World geography

Index
S.no

Topic

1.

The Universe

2..

Solar system

3.

The earth

14

4.

world climatic conditions

5.

Atmosphere of Earth

29

6.

Pressure belts and winds

33

7.

Earths surface wind system

38

8.

Oceans

9.

Economic Geography : Agriculture

10.

Worlds Forestry & Fishery

11.

Minerals

12.

Additional information

Page no

23

41
48
59
62
66

The Universe
The universe of which our earth is an insignificant fraction consists of uncountable number of stars, galaxies,
nebulae and other celestial bodies.
The universe can be said to be the sum total of potentially knowledgeable objects.
The science dealing with the nature and origin of the universe is known as Cosmology.
Origin:
As per present status of knowledge and thought-process of mankind, there is a philosophical barrier about the
infinity of the Universe both in space and time.
Hardly anything can be said conclusively about the origin of the Universe though various theories have been
proposed to explain the possible way of the formation of the Universe.
To understand these theories, a remarkable astronomical phenomenon called Red Shift or Doppler Effect must
be known.
Doppler Effect and Red Shift:

According to Doppler Effect the frequency of a wave appears to be higher when source approaches the
observer and frequency lowers when the source recedes from the observer.

In the spectrum of visible light, red has the lowest frequency and longest wavelength while violet has the
highest frequency and shortest wavelength.

It has been observed that light coming from the galaxies shifts to the red end of the spectrum. This is known
as Red Shift.

Assuming it to be true all galaxies must be receding away from us in all directions. This proportionate
increase in red shift of the galaxies with increasing distance shows that matter in the Universe is in a state
of rapid expansion.

This ides of rapid expansion is central to all the modern theories of the origin of the Universe.

Big Bang Theory:

A Belgian astronomer-priest, Canon Lemaitre was one of the earliest to propose such a cosmological theory,
referring to it as fireworks theory.
According to Big-Bang theory, some 10 to 20 billion years ago cosmic matter (universe) was confined in a super
dense ball, in a state of extremely high temperature and pressure. A primordial explosion then occurred, hurling
the broken material far out into space where they are still travelling at thousands of miles per second.
The sudden cooling that accompanied expansion favour the combination of atomic particles into atoms of lighter
elements which condensed into clouds of gases and eventually galaxies and other celestial bodies were formed,
without disrupting the expansion of the universe and it happens in all explosions, the farthest pieces are flying
the fastest.
Steady State Theory:

Originally advanced by Hermann Boudi and Thomas Gold and supported/ modified by some other
astronomers, this theory proposes that universe everywhere and every time remained relatively uniform
without beginning or end.

Though galaxies recede from one another their spatial density remains constant, i.e., as old galaxies move
apart new galaxies are being formed from new matter which is being continuously created from combination
of atomic particles in the space between galaxies.

This concept, designed to get around the philosophical barrier of a universe with finite beginning and end, is
also known as the Continuous Creation Theory.

Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory:

 This theory, advocated among others by Dr. Alan Sandage, proposes that some 12 billion years ago a great
explosion started the expansion of the universe which is likely to go on 29 billion years more when gravitation
will halt further expansion.
Afterwards all matter will begin to contract in a process known as implosion for some 41 billion years
compressing the matter into an extremely superdense state and then it will explode again.
Thus universe expands and then contracts also in periods running into tens of billion of years.
In this way we see that Big Bang Theory differs from other theories in two important respects.
i.

It does not subscribe to the claim of Steady State theory that new matter is being continuously created in
the universe.
(ii) It does not admit the proposition of Pulsating Theory that matter will contract to original super dense
state.

None of the theories are conclusive but recent discoveries based on radio astronomy and satellite based
observations place the Evolutionary Theory of the universe in a stronger scientific position than the Steady State
Theory.
COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite launched by NASA in 1992 reported ripples in he cosmic radiation
indicating that there was an irregular distribution of matter and radiation 15 billion years ago at the time of
primordial explosion, thus corroborating Big Bank Theory.
Celestial bodies
Galaxies:A galaxy is a huge congregation of millions of stars held together by its own gravitational field. On structural analysis,
three basic types of galaxies have been identified:
i. Spiral Galaxies:
Greater concentration of stars in the centre, old ones near the centre and youngers in the arms. Our galaxy, the
Milkyway and Andromeda are examples of spiral galaxies.
ii. Elliptical Galaxies:
The most numerous (about 2/3 of all galaxies) consist mostly of very old stars.
Measurement units of space
Light year:It is the distance covered by light in one year in vacuum at a speed of 3 x 10 5 Km/S.. It is equal to 5.88 x 106 miles.
Astronomical Units (A.U.):It is the mean distance between Earth and the Sun (1.49 x 10 8 Km). One light year is equal to 60,000 A.U.
Parsec:It represents the distance at which the mean radius of Earths orbit subtends an angle of one second of an arc. It is
equal to 3.26 light years.
Cosmic/Galactic year:Suns period of revolution around the galactic centre which is 250 million years.

Distance of earth from the Sun = 8 light minutes = 1 A.U.

Distance of earth from the Moon = 1.25 light seconds

Distance of earth from Proxima Centauri = 4.3 light years

iii. Irregular Galaxies:

Comprise about 1/10 of all galaxies, mostly young stars.
The two nearest galaxies to our Milkyway are the aLarge Magellanic cloud and the Small Magellanic cloud.

 Our Galaxy, the Milkyway and the Andromeda galaxy are the two largest galaxies in a cluster of some 23
galaxies known as the Local Group.
Nebulae:
These are distant stellar systems of luminous bodies made up of gas and dust particles. ORION Nebulae is
situated in the Milkyway.
Constellations:
These are cluster of stars, organised into distinct shapes and figures and named accordingly. Hydra is the largest
constellation.
Comets:
There are huge clouds of frozen gases and dust which have their home in the cold outer fringes of the solar
system. Their Head (also called CDMA if it has no tail) is formed by the evaporation of solid ice particles when the
comet approaches the sun. they have an extremely eccentric orbit but a definite periodicity, as the Halleys comet is
seen every 76 years. The tail is always away from the sun.
Meteors:
These are small solid matters which, when coming into the atmosphere of ht earth, bur out due to friction. While
burning, they emit light and hence called shooting stars.
Leonid Shower is a meteor storm, originated in the constellation Leo. These meteors are actually part of the
comet Temple-Turtle and they fall on every 33 years.
Quasars or Quasi Stellar Radio Source:
In the universe, some matters appear small but emit more energy than the stars of the milky way. Such stars are
called Quasars. Such extremely luminous celestial bodies were discovered in 1961.
Stars:
Stars account for 98% of the matter in the galaxy. Stars are formed by gravitational contraction from vast clouds
of galactic gas and dust. Star-forming matter is richer in hydrogen and helium.
Life of Stars:Stars pass through a definite evolutionary sequence in the following manner, depending primarily on their mass
and internal structure.
(a) A Proto Star:
It begins to form by the compression of galactic gas and dust. Compression generates heat which in turn causes
Hydrogen (H2) to be converted into Helium in a Nuclear Fusion, thereby emitting large amount of heat and light. A
STAR is thus formed.
(b) Red Giants:
Continued Nuclear Fusion over a period of time starts depletion of hydrogen and the helium core becomes
increasingly heavy, resulting into swelling and reddening of outer regions. Such stars of gigantic dimensions are
rightly termed as Red Giants. This stage gives the first indication of ageing.
(c) Novae and Supernovae:
A giant star phase may end in a Novae/Supernovae stage. These are stars whose brightness increase suddenly
by ten to twenty magnitudes or more due to a partial or outright explosion in the star. When brightness increases to
20 magnitudes or more, it is called a Supernovae.
(d) White Dwarfs:
A Novale/Supernovae explosion in a small star like our Sun (Stars lighter than 1.2 solar mass) may leave behind
a very dense core of that star. A star of this size cools and contracts to become a White Dwarf, which is no bigger
than the earth, built having central density upto 108 gram per cubic centimeter.
(e) Neutron Star:
A Supernovae explosion in a star bigger than the Sun but not more than twice as big, may leave behind an
extremely dense, residual core of that star, reaching a density of 1014 grans/cm3, known as Neutron Star.
(f) Pulsars:

Because of small size, neutron Star rotates very speedily. Such fast rotating Neutron Stars emitting radio waves
in regular frequency are called Pulsars.
(g) Black Holes:
Stars having mass greater than three times that of the sun, because of their great gravitational power, have
contracted so much that they have developed super density of 10 16 grams/cm3. It is so dense that nothing, not even
light can escape from its gravity and hence called Black Hole.
Cosmology Some Important Facts
1. The Universe or the Cosmos, as perceived today, consists of millions of Galaxies. A galaxy is a huge congregation
of stars held together by the forces of gravity.
2 . Edwin Hubble in 1924 first demonstrated existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way. He proved that these galaxies
are flying away from each other and that the farther they are, the faster they fly. This means that the universe is
expanding like a balloon that is being blown up.
3 . In the ancient times, the knowledge about the universe was vague and confined to mystery and religious
perceptions.
In 140 AD, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and other
heavenly bodies revolved around it. In 1543, Copernicus argued that the sun and not the earth was the centre of the
universe.
However, he still equated the universe with the solar system. Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the sun was
the centre of the solar system and not the universe. In 1805, Hershel made it clear that the solar system was a part
of the much larger system of stars called galaxy.
4 .Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga). It is spiral in shape. It consists of over a 100 billion stars
rotating and revolving about its centre. Nearest galaxy to ours is Andromeda.
5 . The Big Bang Theory evaluates that 15 billion years ago, cosmic matter (universe) was in an extremely
compressed state, from which expansion started by a primordial explosion. This explosion broke up the super-dense
ball and cast its fragments far out into space, where they are still traveling at thousands of miles per second.
It is from these speeding fragments of matter that our galaxies have been formed. The formation of galaxies and
stars has not halted the speed of expansion. And, as it happens in all explosions, the farthest pieces are flying the
fastest.
6. Later, Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory was given which says that universe periodically expands from the
explosion of the primordial body, then contracts back and explodes again, over immensely long cycles, ad infinitum.
7. Stars are self luminous bodies that account for 98 per cent of the material in the galaxy. The rest 2 per cent
consists of interstellar or galactic gas and dust in an attenuated form.
8. Stars are formed by gravitational contractions from these vast clouds of galactic gas and dust. Star forming clouds
are thousands of times denser than the normal interstellar gas. Star forming matter is richer in hydrogen and helium.
9. A stars colour indicates the temperature of its surface. Blue colour denotes maximum temperature. Then comes
yellow, then red, etc.
10. The life of a star is spread over billions of years. It begins to form by compression of galactic gas and dust.
Compression generates heat which in turn causes hydrogen to be converted into helium in nuclear fusion, thereby
emitting large amount of heat and light.
11. Continued nuclear fusion over a period of time starts depletion of hydrogen and the helium core becomes
increasingly heavy, resulting into swelling and reddening of outer regions. Such stars of gigantic dimensions are
termed as Red Giants.
12. If the star is of suns size, it becomes a White Dwarf. Their central density can reach up to 10 grams per cubic
cm.
13. If die star is bigger than the sun but not more than twice as big, it will turn into a Neutron Star or Pulsar. Their
central density is 1014 grams per cubic cm. They are formed due to Novae or Super novae explosion.

14. Stars having mass greater than three times that of the sun, because of their great gravitational power, have
contracted so much that they have developed super density of 1016 grams per cubic cm. It is so dense that nothing,
not even light, can escape from its gravity and hence called Black Hole.
15. Brightest star outside our Solar System is Sirius, also called Dog Star.
16. Closest star of Solar System is Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away). Then come Alpha Centauri (4.3 light
years away) and Barnards Star (5.9 light years away).

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the Sun and 8 planets revolving around it in different orbits.
SUN
Age
: About 5 Billion years
Distance
: 149.8 Million Kms
Diameter
: 1,38,400 Kms.
Photosphere temperature
: 5,770 K
Core temperature
: 150,000,000 K
Absolute visual magnitude
: 4.75
Rotation (as seen from the earth at the equator) : 25.38 days
Rotation (near the poles)
: 33 days
The sun consists of 71% of Hydrogen, 26.5% Helium and 2.5% of other elements.
The rays of the Sun take about 8 minutes to reach the earth.
The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the OrionCygnus Arm or Local Spur.
Next closest star is the triple star system Alpha Centauri(A, B and C), which is about 4.4 light years away.
The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star(at 5.9 light years), Wolf 359 (7.8 light years),

and Lalande 21185(8.3 light years). The largest star within ten light years is Sirius.
What is Galactic Year?
The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre, and its speed within the galaxy is
about 220 kilometres per second (140 mi/s), so that it completes one revolution every 225250 million years. This
revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year.
The conditions to be satisfied for planet-hood status :
1. A planet has to orbit the Sun. Pluto does that.
2. A planet needs enough gravity to pull itself into a sphere. Okay, spherical. Plutos is spherical.
3. A planet needs to have cleared out its orbit of other objects. Uh oh, Pluto hasnt done that.
For example, planet Earth accounts for a million times the rest of the material in its orbit, while Pluto is just a fraction
of the icy objects in its realm.

