the
duration
of
the
transient
however,
by the time T,
which
it
would
last
if
maintained at
is
its initial
value.
That
is,
T= r
This time
"
time constant
"
of the circuit.
resistance
r,
the shorter
is
is
more
rapidly dissipated.
and the
initial
T=-
all
exponential
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
by the numerical values
of the exponential
function, y
TABLE
III.
e~ x
and Duration
2.71828.
1.
24
(6)
directly
by the integration
where
and
their
-=-
is
sum
Equation
(7)
ri
is
short-circuited.
transposed gives
hence
logi
and, as for
0: i
to,
== Ce~~L \
it is:
C =
hence
14.
per pole, r
resistance,
L =
and
circuit, it is
2
iQ r
hence
500
25
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
The magnetic flux is $ = 8 X 10 6 and with 4 n
number of magnetic interlinkages thus is
,
total turns
the total
n$ = 32 n
L0~ 8
.32
10 6
LT =
henrys.
^o
The
field excitation is
ra'o
hence
6000
n =
hence
,
L=
.32
-
Xr 6000
henrys,
*<r
and
L
That
is,
1920
OA
3 84 sec
'
'
full field
is
increased, that
is,
the
Fig. 12.
coil is
resistance r '.
Such would,
S.
itself,
for instance,
26
The
as A, B,
The magnetic
flux
Fig. 13.
moment,
thus must be
first
to,
the current
eo
is still i Q ,
io (r
age
eo,
r'
r'),
to,
was
ior;
eo' is
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
The duration
now
of the transient
T=
27
is
7+-r "
that
The more
higher
is
down.
would be induced.
would be punctured and the
infinite voltage
coil
an inductive
circuit,
the
the induced voltage, and the greater the danger of breakHence it is not safe to have too rapid circuit-opening
16.
circuit
when
closing a
done
here, that
an
e.m.f. e\
sists of
a permanent term,
e\
and
28
separately.
Fig. 14.
moment
flux <,
is,
of time,
and voltage
shown
coil
the voltage
e
tQ,
eQ
when
on the
this
is
done, current
In
i,
coil.
A
At
magnetic
the transient has passed, the values i 3> e are reached. We may
then, as discussed above, separate the transient from the permanent term, and consider that at the time U the coil has a permanent
,
current
permanent
flux
<i>
permanent voltage
and
in addi-
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
tion thereto a transient current
i 0j
29
a transient flux
<
and a
transient voltage
eQ
These transients are the same as in Fig. 11
Thus the same curves result, and
(only with reversed direction).
to them are added the permanent values i <J> e
This is shown
.
in Fig. 14.
<J>
flux.
The
with Fig.
sient
11.
& added to
from zero
flux to the
<
by the curve
3>,
<', in
accordance
which
is
the tran-
LECTURE
IV.
CURRENT
CIRCUITS.
17.
in such a
tion period appears, during which the stored energy adjusts itself
from the condition existing before the change to the condition
before the change with that brought about by the change. That
= current existing in the circuit immediately before, and
is, if i\
thus at the
moment
of the
change of
circuit condition,
and
i%
iz
The former, iz is permanent, as resultIQ.
component ii
The current compoing from the established circuit condition.
,
nent
IQ,
remnant
,
graph
13,
that
is,
manner
T=
with a duration
as discussed in para-
may
Thus,
let,
in
an alternating-current
circuit traversed
by current
t'i,
current
ii
at the
moment
dotted,
io
i\
permanent current
i*.
30
The
i2 ,
shown
31
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
shown dotted
sient,
to the
in Fig. 15.
permanent current
i2
iQ
shown
in
drawn
Fig. 15.
is
thus
if
is
moment when
ii
and
difference, that
is,
i\
and
12,
as
shown
32
Fig. 16.
of zero current of
one phase,
i'
i\
and
ii,
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
33
Fig. 17.
Since the
is
zero, the
also
is
zero.
i'
T=
is
iz
are pro-
same dura-
zero,
it
follows
34
that the
sum
must be zero
at
any
is
reached.
It is interesting to
magnetic
Fig. 18.
As
field,
or in general
field.
well
In
This, however, applies only to the permanent condition.
the moment of start, all the three currents are zero, and their
resultant magnetic field thus also zero, as
shown above.
Since
the rotating
field.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
35
as
(Mo
are
in Fig.
resultant field
permanent
The
18.
=ii,
i'i
i^_==
OB
13
moment
these give a
field rotates
OB
OB
three transient components of current decrease in proporIt decreases, however, with the decrease of
tion to each other.
since
all
Bid,
BC
2
2)
etc.,
OA
2,
etc.,
that
is,
to the radius
in
a,
during the transient or starting period is represented by a succession of arcs of circles c, the centers of which
move from B Q in the moment of start, on the line B Q toward 0,
the resultant
field
time
0,
tij
t2
...
radii BiCi,
BC
2
2,
done in
is
Fig. 19,
etc.,
constructed.
Fig. 19.
36
_From this polar diagram of the rotating field, in Fig. 19, values
OC can now be taken, corresponding to successive moments of
and plotted
time,
As
in rectangular coordinates, as
closing the circuit, and reaches the final value by a series of oscillations ; that is, it first reaches beyond the permanent value, then
drops below
rises
it,
again beyond
it,
etc.
cycles
Fig. 20.
We
in a
system
the
three
and a
electric
circuits,
and therewith a
surge,
thus
can
occur.
interesting to note that the rot at ing-field transient
independent of the point of the wave at which the circuit
It
is
closed.
That
is
is
is,
wave
at
of duration
T
r
The maximum
value, which the magnetic field during the transition period can reach, is limited to less than double the final value,
It is
as is obvious from the construction of the 'field, Fig. 19.
field
if
may
then
momentary
currents
may
density.
In polyphase rotary
37
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
the
momentary
nators.
short-circuit
phenomena
In alternators, especially
of synchronous alter-
high-speed
momentary
high-power mar
short-circuit current
times greater than the final or permanent shortcircuit current, and this excess current usually decreases very
At the same time, a big curslowly, lasting for many cycles.
be
may
many
field.
This excess
field
current shows
Some
By
complex-appearing phenomena can be easily understood, and predetermined from the constants of the machine with reasonable
exactness.
reaction
both usually
tion,
noninductive and
it
at
act" in the
still
38
with the armature current, that is, is instantaneous. The armature reaction, however, is the m.m.f. of the armature current in its
by the constants
is, is
the counterpart of
then an alternator
the true
self -inductive
is i\
where
is
the induced
Xi
i'
XQ
The
ratio of the
momentary
perma-
>
Xi
is,
armature
thus
may
reaction,
the
many
times
be
momentary
the
short-circuit
permanent
cur-
short-circuit
current.
The
field flux
is
The
is
synchronous
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
Thus
it is:
momentary
short-circuit current
~"
Let $1
*
open-circuit field flux
_
_ synchronous
self-induction
20.
39
reactance _ XQ
~~
self-inductive reactance
field flux of
a three-phase alternator
x\
(or, in general,
polyphase alternator) at open circuit, and this alternator be shortcircuited at the time t = 0.
The field flux then gradually dies
m=
If
3>
its
energy in the
as indicated
field circuit, to
by the curve $
in Fig.
the
21A.
ratio
$1
= m$ and
,
permanent part
$0.
This
is
<i>
the
initial
value of the
$1
<
the
= (ml)
second or more.
The armature
currents
i 1}
iz
$ which
The
shown by F
in Fig. 2 1C.
The
reaction
which
is
ference between the field current and the armature reaction F, and
is proportional to 3>, the field current thus must also be
the latter
*
thereby the voltage of the machine, before the short circuit, but is practically
independent of the load on the machine before the short circuit and the field
excitation corresponding to this load.
40
proportional to
period
it is i
$>.
Thus, as
it is i
iQ
at
<
,
<
iQ.
<P O
i'
,
Fig. 21.
Construction of
Momentary Short
phase Alternator.
Thus, at the
moment
of short circuit a
sudden
rise of field
current must occur, to maintain the field flux at the initial value
In other words,
$1 against the demagnetizing armature reaction.
the
field flux
circuit the e.m.f. required to raise the field current in the proporf
i'
other,
and are a
field transient.
by current
iQ
41
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
at impressed voltage e
first
moment
field transient, as
in Lecture III,
The
field
would be
TQ =
discussed
ro
=
transient, starts with the value ij
supplied in the field-exciting circuit
from a source
of constant
f
the
voltage supply, as the exciter, to produce the current i
voltage Co' = meo must be acting in the field-exciting circuit; that
,
is,
a voltage (m
transient of the
must be induced
netic flux.
As a
by the
transient of duration
I)e
mag-
TO
(m
must
be
-
L =
where
inductance, r
(m-
-i
1) TO
The
short-circuit transient of
more
to
so,
permanent
is,
is
its field,
of
the
momentary
short-circuit current.
In Fig. 21 the decrease of the transient is shown greatly exaggerated compared with the frequency of the armature currents, and
Fig. 22 shows the curves more nearly in their actual proportions.
The preceding would represent the short-circuit phenomena, if
there were no armature transient.
cuit contains inductance also, that
thereby gives
rise to
a transient, of duration
T =
where
L =
0,
upon
these,
and
42
cussed in paragraph 18, except that in the present case even the
permanent armature currents ii, i2 is are slow transients.
In Fig. 22B are shown the three armature short-circuit currents,
in their actual shape as resultant from the armature transient
and the field transient. The field transient (or rather its beginning) is shown as Fig, 22 A.
Fig. 22B gives the three armature
,
Fig. 22.
Momentary Short
Alternator.
should be
and
maximum
ii
is
closed at the
maximum
moment when
transient,
and
iz
^3
The resultant m.m.f. of three three-phase currents, or the armature reaction, is constant if the currents are constant, and as the
currents decrease with the field transient, the resultant armature
reaction decreases in the
same proportion
as the
field,
as
is
shown
43
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
flux, is
field
excitation, Fig. 21
and the
initial os-
frequency.
field
is,
alternator
require consideration.
From
momentary
short-
circuit characteristics
(m
sec.,
I)r
T= ~=
And assuming
is
.1 sec.
is
44
self-induction, that
= m =
inductive reactance,
If
the
is
<f>i
circuit flux
is,
6.
Xi
is
= 3>i =
<J>
and the
6 times the
The frequency
is
25 cycles.
field
is
self-
and
is
a tran-
Fig. 22 A, repre-
<
,
on the
currents
XQ
field
ii,
i%,
is
transient of duration
final short-
To
these
XQ
The
field
current
starting with
gives the
= mi Q and
,
flux <,
Upon
T=
.1 sec., is constructed as in paragraph 18, and for its instantaneous values the percentage deviation of the resultant field
from its permanent value .is calculated. Assuming 20 per cent
damping
in the reaction
field
on the
field excitation,
transient (that
is,
the instantaneous
of the current
(i
i'
),
the permanent component) then are increased or decreased by 80 per cent of the percentage variation of the transient
field of armature reaction from uniformity, and thereby the field
since i
is
is
derived.
to be applied, if considerable.
Since the transient of the armature reaction does not
field
inductance
on the point
is
of the
it
depend
follows
that the
polyphase alternator
phenomena
are always the same, that is, independent of the point of the wave
at which the short circuit occurs, with the exception of the initial
wave shape
of the
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
45
on the point of the wave at which the phenomenon begins, but not
so in their resultant effect.
The
conditions with a single-phase short circuit are differarmature reaction is pulsating, varying between zero and double its average value, with double the
21.
machine frequency.
The slow
Fig. 21,
field transient
and
its effects
are the
same as shown
in
to D.
However, the pulsating armature reaction produces a corresponding pulsation in the field circuit. This pulsation is of double
Fig. 23.
frequency, and
is
final short-
circuit current.
reaction on the
circuit starts.
46
is
the
field transient
<i>
(the
same as
in Fig.
22 A) and
the armais
field
times
and
pulsates
by
Fig.
23C; passing a
Fig. 24.
current,
maximum
for every
maximum
of
armature
of Alternator.
Such single-phase
in Fig. 27.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
armature current should be a maximum, and
maximum.
The
field
transient
On
<
is
its
47
transient thus a
The
the
reaction,
nate.
Fig. 24C.
While the field-exciting current is pulsating in a manner determined by the full-frequency transient and double-frequency permanent armature reaction, the potential difference across the
field winding may pulsate less, if little or no external resistance
or inductance
may pulsate so as to be nearly altertimes higher than the exciter voltage, if considerable external resistance or inductance is present; and therefore
nating and
it is
is
present, or
many
tant by
With
may become
impor-
its
double-frequency pulsation of the field resulting from the singlephase armature reaction induces in the machine phase, which is
in quadrature to the short-circuited phase, an e.m.f. which contains the frequencies /(2
1), that is, full frequency and triple
48
49
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
frequency, and as the result an increase of voltage and a distortion of the quadrature phase occurs, as shown in the oscillogram
Fig. 25.
momentary three-phase
Fig. 26 A.
Fig. 2QB.
CD9397.
CD9399.
Asymmetrical.
short cir-
The
Symmetrical.
Cir-
in
50
and the
CD5128.
Fig. 27.
of Alternator.
Fig. 28.
of
CD6565.
5000-Kw.
maximum.
The
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
51
symmetrical, and the double-frequency pulsation of the field current shows during the first few cycles the alternate high and low
peaks resulting from the superposition of the full-frequency transient pulsation of the rotating
magnetic
field of
armature reaction.
On
LECTURE
V.
Usually in electric
and the
the magnetic
each other, and the
resulting from one form of
transient thus
is a simple exponential, if
stored energy, as discussed in the preceding lectures.
This, howthe
if
is
no
case
the
field
contains
iron or
ever,
longer
magnetic
is
case
sumed
in the iron,
is
small compared
with that consumed in the air gap, and the magnetic flux, therefore,
is proportional to the current up to the values where magnetic
saturation begins. Below saturation values of current, the tranis the simple exponential discussed before.
sient thus
flux is
and
in value
differ,
as
shown by
'*_/
? :,":
52
53
instances.
of the
magnetic char-
acteristic given
which
is
by Kennelly:
T/>
= - = a
that
is,
the reluctivity
It gives
+ crOC;
(2)
is
field intensity.
permeability of the iron is proportional to its remaining magnetizaThat is, the magnetic-flux density (B consists of a compobility.
nent
the
3C,
field intensity,
a component (B' = (B
carried by the iron.
density."
which
is
(B'
is
about
&x =
'
At any density
(B^'
(B',
"
metallic-flux
frequently called the
increasing 3C, (B' reaches a finite limiting value,
With
in iron
3C,
cm 2
*
.
hereto, gives
and, substituting
gives
a =
,
See
page 621.
"On
the
Law
cftco'rc^
54
or, substituting
1
1_
***
t*
,fc
(/
For OC
in equation (1),
in equation (1), -
initial
uv
for 3C
oo
that
is,
cr
permeability,
Oi
a:
saturation value of
(7
magnetic density.
If the magnetic
where 3
ft
+ ffK
air gap.
Equation (1),
a is in-
by
23. In general, the flux in an ironclad magnetic circuit can,
therefore, be represented as function of the current by an expression
of the
form
where
-f-
&
ut
is
the iron and whatever air space may be in series with the iron,
a is the part of the flux passing through nonmagnetic
and
material.
Denoting now
L =
2
nc 10- 8
where n = number of turns of the electric circuit, which is interlinked with the magnetic circuit, L2 is the inductance of the air
part of the magnetic circuit, LI the (virtual) initial inductance, that
the magis, inductance at very small currents, of the iron part of
and
That
is,
If r
resulting
for i
=-
72,CJ>'
ri
0,
Z/i
and
for i
The
<'
,
d
.
of the transient
component
nc 10~ 8
T~
*V-7"
and the duration
oo
would be
air flux
_L
initial
from the
55
of the transient
which would
result
from the
differential
is:
induced voltage
is,
na 10~ 8
di
(i+Wdi +
and, substituting (5) and
t(l
.,_
di
ncl0rS
dt
+
.
(6),
+ bi)
'
d*
Tidi
The
first
term
is
integrated
1
i(l
+ Tidi + dt = Q
+ 6i)
by
"
2
+ 6i
6
(1
+ 6i)
2>
.
then gives
T log1
+ !T
logio
T-
+ +C
^o
these values
0,
(9)
56
(9),
gives
This equation
is
so
in
complex
that
it
is
+ 6i
'
(10)
not possible to
cal-
Tra sient o
Ironclad Inductive Circuit
t=2.92-
(dotted:
= 1.0851g
t-.6i
l+.6i
.50?)
seconds
Fig. 29.
Such
is
=
c =
b =
n =
a
4
4
X
X
.6,
300.
105
104
57
58
This gives
T =
i
2.92
Assuming
tion
10 amperes for
0,
T=
9.21 log 10
1
^+
921
4
.6 i
For comparison
=
is
by
.4343.
shown, in dotted
of a circuit containing
no
iron,
and
As
much
= 1.0S5logi-
.507.
uration
is
is
medium
densities.
magnetic
Thus, in ironclad transients very high-current values of short
duration may occur, and such transients, as those of the starting
current of alternating-current transformers, may therefore be of
serious importance by their excessive current values.
An oscillogram of the voltage and current waves in an 11,000-kw.
wave,
is
As
seen,
persists for a number of cycles, causing a distortion of the voltage wave, and the current waves remain unsymmetrical for many
cycles.