PLANETS
Comparison of planets based on size, radius, density, surface gravity:
Body
Mean
Volume
Mass
Density
radius
(109 km3)
1021 kg
g/cm3
(km)
(Yg)
Sun
696,000 1,412,000,000
1,989,100,000
1.409
Jupiter
69,911
1,431,280
1,898,600
1.33
Saturn
58,232
827,130
568,460
0.70
Uranus 25,362
68,340
86,832
1.30
Neptune 24,622
62,540
102,430
1.76
Earth
6,371.0
1,083.21
5,973.6
5.515
Venus
6,051.8
928.43
4,868.5
5.24
(w/o gas)
Mars
3,390.0
163.18
641.85
3.94
Mercury 2,439.7
60.83
330.2
5.43
Moon
1,737.1
21.958
73.5
3.3464

Surface
gravity
(m/s2)
274.0
24.79
10.445
8.87
11.15
9.78033
8.872
3.7
3.7
1.625

The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planets and asteroids. The
four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are
composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals such
as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres
substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and
volcanoes.
(1) MERCURY
It is the planet nearest to the earth and smallest one in solar system.
Mercury has no natural satellites
Average distance to the Sun
: 57.6 Million Kms.
Diameter
: 4,849.6 Kms.
Period of revolution
: 88 days
Period of rotation
: 58 days 15 hrs 30 mts. 34sec.
(2) VENUS
It is also known as the Morning Star or the Evening Star.
It is the brightest of all the planets.
It is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a
substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal geological activity.
Venus has no natural satellites.
It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 C (752F), most likely due to the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere
Diameter
: 12,032 Kms.
Period of revolution : 225 days
Period of rotation : 243 days 14mts.
(3) EARTH
Surface Area
Polar radius
Land Surface
Water Surface
Equatorial circumference
Polar circumference

:
:
:
:
:
:

510,100,500 Sq.Kms.
6,357 Kms.
148,950,800 (29.08%)
361,149,700 (70.92%)
40,075 Kms.
40,008 Kms

Equatorial radius
: 6,377 Kms.
Equatorial Diameter
: 1,22,756 Kms.
Polar Diameter
: 12,714 Kms.
Mean distance from the Sun : 14,95,97,900 Kms.
Period of revolution
: 365 days 5 hours 48 mts. 45.51 Sec.
Period of rotation
: 23 hrs. 56 mts. 4.091 Sec.
Escape Velocity from the earth : 11 Km per Sec. (minimum)
Some important Data about Earth:
The Earth is a sphere but it is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges at
the equator. The circumference of the earth is approximately 25,000 miles (40,000 Kms).It rotates on its axis once in
every 24 hours, spinning from west to east. Besides spinning on its axis, it also moves round the Sun, called
the revolution.
Its orbit round the Sun is oval or ecliptical. The time taken to complete one revolution is approximately 365 days
or one year. For convenience, one year is taken as 365 days and the shortfall of day each year is made
good in the Leap Year which consists of 366 days. The Earths axis inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of
66 position in the course of its revolution about the Sun, and to the inclination of its axis. The Equator is an
imaginary line drawn round the Earth midway between the Poles. There are two other lines, namely,Tropic of
Cancer (23 N) and the Tropic of Capricon (23 S). The word tropic means, turning place. The inclination of the
Earths axis together with its revolution round the Sun is the cause of the varying length of day and night in different
parts of the world. On March 21 (Vernal Equinox) and September 23 (Autumnal Equinox) the Sun is over- head
at the Equator. On these dates, except at the Poles,
(a) days and nights are equal all over the world; and
(b) the Sun rises exactly due east and set exactly due west at all places on the Earths surface.
At the Equator itself days and nights are equal throughout the year.
Between March 21 and September 23, when the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, the days are longer than the
nights throughout the Northern Hemisphere and there is continuous daylight at the North Pole. Similar conditions are
experienced in the Southern Hemisphere and the South Pole between September 25 and March 21.
(4) MARS
Diameter
: 6,755.2 Kms. is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses).
Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles Marineris.
Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil.
Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids
Distance from the Sun : 225.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 687 days
Period of rotation
: 24 hrs 37 mts. 22.663 sec.
Outer planets of Solar System:
The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99% of the mass known
to orbit the Sun
(5) JUPITER
This is the largest planet in the solar system.
Diameter
: 141,968 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 772.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 11.9 years
Period of rotation
: 9 hrs 50 mts. 30 sec.
It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent
features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot.
Jupiter has 67 known satellites.
The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System.

(6) SATURN
It was discovered by Galileo.
Diameter
: 119,296 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 1,417.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 29.5 years
Period of rotation
: 10 hrs 14 mts.
least dense planet in the Solar System.
Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two important moons are Titan and Enceladus.
Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System
(7) URANUS
Diameter
: 52,096 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 2,852.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 84 years
Period of rotation
: 16 hrs 10 mts.
Its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic.
Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.
(8) NEPTUNE
Diameter
: 49,000 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 4,497 Million Kms.
Period of revolution : 165 years
Period of rotation
: 18 hrs 26 mts.
Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen
(9) PLUTO : It's not a planet anymore. But it is the coldest and smallest of all planets. It is also the most distant
one(while it was planet)
Diameter
: 3,040 Kms.
Distance from the Sun
: 5,865.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 248 years
Period of rotation
: 6 days 9 hrs and 18 mts.
MOON : Moon is a dead planet. Moon is earth's satellite. Its period of rotation and Period of Revolution are the
same. i.e.29.5 days.
Some other Important Points:
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter
Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet
Uranus and Neptune are called Ice Giants.
Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth.
Eris (68 AU average) is the largest known scattered disc object, and caused a debate about what constitutes a

planet.
Kuiper belt
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. The Kuiper Belt is a disc-shaped region of icy
objects beyond the orbit of Neptune -- billions of kilometers from our sun. The makeup of Kuiper Belt Objects is
similar to the composition of comets a mixture of frozen water, ammonia and various hydrocarbons, such as
methane.

Centaurs

The centaurs are icy comet-like bodies with a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter's (5.5 AU) and less than
Neptune's (30 AU). The first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron, has also been classified as comet (95P) because it
develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun.
Comet Vs Asteroid
Comets have eccentric orbits so their distance from the Sun varies considerably. The nucleus of a comet is
composed of volatile material. When a comet is far from the sun, this material usually stays pristine but when the
comet comes closer to the sun, solar radiation and solar winds cause it to lose some volatile compounds from its
surface. This gives it a coma i.e. a nebulous appearance and a thin, transient atmosphere, which differentiates it from
asteroids.
Comet: A comet is a relatively small solar system body that orbits the Sun. When a comet enters the inner Solar
System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and
dust often visible to the naked eye.
Asteroid: Asteroids are small solar system bodies that orbit the Sun. Made of rock and metal, they can also contain
organic compounds. Asteroids are similar to comets but do not have a visible coma (fuzzy outline and tail) like
comets do.
Meteoroid: A meteoroid is a small rock or particle of debris in our solar system. They range in size from dust to
around 10 metres in diameter (larger objects are usually referred to as asteroids).
Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is known as a meteor. If youve ever
looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of light or shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.
Meteorite: A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and colliding with the Earths surface is
known as a meteorite.
Heliopause
The region surrounding the solar system at which pressure from the outgoing solar wind equals the pressure from
the interstellar medium (made up mostly of hydrogen and helium), and the solar wind can penetrate no further. It is
considered to be the outer boundary of our solar system
Origin of Solar System
Various theories have been given by different persons to explain the origin of Solar System.
Gaseous Hypothesis
Kant
Nebular Hypothesis
Laplace
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Chamberlin and Moulton
Tidal Hypothesis
James Jeans & Harold Jeffrey
Binary Star Hypothesis
H. N. Russel
Fission Hypothesis
Ross Gun
Cepheid Hypothesis
A.C. Banerji
Nova Hypothesis
Hoyle & Lyttleton
Electromagnetic Hypothesis H. Alfven
Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Schmidt
Nebular Cloud Hypothesis
Dr. Von Weizsacker
Protoplanet Hypothesis
G. Kuiper
Solar System Some Facts

10

Biggest Planet
Smallest Planet
Nearest Planet to Sun
Farthest Planet from Sun
Nearest Planet to Earth
Brightest Planet
Brightest star after Sun
Planet with maximum satellites
Coldest Planet
Hottest Planet
Heaviest Planet
Red Planet
Biggest Satellite
Smallest Satellite
Blue Planet
Morning/Evening Star
Earth's Twin
Green Planet
Planet with a big red spot
Lord of the Heavens
Greatest Diurnal Temperature

Jupiter
Mercury
Mercury
Neptune
Venus
Venus
Sirius
Jupiter
Neptune
Venus
Jupiter
Mars
Gannymede
Deimos
Earth
Venus
Venus
Neptune
Jupiter
Jupiter
Mercury

11

Earth Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of a layer of gases enveloping the earth, held to it by gravitational force. Almost all the
atmosphere (97 per cent) lies within 29 km of the earths surface.
Beyond about 100 km, recent data from satellites suggest that the lightest gases separate out, forming several
concentric layers around the earth. The innermost of these is the nitrogen layer (between 100-200 km); then comes
oxygen (200-1100 km); helium (1100-3500) and then hydrogen only, to which there is really no clearly defined upper
limit.
Up to about 50 km the atmosphere is composed of:

Nitrogen 78 09%
Oxygen 20 95%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
(Others are Neon, Helium, Ozone, Hydrogen etc.,)

Water vapour, besides being the immediate cause of condensation and precipitation, absorbs the insolation coming
from the sun, reducing the amount reaching the earths surface.
Carbon dioxide is important for absorption of heat from the sun as well as from the earth. A high concentration of
carbon dioxide leads to Greenhouse Effect.
Dust particles scatter and diffuse insolation and also act as hygroscopic nuclei for condensation (for the formation of
clouds).
Layers of Atmosphere
Atmosphere Troposphere

Layer nearest to earths surface. Thickness varies from 8 km at the poles to 16 km at the equator.

All weather phenomenons occur here.

Densest of all and contains water vapour, moisture and dust.

Dust particles present in this layer hold the water vapour and contribute to the occurrence of twilight and the red
colours of sunlight and sunset.

In this, at every 165 m there is a drop of 1c (or 6.4c per km). This is called Normal Lapse Rate of
Temperature.

Tropopause separates troposphere from stratosphere.

Atmosphere Stratosphere

Extends from 16 km to 50 km ht. The temperature ceases to fall with the increase of height in this layer.

Little weather is generated here as there is very little water vapour and virtually no dust present.

Stratosphere provides ideal conditions for flying large airplanes.

Contains ozone (25-30 km from earths surface), region being called Ozonosphere. It absorbs the ultra-violet
rays from the sun. This layer has a comparatively higher temperature due to the absorption of ultra-violet
radiation from the sun (temperature increases as we go up).

Atmosphere Mesosphere

Up to a height of about 80 km.

In this, the temp decreases with height and falls to about -100c at 80 km ht.

Atmosphere Ionosphere

Extends to about 500-600 km.

Called so as it contains electrically charged particles (ions) that reflect the radio waves back to the earth thus
making radio communication possible.

Also protects earth from harmful radiation. This causes increase in temperature with height in this layer.

12

It also protects earth from falling meteorites, as most of them burn out in this region.

Exosphere

Here the earths gravity is extremely weak.

Upper limit quite uncertain.

The outer part is called Magnetosphere.

The ionized particles increase in frequency with increasing heights. There are 2 belts in the upper
atmosphere having a high concentration of ionized particles. They are known as Van Allens Radiation
Belts. The inner belt lies about 2600 km from the earths surface, while the outer lies at about 13,000 to
19,000 km from it. These belts represent concentrations of highly charged particles, protons and electrons
from the sun, trapped within lines of force of the earths external magnetic field- the Magnetosphere.

The final boundary between the earth and the outer space is called Magnetopause.

Note:
The auroras are produced by the charged particles from the sun captured by earths magnetic field at heights of
about 100 km. it is a luminous phenomenon seen in the sky at night in high latitudes.
It may be visible as arcs of light or as coloured curtains, streamers or rays. Auroras occur most frequently during the
intense periods of the 11-year sunspot cycle.
In the Northern Hemisphere, they are called aurora borealis and in the Southern Hemisphere as aurora australis.

13

Earth Latitude and Longitude

Earth Latitude

Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator. Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of the earth
The equator represents 0 latitude, while the North Pole is 90 N and the South Pole 90 S 23 N represents
Tropic of Cancer while 23 S represents Tropic of Capricorn.
66 N represents Arctic Circle while 66 S represents Antarctic Circle.
There are total 181 latitudes including the equator. Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but they are not equal.
The circle becomes smaller towards the poles. Equator is the Greatest Circle that can be drawn on the earths
surface.
The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal.

Earth Longitude
It is the angular distance measured from die centre of the earth. On the globe the
lines of longitude are drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the North Pole to the South Pole through
the equator. They are also called meridians.
The distance between any two meridians is not equal. At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km. At 30N or S, it is 96.5
km. It goes on decreasing this way until it is zero at the poles.
There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime meridian is a longitude of 00, passing through the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich near London.
This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.
Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180 meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly opposite to
meridian. Such points are called Antipodl Points.
The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15 or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes / degree).
Longitude and Time
Places that are on the same meridian have the same local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one complete
revolution of 360 in 24 hours, it passes through 15 in one hour or 1 in 4 minutes.
The earth rotates from west to east, hence places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time whereas
places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.
A suitable memory acronym can be: East-Gain-Add (E.G.A.) and West-Lose-Subtract (W.L.S.). So, if it is noon in
London (near 0), 15 east will be one hour ahead of London or 1 p.m. and Chennai of 80E will be 5 hours 20
minutes ahead. To avoid confusion about having many local times within one country, a particular Meridian is
chosen for the whole country whose time is known as standard time.
Generally, the standard meridians are chosen to differ from the Greenwich meridian by the multiples of fifteen
degree or seven and a half degree, i.e., by exact number of hours or half hours. The world is thus divided into a
number of time zones. Larger countries like Russia, Canada, USA etc., have greater east-west extension, so
they adopt several time zones. Russia has 11 time zones while USA and Canada have 5 time zones.
India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5E for the
standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
Eccentricity:
The shape of the earths orbit also changes in a cyclic period running between 90,000 to 100,000 years. So the
orbit of the earth may become more elliptical sometimes or it may form a more circular path around the sun at other
times. It is argued by some scholars that ice Ages and Global Warming are effects of such eccentricity of earths
orbit.
Precession:
This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, just like a spinning top. This extremely slow motion of
the earths axis takes about 26,000 years to compete one cycle. Presently the earths axis is pointing to the Pole star,
but in A.D. 4000 it will point to the star Alpha Cephei and in A.D. 14,000 to the star Vega.
Inclination of Earths Axis:

14

 The imaginary earth axis has a constant angle of inclination of 66 0 with the plane of the elliptic, i.e., the plane
in which the earth orbits round the sun.
Another characteristics of earths axis, called Parallelism, is that as the earth revolves around the sun, the
earths axis remains, parallel to its preceding position.
This results in changes in the altitude of the mid-day sun at different times of the year, in varying lengths of day
and night at different times of the year and in four reasons.
Varying lengths of Day and Night:
Due to revolution and constant angle of inclination of earths axis, on 21 st June, the sun is vertically overhead at
the tropic of Cancer.
As we go towards the North Pole the length of day light increases and in fact beyond 66 0 N the region has 24
hour light for six months.
On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. This is known as summer
solstice.
By 22nd December, exactly the same conditions are experienced by the Southern Hemisphere when the sun is
vertically overhead at the tropic of Capricorn. This is Winter Solstice when the Southern Hemisphere
experiences its longest day and shortest night.
On the 21st March and 23rd September, the sun is directly over the equator and all parts of the world have equal
days and nights. Hence 21st March and 23rd September are called Vernal and Autumnal Equinox.
International Date Line
It is the 180 meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert
Islands.
Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east (i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers crossing
it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan) lose a day.

15

Earth Eclipses
Earth Lunar Eclipse
When earth comes between sun and moon.
Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not occur on every full moon day
because the moon is so small and the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5 with respect to the plane of the earths orbit.
It
is
for
this
reason
that
eclipses
do
not
occur
every
month.
Can last up to one hour 40 minutes. The moon does not become completely dark during most lunar eclipses. In
many cases, it becomes reddish.The earths atmosphere bends part of the suns light around the earth and towards
the moon.
This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the other colors present in sunlight in greater amounts than it does
red.
Earth Solar Eclipse
When moon comes between sun and earth.
Can be partial or total.
Occurs only on a new moon day when the moon is in line with the sun. However, due to the inclination of the moons
orbit, a solar eclipse doesnt occur on every new moon day.
Earth Movements
The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets.
Earth Circumference : 40,232 Kilometers.
Earth Area : 510 million Square Kilometers Average distance from sun: 149 million-Kilometers.
Earth Perihelion : Nearest position of earth to sun. The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a
distance of about 147 million-Kilometers.
Aphelion : Farthest position of earth from sun. The earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth is at a
distance of 152 million Kilometers.
The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at the poles with a
slight bulge at the centre).
2 Types of Earth Movements:
Rotation or daily movement.
1. Revolution or annual movement.
Earth Rotation

Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec.

Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h and it decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.

Earths rotation results in

i . Causation of days and nights;

ii . A difference of one hour between two meridians which are 15 apart;
iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents;

Rise and fall of tides everyday.The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21, while shortest day is on 22
Dec (Vice-versa in S. Hemisphere).

Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.

Earth Revolution

16

It is earths motion in elliptical orbit around the sun. Earths average orbital velocity is 29.79 Kilometers/s.

Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It results in one extra day every fourth year.

Revolution of the earth results in

i . Change of seasons
ii . Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different times of the year
iii . Shifting of wind belts
iv . Determination of latitudes.

Inclined Axis: The axis is an imaginary line running from north to south and passing through the centre of
the earth. It always remains inclined at an angle of 66 to the plane of the earths orbit, and is tilted 23
from a line perpendicular to this plane. The two facts, i.e., a fixed angle of the earths axis to the plane of the
orbit and the axis always pointing in the same direction, when combined with the earths movements, results
in varying lengths of days and nights, seasonality and changes in the altitude of sun at different times of the
year.

Earth Seasons are periods into which the year can be divided as a result of the climatic conditions, largely
due to the changes in the duration and intensity of solar radiation.

The 4 Earth Seasons are:

Spring: On March 21, the sun is directly overhead the equator. This is the season of spring in the northern
hemisphere.

Summer: On June 21, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the northern hemisphere
experiences summer.

Autumn: On September 23, the sun returns to the equator, and the northern hemisphere experiences
autumn.

Winter: On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the northern hemisphere experiences
winter.

17

Earth Climate
The average weather conditions over a large area is called the climate of a place. Weather conditions over a specific
length of time, usually a period of 31 years, are taken into consideration.
On a large scale, the climate of a particular region is determined by:
i. Latitude and tilt of the earths axis, which determines the amount of solar radiation received by the area
ii. The distribution of land and sea and proximity of ocean currents
iii. The altitude and topography of the area
iv. The location of the area in relation to the main circulation belts of the earth.
Climate can be classified on the basis of temperature, rainfall, evaporation, evapotranspiration and water balance.
One of the universally accepted climate classifications is by Koeppen which is being described here.
Types of Climates
1. Tropical Rain Forest Climate
Also called equatorial type of climate or Selvas.
5 10 of equator, nights and days equal.
Average monthly temperature is 24 27c, annual range least. Diurnal range of temperature far greater than the
annual range. Here night is the winter.
Called Belt of Calm or Doldrums.
Convectional rainfall. Annual rainfall is 250 cm.
Broad-leaved evergreen dense forests. Trees are gregarious and there is competition for sunlight. Have more
species of plants and animals than in all others combined.
In Amazon basin, Congo basin, Indonesia.
2. Tropical Monsoon Climate
Complete seasonal reversal of winds.
Rainfall seasonal (generally in summers). Due to this vegetation is deciduous.
Approx. 200 cm of rainfall.
Occurs in Western Guinea coast of Africa, South-Eastern Asia, Northern Australia, some parts of Amazon valley
and West Indies.
3. Tropical Grasslands/Savanna Climate
Average annual temperature is 23c. Annual rainfall is about 150 cm. Area- Africa, East and Central South
America.
Bounded by tropical rain forest climate towards the equator and dry climate towards the poles, the Savannah type
is characteristic of grasslands in tropical and subtropical latitudes. Grasslands are dotted with scattered trees
and bushes that can survive the drought season.
Rainfall in summer owing to convectional ascent of air. Distinct dry season in winter. Trees with longer roots, fireresistant.
4. Tropical-Subtropical hot Desert
Situated in the trade wind belt. Occupy the western margins of continents. The area includes North America
Colorado Desert Mexican Desert; Africa-Sahara, Kalahari, Namib Desert; S W.Asia-Arabian ,Iranian,Thar desert,
South American Atacama,Australia- Great Australian Desert.
Average annual temperature is 38 c; annual summer temperature is 40 c, annual winter temperature is 15 c.
average annual rainfall is about 25-40 cm. Greatest diurnal temperature.
Highest insolation, as there is no clouds cover to scatter the insolation.
Vegetation is xerophytic.
5. Middle Latitude Desert Climate
Found between 35-50 N and S.
Area: Tarim, Gobi, Russian Turkistan and C. Iran. In Southern Hemisphere, only in Patagonia.

18

 Unlike the hot deserts, they have very cold winters because of their interior location.
6. Tropical and Subtropical Steppes
Transition belt between hot deserts and humid climates. Occupy pole-ward margins of the tropical and subtropical
deserts.
Average annual temperature is 21 c.
Semi-arid climate characterized by abundance of shrubs and grasses.
Known by different names:
Prairies North America
Pampas South America
Veldt South Africa
Downs Australia
Steppes Eurasia
Canterbury New Zealand
Postaz Hungary
Manchurian Russia
7. Mediterranean Climate
In the western coast of continents between 30-45 N & S; Around the Mediterranean Sea, in South Europe,
North Africa, California coast, Central Chile, Cape of Good Hope and South East Australia.
Characterized by dry summer and humid winter. Off-shore trade winds blow in summer; they are dry and give no
rainfall. Cyclonic rainfall in winter.
Average annual temperature is 16 c. average winter temperature, 10 c, summer 25c annual rainfall is 40-60
cm.
Olives, grapevine and citrus family fruits are the chief products of these regions which are also known for grain
farming.
8. China Type Climate
Average annual temperature is 19 c, annual rainfall 120 cm.
In the eastern coasts of continents between 25- 45 N & S. Areas- China, South East USA, South Brazil,
Eastern Argentina, South East Africa, South East
Australia, South Japan. It is the eastern counterpart of the Mediterranean type.
Characteristics-Hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall throughout the year.
9. West European Type Climate
On the western side of continents between 40-65 N & S. Areas- North West Europe including British Isles,
West coat of Canada, South Chile, Southern New Zealand.
Summers are moderate to cool (15-18); winters mild (2-10). Average annual temperature is 10 c.
Annual Rainfall: 75-100 cm. No dry season as the westerly winds blow from the ocean throughout the year.
Rainfall is mostly of cyclonic origin.
10. Cool East Coast Climate
The Corn Belt of US has this type of climate; that is why it is known as Corn-Belt climate.
Average summer temp is 21-24c; it is long, warm and humid.
Winter temp average-4 to 1.7 for a period of 3-5 months.
11. Continental Type Climate
Coldest winter month average -12 to -6.7c.
Hottest summer months average 18c to 21c.
In the interior parts of big continents.
12. Taiga Climate

19

 Taiga means snow forests or coniferous forests; needle shaped leaves, composed of evergreen spruce, fir and
pine. Extends in two large belts in east-west direction from Alaska to Newfoundland in North America and from
Norway to Kamchatka Peninsula in Eurasia.
Cool and short summers (around 10c) and very cold and long winters (below 0c).
Annual range of temperature highest. (In Verkhoyansk, Jan temp is -50, annual range being 64c)
Total annual precipitation below 50 cm.
These forests are the most important source of softwood and fur bearing animals.
13. Tundra Climate
Summers are warm enough to melt the thin snow cover or small water bodies, with the result that land is water
soaked and marshes, swamps are common.
Precipitation less than 30 cm.
Blizzards blow.
Lichens and mosses common.
14. Highland Climate
Experienced in the mountainous regions.
Determined by elevation, shape of the highland, exposure to winds and location.
Here winds are much stronger than at low levels.
Vegetation varies as we move up.
Important Deserts of the World:
Sahara
N. Africa (Includes the Libyan and the Nubian Desert)
Australian
Australia (Includes Gibson, Simpson, Victorian, Great Sandy)
Arabian
Arab Countries (Includes Rubal Khali & An-Nafad of S. Arabia and Dast-e-Lut & Dast-e-Kavir of
Iran)
Kalahari
Africa (mainly in Botswana)
Gobi
Mongolia
Atacama
Central Chile
Patagonian
Argentina
Nabib
Namibia
TaklaMakan
Sinkiang, China
Karakum
Turkmenistan
Sonoran
Arizona and California (USA)
Thar
India
Isopleth
Lines drawn on map along which the value of a particular phenomenon is uniform.
Some Important Isopleths are:
Isopleth
Reactions
Isobars
Equal pressure
Isobaths
Equal depth in sea
Isobronts
Thunder-storm at the same time
Isohaline
Salinity
Isohels
Sunshine
Isohyets
Rainfall
Isohypse (or Contour Lines) elevation above sea-level
Isonif
Snow

20

Isotherms
Isoneph
Isodapan
Isocline

Temperature
Cloudiness
Equal transportation cost distance
Slope

21

Insolation and Heat Budget

1. Insolation is the energy received on the earths surface from the sun. It is the most important single source of
atmospheric heat.
2. The earths surface does not absorb all the energy that it receives. The proportion of the solar radiation reflected
from the surface is called Albedo.
3. On an average, insolation is highest near the tropics, marginally lower at the equator and lowest at the poles.
4. Although the earth receives energy continuously from the sun, its temperature remains fairly constant, the only
variations being the long-term climatic changes.
This is so because the atmosphere loses an amount of heat equal to the gain through insolation. This mechanism of
maintaining the same temperature by the atmosphere is called the Heat Budget or Heat Balance.
5. Assuming that 100 units of energy reach the top of the atmosphere of the earth, 14 units are absorbed directly by
the
atmosphere
and
35
units
are
lost
to
space
through
reflection.
The remaining 51 units reach the earths surface and are absorbed by the earth due to which the surface gets
heated. The heated surface of the earth starts radiating energy in the form of long waves and this process is called
Terrestrial Radiation.
Out of the total 51 units given up by the surface in the form of terrestrial radiation, the atmosphere (mainly carbon
dioxide and water vapour) absorbs about 34 units and the remaining 17 units escape to space.
In this manner, the atmosphere receives a total of 14 + 34 = 48 units and this amount is radiated back to space by
the atmosphere. The total loss of energy to space thus amounts to 100 units: 35 units reflected by the atmosphere,
17 units lost as terrestrial radiation and 48 units from the atmosphere. In this manner, no net gain or loss of energy
occurs in the earths surface.
Although the earth and its atmosphere as a whole have a radiation balance, there are latitudinal variations. The
heat/energy is transferred from the lower latitudes to the higher latitudes through winds and ocean currents.
Internal Structure of Earth
The Crust of Earth

It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earths surface, about 8 to 40 km thick. The crust varies greatly in
thickness and composition as small as 5 km thick in some places beneath the oceans, while under some
mountain ranges it extends up to 70 km in depth.

The crust is made up of two layers- an upper lighter layer called the Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) and a lower
density layer called Sima (Silicate + Magnesium).

The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.

The Mantle of Earth

This layer extends up to a depth of 2900 km.

Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to about 500 km) and Lower Mantle.
Asthenosphere is in a semi-molten plastic state, and it is thought that this enables the lithosphere to move about
it. Within the asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves is considerably reduced (Called Low Velocity Zone).

The line of separation between the mantle and the crust is known as Mohoviricic Discontinuity.

The Core of Earth

Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core of the earth.

The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in molten form due to excessive heat out there. Inner core is 1370 km
thick and is in plastic form due to the combined factors of excessive heat and pressure. It is made up of iron and
nickel (Nife) and is responsible for earths magnetism. This layer has the maximum specific gravity.

The temperatures in the earths core lie between 2200c and 2750c.

The line of separation between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg-Wiechert Discontinuity.

Note:

22

Temperature Inside the Earth: In the first 100 km, 12 increase per km. In the next 300 km, 2 increase per km.
After that it is 1 increase per km.
Composition of Earth

Made up of over 100 elements.

The following 8 are important:

Major Earth Layer Discontinuity:

i. Moho Discontinuity: Between Crust and Mantle
ii. Canard Discontinuity: Between outer and inner crust
iii. Welchart-Gutenberg Discontinuity: Between mantle & Core
iv. Repetite Discontinuity: Between upper and lower Mantle
v. Transition Discontinuity: Between outer and inner Core
Continental Drift Theory:
The theory of continental drift was postulated by Alfred Wegener in 1915 in which
he gave sound evidences to support the idea of the movement of continents over the surface of the earth.
According to him, about 250 million years ago, in the carboniferous period, all the continents were united as a
super continent known as Pangaea which was surrounded by a large ocean, called Panthalsa.
According to Wegenaer, Pangaea started breaking up in the Carboniferous period. In his view, continents made
up of lighter sial were moving over the ocean basins which are composed of denser sima.
The continents drafted in two directions-towards the equator due to gravitational attraction of equatorial bulge
(resulting in the formation of Himalayas, Alps, Atlas etc) and towards the west owing to tidal forces of the moon
and the sun (forming the mountains of Rockies and Andes).
Plate Tectonics:
In the late 60s, the basic concepts of Wegeners theory and sea floor spreading were united, in the light of great
strides made in the field of earth sciences, into a much more encompassing theory known as Plate Tectonics.
The revolutionary theory of Plate Tectonics provides the most rational explanation for the distribution of oceans
and continents, orogenic, volcanic and seismic zones and related processes.
The theory of Plate Tectonics postulates that outer rigid lithosphere comprises a mosaic of rigid segments,
called Plates that move on the plastic upper mantle (asthenosphere), carrying the continents and oceans along
with them.
Their thickness varies from 80-100 km along the oceans to over 100 km in the continents. Six major and many
minor plates have been identified.
Plate Boundary Interactions:
All tectonic activities occur along the boundaries of the plate which are of three types.
i. Diverging Boundary Interaction:
Along this boundary marked by the oceanic ridge system, two plates move away from each other. Hot magma
from deep mantle erupts through cracks and fissures and spreads laterally forming new crust.
Hence these are termed as constructive boundaries. These are characterized by rift valleys, ridges basaltic
volcanism and shallow-foci earthquakes. Mid-Atlantic ridge system is the best example of this type.
ii. Converging Boundary Interactions:
Along this boundary, two plates move towards each other. If both the plates are oceanic, one heavier plate
boundary plunges down beneath the other along the oceanic trenches, resulting into formatation of volcanic
island arcs, e.g. Japan.
If one of the plates is continental, the heavier oceanic plate boundary subducts beneath the continental one
forming cordilleran mountains such as Rockies and Andes. When both the plates are continental, no subduction
occurs, volcanism, ceases and plate edges and sediments are compressed, thrusted and folded to form gigantic
mountains like the Himalayas. High intensity earthquakes occur in this boundary interaction.
iii. Conservative/Transform Boundary Interaction:

23

Here two plates just slide past each other along the transform fault. There is no volcanism, no crust is created or
destroyed but strong earthquakes occur along the fault. Along the San Andreas fault of California, American plate
and Pacific plate move past each other. Frequent earthquakes occur in this region.
Earth Clouds
Earth Clouds are masses of minute water droplets and / or ice crystals formed by the condensation of water vapour
and held in suspension in the atmosphere. Condensation, which results from cooling, usually takes place around
nuclei such as dust, smoke particles and salt. Such particles are called condensation nuclei.
Earth Clouds are of different types and they can be classified on the basis of their form and altitude.
On the basis of form, there are two major groups:
1. Stratiform or layered types, and
2. Cumuliform or massive types.
Stratiform Clouds
These clouds, which are fairly thin and blanket like, are sub-divided into three main categories on the basis of
altitude.
High Clouds (mean ht 5-13 km)
1. Cirrus Clouds: Indicates fair weather.
2. Cirrocumulus Clouds: Forms the mackerel sky.
3. Cirrostratus Clouds: Produces a halo around sun and moon.
Middle Clouds (mean ht 2-7 km)
Altocumulus Clouds
: Indicate fine weather.
Alto-stratus Clouds
: Associated with development of bad weather.
Low (mean ht up to 2 km)
1. Stratus Clouds
: Brigs dull weather, usually accompanied with a drizzle.
2. Nimbostratus Clouds : If rain or snow is falling from a stratus cloud, it is called
nimbostratus.
3. Stratocumulus Clouds : Indicators of fair or clearing weather.
Cumulus Clouds
They are massive clouds having a vertical extent from 1,500 to 9,000 m. They resemble the head of a cauliflower.
When these clouds are sunlit, they are brilliantly white and are called wool-clouds. They occur mainly in summer
and are produced by convection.
Cumulonimbus Clouds:
Under different weather conditions, a cumulus cloud may develop into cumulonimbus, the thunderstorm cloud mass
of enormous size which brings heavy rainfall, thunder and lightning and gusty winds.
Precipitation Clouds
It refers to falling of water, snow or hail from the clouds and results when condensation is occurring rapidly within a
cloud.
The most common form of precipitation is rain and it is formed when many cloud droplets coalesce into drops too
large to remain suspended in the air. Rainfall occurs when the dew point of air is above the freezing point.
Sometimes the raindrops freeze before reaching the ground and precipitation occurs in the form of ice pellets, called
sleet.
Snow is produced when condensation takes place at a temperature below freezing point, so that the minute crystals
(spicules) of ice form directly from the water vapour.
Hail consists of masses of ice with a layered structure. It occurs when there are very strong updrafts in the clouds
carrying raindrops up to a high altitude, causing them to freeze. Hail stone is a rounded lump of ice having concentric
layers.
Conditions for Precipitation
There are three possible ways by which precipitation is produced.
Convectional Precipitation

24

It is caused by heating of moist air in the lower layers of atmosphere which rises, expands, and is cooled
adiabatically to its dew point.
Convection rain is often accompanied by lightening and thunder. It occurs in regions near the equator in the
afternoon as a result of the constant high temperature and high humidity.
Orographic Precipitation
In this, precipitation is caused by moisture-laden air being forced to rise over a relief barrier (mountain ranges). As
the air rises in the windward side, it is cooled at the adiabatic rate. If sufficiently cooled, precipitation results; when
the air descends on the leeward side, it gets warmed and dry, having no source from which to draw up moisture. A
belt of dry climate, often called a rain shadow, may exist on the leeward side.
Cyclonic frontal Precipitation
When the air is caused to rise upwards due to cyclonic circulation, the resulting precipitation id said to be of the
cyclonic type

25

Cyclones & Anticyclones

Cyclones in World
It is a system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasingly high pressure outwards.
In this, the winds blows in a circular manner in Anticlockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere. Clockwise direction in
Southern Hemisphere.
In the temperate region, they occur due to the coming close and imperfect mixing of two masses of air of contrasting
temperature and humidity conditions. Cycles of this type are also known as Wave Cyclones or Temperate Cyclones.
On the other hand, in the tropical regions, they occur due to intense heating up of air in some regions causing very
low pressure in these locations. Tropical seas and oceans are most conducive to the development of tropical
cyclones.
These are known as:

Cyclones in the Indian Ocean

Hurricanes in the Caribbean Islands

Typhoons in the China Sea

Willy-Willies in the North West Australia

Tornadoes in coastal US.

Twisters in Mississippi Valley, USA

Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of a smaller size. They are especially feared in the Mississippi Valley in
US and here they are called Twisters. They differ from cyclones in that they generally develop over land. They are
more destructive than cyclones as the speed of winds is very high, exceeding 320 km per hour.
Anticyclones

They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are the centers of high pressure with gentle outward flow of
air.

The air circulation is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Weather associated with an anticyclone is fair weather.

26

Earth Humidity
Earth

Humidity

refers

to

the

amount

of

water

vapour

present

in

the

air.

The ratio between the amount of water vapour actually present in the air mass and the maximum amount that the air
mass can hold at that temperature is called relative humidity. It is expressed as a percentage. It varies inversely with
temperature, given a fixed amount of water vapour.
Absolute humidity denotes the actual quantity of water vapour present in the air and it is defined as the weight of
water vapour (grams) in a given volume of air (cubic meter).
The term specific humidity is applied to express the ratio of weight of water vapour to the weight of moist air
(including water vapour). It is stated as grams of water vapour per kilogram of moist air.
Earth Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. Another instrument used for the same purpose is
sling psychrometer.
Condensation, Dew Point and Related Aspects
The physical process of transformation from the vapour to the liquid state is condensation. This is the basis of all
types of precipitation- the fall of water from the atmosphere to the ground in any form.
Dew point is the temperature at which the air is fully saturated and below which condensation normally occurs.
Dew is the deposition of water droplets on the ground. It occurs when the temperature of the ground surface falls and
the air in contact with it is cooled below its dew point. Dew is likely to occur on clear and calm nights.
Frost is a weather condition that occurs when the air temperature is at or below 0c moisture on the ground surface
and objects freezes to form an icy deposit.
Fog is made of the droplets of water suspended in the lower layers of the atmosphere, resulting from the
condensation of water vapour around nuclei of floating dust or smoke particles. A visibility of less than 1 km is the
internationally recognized definition of fog. Fog is not considered as a form of precipitation.
Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas where the air contains a large amount of smoke.
Mist is the term for reduction of visibility between 1-2 km, caused by condensation producing water droplets within
the lower layers of atmosphere.
Haze is formed by water particles that have condensed in the atmosphere and the visibility in this case is more than
1 km but less than 2 km. Haze may also be produced by presence of dust and smoke, which reduce visibility.

27

Earth Mountains

Types of Mountains

Fold Mountains of the World

They are formed when the rocks of the crust of the earth folded under stress, mainly by forces of
compression (as a result of series of earthquakes).

E.g. All big mountain systems: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas, etc.

On the basis of age, fold mountains are grouped into: Young / New Fold Mountains

Came into existence after the continental drift. E.g. Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps. Himalayas are
regarded the youngest mountains in the world.

Old Mountains

They belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to denudation and uplift; many faults were formed; occur as
relict mountains today. E.g. Pennines (Europe), Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India).

Block Mountains of the World

These are formed when great blocks of earths crust may be raised or lowered. During the uplift of structural
mountains, sometimes magma flows upwards into the crust.

On its cooling and hardening beneath the surface, it contracts and the overlying rock may crack into large blocks
moving up or down. An intense folding of rocks is generally followed by faulting of strata due to horizontal forces
of tension.

The land between the two parallel faults either raises forming Block Mountains or Horsts, or subsides into a
depression termed as Rift Valley or Graben.

Eg: Narmada, Tapti and Damodar valley in India, the Vosges in France and Black forest in Germany (through
which Rhine River flows).

Volcanic Mountains of the World

Formed as a result of volcanic eruption & the outflow of lava (through crater, the opening). Also called Mountains
of Accumulation. Have a gentle slope.

E.g: Cotopaxi in Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Fujiyama in Japan, Mauna Loa and Kilauea (Most active
volcano) in Hawaii, Ojos del Salado in Argentina / Chile (Highest active volcano), Popocatepeti in Mexico,
Raineer of Washington, Stromboli in Mediterranean (called Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mirapi and
Krakatao in Indonesia, etc.

Relict Mountains

Sometimes, the mountains are carved out as a result of erosion of plateaus & high planes by various agents of
erosion. E.g., Highlands of Scotland, Sierras of Spain, Catskill mountains of New York and Nilgiri, Parasnath,
Girnar, Rajmahal of India.
Major Mountain Ranges of the World

Andes

South America

Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush

South Central Asia 8,850

Rockies

North America

4,401

Great Dividing Range

East Australia

2,228

Western Ghats

Western India

2,637

Caucasus

Europe, Asia

5,642

Alaska

USA

6,194

28

6,960

Alps

Europe

4,808

Apennines

Europe

2,912

Ural

Asia

1,895

Pennines

Europe

893

Pyrenees

Europe

3,404

Appalachian

North America

2,040

29

ROCKS
Overview

Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of minerals or mineraloids (a mineral-like substance that does
not exhibit crystallinity)

The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rocks

Rocks are generally classified into three types

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks

The structure and composition of rocks change over time, causing one type of rock to be reclassified as
another

The study of rocks is called petrology

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Overview

Igneous rocks are rocks which form from the cooling and solidification of magma

They are the results of volcanic processes

The magma can be derived from melts of pre-existing rocks in either the crust or mantle. Typically, rocks melt
under conditions of extremely high temperatures, low pressures or changes in composition

Igneous rocks can be of two types:

o

Intrusive (plutonic) rocks

Extrusive (volcanic) rocks

Igneous rocks make up about 90% of the Earths crust. However, they are hidden from the surface by a thin
layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks can be seen at mid ocean ridges, areas of volcanism and intra-plate hotspots

They are crystalline and impervious

They are resistant to erosion and weathering

Since igneous rocks come from the mantle, the minerals and chemistry of igneous rocks give
information about the composition of the mantle

Their features are characteristic of a particular tectonic environment, allowing reconstitution of tectonic
conditions

They host important mineral deposits such as uranium, tungsten, tin, chromium, platinum
Mineralogical composition of igneous rocks

Felsic rock: highest content of silicon with predominance of quartz and feldspar. These rocks are usually light
coloured and have low density

Mafic rock: lesser content of silicon, predominance of mafic minerals (manganese and iron). These rocks are
usually dark coloured and have higher density than felsic rocks
Ultramafic rocks: lowest silicon content, with more than 90% of mafic minerals
Intrusive
Extrusive

Felsic
Granite
Rhyolite

Mafic
Gabbro
Basalt

Ultramafic
Peridotite
Komatite

Intrusive igneous rocks (plutonic rocks)

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust

30

These rocks are coarse-grained. Mineral grains in these rocks can be identified by the naked eye

The central cores of most mountain ranges are made of intrusive rocks (usually granite). These large
formations of intrusive rocks are called batholiths

Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite and diorite

Extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rocks)

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the surface, from magma released into the surface from volcanic
eruptions

Extrusive rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive

Extrusive rocks are fine grained in nature

Examples of extrusive rocks include basalt and rhyolite

Large Igneous Provinces are extremely large accumulations of igneous rocks (both intrusive and extrusive)

They refer to igneous rocks extending over 100,000 sq km, that formed in a short geological time scale
of a few million years or less

LIPs usually consist of basalt and rhyolite rocks

When created, LIPs often have an area of few million sq km and volume on the order of a million cubic km.
Majority of the LIPs volume is emplaced in less than a million years.

LIPs are postulated to arise from hotspots of linear chains of volcanoes

LIPs are often linked to mass extinction events. This is said to arise from the enormous quantities of
sulphuric acid released into the atmosphere, the subsequent global cooling and absorption of oceanic oxygen.

The Deccan Traps, one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, is an example of a Large Igneous
Province. The Traps consist of multiple layers of basalt, more than 2 km thick and cover an area over 500,000
sq km, and were formed as a result of volcanic eruptions in the Western Ghats about 66 million years ago. It is
believed that the enormous volcanic eruptions led to global cooling of around 2C, and were instrumental in the
mass extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Overview

Sedimentary rock is the type of rock formed sedimentation of material. This sedimentation can occur on
the Earths surface or within bodies of water

Sedimentary rocks form the thin outermost layer of the earths crust, making up about 5% of the total
volume of the crust

Sedimentary rocks are deposited in strata called bedding

Coal is a sedimentary rock

Examples of sedimentary rocks include shale, sandstone, limestone

Study of sedimentary rocks provides information about subsurface, which is important in civil engineering for
construction of roads, bridges etc

Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like fossil fuels, water, ores etc

The study of sedimentary rock strata serves as the main source of scientific knowledge about the Earths
geological history

Sedimentary rocks are the only rocks that contain fossils.Sedimentary rocks contains fossils because,

unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossils
Composition of sedimentary rocks

Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz or calcite

31

Unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks do not contain multiple major minerals

Carbonate rocks contain carbonate minerals like calcite, aragonite or dolomite

Siliclastic rocks contain silica-bearing minerals like quartz

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, called clasts, of pre-existing rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are those that are formed from rocks that have been broken down due to weathering,
which are then transported and deposited elsewhere

Clastic sedimentary rocks come in various grain sizes. They range from fine clay in shales, to sand in sandstone
and gravel, cobbles and boulder size fragments in conglomerates and breccias

Conglomerates are clastic sedimentary rocks with rounded fragments, while breccias consist of clasts with
angular fragments. Both conglomerates and breccias contain clasts larger than sand (> 2 mm)

Examples include shale, sandstone, siltstone

Organic sedimentary rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks contain materials generated by living organisms

They usually contain carbonate minerals generated by these organisms

Examples include corals, chalk, coal and oil shale

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Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from minerals in solution that become oversaturated

They usually occur as a result of evaporation

Examples include limestone, barite, gypsum

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Overview

Metamorphic rocks form as a result of transformation of an existing rock, in a process called

metamorphism. The existing rock is called protolith

Metamorphic rocks are formed when the protoliths are subject to extreme temperatures and pressures

They form from tectonic process, intrusion of magma, or simply by being deep beneath the earths
surface (being subject to high temperatures and pressures of rock layers above)

Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic

Examples of metamorphic rocks include gneiss, slate, marble

Composition of metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are composed of metamorphic minerals

Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at high temperatures and pressures. These include
sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite, staurolite and garnet (all of which are silicates)

Metamorphic rocks also contain smaller amounts of micas, feldspars and quartz. However, these are not
products of metamorphism, and are instead leftovers from the protoliths

Contact metamorphic rocks

Contact metamorphic rocks are those that form when magma is injected into surrounding rock

The cooling magma leads to igneous rocks, and around this is a zone called contact metamorphism
aureole where metamorphic rocks are formed

32

The extreme temperatures cause sandstones to metamorphise into quartz, limestone into marble and shale into
cordierite

Igneous rocks are harder to transform than sedimentary rocks since they form at even greater temperatures
Regional metamorphic rocks

Regional metamorphic rocks are those that form due to metamorphism over a wide area

Regional metamorphism tends to make rocks foliated

Regional metamorphic rocks tend to form at great depths simply under the temperature and pressures of upper
layers of rock

Continental crusts are examples of regional metamorphic rocks

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IMPORTANT ROCK TYPES

Rock
Basalt

Classification
Composition
Igneous extrusive Feldspar, pyroxene
volcanic

Notes
Present on moon, Mars, Venus
Basalt rocks sustain microbial life
Fine texture
Granite
Igneous
(intrusive, Quartz, feldspar
Coarse texture
felsic)
Massive, hard and tough
Exhibit radioactivity (uranium)
Shale
Sedimentary (clastic)
Clay
Contain organic matter
Contains multiple thin layers
Limestone Sedimentary
Calcite
(calcium Used in quicklime, mortar, cement, concrete
carbonate)
Soluble in water
Host of most cave systems
Sandstone Sedimentary
Quartz, feldspar
Common building material
Porous, allows water percolation
Host of water aquifers and petroleum reservoirs
Slate
Metamorphic
Clay, volcanic ash
Used to make roofing, flooring
It is an electrical insulator, used for
switchboards
Can host even microscopic amounts of fossils
Gneiss
Metamorphic
Garnet, biotite
Marble
Metamorphic
Calcite
Comes from metamorphism of limestone
(calcium carbonate)
Pure white marble comes from pure limestone
Colours, swirls, veins come from mineral
impurities
Important source of calcium carbonate, used in
toothpaste, paint
Quartzite
Metamorphic
Quartz
Comes from metamorphism of sandstone
Used as a decorative stone
Used for railway ballast
IMPORTANT ROCK FORMATIONS/STRUCTURES
Formation/structure
Deccan Traps
Siberian Traps

Location
Deccan Plateau,
India
Siberia, Russia

Classification
Large
Igneous
Province (LIP)
LIP

33

Notes
One of the largest volcanic features on
earth
One of the largest known volcanic events

(250 million years ago)

Oldest known rock in the world (4.28
billion years)
Monolithic rock that rises 1200 feet above
surrounding terrain
Rich in dinosaur fossils

Acasta Gneiss

Quebec, Canada

Metamorphic

Devils Tower

Wyoming, USA

Igneous

Blue Lias
Red Fort
Hawa Mahal
Mahabalipuram
sculptures
Mount Augustus

England
Delhi
Jaipur
Mahabalipuram

Limestone and shale

Sandstone
Sandstone
Granite

Western Australia

Savandurga
Sphinx

Karnataka
Egypt

Phobos monolith

Mars

Sandstone
and Largest monolith in the world
conglomerate
Gneiss and granite
Largest monolith in India
Limestone
Oldest known monumental sculpture
Largest monolith statue in world
Igneous

34

Earth Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent or opening usually circular in form through which heated materials consisting of gases, water,
liquid lava and fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly heated interiors to he surface of the earth.
Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with several interconnected processes such as

The gradual increase in temperature with increasing depth at a rate of 1c per 32 m due to heat generated by
degeneration of radioactive elements inside the earth

Origin of magma because of lowering of melting point caused by reduction in pressure of overlying rocks due to
fractures caused by splitting of plates

Origin of gases and water vapour due to heating of water

Ascent of magma due to pressure from gases and vapour

Occurrence of volcanic eruptions. These eruptions are closely associated with plate boundaries.