LECTURE
VI.
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
24.
the change in the stored energy which can take place as the result
of a change of the circuit conditions is an increase or decrease.
storage in the
is
j_
i/oe
(1)
where
?/o
TO
that
last
=
=
initial
is,
if
The duration T
is
etc.,
would
T =
where
rent, r
(2)
L = inductance = coefficient of energy storage by the cur= resistance = coefficient of power dissipation by the current.
TJ = -,
s/
59
e,
as dielectric
field,
the
(3)
60
where
C=
coefficient of
and g
would be represented by
e~
ct
(4)
may
For instance, the transient by which a water jet approaches constant velocity when falling under gravitation through a resisting
medium would have the duration
T = -,
=
(5)
acceleration of gravity,
and would
(l-6~r}.
(6)
if i
transient current, e
Thus,
Li*
Ce*
'T + -2-'
Wm +W
d.
(7)
>
decreases by dissipation,
While the total energy
m may be
converted into Wd, or inversely.
Such an energy transfer may be periodic, that is, magnetic energy
may change to dielectric and then back again; or unidirectional,
that
is,
magnetic energy
dielectric to magnetic),
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
is
energy
61
therefore
is
sufficient
transient, that
is,
between
its
This
fer,
25.
is
maximum
at the
moment when
the dielectric energy is zero, and when all the energy, therefore,
magnetic and the magnetic energy is then
is
where
= maximum
t'
The
dielectric
magnetic energy
and is then
transient current.
energy
is
is
zero,
maximum
and
at the
moment when
the
all
Ce
'
where
As
= maximum
e
it
is
transient voltage.
magnetic and as
W
~2~
Ceo
~2"
v/:-^
therefore
is
of the nature of
an impedance
and
is
called
fc =
V/y
Jj
T
yo, is
and
62
The maximum
maximum
the
and
#0
io
'Z'O
V/
7>
i&Qj
(10)
inversely,
This relation
is
eo
/C =
yj
(11)
2/o.
short-circuit current
is e
igZo.
may
low but 2/0 high, and even moderate oscillating voltages produce large oscillating currents, but even large oscillating currents
produce only moderate voltages. Thus underground cables are
little liable to the production of high oscillating voltages.
This
ZQ is
is
relatively
may
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
oscillating voltages, that
former
63
is,
latter.
Inversely,
the large oscillating current of a cable enters a reactive device,
as a current transformer, it produces enormous voltages therein.
oscillation,
if
liable to
be destructive to the
The simple
V^
in
may
The
current thus
may
be represented by
where
i Q is
the
maximum
locosfa -7),
where /
(12)
(13)
27Tft,
is
still
undeter-
is,
ii
is
cos
initial
transient current.
(14)
As the current
energy
IQ
of the
64
thus
is
is
maximum, and
inversely;
and
the current
is
sin (0
7),
(15)
where
ei
sin
The frequency /
initial
is still
(16)
of propor-
tionality it follows that there must be a frequency, that is, the successive conversions between the two forms of energy must occur in
to dielectric
tween the two forms of energy must be the same again as at the
starting moment, but both reduced in the same proportion by the
power dissipation. From this moment on, the same cycle then must
repeat with proportional, but proportionately lowered values.
31.
Fig.
CD10017.
Oscillogram
of
Stationary
Oscillation
Frequency:
Compound
of
Varying
and 28 Miles
of
however, the law of proportionality does not exist, the oscilmay not be of constant frequency. Thus in Fig. 31 is shown
an oscillogram of the voltage oscillation of the compound circuit
consisting of 28 miles of 100,000-volt transmission line and the
If,
lation
With decreasing
65
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
linked with
it
from
this increased
magnetic
energy storage coefficient L, there follows a slower period of oscillation, that is, a decrease of frequency, as seen on the oscillogram,
The
"
charge," is capacity
times voltage: Ce. It is, however, the product of the current
flowing into the condenser, and the time during which this current
flows into it, that is, it equals i t.
Ce
it
(17)
charge thus
is
2e C;
the current has a
maximum
value
i'
2
thus an average value -i
IT
and as
it
frequency
that
is,
2e Q C =
-io
7T
=-}, it is
o7
2J
66
a
is
VLC
The
and
(20)
and the
dielectric
thus
oscillation thus
TTCT
a sine wave without distortion, as long as the law of proportionWhen this fails, the wave may be distorted, as seen
ality applies.
on the oscillogram
The equations
written down by
and
(15)
Fig. 31.
of the periodic part of the transient
io
cos (0
7)
io
cos
i\
cos
7 cos
t
now be
IQ
e\
sin
sin
sin -
<J
(11):
i
i\
cos
1/001
sin - ,
in the
same manner:
e
e\
cos -
+z
ii
sin - ,
(7
e\ is
(21)
ff
(T
where
<j>
(7
and
can
and by
and
the
initial
(22)
ii
the
initial
value
of transient current.
B. Power dissipation.
27. In Fig. 32 are plotted as
oscillating current
Li 2
netic energy
^
z
i,
and
as
the voltage
Ce 2
dielectric
energy
As
occur
if all
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
transient.
67
be
and with only half the energy magnetic, the duration thus is
twice as long, or
2 T
=
7\ =
(23)
2T
^=,
and voltage
(21)
and
(22).
/C
Fig. 32.
The same
were
dielectric, it
If all
tion:
rp
IV--;
f
the energy
of the dura-
68
T =
2
T =
is
half as rapid,
'
(24)
_JL _JL
T^ T,=
t(
I..!
T
IV
1/1
\T^TJ
(25)
T, thus
is
given by
!_
2V
I
(26)
where u
is
is
given as
r
2L'
if g = 0, that is, the conductance, which reppower dissipation resultant from the voltage (by leakage, dielectric induction and dielectric hysteresis, corona, etc.),
Such is the case in most power circuits and transis negligible.
mission lines, except at the highest voltages, where corona appears.
This
is
correct only
resents the
It is
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
transformers,
etc.,
and
69
is
very nearly the case if the capacity is due to electrostatic condensers, but not if the capacity is that of electrolytic
It is
lines, etc.
condensers,
(25) as factor
t
y Q ei sin
.
cos
(7
>
>
fl-
(28)
e
CCS -
+z
ii
sin
o-
'
where
(29)
and
ii
and
e\
= VLC,
(30)
and
volt-
age respectively.
As instance are constructed, in Fig. 33, the transients of current
and of voltage of a circuit having the constants
:
L=
C=
r =
=
g
Inductance,
Capacity,
Resistance,
Conductance,
1.25
2.5
ohms;
0.008 mho,
The
The
It
is,
ii
e\
=
=
140 amperes;
2000 volts.
= Vie =
/=
ZQ
2/o
=
=
io- 5
25 ohms,
/C
T
0.04
TTff
y
y
mho,
TO
T =
0.001 sec.
2C =
0.0005 sec.
millisecond,
0.5 millisecond,
0.000333 sec.
3000 X15&
0.33 millisecond;
\
-1,0
Milliseconds
1
,i\i
Fig. 33.
=
=
is
-3
<S140cos0.2-80sin0.2Zj,
given in milliseconds.
},
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
Fig. 33
i
r
Fig.
335
=
=
80 sin 0.2
and voltage:
1,
1.
gives
The magnetic-energy
The dielectric-energy
And
And
71
transient,
transient,
h
k
like'.
e~',
e~ 2< ,
e~ 3<
hk
sient voltage, e
=
=
i
hki',
and the
tran-
LECTURE
VII.
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
28.
In a circuit containing inductance and capacity, the trancomponent, by which the stored energy
f^ />2
7" /j'2
and
dielectric
and a transient
Ceo
"2"
where
= maximum
~2~'
= maximum
transient current, e
transient
voltage.
eQ
io,
= V /L_
\C-
i-
and
ZQ
-y
'
where
voltage,
and
ei
=
=
= 2ft
(4)
'
(5)
ii
where
cos
(</>
7)
e sin (0
7)
IQ
and
is
27^
The
transient
component
hk
is
e-*,
72
(6)
73
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
where
and
7, e
at
= Oor
i.
=
=
- 7)
- 7)
loe-^cos (0
eoe-^sinfa
is
and
i'
of the transient,
0:
sin
hence
to the circuit in
ductive circuit.
B
Fig. 34.
However,
point
if
(8) are
of a line,
shown diagrammatically
may
be different.
Thus,
if
c <r ui cos (0
sin(0
7)
-7)
)
)
74
and voltage
oscillation
is
instead of
if
Or,
time
ti'
traveling from
the time
B to A,
is,
is,
enters.
t\)
(t
B- that
to
it is
the value
t,
earlier at
(t
ti)
by the
enters the
occur.