Classification of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified under different schemes:

1.
Classification
on
the
basis
of
Periodicity
of
Eruptions:
Active Volcano: Volcano which erupt periodically. E.g. Maona Loa in Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy,
Stromboli in Mediterranean Sea, etc.

Dormant Volcano: Volcano which has been quiescent for a long time but in which there is a possibility of
eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in Andamans, etc.

2. Classification on the basis of Mode of Eruption

Central Eruption Type or Explosive Type: E.g. Hawaiian type, Strombolian type, Volcanian type, Pelean type,
Vesuvius type, etc.

Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption Type: Large quantities of lava quietly flow up from fissures and spread out
over the surrounding areas. Successive lava flow results in the growth of a lava plateau. E.g. Deccan Plateau,
etc.

Distribution of Volcanoes in the World

About 15% of worlds active volcanoes are found along the Constructive or Divergent plate margins,
whereas 80% volcanoes are associated with the Destructive or Convergent plate boundaries.

1. The Circum Pacific belt or the Ring of Fire. It extends across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the
Islands of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Soloman Islands. It also passes through the
Antarctica and the western coast of America.
2. The Mid Continent belt includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain chain, the Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone
of eastern Africa. E.g. Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, Kilimanjaro, etc.
3. The Mid Atlantic belt in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type. E.g. Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape
Verde, Azores, etc.

35

Earth Pressure and Winds

Air moving in a particular direction is called wind. The principal cause of winds is difference in pressure. Air always
moves from areas of high pressure to those with low pressure. The slope of the pressure from high to low is known
as Pressure Gradient and the direction of this direction decides the direction of winds.Wind velocity is directly related
to the steepness of the pressure gradient.
In addition, the direction of winds is affected by the Coriolis Force, which is caused by the rotation of the earth. Under
the influence of this effect, winds are deflected to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
This is referred to as Parrels Law. Coriolis force is absent at the equator and increases towards the poles. Due to
this, the winds, which would blow at right angles to the isobars under the pressure gradient, blow obliquely to them.
Global Pressure Belts
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (or Doldrums)

From 5N to 5S.

Tremendous heat, thus warm air rises creating low pressure. Also, the centrifugal force is very high at the
equator, where the velocity of rotation is high. Hence, the air masses tend to be thrown out, resulting in low
pressure.

Wind speed low, thats why called Doldrums (Belt of Calm).

Tropical High Pressure Belt (or Horse Latitudes)

From 30 to 35 N and S.

Apart from 2 months, usually high temperature.

Here the pressure is high, although high temperature, because here pressure depends on the rotation and
movement of air (as winds from Doldrums belt rises up and accumulate here. Also winds from Sub-Polar Low
Pressure Belt accumulate here).

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

From 60 to 65N and S

Here the low pressure is created because of intense high pressure at the poles.

Winds and Their Types

3 broad categories are:

1. Regular Winds/Prevailing Winds/Planetary Winds: (E.g.: Trade winds, Westerlies and Polar Easterlies).
2. Periodical Winds (which blow seasonally): Monsoons
3. Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Trade Winds

Trade in German means Track. To blow trade means to blow steadily in the same direction and in a constant
course.

These are steady currents of air blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the equatorial low
pressure areas (doldrums). Under the influence of the Coriolis force they blow from the north-east in the northern
hemisphere and from the south-east in the southern hemisphere.

Westerlies

Blows from subtropical high pressure to sub-polar low pressure belt.

In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in the westerly wind belt. But between
40 and 60 S lies the almost unbroken ocean belt. Westerlies are strong and persistent here, giving rise to
mariners expressions- Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties.

Polar Easterlies

Move from high pressure poles to sub-polar low pressure areas.

These are deflected by the Earths rotation to become east winds, or the polar easterlies.

36

Local Winds
Land
and They are experienced in coastal areas. Due to differential heating, the atmospheric pressure over the
Sea Breeze land mass is lower than over the neighboring sea during the day. Therefore, winds blow from sea to
land (sea breeze). At night the air pressure over land is higher due to a lower temperature than over
the adjacent ocean and the wind starts blowing from land to sea (land breeze). Land breeze is not as
strong as sea breeze.
Chinook

Hot, dry wind in Rockies, also called 'snow eater'.

Foehn

Hot, dry wind in the Alps.

Khamsin

Hot, dry wind in Egypt.

Sirocco

Hot, moist wind from Sahara to Mediterranean Sea.

Solano

Hot, moist wind for Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula.

Harmattan

Hot, dry wind blowing outwards from the interior of West Africa, also called 'Guinea Doctor'.

Bora

Cold, dry wind blowing outwards from Hungary to the north of Italy (near AdriaticSea).

Mistral

Very cold wind, which blows down from the Alps over France.

Punas

Cold, dry wind blowing down towards the western side of Andes.

Blizzard

Very cold winds in Tundra region.

Brickfielder

Hot wind in Australia.

Purga

Cold wind in Russian tundra.

Levanter

Cold wind in Spain.

Norwester

Hot wind in New Zealand.

Santa Ana

Hot wind in Southern California in USA.

37

Earthquakes
1. Tremors or vibrations of earths surface produced by internal forces.
2. The point of origin of earthquake is called Seismic focus. Most of the earthquakes originate at the depth of 50100 km inside the earth.
3. The point on the earths surface vertically above the earths surface is called Epicentre.
4. The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by Seismograph.
5. The magnitude of waves is measured on Richters scale. For measurement of the intensity of the earthquake
(damage caused), the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is used.
Types of Waves Earthquakes
1. Primary Waves (P-Waves): Travel from the point of happening by the displacement of surrounding particles.
They are transmitted through solids, liquids and gases. Travels fastest.
2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Travels through solids only. Thus they cannot pass through core.
3. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L-Waves): Travels on earths surface and causes maximum destruction. They
are recorded after the P and S waves.
Distribution of Earthquakes

Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes known as the Ring of Fire. 68 per cent of the volcanoes are
experienced in this region.

From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea) through the Mediterranean
Sea to West Indies. 21 per cent earthquakes are experienced in the region.

Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11 per cent of the earthquakes.

38

FORESTS
Overview

Forests are areas with a high density of trees

Forests cover approximately 9.4% of the Earths surface i.e. about 30% of total land area, although they
used to cover as much as 50% of land area

Forests are differentiated from woodland by the extent of canopy coverage: in forests, the foliage of trees meet
and interlock while in woodlands there is enough gap between trees allowing sunlight to penetrate to the ground

Forests are one of the most important aspects of the Earths biosphere

The functions of forests include

Habitat for organisms

Hydrologic flow modulation

Soil conservation

Human factors affecting forest sustenance include logging, urban sprawl, agriculture, industries, human-induced
forest fires etc. Natural factors affecting forests include forest fires, insects, diseases, weather etc

Only about 20% of the worlds original forests remain in undisturbed forest. Of this, 75% are in Russia,

Canada and Brazil

Distribution of forests

In general, forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth (at altitudes up to the tree line),
except where natural disturbance is too high or human activity has altered the environment

The areas between latitudes 10 N and 10 S are mostly covered in tropical rainforests, and between 53N
and 67N have boreal forests (taiga)

Forests can contain many species in a small area (like rainforests) or relatively few species in a large area (like
taiga and montane coniferous forests)

Forests have higher biomass per unit area compared to other vegetation types. Much of the forest biomass
occurs below the ground in root systems and partially decomposed detritus

The major types of forest systems are

o

Rainforests (both tropical and temperate)

Taiga

Temperate broadleaf forests

o Tropical dry forests

Old growth forests

Old growth forests (also called primary forests, ancient forests) are forests that contain trees which have
attained great age

Old growth forests typically contain large and old live trees, large dead trees and large logs

Death of individual trees creates gaps in the canopy layer allowing light to penetrate and create favourable
conditions for undergrowth

Old growth forests are often home to rare and threatened species, making them ecologically significant. For
instance, the Northern Spotted Owl is reliant on old growth forest

The importance of old growth forests include

o

They contain rich communities of plants and animals due to the long period of forest stability

They serve as a reservoir for species that cannot thrive or regenerate in younger forests

39

They store large amounts of carbon both above and below the ground (either as humus or in wet soils
as peat)

Forests that are regenerated after disruptions must wait several centuries to millennia before they can
reach the stable equilibrium that signifies old growth forests

Due to increased human activity, old growth forests have been substantially destroyed over the last century. Of
the old growth forests that still remain, 35% are in Latin America (Brazil), 28% in North America (mainly Canada)

and 19% in northern Asia (Siberia)

Second growth forests

Second growth forests (secondary forests) are forests that have re-grown after a major disturbance such
as fire, insect infestation, logging, windthrow etc

Second growth forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and have more undergrowth

Second growth forests usually have less biodiversity than old growth forests, since the former have had lesser
time to develop and reach stable equilibrium

Secondary forests are common in areas under shifting agriculture, areas with forest fires, and forests that are
recovering from harvesting and agriculture

Secondary forests can several generations of trees (centuries) to resemble the original old growth
forests. However, in some areas, secondary forests do not succeed due to soil nutrient loss and erosion
(especially in tropical rainforests)

Most of the forests of eastern North America and of Europe are secondary forests

Distribution of tropical rainforests in the World

Overview

Rainforests are forests characterised by high rainfall, with minimum annual rainfall as high as 1700-2000
mm

Rainforests are responsible for 28% of the worlds oxygen turnover.However, rainforests do not contribute
much to the net oxygen additions to the atmosphere. Instead, they are vital in storing carbon in bio sequestration

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the area near the equator where winds originating in the northern
and southern hemispheres meet, plays a significant role in creating the rainforests

Despite the growth of vegetation, soil quality in a rainforest is poor.Most trees have roots near the surface
due to lack of nutrients below the ground

More than half the worlds species of plants and animals are found in rainforests

Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are rainforests in the tropics, near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn

Tropical rainforests are found in South America (Brazil), Central America (Yucatan Peninsula), Sub-Saharan
African (Congo), Northeast India, Southeast Asia (Indo-Malaya, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)

Tropical rainforests are called worlds largest pharmacy, since over 25% of modern medicines originate
from these plants

Tropical rainforests are home to half of all the plant and animal species on earth

Tropical rainforests are characterised by heavy rainfall, resulting in poor soil due to leaching of nutrients

Temperatures range 15 C to 50 C. Rainfall ranges from 1250 mm to 6600 mm annually

Temperate Rainforests

Temperate rainforests are rainforests that occur in the temperate zone and receive high rainfall

40

Temperature range 4 to 12 C. Rainfall minimum is around 1400 mm annually

Temperate rainforests are found in close proximity to oceans, and usually occur in coastal
mountains. This is because temperate rainforests depend on the proximity to oceans to moderate seasons,
creating milder winters and cooler summers. Coastal mountains increase rainfall on the ocean facing slopes

Wildfires are uncommon in temperate forests due to the high moisture content in the forest

Mosses are abundant in temperate rainforests

Temperate rainforests sustain the highest levels of biomass of any terrestrial ecosystem

Temperate rainforests are notable for trees of massive proportions, including coast redwood, coast douglas
fir, sikta spruce etc

Temperate rainforests are found in western North America, south-western South America, Norway, northern
Spain, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand

Rainforests are typically divided into four layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that
environment

Emergent layer
o

The highest layer, formed by a small number of very tall trees that grow above the general
canopy

They reach heights of 45-55 m, occasionally even 70-80 m

Need to be able to withstand high temperatures and strong winds

Eagles, butterflies, bats and some monkeys inhabit this layer

Canopy layer
o

The canopy layer consists of the largest number of tall trees, which provides a more or less continuous
cover of foliage by adjacent treetops

Usually reach heights of around 30-45 m

The canopy layer is the densest area of biodiversity in a rainforest. It is estimated that the canopy
layer is home to about 50% of all plant species and 25% of all insect species

Understory
o

The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor

Leaves are much larger at this level

Only about 5% of sunlight incident on the rainforest reaches the understory layer

This layer is home to a number of birds, snakes, lizards, and predators like jaguar, boa constrictors etc

Forest floor
o

The forest floor is the bottom most layer

The forest floor receives only about 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in
this region

Due to low sunlight penetration, forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation. This makes it

possible to walk through a rainforest

Effect on global climate

Rainforests emit and absorb massive quantities of carbon dioxide. Undisturbed rainforests usually have no
net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

However, rainforests play a vital role in other climatic effects such as cloud formation and water vapour
recycling

41

Deforestation caused by human activities and drought can cause rainforests to release massive amounts of

carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

TROPICAL DRY FORESTS
Overview

Tropical dry forests are located in the tropical and subtropical latitudes

These forests occur in areas that are warm and receive plentiful rainfall (several hundred centimetres)
but experience long dry seasons which last several months. These seasonal droughts have great impact on
the forest

Deciduous trees dominate in these forests

Tropical dry forests are less biologically diverse than rainforests

However, they are home to a wide variety of wildlife including monkeys, deer, parrots, large cats
etc. Mammalian biomass tends to be higher in dry forests than in rainforests.