The
general form of the line oscillation thus is given by substiti) instead of t into the equations (11), where t\ is the
tuting (t
time of propagation over the distance I.
and
in a
capacity)
medium
10 10
of permeability
K is
which in
air,
(12)
and permittivity
-XT=^>
(specific
10 10
v =5
/z
field,
(13)
VfUJ
and we denote
;;
.v
'.,.
a-j,
then
ti
and
if
get, substituting
=F
t\
for
(14)
(15)
al;
we denote
co
we
ffifil
= 27rM
and
=F
(16)
co
for
=
=
ce~ ut cos (0
Z ce- u( sin
In these equations,
is
(</>
co
=F
7T/Z
co
7)
17
7)
(18)
co
7r/aZ
75
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
trigonometric expressions:
cos
cos
sin
cos
co,
cos
sin
co,
sin
sin
co.
co,
co),
co,
as in (19).
The
is more convenient to introduce the terminal conditions in stationary waves, as oscillations and surges; the former is often more
oscilla-
tions.
Fig. 35 gives the oscillation produced by switching 28
miles of 100-kv. line by high-tension switches onto a 2500-kw.
step-up transformer in a substation at the end of a 153-mile threephase line; Fig. 36 the oscillation of the same system caused by
to
is,
2
by -
T6
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
77
78
Instead of
L and
- - and
7T
7T
and the
7T
IT
VLC
to the value
Vic
where
(7
= VLC.
(21)
LO, Co,
line
over
(22)
TO, go
line,
then
~ \
-i
(23)
that
is,
is
independent of the
line
constants per
unit length.
It
then
is
o-
Z*ro,
(24)
-\/T
C*
*
fOf^\
where
(TO
is
a constant of the
J-JQ\s
line construction,
\^"/
of the line.
is
/.-rrr-
(26)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
79
which the
in
That
oscillation occurs.
no
that
circuit,
which the
is,
oscillation
whole).
If
Zi
is
tion
is
wave length
of this oscilla-
ZL
(27)
At any point
power
Po
is
avg
ei
Zi,
the effective
(28)
(29)
ei,
Thus
section.
at the
2.
3.
=
=
=
at both ends of
Zx
Zi;
at one end,
Zi,
at one end, e
Zi.
at the other
end
of
Zi must
must be a quarter-wave or an odd multiple
line section
thereof.
If
possible:
at both ends of
Zi
Zi
is
that
is,
the
80
unit of oscillation
is -5,
or also a quarter-wave.
The same
is
the
In the case
2, i
and
again
is
section
/i
Fig. 38.
Fig. 37.
The same
length
30.
is
Substituting
li
wave
oscillation
/
However,
the
if
wave length
=
1Q
frequency, and v
is
(30)
^r
=
velocity of propagation,
-*
period,
(31)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
thus
81
is
Zo
trfo
(32)
^.,
(7
(33)
or
(34)
C =
and
As
inversely.
(35)
in
usually is difficult to calculate, while the inductance is easily derived, equation (35) is useful in calculating the capacity by means
of the inductance.
is
(36)
is,
at one end, e
is
the frequency /
of oscillation.
A
4
This
is
wave
exist
ooti
In addition thereto,
all its
the frequencies (2 k
1)/
where k
wave lengths
^ ^ _
1, 2,
and
82
If then
denotes the time angle and co the distance angle of the
= 2 TT represents a complete cycle
fundamental wave, that is,
and co
2ir a complete wave length of the fundamental wave,
the time and distance angles of the higher harmonics are
30, 3
co,
50, 5
co,
70, 7
co,
etc.
complex
cos (0 =F
co
+a
and the length h
co
=
If
~,
and the
71)
+a
T
cos 5 (0
cos 3 (0 =F
co
is
75)
co
possible fre-
all
73)
.
(37)
by the angle
represented
the two ends of the line h have the same electrical characat both ends, or i = 0, the longest possible
that is, e =
teristics,
Jr
l\,
1
~"
"
'
20, 2
30, 3
40, 4
complex
co
+a
and the length
l\
co,
co,
etc.
oscillation
a\ cos (0 =F
co,
71)
cos 3 (0 =F
of the line
is
cos 2 (0
co
73)
T
+
co
72)
.
represented by angle
(38)
coi
TT,
and the
The half-wave
(17),
but
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
more conveniently resolved
usually are
tion (19).
(2
83
into the
I)/,
that
form
is,
for
oi
equa-
very large
k,
vary slightly with the voltage, current, etc., it follows that at very
high frequencies the line responds to any frequency, has no definite
frequency of oscillation, but oscillations can exist of any frequency,
provided this frequency is sufficiently high. Thus in transmission
resonance phenomena can occur only with moderate frequencies, but not with frequencies of hundred thousands or millions of
lines,
cycles.
32.
The
line constants r
go,
when
and therefore
"1
or
GO
-jj
T
LIQ
1
-ftj-
-L/o
That
Using
<7
the transient.
simplified.
is
thereby greatly
84
Substituting
O-Q
1 in
^o
Ao>
(40)
CO
O
2
27rX
^ =
7T/X
AO
measure,
where
/ LQ =
V ^o
r
4
= maximum
LT =
voltage,
^O
2/o
^o
=
=
T
?T
T
^o
= maximum
/A1\
(41)
current.
That
and the
is, the natural impedance is the inductance,
natural admittance is the capacity, per velocity unit of length,
and is the main characteristic constant of the line.
cos
co,
sin
cos
cu,
cos
sin
co,
sin
sin
co,
<f>
ut
and would thus, in the most
multiplied with the transient, e~
general case, be given by an expression of the form
,
e~
"*
I
ai cos
fll
</>
cos
co
+ 61 sin
cos
co
Ci
cos
sin
co
-f-disin</>sinco|,
- ut
cos
^ cos w
_|_
^ sm ^ cos w
+ di
and
its
is,
sin
In these equations
is,
(42),
co
cos
^ sm w
j ,
terms, with
20, 2
30, 3
40, 4
are determined
sin
_j_ Cl
co,
co,
co,
etc.
the coefficients
85
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
</>
for
co
and
co
=
ft
For instance,
The
(a)
is
zero at
if:
circuit
all
is
That
for
0,
that
is,
the current
is,
co
co
0;
the equations of i then must not contain the terms with cos
cos 2 co, etc., as these would not be zero for co = 0.
That is,
co,
it
must be
Ol == 0,
a2
a3
The equation
=
=
61
0,
62
0,
63
=
=
=
0,
(43)
0,
etc.
0,
etc.
Thus
it
must be
ci'
'
C2
'
c8
=
=
=
d/
cV
0,
,
d8
0,
'
=
=
=
0,
(44)
0,
0,
etc.J
=
=
c~ ui
\d cos
If
the line
</>
e~ ut {ai cos
<
co,
co
hereof.
+ di sin sin
+ bi sin 0} cos
open
circuit
end
co
at one end
co
0,
7T
-, the voltage e
must be zero
become zero
co
for
co
=
,
but cos 2
co,
Cos
cos 4
co,
co,
cos 3
etc.,
co,
cos 5
co,
etc.,
7T
^,
sion of
and the
e.
86
c4
C6
The complete
=
=
=
0,
^=
0,
d,
d6
0,
a/
0,
=
=
a,'
0,
a6
0,
'
=
=
=
0,
62
0,
64
0,
'
'
66
'
=
=
=
0,
(46)
0,
etc.
0,
co
and short-circuited
at the
end
co
^ thus
would be
i
e~ ut
(ci
cos
e~ ut
sin3co
(a/ cos
cos 3
j,
co
+...}.
(c) Assuming now as instance that, in such a stationary oscillation as given by equation (47), the current in the circuit is zero
= 0. Then the
at the starting moment of the transient for
0.
c3
c5
=
=
0,
0,
(48)
etc. )
V=
63'
65
'
=
=
0,
)
(49)
0,
0,
etc. )
-"'
\ai cos
sin
<t>
co
cos
+d
w+O)
sin 3
sin 3
cos 3
.
1.
co
cos 3
sin 5
c? 5
w+o
'
cos 5
sin 5
<t>
co
cos 5
(50)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
87
age,
eo,
where
is
a'=dz
and substituting
e~
ut
(d)
at the
is
di sin
~ ut
I
is
(51)
0)
<f>
di cos
sin
co
cos
co
+ d$ sin 3
+d
cos 3
+ d$ sin 5
<f>
sin 3
co
<
cos 3
co -j-
If
That
<j>
d5 cos 5
sin 5
co
(52)
cos 5
is
given
moment
ut
ZQ t~
in (52),
by substituting
ei
moment
starting
di cos
co
c? 3
cos 3
co
cos 5
co
(53)
co.
manner
c? 5
as discussed in
"
of
d\,
d3
d$,
etc.,
in the
III.
LECTURE
VIII.
TRAVELING WAVES.
33. In a stationary oscillation of a circuit having uniformly
distributed capacity and inductance, that is, the transient of a
circuit storing energy in the dielectric and magnetic
and voltage are given ^by the expression
i
where
is
=
=
i Q e~
ut
e e~
ut
cos (0
sin
(</>
T
T
co
co
7),
7),
field,
current
co
=
=
=
dis-
ei,
^|V
(</>
7) sin (0 =F
co
<sin2(c/>=Fco-7),
co
7),
(2)
is
Po
=
=
avg
p,
(3)
0.
Hence, in a stationary oscillation, or standing wave of a uniform circuit, the average flow of power, p is zero, and no power
flows along the circuit, but there is a surge of power, of double
frequency. That is, power flows first one way, during one-quarter
cycle, and then in the opposite direction, during the next quarter,
cycle, etc.
is
of reactive power.
89
TRAVELING WAVES.
physical
meaning a wave
has, in
in
=
=
loe~
ut
e Q e~
ut
=
=
e Q i Q e-
2ut
COS (0 =F
cos (< =F
co
7),
(4)
7).
is
cos 2
co
7),
(5)
of
power
is
avg
p,
(6)
(2)
It occurs
is
it
be caused
may
is
if
by a
impressed
Fig. 39.
circuit, as
shown by curve
Wave.
by a
impressed upon
in Fig. 39, or
is
if
magnetic energy
a part of the circuit. This energy then gradually distributes over
the circuit, as indicated by the curves B, C, etc., of Fig. 39, that is,
moves along the circuit, and the dissipation of the stored energy
thus occurs by a flow of power along the
circuit.
90
Such a flow
of
^>
Line
Transformer
Line
Fig. 40.
shown
dissipates
by a
transient,
step-up and step-down transformers, and is produced by disconnecting this circuit by low-tension switches. In the transformer,
the duration of the transient would be very great, possibly several
seconds, as the stored magnetic energy (L) is very large, the dissipation of power (r and g) relatively small; in the line, the transient is of fairly short duration, as r (and g) are considerable.
Left to themselves, the line oscillations thus would die out much
rapidly, by the dissipation of their stored energy, than the
more
transformer oscillations.
must
down
simultaneously by the same tranthen follows that power must flow during the transient
from the transformer into the line, so as to have both die down
together, in spite of the more rapid energy dissipation in the line.
together, both
It
sient.
Thus a
die
transient in a
compound
circuit,
that
is,
a circuit comprising
is,
of
the circuit.*
effective
the stationary
wave
of reactive power.
wave
*
to the voltage
wave
is
TRAVELING WAVES.
91
92
ductor in
distance unit through all sections of the circuit, and expresses the
wave length X and the period T by the same numerical values,
TQ
-,
co
directly comparable:
2vft
27T
AO
(8)
CO
7T
7T/X.
If
The
Fig. 42.
B
c'
A'
B'
Fig. 42.
(b)
The
flow of power
is
by B in Fig. 42.
The flow of power is increasing
as illustrated by C in Fig. 42.
tion, as illustrated
(c)
tion,
in the direction of
propaga-
TRAVELING WAVES.
93
'
to the energy dissipation, and is illustrated by B' and C' in Fig. 42.
(a) If the flow of power is constant in the direction of propa-
would be
=
=
io<r
e^~
ut
cos (0
ut
cos (0
o>
co
7),
7),
(9)
LoadCT
Transformer
^-
Line
Fig. 43.
Compound
Circuit.
load to die
circuit,
much lower, and that in the load may be greater, than the
average rate of power dissipation of the system, and the transformer will supply power to the rest of the oscillating system, the
load receive power. If then the rate of power dissipation of the
is
of
power
dissipation.
but
its
its
rate
94
(b) If the flow of power decreases along the line, every line
element receives more power at one end than it gives off at the
other end. That is, energy is supplied to the line elements by
the flow of power, and the stored energy of the line element thus
decreases at a slower rate than corresponds to its power dissipation
r and g.
Or, in other words, a part of the power dissipated in
the line element is supplied by the flow of power along the line,
and only a part supplied by the stored energy.
by
Since the current and voltage would decrease by the term e~ w<
the line element had only its own stored energy available, when
,
if
of current
and
circuit, s
passed.
enter.*
the
e
by
of
line,
st
e~
sX
travel.
is
---
(
(
TRAVELING WAVES.
the average power then
Po
95
is
avg e,
-s)t e -2s\
-2ut e +2s(t-\)
Both forms
and (12) are
of the expressions of
The
of use.
i,
e,
and po
of equations (11)
form shows that the wave debut decreases with the distance X.
first
t,
e~ 2ut
is
that
is,
in the
by the power
dissi-
pation constant u.
of propagation, that
co is
(c)
and thus
reversed.
If
line,
more power
leaves every line element than enters it; that is, the line element
is drained of its stored energy by the passage of the wave, and thus
down with the time at a greater rate than corresponds to the power dissipation by r and g. That is, not all the
stored energy of the line elements supplies the power which is
being dissipated in the line element, but a part of the energy
leaves the line element in increasing the power which flows along
the line. The rate of dissipation thus is increased, and instead
the transient dies
of u, (u
+ s)
decrement
That
is,
is
e~ <" +
(13)
)',
is
cos
<>
96
that
is,
35.
(15),
assumed as positive.
In general, it
assume that s may be positive or negative;
s is
to (15) then apply also to the case (6) of decreasing power flow,
but in the latter case s is negative. They also apply to the case
(a) for s
0.
The equation
of current, voltage,
and power
of a traveling
wave
= '^
= ^~VW-r*Vc=csArrka
^3^,.,
/v
==/?
^
at
u-r A; rr\c
.^^
/.i
o/
VW
the values of
s
and
(case (a)).
s
>
that
is,
some
that
<
is,
travels,
of
(c)).
transient.
If s is negative, for
a transient wave,
it
always must be
since,
if
>
u,
-\-
TRAVELING WAVES.
increase with the time, which in general
transient
in r
and
time,
97
is
by the power
dissipation
g.
cuits in
is
source, as
(electrically)
oscillations."
They may
oscillation,
until
oscillations,
An
later,
fully developed.
An oscillogram
of a
It
power transformer (60-cycle system) is given in Fig. 46.
is caused by switching off 28 miles of line by high-tension
switches,
at 88 kilovolts.
As seen, the oscillation rapidly increases in in-
volt
tensity, until
by the
destruc-
of time
Of
special interest
is
in this case,
u;
+s=
i
=
=
i e
sX
cos (0 =F
co
sX
cos (0
co
7),
7),
98
TRAVELING WAVES.
99
100
that
is,
and voltages.
Writing the two waves in (18) separately gives
cos (0
e
e e +sx cos (0
- 70 -
co
co
i'
'e-
sX
line,
the function of the time angle <f>, to the standard form given in
"Transient Phenomena," Section III.
36. Obviously, traveling waves and standing waves may occur
simultaneously in the same circuit, and usually do so, just as in
alternating-current circuits effective and reactive waves occur
The
waves.
transient
wave
is,
the travel-
ing wave,
i
=
=
iQ
eQ
- ut - s
~ ut
s
\)
(t
e~
(i
X)
cos (^ =p
cos (0 =F
co
T)
7),
is,
=
=
io'e-
e 'e-
ut
cos (0
co
ut
sin
=F
co
(<
7'),
7'),
and voltage
differ in
Thus
the time
t.
101
TRAVELING WAVES.
When
ously,
traveling waves and stationary waves occur simultanevery often the traveling wave precedes the stationary
wave.
by the repeated
re-
i,
Fig. 47.
CD11168.
Oscillation
flection
by Reflection
impulse caused by
the different circuit sections adjusts itself to the proportion corresponding to the stationary oscillation of the complete circuit.
Such traveling waves then are local, and therefore of much higher
frequency than the final oscillation of the complete circuit, and
Occasionally they are shown by the
as high-frequency oscillations intervening between
102
Fig.
CD10002.
4SA.
Oscillogram of High-frequency Oscillation Preceding Low-frequency Oscillation of Compound Circuit of 28 Miles of
100,000-volt Line
former,
when switching
this line,
by high-tension
kilovolts.
ei,
at the
in a
compound
waves appearing
TRAVELING WAVES.
103
104
circuit
gap.
local,
An approximate estimate of
relation -^
V/
* 7^
Co
lo
length.
13 microhenrys.
2.2
y5
maximum
of e
maximum
10 3
383 ohms.
by
= Vo.1465 X
on nno
-~
is
produced
V_3
57,700
X V2 =
212
e\
If
35,000.
e\
then /
frequency of impulse,
2-jrfLiQ.
;
Or
'
'=2^'
27rX
it is
13
.'
35,000
X 10- 6
X212
2,000,000 cycles.
local
blowing of
fuses, etc.