Characteristics

During the drought season a leafless season occurs. The shedding of leaves allows trees like teak and
ebony to conserve water during these dry periods

When the trees enter the dry leafless season, the canopy layer opens up allowing sunlight to reach the ground,
thereby enablinggrowth of thick undergrowth

However, certain areas of tropical dry forests can have evergreen trees. This happens especially when the
forests are on moisture sites or have access to groundwater

Three tropical dry forest regions have evergreen forests:

o

East Deccan dry evergreen forests (India)

Sri Lanka dry zone evergreen forests (Sri Lanka)

Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen forests (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam)

The forests of central India are tropical dry forests

Dry forests are extremely sensitive to forest fires, overgrazing and deforestation. Restoration of dry forests
is possible, but challenging

Distribution

Dry forests tend to exist north and south of the equatorial rainforest belt, and south and north of the subtropical
deserts

They usually occur in two bands: one between 10 and 20 N latitudes and the other between 10 and 20 S
latitudes

The most diverse dry forests of the world are found in southern Mexico and Bolivia

The dry forests of central India and Indochina are notable for their diverse and large vertebrate fauna

Other tropical dry forests are found in New Caledonia,

Madagascar, south eastern Africa and the Pacific coast

of South America
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF AND MIXED FORESTS
Overview

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome (ecological system)

These forests typically have four layers

o

Canopy layer: contains mature trees 100-200 ft high

Understory: shade tolerant layer of trees that grow to about 30-50 feet shorter than the canopy

Shrub layer: low growing woody plants

42

Herbaceous layer: this is the ground cover, most diverse layer

Characteristic broadleaf trees these forests include oaks, birches, beeches and maples. Mixed trees are
basically coniferous trees such as pines, firs and spruces

Areas of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include northeast USA, northern India, eastern Australia, New

Zealand, southwest China

Distribution

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct warm and cool seasons, with
moderate annual average temperature (5-15 C)

They usually occur in moderately warm and rainy climates, sometimes with a distinct dry season

Annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm and sometimes over 1500 mm

Taiga
Overview

Taiga is a biome characterised by coniferous forests

The Taiga is the worlds largest terrestrial biome

The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation (250mm 750 mm), mostly in the form of fog, snow and
summer rain. However, since evaporation is also low, there is enough moisture to enable dense vegetation
growth

Taiga soils tend to be young and nutrient-poor. The soil tends to be acidic and hence the forest floor only has

lichens and mosses growing

Characteristics

The taiga has harsh continental climate and large range of temperatures: -54 C to 27 C

Except for the tundra and permanent ice caps, the taiga is the coldest biome on earth

There are two main types of taiga:

o

Closed forest: closely spaced trees with mossy ground cover

Lichen woodland: trees that are farther apart and have lichen ground cover. More common in colder
areas

In the northern taiga areas, forest cover is not only sparse but also stunted

The forests of taiga are mainly coniferous consisting of larch, spruce, fir and pine

Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of thin soils.

Since the sun is low on the horizon most of the time, it is difficult to photosynthesise. Pine and spruce do not
lose their leaves in winter and can photosynthesise using their older leaves

The adaptation of evergreen needles (on pines) limits water lost to transpiration and the dark green
colour increases sunlight absorption

Distribution

The taiga covers most of Canada, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the Scottish Highlands and
Russia. It is also found in parts of northern USA, northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and northern Japan

Large areas of Siberias taiga have been destroyed in recent years

In Canada, less than 8% is protected development and more than 50% has been allocated for logging

The taiga is home to a large number herbivorous mammals and smaller rodents

Some of the animals, like bears, eat in summer and hibernate in winter. Others have evolved layers of fur to
insulate them from the cold

Due to the climate, carnivorous diets are inefficient for obtaining energy.

43

A significant number of birds like Siberian thrush, white throated sparrow, black throated green warbler migrate
to the taiga to take advantage of long summer days

44

OCEANS
Division of Ocean depths
The World Ocean is a global, interconnected continuous body of saline water. Approximately 71% of the earths
surface is covered by the ocean

For human convenience, the ocean has been divided into several smaller divisions known as oceans and seas

There are five major divisions of the world ocean: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean
and Southern Ocean

Evaporation of water from the oceans is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures determine climate
and wind patterns on land

Life within the ocean evolved about 3 billion years prior to life on land. More than 230,000 marine life forms
are currently known, but the actual number may be 10 times as much

Physical properties

The total area of world ocean is 361 x 106 sq km, and volume is approx 1.3 billion cu km

The average depth of the ocean is 3790 m and maximum depth is 10,923 m

The average density of sea water is 1.025 g/ml and has a freezing point of -2 C

Sea water contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, especially sodium and chloride. On
average, sea water has a salinity of 3.5 %.

The causes of high salinity of sea water include

o

River runoff causing concentration of sodium in the ocean

Sodium leaching out of the ocean floor when the ocean was formed

Chloride abundance due to volcanic activity and hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor

Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years

Sea level

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the oceans surface

Mean Sea level is usually taken to be the half way point between mean high tide and mean low tide

Sea level change can be measured in two ways

o

Local change: local mean sea level can be affected by vertical movement of land, and changes in
atmospheric pressure, ocean currents and local ocean temperature

Eustatic change: is the alteration of global sea levels, such as changes in volume of water in the world
oceans and changes in volume of ocean basins

Short term changes in sea level can arise from tides, atmospheric pressure, storm surges, El Nino etc

Medium term changes in sea level arise mainly from two factors: atmospheric temperature and the mass of
water locked up as fresh water in rivers, lakes, glaciers, ice caps etc

Geological changes in sea levels mainly arise from changes in the configuration of continents and sea floors
due to plate tectonics and seafloor spreading

On a geological time scale, long term sea level has always been higher than today (except at the PermianTriassic boundary 250 million years ago). As a result, sea level is more likely to rise than fall today, even due to
small changes in climate

Over the past 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average of 1.8 mm per year. The majority of this
rise is attributed to thermal expansion of ocean water due to increase in ocean temperatures

MARINE GEOGRAPHY

45

Oceanic basins

Oceanic basins are large geologic basins (large scale rock strata) that are below sea level

In a sense, oceanic basins are the complement to continents

Ocean basins serve as sedimentary basins that collect sediments eroded from continents

Ocean basins can be actively changing or inactive depending on plate tectonics. The Atlantic and Antarctic
Ocean basins are actively growing while the Mediterranean is shrinking. Inactive ocean basins include the Gulf
of Mexico, the Sea of Japan and the Bering Sea

The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of a continent which is currently under sea

Continental shelves were part of the continents during glacial periods (when sea levels were low) but are under
sea during interglacial periods (like today)

The continental shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope, called the shelf break. The sea floor below the
shelf break is called the continental slope. Below the slope is the continental rise, which merges into the deep
ocean floor (called abyssal plain)

Due to the availability of sunlight in shallow waters, continental shelves teem with life, compared to the
biotic deserts in the deep ocean abyssal plains

Continental shelves consist of thick sediments from the continents

Continental shelves extend on average about 80 km from the coast. The largest shelf, the Siberian Shelf in
the Arctic Ocean, stretches to about 1500 km, while certain areas have no shelves at all such as the coast of
Chile and the west coast of Sumatra (Indonesia)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines the extent and regulates usage
of continental shelves by sovereign nations
o

The continental shelf was defined as the natural prolongation of land to the continental margins
outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coast, whichever is greater.

However, the shelf is to not exceed 350 nautical miles, and it is to not exceed 100 nautical miles
beyond the 2500m isobath

The coastal nations have the exclusive right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the
subsoil of the continental shelf

Coastal states also have exclusive rights to living resources attached to the shelf, but not to creatures
living there freely

Mid Ocean Ridges

A mid ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics

Mid ocean ridges are caused by seafloor spreading i.e. magma rising through the crust and emerging as lava
which then cools to form new oceanic crust

A mid ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and is called a divergent plate
boundary

The various mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid ocean ridge system which
covers every ocean. Thus, the mid ocean ridge system is the longest mountain range in the world (over
65,000 km)

Mid ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor

Ocean Trenches

Ocean trenches are large scale long but narrow depressions on the sea floor. They are the deepest parts of
the ocean floor

46

Trenches are found at convergent plate boundaries, where one plate subducts (descends) beneath another. On
average, oceanic crust moves into trenches at a rate of about 0.1 sq m per second

They are usually located parallel to volcanic arcs at a distance of about 200 km

Ocean trenches typically extend about 3-4 km below the level of the surrounding sea floor

The deepest ocean depth known is the Challenger Deep point of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean
(10,911 m)

Trench
Mariana Trench

Location
Depth
Western
Pacific 10,911
Ocean
m
(near
Philippines
and Japan)

Tonga Trench

Southern Pacific
(near New Zealand)

10,882
m

Kuril-Kamchatka
Trench
Philippine Trench

Northern Pacific

10,542
m
10,540
m
10,047
m

Kermadec Trench

Philippines
(Pacific Ocean)
New Zealand
(Pacific Ocean)

Notes
Deepest known part of the ocean
Lowest elevation on the surface of the earths crust
Maximum depth is recorded at Challenger Deep, a
small valley at its southern end
Formed by the subduction of Pacific plate under
Mariana plate
Formed by subduction of Pacific plate under Tonga plate
and Indo-Australian plate
Fastest plate velocity recorded on earth (24 cm per
year)

Extraterrestrial oceans

The earth is the only known planet to have liquid water on its surface

However, liquid water is known to be present under the surface on Jupiters moons Europa, and possibly
on Ganymede and Callisto

It is believed that Venus once had liquid water and oceans on its surface, but they have now vanished

Saturns moon Titan is thought to have subterranean water ocean under its crust (which consists of ice
and hydrocarbons)

OCEANIC HABITATS

Coral reefs are aragonite structures formed by living animal colonies.Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one
of the two major naturally occurring crystalline forms of calcium carbonate (the other being calcite)

Reefs consist mostly of stony corals. These corals are built from polyps that secrete an exoskeleton of calcium
carbonate

Coral reefs grow best in shallow, clear, sunny waters. They are usually found in shallow depths in the tropics,
but deep cold water reefs also exist although on a much smaller scale

Coral reefs are some of the richest and most diverse ecosystems in the world. They occupy less than 1%
of world ocean surface, but provide habitat to about 25% of all marine species

Reefs are found in ocean waters containing few nutrients. High nutrient levels, such as found in agricultural
runoff, can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae growth

Coral reefs are under threat from climate change, ocean acidification, overfishing and overuse of reef resources

Coral reef
Great Barrier Reef

Location
Queensland,

Notes
Largest coral reef system in the world

47

Belize Barrier Reef

Australia
(northeast
Australia)
Belize

New
Caledonia
Barrier Reef

New Caledonia
(southwest
Pacific)
Andros (Bahamas) Bahamas
Barrier Reef
(Caribbean)
Red Sea Coral Reef
Red Sea
Pulley Ridge
Florida, USA
(southeast
USA)
Maldives
Indian ocean
Raja Ampat Islands
Indonesia

Worlds biggest structure made by living organisms

Area of approx 344,000 sq km
Second largest coral reef in the world
Part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef that stretches along eastern
coast of Central America from Mexico to Honduras
French territory in southwest Pacific
Home to endangered dugong, and nesting site for green sea turtle

Deepest photosynthetic coral reef in the world (about 60-80 m)

Consists of about 1200 coral islands

Contains the highest marine life diversity in the world

Deep sea and trenches

As the ocean depth increases, sunlight decreases and water pressure increases.

In general, sunlight is not able to penetrate the ocean water beyond a depth of 200 m. This depth is
considered to be the beginning of aphotic zone (deep sea). Unusual and unique creatures inhabit these
depths including giant squid, gluper eel, angler fish and vampire squid

In the trenches, water pressure is extreme and sunlight is non existent. However, small flounder fish (family
Soleidae) and shrimp have been observed even at these depths

Seamounts (extinct undersea volcanoes that rise to shallow depths) provide natural habitats for fish and other
species to spawn and feed

Hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor support unique life forms, deriving essential nutrients from the

chemicals released by volcanic activity

Open Ocean

The open ocean is relatively unproductive due to lack of nutrients. However, simply due to its vastness, it
possesses the largest number of life forms in total

In the aphotic zone, energy for life forms is mainly supplied in the form of detritus, which is non living
organic material consisting of dead organisms and fecal material

The open ocean consists mainly of jelly fish and its predators like the mola mola

Intertidal and shores

Intertidal zones are those areas close to the shore, which are constantly being covered and exposed by the tides

These areas can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently

A huge array of life forms is found in this zone. This includes crabs, snails etc

Earth Ocean Currents

Actual transportation of water from one part of ocean to another. Because of differences in density, salinity,
temperature of ocean waters, rotation of earth, shape of coastline and the prevailing winds.Currents circulate in
clockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in Southern Hemisphere.
Currents in Pacific Ocean
a. North-Equatorial Current (Warm): Flows across from east to west, i.e., from North America it reaches the
Philippines.

48

b. Kuroshio Current (Warm): N. Eq. current along the Philippines, Taiwan & Japan coast form this current. From
the S.E. Japan the current, under the influence of prevailing westerlies, flows right across the ocean.
c. After reaching the west coast of N. America, it bifurcates into 2 branches :
i. Alasca Current (Warm) : Along the coast of British Columbia & Alasca.
ii. California Current (Cold) : It moves southward along the coast of California
d. Oyashio Current (Cold) : Flows along the east coast of Kamchatka peninsula.
e. Okhotsk Current (Cold)
: Comes from the N. Pole & merges with the Oyashio current.
f. East Australian Current (Warm): Flows from east to west in S. Pacific Ocean.
g. Peru Current (Cold): Cold current near the west coast of S. America.
Currents of Atlantic Ocean
a. Guinea Current (Warm)
: Flows off the W. African coast (hot).
b. Florida Current (Warm)
: Along the coast of US up to the cape Hatterus.
c. Gulf Stream (Warm)
: Beyond the Cape Hatterus up to the Grand Banks of
New Found Land, florida current is known as Gulf Stream. From the Grand Banks the Gulf Stream moves eastward
across the Atlantic as the Atlantic Drift.
d. Atlantic Drift divides into 2 branches:
i . Norwagian Current: The main current passes along the Norway coast & enters the Arctic Ocean.
ii . Canary Current
: The south branch of N. Atlantic drift flows near Spain by this name.
e. 2 Cold Currents
: The East Greenland Current & the Labrador Current flows from the Arctic Ocean into the
Atlantic Ocean.The Labrader Current meets the Gulf Stream. The influence of these 2 currents produces the famous
fogs around New Found Land. [Most busy fishing ground of the world]
f. Brazil Current (Warm) : Flows along the S. American coast from North to South
g. Benguela Current (Cold) : Cold current from S. to N near the Cape of Good Hope,
h. Falkland Current (Cold)
: Cold flowing along the S.E. coast of S. America from S. to N. (meets the Brazil
current)
Currents of the Indian Ocean
The currents in the N. Indian Ocean differ entirely from the general pattern of circulation. They change their direction
from season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
In winters the N. Equatorial current & the S. Equatorial current flows from East to West.
Mozambique Current
: Warm current flowing through the Mozambique Channel.
Agulhas Current
: Warm current at the South-East coast of Africa.