105
TRAVELING WAVES.
When
Traveling Wave.
Fig. 50.
(u + s}i
and thus preponderone, which decreases very rapidly, e
ates in the beginning of the phenomenon, and one, which decreases
}
slowly,
- (u ~
s)t .
Hence
it
may
(20)
determines the
"
constants
=
L=
C=
r
The impulse
is
Its duration, as
ZQ
93.6 ohms,
0.3944 henrys,
1.135 microfarads,
590 ohms.
0.0036
second.
line see "Design, Construction, and Test of an ArtiTransmission Line," by J. H. Cunningham, Proceedings A.I.E.E., January,
1911.
Transient Voltages," by
inductance.
106
Fig.
51.
CD11145.
Reproduction of Oscillogram of Propagation
Impulse Over Transmission Line; no Reflection. Voltage,
of
CD 11 152.
52.
Reproduction of Oscillogram of Propagation of ImEnd of Line. Voltage.
pulse Over Transmission Line; Reflection from Open
Fig.
TRAVELING WAVES.
107
end.
crease of voltage
Fig.
53.
CD11153.
by
reflection.
the formation of a stationary oscillation by the successive reflections of the traveling wave from the ends of the line.
LECTURE
OSCILLATIONS OF THE
IX.
COMPOUND
CIRCUIT.
38.
the traveling
pound
transformer,
line,
load, etc.
when
1, 2,
(in
its
of the
,
this
stored
Every
u3
of the section
section,
-*',
-"',
But
down
at the
whole
,
-"*'
circuit
*,
That
is,
51
52
=
=
Ui,
UQ
Uz,
compound
108
(1)
circuit, if
transfer.
is
the average
109
UQ
U,
(2)
stant s
is
section,
which energy
it
is,
By the power-transfer constant s, sections of low energy dissipation supply power to sections of high energy dissipation.
39. Let for instance in Fig. 43 be represented a circuit consistand load. (The
step-down transformer and its secondary circuit, may for convenience be considered as one circuit section.)
Assume now that the circuit is disconnected from the power supply by low-tension switches, at A. This leaves transformer, line,
ing of step-up transformer, transmission line,
load, consisting of
and the
load.
Co
Xi
measure
is
Zi,
Thus, if
transformer
Xi
per transformer
is
coil,
n = number
the
coil;
of
hence the
110
HI
900
line,
u*
100
power-dissipation constant of transformer, and u z = 1600 = powerdissipation constant of the load, and the respective lengths of the
circuit sections are
Xi
1.5
10- 3
X2
10~3
\3
0.5
10~ 3
it is:
Transformer.
Line.
X = 1.5X10-3
Length:
Power-dissipation constant:
u
X
=
=
900
Power-transfer
constant: S = MO -M=
-100
900
1600
1.35
.8
800, and:
+700
-100
ZA
dissipates
4.5X1Q- 3
3.6
-800
100,
while
s2
.1
Sum.
Load.
Line.
1.5X10~ 3 .5X10~ 3
100
1.35
Wo= average, u
hence,
1X10~ 3
it
at the rate Uz
dissipates power
s = 800; that
rate
half of
is,
The
load
The transmission
only a
that
little
line dissipates
faster
energy.
in the line:
pie~
200X
the energy of
the wave
decreases slowly;
in the transformer:
p
length
L =
li
=
n,
+1400X
7?2C
wave
increases
rapidly;
inductance,
C =
is X = v LC.
Thus, the reduction to velocity measure of distance
measure
is
very simple.
111
in the load:
p
Here the
p 3 e~
l600X
,
rapidly.
coefficients of pi,
beginning of
wave decreases
preceding section.
In general, two traveling waves run around the circuit in
opposite direction.
Each of the two waves reaches
circuit at the point
the
line,
where
it
it
it
Fig. 54.
of the
of Closed Circuit;
one wave
is 6,
that of
the opposite wave 4 megawatts, the power values of the two waves
then are plotted in the upper part of Fig. 54, and their difference,
that
is,
which no power flows, one in the transformer and one in the load,
and the power flows from the transformer over the line into the
load; the transformer acts as generator of the power, and of this
112
power a fraction
is
consumed
load.
The diagram
40.
thus
is
sion
by
of this transient
power transfer
of the
system
very similar to that of the permanent power transmisalternating currents: a source of power, a partial conin the line,
sumption
and the
rest of the
power consumed
in
the load.
However, this transient power-transfer diagram does not represent the entire power which is being consumed in the circuit, as
power is also supplied from the stored energy of the circuit; and
the case
may
which cannot
thus arise
exist in a
permanent
power transmission
mum
Not
so,
Assume,
the line
resistance
the constant u
half,
=lj
~^7>)
line.
Assuming
Line.
1.5X10- 3
1X10- 3
1.5X10- 3
Line.
X=
u=
Load.
500
100
500
1600
wX=
.75
.1
.75
.8
average, u
hence, MO
s
+33
- =
= SwX
2/A
533, and:
+433
+33
Sum.
.5X10- 3 4.5X1Q- 3
-1067
2.4
is,
tive, si
113
the power-transfer constant of the line has become posi33, and the line now assists the transformer in supplying
power to the load. Assuming again the values of the two traveling waves, where they leave the transformer (which now are not
the maximum values, since the waves still further increase in
intensity in passing over the lines), as 6 and 4 megawatts respectively, the power diagram of the two waves, and the power dia-
gram
Fig. 55.
Energy Distribution
in
Low
In a closed
circuit, as
Compound
Line Loss.
circuit,
the relative
intensities of the
zero.
As
illustration
may
potential coil of the step-up transformer, and the two lines, which
are assumed as open at the step-down end, as illustrated diagram-
114
Line.
x=
1.5X10- 3
u\ =
900
100
900
1.35
.1
1.35
= average, u =
hence, w
s=
SwX
^^
Sum.
Line.
1.5X10- 3
1X10- 3
4X10- 3
2.8
700, and:
-200
-200
+600
Line
Transformer
Line
Fig. 56.
The diagram
tions,
and
of the
power
6 megawatts as the
at the point where
two waves
shown in
is
assuming
is
reached
Transmission Line
Transformer
=900
Energy Distribution
Fig. 57.
of the
in
Transmission Line
U=900
=100
Compound
Oscillation of
Open
Circuit.
41.
stationary oscillation of a
compound
circuit consists of
as to give the
As the
115
result of this
and X
current,
That
is, if
= wave
= maximum
voltage,
= maximum
must
all
and
of
The same
Since
it
is
"*,
decreases with the time, and thus with the distance traversed
during this time.
Maximum
voltage e
i'o,
however, are
by the condition_
e
ZQ
= i /^
-FT
fo\
(3)
then
ei
and
ii
are
maximum
ance
"
of this section,
and
and
ez ,
12,
z\
voltage and
and
y
z2
-^
is
maximum
current
02
it is
'
A\
116
and
ei
'
iz
ii
e2
substituting
=
=
i'2
z2 ,l
'z
or
and
z2
or
f
/ON
That
60 in
impedances
is,
to
which
=V
*
ances, ZQ
When
is
TT
Co
>
of the
two respective
sections.
mission
direction.
low-voltage high-current
wave
117
is,
point.
illustrated in Fig. 58.
Let z = 200 in the first section
=
800 in the second section (transformer).
(transmission line), Z Q
This
is
/800
The transformation
ratio
is
= 2;
V onn
^Uu
that
the
of
then
e\e^.
Fig. 58.
If
by
and
Wave.
are the values of voltage and current respecbetween two sections 1 and 2, and
and
ii
the
tively of the
maximum
first, e%
and
iz
voltage and maximum current respecof the second, section, the voltage phase
first
_=
are, respectively:
section:
cos 71
and
-r
= cos 5i.
(9)
cos 72
and
i'
= cos
2.
118
61
62
=
cos
(9) gives
ii
iz
<5i
= Jz*
V ?!
hence, multiplied,
cos 72
cos
82
cos 71
cos
di
cos
di
COS
or
(11)
cos 72
COS 7i
or
cos 71 cos
that
is,
5i
cos 72 cos
52 ;
v/
That
this
reflection.
nent
is,
z'
LECTURE
X.
tion
is
The inductance
mag-
?-
(i)
i/
where
<i>
The capacity
where
\f/
the dielectric
is
and
With a
force,
is
flux,
or
number
of lines of dielectric
it.
drawn
lines in Fig. 8,
page
10,
and the
shown dotted
in
Fig. 8.
conductor,
'iJBLtiGTRIC
DISCHARGES, WAVES
cyclic
change
AND IMPULSES.
of current.
The
fields
the case with the former in nonmagnetic materials, with the latter
for all densities below the dielectric strength of the material,
field of any number of conductors at any point in
space is the combination of the component fields of the individual
conductors.
the resultant
Fig. 59.