49

World Continents
Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica are the seven continents of the world.
These seven continents were believed to be part of Pangaea which was a single landmass around 250 million years
ago.
Due to the tectonic movement, the landmass broke up and the component continents separated and moved away to
its present position. All these took around 1 million years to complete.
Pangaea was surrounded by a sea, the Panthalassa.
The continents of the world map will give you information about the geographical positions of the continents as well
as their political divisions.
The Continents of the World,

Asia Continents Countries

Africa Continents Countries

North America Continents Countries

South America Continents Countries

Europe Continents Countries

Australia Continents Countries

Antarctica Continents Countries

World Continents: Some Facts

Continents

Biggest Country Highest Peak

Longest River

Asia

China

Mt. Everest (8850 m)

Yangtze Kiang

Africa

Sudan

Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m)

Nile

North America

Canada

Mt. Mckinley (6194 m) Mississippi

Missouri

South America Brazil

Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m)

Amazon

Europe

Russia

Mt. Elbrus (5642 m)

Ob

Australia

Australia

Mt. Coscuisco (2228 m)

Darling

Antarctica

Vinson Massif (5140 m)

SEVEN CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

Name

Area in sq.km

Approx. % of the
world's land

Asia

44,493,000

29.6

Africa

30,293,000

20.2

North America

24,454,000

16.3

South America

17,838,000

11.9

Antarctica

13,975,000

9.3

Europe

10,245,000

6.7

Oceania

8,945,000

6.0

50

Agriculture : Top 5 Producers

Rice

China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam

Wheat

China, India, USA, Russia, France

Maize

USA, China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina

Groundnut China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia

Tea

India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Turkey

Cotton

China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil

Rubber

Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, India, China

Coffee

Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico

Pulses Total Brazil, India, China, Myanmar, Mexico

TYPES OF CULTIVATION:
Only 11% of total landmass of the world comes under the agricultural activity in which 50% of worlds population
is engaged. Following types of agriculture are generally practiced in the world.
1. Shifting Agriculture:
This primitive form of agriculture is prevalent in the tribes of torpical forest, which is also called slash and burn
agriculture and bush-fellow agriculture.
Shifting agriculture is called Bewar, Dehia, Peda in M.P. and Chattisgarh, Podu in Andhra Pradesh, Kaman,
Bingaand Dhavi in Orissa, Kumari in Kerala etc.
2. Subsistence Agriculture:
This type of agriculture is done for the consumption of farmers family involving mainly farming of food grains.
Subsistences agriculture is practiced in the monsoonal climatic regions of Asia in which maximum utilization of
agricultural land is done.
3. Commercial Agriculture:
In this agriculture practiced mainly by the developed countries, crops are grown for the commercial purpose.
Wheat is the most important food crop.
4. Intensive Agriculture:
The main purpose of this agriculture, practiced in the regions of high population density, is to extract maximum
production from the minimum agricultural land. Intensive subsistence agriculture is practiced in the developing
countries and intensive commercial agriculture is practiced in the developed countries.
5. Extensive Agriculture:
This agriculture involves growing of crops by the modern scientific methods on large farms in which minimum
labor and maximum use of machines are done. In this agriculture per hectare production is very low but per labour
and total production is very high. The regions of temperature Grasslands are noted for extensive agriculture.
6. Plantation Agriculture:
Also called estate farming, in this type of commercial agriculture huge amount of
capital and labour is required Banana in the West Indies, Central America and Ecuadore; sugarcane in Cuba and
Venezuela; coffee on the plateau of Brazil and Columbia; Coco in West Africa; tea and coffee on East Africa Plateau;
Tea in North East India and Sri Lanka; Rubber in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and coconut in Philippines are
major plantation crops. The development of this agriculture has taken place mainly in the coastal areas of tropical
regions, where facility of marine navigation is available for the export of agricultural products.
7. Mixed Agriculture:
In the mixed agriculture both crops and live stocks are raised for the commercial purpose. This type of
agriculture is practiced mainly in the densely populated areas of developed countries.
8. Mixed Cropping:
In this agriculture crops of different maturity period are grown simultaneously in a farm.

51

9. Multiple Cropping:
It refers to growing of two or more crops alternatively on farm within the same year.
10. Crop Rotation:
In this, different crops are grown in a systematic succession in each field of a farm for the maintenance of soil
nutrients for a long time.
11. Dry Farming:
Farming done without the facility of irrigation in the regions of inadequate rainfall is called dry farming.
12. Truck Farming:
The intensive, specialized production of fresh vegetables, fruits and flowers at considerable distances from the
metropolitan markets is called truck farming in which the produce is sold. When it is less specialized and nearer to
the market, it is called market gardening. Truck farming is practiced on large scale in Florida and California of USA,
Britain, France, Denmark, Italy etc.

52

Famous Industrialised Countries of the World

Country Associated Industry
Afghanistan
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Chile
China
Cuba
Denmark
England
Finland
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Japan
Italy
Kuwait
Malaysia
Mexico
Netherlands
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
South Africa
U.S.A

Carpets, wool and dry fruits

Wheat, wool, meat
Machinery, Textiles
Glass, Textiles
Coffee
Wheat, Newsprint
Copper
Rice, Wheat, Silk
Sugar, Tobacco
Dairy Products
Textiles, Machinery
Textiles
Textiles, Wine
Machinery
Mica, Tea, Jute, Textiles
Rubber, Cinchona
Petroleum, Carpets
Petroleum, Dates
Electronics, Automobiles
Mercury, Textile
Petroleum
Tin, Rubber
Silver
Electrical goods
Heavy
Machinery,
Petroleum
Oil and Dates
Lead
Matches
Watches
Camphor
Gold and Diamond Mining
Automobiles, Machinery

53

Towns Associated with Industries

Town (Country)
Baku (Azerbaijan)
Bangkok (Thailand)
Belfast (Ireland)
Buenos Aires (Argentina)
Cadiz (Portugal)
Chicago (U.S.A)
Cologne (Germany)
Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Detroit (U.S.A)
Dresden (Germany)
Glasgow (Great Britain)
Havana (Cuba)
Hollywood (U.S.A)
Johannesburg (S. Africa)
Kimberlay (S. Africa)
Leeds (England)
Lyons (France)
Manchester (England)
Mauritius (Indian Ocean)
Milan (Italy)
Morocco (North Africa)
Munich (Germany)
New Orleans (U.S.A.)
Osaka (Japan)
Pittsburg (U.S.A.)
Plymouth (England)
Sheffield (England)
Venice (Italy)
Vienna (Austria)
Wellington (New Zealand)

Associated Industry
Petroleum
Ship building
Ship building
Meat
Cork
Agricultural implements, Meat
Cotton and woollen Industries
Jute
Motor cars
Optical and photographic apparatus
Machinery
Tobacco, Cigars
Film Industry
Gold mines
Diamond mining
Woollen Goods
Silk Industries
Cotton Industry
Fishing, Shipping, Sugar
Silk
Leather
Lenses
Cotton industry
Cotton fabrics
Iron and Steel
Ship-building
Cutlery
Glass manufacturing
Glass manufacturing
Dairy Product

54

Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest in the World

Tallest Animal in the World

Giraffe

Largest Archipelago in the World

Indonesia

Fastest Bird in the World

Swift

Largest Bird in the World

Ostrich

Smallest Bird in the World

Humming Bird

Longest Railway Bridge in the World

Huey P. Long Bridge, Louisiana (U.S.A)

Tallest Building in the world

Burj Dubai, UAE

Canal, Longest Irrigational

The Kalakumsky Canal

Longest Canal in the World

Suez Canal

Highest Capital in the World

La Paz (Bolivia)

Biggest City in Area in the World

Mount Isa (Australia)

Largest City in Population in the World

Tokyo

Costliest City in the World

Tokyo

Highest City in the World

Van Chuan ( China )

Largest Continent in the World

Asia

Smallest Continent in the World

Australia

Biggest Country in the World by Area

Russia

Largest Country in the World by Population

China

Largest Country in the World by Electorate

India

Largest Creature in the World

Blue whale

Largest Delta in the World

Sunderban ( Bangladesh & India )

Largest Desert in the World

Sahara ( Africa )

Largest Desert in Asia

Gobi

Largest Dam in the World

Grand Coulee Dam ( U.S.A )

Dam Highest in the World

Hoover Dam ( U.S.A )

Diamond Largest in the World

The Cullinan

Largest Dome in the World

Astrodome, in Housten ( U.S.A )

Largest Epic in the World

Mahabharat

Largest Irrigation Scheme in the World

Lloyd Barrage, Sukkhur ( Pakistan )

Largest Island in the World

Greenland

Largest Sea in the World

Mediterranean Sea

Deepest Lake in the World

Baikal ( Siberia )

Largest Lake ( Artificial ) in the World

Lake Mead ( Boulder Dam )

55

Highest Lake in the World

Titicaca (Bolivia)

Largest Lake (Fresh water) in the World

Superior

Largest Lake (Salt water) in the World

Caspian

Largest Library in the World

United States Library of Congress, Washington

D.C

Highest Mountain Peak in the World

Everest ( Nepal )

Longest Mountain Range in the World

Andes ( S. America )

Largest Museum in the World

British Museum, London

Largest Ocean in the World

Pacific

Biggest Palace in the World

Vatican ( Italy )

Largest Park in the World

Yellow Stone National Park ( U.S.A )

Largest Peninsula in the World

Arabia

Coldest Place (Habitated) in the World

Verkhoyansk (Siberia)

Dryest Place in the World

Iqique ( in Atacama Desert, Chile )

Hottest Place in the World

Azizia ( Libya, Africa )

Rainiest Place in the World

Mausinram ( Meghalaya, India )

Biggest Planet in the World

Jupiter

Brightest Planet in the World

Venus

Smallest Planet in the World

Mercury

Highest Plateau in the World

Pamir ( Tibet )

Longest Platform in the World

Kharagpur ( India )

Longest Railway in the World

Trans - Siberian railway

Largest Railway Station in the World

Grand Central Terminal, Chicago ( U.S.A )

Longest River in the World

Nile ( Africa )

Largest River in the World

Amazon ( S. America )

Largest Sea-bird in the World

Albatross

Brightest Star in the World

Sirius

Tallest Statue in the World

Statue of Motherland, Volgograd ( Russia )

Largest Telescope Radio in the World

New Mexico ( U.S.A )

World's Tramway first in the World

New York

Longest Tunnel (Railway) in the World

Tanna ( Japan )

Longest Tunnel (road) in the World

Mont Blanc Tunnel between France and Italy

Highest Volcano

Ojos del Salado ( Andes, Ecuador )

Most Volcano Active in the World

Maunaloa ( Hawaii - U.S.A )

56

Longest Wall in the World

Great Wall of China

Highest Waterfall in the World

Angel ( Venezuela )

Lowest Water body in the World

Dead Sea

Largest Zoo in the World

Kruger National Park, South Africa

Important Boundaries
Durand Line
MacMohan Line
Radcliffe Line
Maginot Line
Oder Niesse Line
Hindenberg Line
38th Parallel
49th Parallel

Pakistan & Afghanistan

India & China
India & Pakistan
France & Germany
Germany & Poland
Poland & Germany (at the time of First World War)
North & South Korea
USA & Canada

Important Cities on River Banks (World)

Adelaide
Amsterdam
Alexandria
Ankara
Bangkok
Basra
Baghdad
Berlin
Bonn
Budapest
Bristol
Buenos Aires
Chittagong
Canton
Cairo
Chung King
Cologne
Dandzing
Dresden
Dublin
Hamburg
Kabul
Karachi
Khartoum
Lahore
Leningrad
Lisbon
Liverpool

Australia
Netherlands
Egypt
Turkey
Thailand
Iraq
Iraq
Germany
Germany
Hungary
UK
Argentina
Bangladesh
China
Egypt
China
Germany
Germany
Germany
Ireland
Germany
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Sudan
Pakistan
Russia
Portugal
England

57

Torrens
Amsel
Nile
Kazil
Chao Praya
Eupharates and Tigris
Tigris
Spree
Rhine
Danube
Avon
Laplata
Majyani
Si-Kiang
Nile
Yang-tse-king
Rhine
Vistula
Elbe
Liffy
Elbe
Kabul
Indus
Confluence of Blue & White Nile
Ravi
Neva
Tagus
Messey

Adelaide
London
Moscow
Montreal
Nanking
New Orleans
New York
Ottawa
Paris
Philadelphia
Perth
Prague
Quebec
Rome
Rotterdam
Stalingrad
Shanghai
Sidney
Saint Louis
Tokyo
Vienna
Warsaw
Washington D.C
Yangoon

Australia
England
Russia
Canada
France
USA
USA
Canada
France
USA
Australia
Czech Republic
Canada
Italy
The Netherlands
Russia
China
Australia
USA
Japan
Austria
Poland
USA
Myanmar

Torrens
Thames
Moskva
St. Lawrence
Yang-tse-kiang
Mississipi
Hudson
Ottawa
Seine
Delaware
Swan
Vitava
St. Lawrence
Tiber
New Mass
Volga
Yang-tse-kiang
Darling
Mississipi
Arakava
Danube
Vistula
Potomac
Irrawaddy

Important Lakes of the World

Lake
Caspian
Superior
Victoria
Huron
Michigan
Tanganyika
Baikal
Great Bear
Malawi
Great Slave

Location
Russia and CIS
Canada and USA
Tanzania (Africa)
Canada and USA
USA
Africa
Russia (CIS)
Canada
Malawi (Tanzania)
Canada

Area (Sq.Km)
371000
82414
69485
59596
58016
32892
31502
31080
30044
28438

Note:

More than 60% of the worlds lakes are in Canada; this is because of the
deranged drainage system that dominates the country.

58

Adelaide
Australia
Finland is known as The land of Thousand Lakes.

Torrens

The US State of Minnesota is known as The Land of Ten Thousand

Lakes.

The worlds lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel, Jordan at 395 m
below sea level.

Lake Huron has the longest lake coastline in the world: about 2980 km,
excluding the coastline of its many inner islands.

Important Straits of the World

Straits
Bab-alMandeb
Bering
Bosphorus
Dover
Florida
Gibralter
Malacca
Palk
Magellan
Sunda

Water Bodies joined

Red Sea & Arabian Sea

Area
Arabia & Africa

Arctic Ocean & Bering

Sea
Black Sea & Marmara Sea
North Sea & Atlantic
Ocean
Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic
Ocean
Mediterranean Sea &
Atlantic Ocean
Java Sea & Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal & Indian
Ocean
South Pacific & South
Atlantic Ocean
Java Sea & Indian Ocean

Alaska & Asia

Turkey
England & Europe
Florida & Bahamas Islands
Spain & Africa
India & Indonesia
India & Sri Lanka
Chile
Indonesia

Smallest and Biggest Countries

Biggest Nations (Area - Wise) Biggest Nations (Population - Wise)
Russia
China
Canada
India
China
USA
USA
Indonesia
Brazil
Brazil
Australia
Pakistan
India
Bangladesh
Argentina
Nigeria
Kazakhstan
Russia
Sudan
Japan
Smallest Nations (Area - Wise) Smallest Nations (Population - Wise)
Vatican City
Vatican City
Monaco
Tuvalu
Nauru
Nauru
Tuvalu
Palau

59

Adelaide

Australia

San Marino
Liechtenstein
Marshall Islands
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Maldives
Malta

Torrens

San Marino
Monaco
Liechtenstein
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Antigua and Barbados
Dominica

Important Ores of the world

Iron Ore

China, Brazil, Australia

Copper Ore
Tin
Lead
Zinc
Manganese
Aluminium
Cement
Petroleum
Natural Gas
Silver
Coal

Chili, Peru, USA

China, Indonesia, Peru
China, Australia, USA
China, Australia, Peru
South Africa, USA, Brazil
China, Russia, Canada
China, India, USA
Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA
Russia, USA, Canada
Peru, Mexico, China
China, USA, India

60

Adelaide

Australia

Torrens

61

Geography of India
Index
S.no
Topic

Page no

1.