Thus the
field of
combination of the
Magnetic Field of
Circuit.
conductor
field of
magnetic
121
lines of
former
and the
s.
The
the same
ductors
is that corresponding to the lines of magnetic force surrounding the respective conductor, up to the distance of the return
conductor.
B. Calculation of inductance.
44. If r is the radius of the conductor, s the distance of the
return conductor, in Fig. 60, the magnetic flux consists of that
external to the conductor, from r to s, and that internal to the
conductor, from
to
r.
Fig. 60.
At
netic circuit
netizing force
and the
is
field intensity
2F
x
(4)
(5)
122
flux in the
zone dx thus
is
d^=^fdx,
and the magnetic
(6)
conductor thus
is
x\
and z 2
is
r x*2
X
thus the inductance
r;
xz
s; jP
i,
as this flux
1,
ju
<>
?-""-:-
2
,
-J
Cx\
as each line of magnetic force surrounds only a part of the con-
ductor
and the
L=
or, if
LI
+L
2
j
log-
//
is
+T( per
ju
(11)
(12)
is
units
henry s,
123
109 absolute
log
j
+1
(13)
(14)
ductors.
If s is large
s is
compared with
r, it is
immaterial whether
as s
is
attention
is
Fig. 61.
However,
between the
if
s is of
line conductors,"
no
s.
r,
0.4343
log
10
*,
conductor
then
is
as
124
The
3>i,
$3,
in Fig. 61.
and thereby
J5,
That
is,
less
than
i,
that
is,
gives
F
-
<
1.
r<x<s +
-1
'
~7v"
<
3,
is
sufficient in giving
of
the
phenomenon permits.
The magnetic flux $3 does not merely
if
side of
toward A; and as
current,
etc.,
it
given.
this effect
magnetic flux $1
and $3 are
zero,
in Fig. 5;
but
<J> 2
(15)
125
That
is,
and leads
of the inductance of
round
parallel
only of
is
theoretical,
An
r to s
+ f the m.m.f.
varies uniformly.
B
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
(6)
is
is,
the
r to
(a)
For
<
<
r, it is
-f r
2r
hence by
2r
2r
(16)
(8),
/
s +r
_r
_|_
fa
x
r
r*+*dx
J_
a
(17)
by the approximation
log (1
x)
(18)
126
it is
+r=
log
log
+r-
log
log
(l
+ r\
-)
.
/.,
- r\ =
log(l
rt
2-
-)
hence
r
For
(6)
<
<
s, it is
f-l-sl^^r^h
and
for s
<
<
(20)
r, it is
'-
:'
hence,
and integrated
this gives
if
+ ^log'-f'- ii^log^-3,
fc-aiog^
o
o
L,-^,
O
that
is,
should
(23)
(24)
the same value as (19); and as the actual case, Fig. 60,
between Figs. 61 and 62, the common approximation of
lie
L=
L!
+L +L
2
4.
(25)
However,
1
(
-- )=
s/
log
-o
bining log
and substituting
h log
log
by com-
log
(26)
127
where
ductors
is
This
small.
is
In view of the secondary phenomena unavoidable in the conductors, equation (26) appears sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, except when taking into consideration the secondary
phenomena, as unequal current distribution, etc., in which case
etc.,
are required.
D. Calculation of capacity.
46.
The
radial lines,
tial lines
shown dotted
Fig. 64.
conductor
are straight
in Fig. 64,
which
G=
(27)
128
K = -4
and
where
=
Trf
4 irV ^L
(28)
is
10 10 cm.
A =
velocity of light;
(29)
is
where
sec.
of
medium,
Or
The
1 in air.
dielectric
inversely:
-IS?*
||
(32)
^=
is,
then
by
(32),
,
de
ei
and x2 thus
is
de
C2
x\
Xz
L log-,
= 2v ^
^-
/*2
(34)
/'Q^^
(po)
The capacity
then
is
C=
per cm.
2t; 2
log-
(36)
reduced to farads,
C=
* 1Q9
/per cm.,
2z;
and
in air, for K
129
(37)
log-
1H9
(38)
Immediately
it
Li
and multiplying
this
by
(9),
CL =
>
'
or
(39)
that
It is
VLC
=
less
The equation
in
(39)
is
complex systems of
circuits
More
CLt
measured capacity,
is
(40)
^,
/*
permeability of
130
E.
47.
field of
conductor
we
be immediately applied to the inductance and capacity of a conductor with ground return, by using as distance s twice the distance of the conductor from the ground return. That is, the
inductance and capacity of a conductor with ground return are
the same as the inductance and capacity of the conductor against
image conductor, that is, against a conductor at the same dis-
its
more times
same conductor with overhead return. In the former case, however, this inductance and capacity are those of the entire circuit,
ground return, as conducting plane, has no inductance
and capacity; while in the case of overhead return, the inductance
of the entire circuit of conductor and return conductor is twice,
the capacity half, that of a single conductor, and therefore the
total inductance of a circuit of two overhead conductors is greater,
since the
less,
131
return.
is,
the distance
s in
is
more,
and often much more, than twice the distance of the overhead
conductor above ground.
However, even if the ground is of
relatively low conductivity, and the return current thus has to
penetrate to a considerable distance into the ground, the inductance of the overhead conductor usually is not very much increased,
as
it
varies only
little
overhead conductor
s.
and 25
J inch diameter
is
inductance would be
r
i";
25'
600", hence
2400,
and
L=
log
+Z
10~9
16.066
10~ 9
h.
If, however, the ground were of such high resistance that the current would have to penetrate to a depth of over a hundred feet,
and the mean depth of the ground current were at 50 feet, this
would give
75'
1800", hence
L=
or only 13.7 per cent higher.
18.264
10-9
7200, and
h,
132
tion available for the return current, assuming its effective width
would be 80,000 square feet, or 60 million times
as 800 feet,
head conductor be expected over that calculated by the assumption of the ground as perfect conductor.
F.
48.
of the current in
one
circuits
is
the ratio
_ $1
--r
$2
~
li
ll
circuit,
B
k a
responds to the magnetic flux between the distances r and s, the mutual inductance of a conductor
A upon a circuit ab corresponds to the magnetic flux
'
the distances
Jiutual inductance of
upon
ab,
AB
and
ab,
where
A a,
conductors, as
shown
in Fig. 66.
133
by the
circuits
AB
approximately
Fig. 66.
Aa = D
cos
-f-
Ab =
D+
Ba =
+ - cos
- cos
cos
A
(42)
cos
2i
Bb =
- cos
-{-
~ cos
2i
^ cos
hence
= 21og-
n
D+
,
D - I- cos 2
2 log
D 2
(7:COS0 -fxCOS
COS
jz
COS
2 log
hence by
~ cos
__
rt
log
io~s
/?,
134
thus
2 **!()-.*.
= 90 degrees or ty = 90 degrees,
For
the approximation (43) vanishes.
Lm
is
(43)
a minimum,, and
where
is
the
first circuit.
If e
of conductor
is,
by
(36),
t=
where R is the radius
from each other.
Ce
and B, the
(44)
of these conductors
dielectric flux
(32),
and S
their distance
Aa
and
Aa
g
and the
dielectric
flux of
conductor
'
difference
e
2
Ba.
- -fr,
= 2v
lg^r>
2v 2iK
AbBa.
/A0 *
(
no
Ab Ba
is
difference e"
Ab Ba
log- log
135
2 v log
or,
by approximation
log
(18), as in (43),
&***
Cm =
conductors
if
1( y ,.
(49)
and
e\ and
one conductor grounded:
for instance
ei
0, 6 2
e2 ,
where
e\
the case
+e =
2
e,
if
as
(50)
e,
the dielectric fluxes of the two conductors are different, and that
A is: crt/r; that of B is: c2 ^, where
of
and
f2 '
e
.
+c =
2,
Aa
AO
(52)
Ba
(53)
//
e"
e'
Y
- -^
ir
1"
c2 log
s'<
BT
r*\r\
-,
ci
./I rt
log^r
/\ r\
[
\
(54)
%
-
<f
136
Cm =
C2
-,
*i
-i-
log^
Bo
c,
log^
Ab
lO- 9 /
(55)
v 2 log
log -5
42):
Ba ~5l
COS
this gives
Aa
gT7
+ SCOS'
COS
COS
+
and
c i lo
ir^-)-
COS
2D
Ci) s
fe
cos
Cfc)
/Ss
COS
(56)
hence
and
S COS
fe-cO^+fe + d)
c.=-
for
61
0,
and thus
c\
COS
0, c2
2D
(57)
2:
cos
9
^
LJ
<t>
io9 /,
(58)
much
if
the conductor B.
H. The three-phase
50.
circuit.
The equations
of the inductance
of a
conductor
(26)
109 /
(37)
137
(59)
and
e'
per
i',
conductor:
'
=
(60)
i is
is
circuit,
T=-
the
conductor to ground,
is
triangle,
for its
different values of
common arrangement
other,
s is
of the
o^
or beside
the distance
OQ
Fig. 67.
(61)
The inductance
is,
with respect
138
(62)
With
L=
The inductance
(62)
2Jlogy
applies
(63)
^jlO-U.
to the
component
of
current,
That
Fig.
The
M. Davis
C.
investigation
in the Electrical
of
April 1, 1911.
If the line conductors are transposed sufficiently often to average
their inductances, the inductances of all three conductors, and also
become
that
s
log
is,
s,
or
more
2s
accurately,
that
of the log
>
is:
between
The
calculation of the
139
sidered.
Q^
A, B, C are the three three-phase conductors, and a and b the conductors of the second
circuit, as shown in Fig. 68, and if ii, iz i 3 are
Thus,
if
OB
angles
conductor
a
o
denoting:
Fig. 68.
1\
12
Lm " =
c2 cos 08
Lm '" =
2 c 3 cos (0
^3
gives:
conductor B:
- 120-
72)
log!?,
no
conductor C:
240
73)
log^?>*
hence,
Lm =
ci
cos 03
71) log
4r + C
4- c3 cos (0
cos 08
- 240-
73) log
120
72) log
10-9
|?,
/i,
and
INDEX.
PAGE
4
8
61, 84
97
9
9
37
40
44
97
41
undamped
oscillation
as transients
phenomena
reduction to permanents
Alternators, momentary short-circuit currents
construction
calculation
Arcing grounds
Armature transient
81,
123
62
surge
18
127
12
Capacity
calculation
of circuit, definition
current
13
119
definition
75
129
136
equation
and inductance calculation of three-phase circuit
PARALLEL
CONDUCTORS
119
.T
Charge,
134, 138
16, 17,
electric, of
conductor
14
Charging current
13
Circuit, dielectric
of distributed capacity
and inductance,
electric
magnetic
Closed compound-circuit transient
Combination of effective and reactive power
transient
of standing
circuit,
open
14, 17,
18
17,
18
18
14, 17,
Ill, 112
100
100
100
108
90
92
Ill, 112
114
power flow
18
circuit
141
142
INDEX.
PAGE
Condenser current
Conductance
13
18
78
Conductivity, electric
18
Cumulative
97
oscillation
18
Current, electric
in field at alternator short circuit
permanent pulsation
40
43
45
maximum
61
21
transient pulsation
transient,
27
4
59
94
88
92
Decrement
of distance
and
of time
exponential
Decrease of power flow in traveling
wave
16, 17, 18
Density, dielectric
electric current
18
magnetic
15, 17,
Dielectric field
as stored energy
forces
10
flux
15, 17,
18
18
gradient
transient, duration
Dielectrics
59
15, 17, 18
63
compound
18
11
94
109
circuit
68
78
67
68
67
47
94
73
double-energy transient
line
circuit
Double-energy transient
equation
69
59
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS
Double frequency pulsation of
field
short circuit
45
68
22, 27
59
41
INDEX.
143
PAGE
phenomena
to permanents
Elastance
18
18
Elastivity
Electrifying force
Electromotive force
15,
17
15, 17, 18
Energy, dielectric
18
of dielectric field
dielectric
13
and magnetic,
of transient
67
magnetic
18
of magnetic field
storage as cause of transients
12
by traveling wave
of traveling wave in compound circuit
Equations of double-energy transient
line oscillation
60
92
110
69
74, 75 84
6
21, 24
37
88
}
simple transient
single-energy magnetic transient
momentary short circuit of alternator
Excessive
Exponential decrement
21
transient
numerical values.
23
..'..-
40
43
permanent pulsation
45
FIELD, ELECTRIC
10
rotating, transient
34
120
38
40
44
superposition
transient, of alternator
construction
calculation
Flux, dielectric
11,
magnetic
Frequencies of line oscillations
Frequency of double-energy transient, calculation
oscillation of line transient
Gradient, electric
Grounded phase
Grounding surge of circuit
Ground return of conductor, inductance and capacity
15
10, 14
79
66
78
53
81
15, 17, 18
97
62
130
144
INDEX.
PAGE
82
9
4
130
84
105
105
92
36
123
123
136
61,
as traveling wave
Increase of power flow in traveling wave
Independence of rotating-field transient from phase at start
Inductance of cable
calculation
of three-phase circuit
119
11
circuit, definition
119
definition
effective, of line transient
75
123, 126, 131
equation
mutual, calculation
132, 138
12,
18
16, 17,
18
voltage
Intensity, dielectric
15, 17, 18
magnetic
52
57
53
Length of
circuit in velocity
109
62
89
112
measure, calculation
wave
LINE OSCILLATION
72
74
general form
also see Transmission line.
Magnetic
10
field
as stored energy
flux
14, 17, 18
forces
single-energy transient
construction
duration
Magnetics
Magnetizing force
14,
Magnetomotive force
Massed capacity and inductance
14,
Maximum
transient current
voltage
10
25
20, 25
59
17, 18
17, 18
17, 18
73
19,
14,
61
61
145
INDEX.
Maximum
PAGE
36
Measurement
Momentary
104
4
37
40
44
24
construction
calculation
134, 138
of lines, calculation
81
138
132, 138
61,
52
64
113
62
62
78
113
voltages
Oscillation frequency of line transient
Oscillation of
open compound
circuit
Oscillations, cumulative
of closed compound circuit
OSCILLATIONS, LINE
OSCILLATIONS OF THE
84
97
Ill, 112
72
COMPOUND CIRCUIT
108
36
98
99
wave
91
101
compound
circuit
Pendulum
as double-energy transient
of double-energy transient, equation
energy transfer in transient
Periodic
component
102, 103
106
50
48
49
57
76, 77
64
8
66
60
72
9
146
INDEX.
PAGE
Period and
wave length
92
in velocity units
15, 17, 18
Permeability
Permeance
18
Permittance
18
Permittivity
16, 17, 18
Phenomena, transient,
117
75
line
see Transients.
44
49
114
Power diagram
of
48,
Ill, 113
88
108
66
dissipation constant
of section of compound circuit
double-energy transient
18
electric
flow in
compound
90
88, 89
79
94
108
90
95
circuit
of 'line transient
of line oscillation
sectiDn of
compound circuit
in compound-circuit oscillation
of traveling wave
Progressive change of phase of line oscillation
Propagation of transient in line
75
74
74
129
field
45
circuit
of transient energy
transient, of magnetomotive force
61
and
field
current at poly-
wave
at transition point
41
circuit
88
14
81,
82
37
37
88
118
118
81
101
18
18
147
INDEX.
PAGE
18
78
18
30
40
34
Resistance
effective, of line transient
Resistivity
Rotating
field,
transient
Self-induction, e.m.f. of
Separation of transient and
12
permanent
27,
37
40
44
62
4
momentary
construction
calculation
surge of circuit
Simple transient
equation
6
45
50
45
48, 50
7
Stationary oscillation
oscillation of line
transmission
line,
oscillogram
of rotating field
transient of A.C. circuit
circuit
three-phase circuit
Static induction of line, calculation
wave
19
30
97
Standing waves
magnetic
52
16, 17, 18
Specific capacity
see
30
101
101
57
86
76, 77
34
32
28
32
81
86
58
105
53
3
120
61, 84
Surge admittance and impedance of circuit
9
Symbolic method reducing A.C. phenomena to permanents
Symmetrical pulsation of field current at single-phase alternator short
45
circuit
.
148
INDEX.
PAGE
Terminal conditions of
line oscillation
Three-phase
current transient
.-.
magnetic-field transient
Time constant
decrement
of
compound
circuit
by
traveling
in
compound
wave
circuit oscillation
circuit
84
44
49
136
138
32
34
22
94
108
60
92
90
117
Ill, 113
62
31
7
double-energy
power transfer
in
compound-circuit
112
single-energy
of rotating field
and
Transients, double-energy
27,
34
30
37
40
44
72
59
3
4
4
2
1
30
19
117
118
117
63
73
TRAVELING WAVES
Traveling wave, equation
as impulses
preceding stationary oscillation
of very high frequency
118
138
88
95
105
101
104
149
INDEX.
PAGE
37
40
44
Undamped
97
60
92
oscillations
Unsymmetrical pulsation of
field
46
circuit
64
83
78,
81
relation
109
74, 129
7
83
92
104
18
Voltage
gradient
relation of section of
rise of
compound
17
15,
17
oscillating circuit
47
at transition point of
compound oscillation
117
27
Wave
maximum
front of impulse
and period
in velocity unit
61
105
79,
80
92
WAVES, TRAVELING
88
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