Physical Geography of India

75

2.

Drainage system of India

3.

Climate

4.

Soils of india

5.

Natural Vegitation of India

6.

Source of Irrigation

7.

Multi Purpose Projects

8.

Agriculture in India

126

9.

Animal Husbandary

150

10.

Industries

156

11.

Minerals

167

12.

Transportation and communication of India

13.

Demography of India

82
91
95
101
116
118

181
189

62

Indian Geographical Location

India is the seventh largest country in the world which makes it obvious for the country to have vast geographical
features. The map on geography of India by mapsofindia tries to contain the massive geographical details of the
country on a map, for your convenience.
There are as many as 28 states in India, located in the total area of 3,287,263 km2. The largest of all Indian
states is Rajasthan which covers an area of 342240 sq km. The state of Rajasthan shares its border with Pakistan on
the West, Gujarat on the South West, Madhya Pradesh on the South East and Punjab to the North.
Goa is the smallest state in India located merely in 3702 sq km. The state of Goa is located to the South West
of India and is the most prosperous of all the states in the country. Uttar Pradesh lying to the North East of the
country is the most populous country in India. The state of Gujarat lying on the extreme west of India is one of the
most prosperous of all Indian states. The awe strikingly beautiful Jammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state in
the country.
Indias eastern border is equipped by states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and
Arunachal Pradesh. All these states together are located in the 7% of the total area in the country. The union
territories in the country are seven in number. Delhi, the capital of India also falls under the category. The other union
territories of the country include Chandigarh located to the North of the country, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman
and Diu located to the West of the country, Lakshadweep located to the South West of the country, Puducherry
located to the South East of the country and Andaman and Nicobar Islands located to the South East of the country.
Lying between latitude 4 N to 376 N and from longitude 687 E to 9725 E, the country is divided into
almost equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer (passes from Jabalpur in MP).The southernmost point in Indian Territory,
(in Great Nicobar Island) is the Indira Point (645), while Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is the
southernmost point of Indian mainland. The country thus lies wholly in the northern and eastern hemispheres. The
8230 E longitude is taken as the Standard Time Meridian of India, as it passes through the middle of India (from
Naini, near Allahabad).
Area Geography & Boundaries Geography
1. India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933 km from East to West.
2. Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and roughly 16% of the
world population.
3. Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
4. In India, of the total land mass:
Plains Geography :
43.3%
Plateaus
:
27.7%
Hills
:
18.6%
Mountains Geography
:
10.7%
5. In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
6. Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar).
7. Indias Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive
Islands in the Arabian Sea.

63

Indian Physiography
Physiographically, India can be divided into 3 units:
1. Mountains in the North
2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South
To these can be added the fourth, namely, the coasts and islands
Mountains of India
The Himalayas in India
Means Abode of Snow. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly
sedimentary rocks.
They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. Total length is about 5000 km.
The width of the Himalayas varies from 500 km in
Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.
The Eastern Himalayas made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
are also known as Purvanchal.
The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high
ranges of Central Asia.
Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features :
The Great Himalayas or The Himadri
Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the worlds highest peaks are here :
Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo Langma)

8850 m (in Nepal)

Mt Kanchenjunqa

8598 m (in India)

Mt Makalu
Mt Dhaulaqiri

8481 m (in Nepal)

8172 m (in Nepal)

Mt Cho Oyu

8153m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanga Parbat

8126m (in India)

Mt Annapurna

8078 m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanda Devi

7817 m (in India)

There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. they include Shipki La and Bara Lapcha
La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and Jelep La
and Nathu La in Sikkim.
Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal
Average height of mountains is 3700 4500 m.
Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction ( mountains rising to 5000 m and the valleys touching 1000 m
).
Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.
Important hill resorts are : Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.
Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

64

 Lowest range ( average elevation is 900 1200 m ).

Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the newest range.
Trans Himalayan Zone
This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh,
Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or
Godwin Austin ( 8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir ). Other high peaks are Hidden Peak ( 8068 m ), Broad Peak (
8047 m ) and Gasherbrum II ( 8035 m ).
The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long ( biggest glacier in the world ).
Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in this region.
This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.
Peninsular Mountains
While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.
The Aravalli Mountains ( Rajasthan ) : Worlds oldest. Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu (
1,722 m ) is situated.
The Vindhya Mountains
The Satpura Mountains ( highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi )
The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its southern part is separated from
the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap ( link
between Tamil Nadu & Kerala ). Other passes are Thalghat ( connects Nasik to Mumbai ) and Bhorghat
(connects Pune to Mumbai).
The Eastern Ghats ( Highest peak : Mahendra Giri ( 1501 m ) ).
The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Two highest peaks are
Dodda Betta and Makurti.
The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi ( 2695 m ) in Anaimalai Hills.
Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.
Facts about position of states
UP borders the maximum number of States 8 ( Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Bihar ). After UP is Assam, which touches the border of 7 States.
Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States
Mizoram.

: Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripuro,

Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States : UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.
9 States form the coast of India. They are
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra

2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.
The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.
The Plains of India
To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are formed
by the depositional works of three major river systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of north India
are alluvial in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.
The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the Western Plains.

65

In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or Kayak, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to
the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.
The plains consist of four divisions:
Bhabar

: Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous

Tarai

: Re emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness

Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called kankar
Khadar

: New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

Spreads south of the Indo Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle
with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western
boundaries, respectively.
Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the
Deccan Plateau in the south.
Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.
Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi
plateau.
The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous Eocene era
through the fissure eruptions.
Islands of India
Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat ( Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh ).
Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Group

Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.

The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country.

Saddle Peak ( 737 m ) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.

The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.

Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.

Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption these days after lying
dormant for 200 years.

The Arabian Sea Group

All the islands in the Arabian Sea ( Total 25 ) are coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs ( North :
Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy ).
Note :

Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars ( Little Andaman from Car Nicobar

Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.

Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island ( India ) from Maldives.

66

67

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA

The rivers of India play an important role in the lives of the Indian people.
Seven major rivers along with their numerous tributaries make up the river system of India. Most of the rivers pour
their waters into the Bay of Bengal; however, some of the rivers whose courses take them through the western part
of the country and towards the east of the state of Himachal Pradesh empty into the Arabian Sea.
Parts of Ladakh, northern parts of the Aravalli range and the arid parts of the Thar Desert have inland drainage.
Dr.Francis Buchanan surveyed the courses of the rivers of India along with their tributaries and branches in 1810-11
AD and presented a minute account of it.
The shifting of the courses and bed over the centuries is very remarkable. Many of the channels mentioned in that
survey have now become dead , dried or even extinct.
All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:
1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
2. Vindhya and Satpura ranges and Chotanagpur plateau in central India
3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India
The Indus:

(Sanskrit-Sindhu) After originating from the northern slopes of the Kailash range (Tibet). flows northwestwards through tibet and Ladakh.

The river follows a long and nearly straight course in Ladakh. running between Ladakh Range and Zaskar
Range. The Shyok and Gilgit are its important right bank tributries and the Zaskar is left bank tributary.

After crossing Himalayas through a very deep gorge (5181 metres at Bunji north of the Nanga Parvat), it turns
to the sourth-west and enters Pakistan.

The River has developed antecedent drainage in Jammu and Kashmir state. It leaves the mountains at Attock
and flows roughly southwards until it falls into Arabian Sea near Karachi. It has a length of 2900 km from its
source to the Arabian sea.

The Jhelum (Sanskrit) Vitasta Emerges from spring at Verinarg, situated in the south-eastern part of the vale
of Kashmir.

It flows northward from its source to Wular lake and further down South-West wards, till it enters a george lies
between Baramula and Muzaffarabad. Its gradient is gentle in the vale of Kashmir and is navigable between
Anantnag and Baramula.

It turns to the North-West below Uri and South below Muzaffarabad and continues until Mangla is reached.
Kishangange its right banks tributary, joins it at Muzaffarabd. Between Muzuffarabad and Manga it runs
roughly along the Indo-Pakistan border, and joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. Its length is 400 km.
The Chenab (Sanskrit, Asiknii or Chandrabhanga):

The Chenab of Jammu & Kashmir state is known as Chandrabhanga in Himachal Pradesh. The Chandra and
Bhanga, the head stream of Chandrabhanga originate from either side of the Bara-Lacha pass in Lahul.

The Chandrabhanga flows North-West wards and runs parallel to the Pir Panjal range for some distance near
Kishtwar it cuts a deep gorge in the Pir Panjal range and turns southwards and flows in this direction for a
short distance, further down it turns to the west and enters the plain area near Akhnur. Its length in India is
1180 km.
The Ravi (Sanskrit : Parushni or Iravati):

The source of this river lies near the Rohtang pass. From its origin it flows to the

north-west and drains the area lying between the south-eastern part of Pir Panjal range and the Daula-Dhar
Range. Some and distances below Chamba, it turns to the south-west and cuts a gorge in Dhaula-Dhar range,
enters the Punjab plain near Madhopur. Before entering Pakistan it runs almost along the northern boundary
of Gurdaspur and Amritsar districts.

It being a part of Indo-Pakistan boundary, the river has some strategic significance. It joins the Chenab in
Pakistan. Its length is 720 km.
The Beas : (Sanskrit: Vipasa or Argikiya):

68

Emerges from a place known as Beas kund, near the Rohtang pass, In its early stage it runs from North to
South passes Manali and Kulu, where its valley is popularly known as Kulu Valley. It crosses the Dhaula-Dhar
range through a deep gorge.

Further down, it turns to the west and enters the Punjab plain near Mirthal. Since some of its tributaries
originating from the southern side of the great Himalaya are snow-fed. So it has relatively large volume of
water during the long dry season.

After debouching on the plain its turns to the south-west and joins the Satlej near Harike after flowing a
distance of 615 km.
The Satlej (Sanskrit : Satadru or Satudri):

Originates from Rakas lake, situated at an altitude of 4555 meter in Tibet. The lake is connected with
Manasarowar Lake by a stream. After following the North-westward route the river enters the Himachal
Pradesh at Shipki pass. Further it flows westward.

It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalayas and other ranges of the Himalayas. It tributries in
Himachal Pradesh are short in length except the Spiti which drains a large Trans-Himalayas area and joins it
at Namgia (near sipki pass) as its right bank tributary.

Before entering the Punjab plain it cuts a gorge in the Naina Devi Dhar. A dam has been constructed across
this gorge near village Bhakra. known as Bhakra Dam. After entering the plain it turns to the south.

Below Rupar it turns to the West. The Beas its right bank tributary joins it at Harika. A short distance below
Hariko the Satlej runs almost short distance below Hariko the Satlej runs almost along the Indo-Pak boundary
and enters Pakistan near Sulemanki.

Its length in India is 1050 km.

The Luni: Its source lies near Ajmer in the Aravali Range. It flows southward and falls into Rann of Kutch. The Bandi,
the Sukri, and the Jawan are its important left bank tributries.
The Mahi: Having its source in Udaipur district in the southern Aravalli Range flows towards the south-south-west
and pours its water into the Gulf of Cambay through as estuary.
The Narmada: Emerges from the Amarkantak plateu in Madhya Pradesh, flows towards the west. Near Jabalpur it
makes a water about 10 meters high and flows ina narrow gorge about 3 km long, which is known as a Marble
Rocks. It flows westward in the rift valley, where its course is nearly straight. It widens below Braoch and makes an
estuary, which enters the Gulf of Cambay. Its legnth is 1290 km.
The Tapti: Rises in Betual district in the Satpura range and flows westward like the Narmada. After flowing Satpura
range, turns to the south, after emerging out of the Bhuranpur Gap. It receives the Purna. It flows in the between
Satpura range in the North and Ajanta range in the South. After making an estuary below Surat and falls into the Gulf
of Cambay. Its length is 700 km long.
THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM FALLING INTO THE BAY OF BENGAL
This system drains a very large area with varied relief and structure, the middle part of the Himalayas in the
North and the northern part of the Indian Plateau, (roughly north of line running along the Vindhyan range, the
Amarkantak Plateau and the watershed lying east of the Suvarnarckha) in the south.
The Ganga
Rises from the Gangotri Glacier, at the height of 5163 metre a part of Great Himalayas lies in Uttaranchal. The
river cuts through the Great Himalayas and the lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges.

It is called Bhagirathi above Dev Prayag and Ganga below this town. The Alaknanda, an important affluent
joins it at Dev prayag. At Haridwar it leaves Himalayas, and enters the plain below this town runs towards the
south-east upto Mirzapur and further down eastward in Bihar plain.

It turns south-east near the Raj Mahal and after traversing same distance in Murshidabad district of West
Bengal, it enters Bangladesh.

The Ganga delta in the West Bengal lies the south of this river. Bhagirathi-Hooghly is the western most
distributory of the Ganga and it lakes off from the right bank of this river in Murshidabad district. The hooghly is
a tidal river and is navigable below Calcutta.

The total length of Ganga is about 2510 km.

69

The Ganga is the most sacrosanct river of India, the most important pilgrimage centres namely Haridwar,
Allahabad, Varanasi are situated on the bank of this river.
The Yamuna

The right bank tributary of Ganga, rises at Yamunotri glacier, sitauted at the Wester slope of Banderpoonch.
After cutting a deep gorge at lesser Himalays, it flows towards the South-West and enters the Ganga plain
Paonta Sahib. After crossing Nagtibba range it meets with its tributary Tons.

The Yamuna flows towards the towards the south-east direction till it joins the Ganga at Allahabad. Chambal,
Sind, Betwa and Ken are its important tributaries and join it at its right bank. The length of the Yamuna from its
source upto Allahabad is 1300 km.

The Chambal

Rises near Mhow in the Vindhyan range (Janapav 616 meter height) and flows towards the north generally in
a gorge upto Kota.

Passing through Dhar, Ujjain, Ratlam, Mandsaur of Madhya Pradesh, it enters the Rajasthan state and flows
Kota and Bundi, after this it forms the boundary of Rasthan and Madhya Pradesh and later on Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

After reaching Pinhat it turns to the east and runs nearly parallel to Yamuna, Chambal joins Yamuna near
Etawah. It is 1060 km long. Banas is an important left bank tributary of Chambal.

The sind,Betdwa and ken are its other tributries. Chambal has carved down numerous ravines in the alluvial
plain of Ganga.
The Banas - Rises in the southern part of Aravalli Range and flows to the north-east direction. It joins the Chambal
at a point about 30 km to the east of Sawai Madhopur.
The Son - It originates from Amarkantak plateau. After flowing for same distance to the north, it meets the Kashmir
range which turns its course towards the north east and allows it to follow a strike valley. Almost all of its tributries
join it on its right bank. It merges into Ganga near Ram Nagar. In this river the volume of water fluctuates widely
During the rainy season it is often in spate and has very little water during the dry season. It is 780 km long.
The Ram Ganga - Rises in the Great Himalayas (near Garhwal of Uttaranchal) and enters the ganga plain near
Kalagarh (Bijnor) River Koh joins it from the right bank. After flowing in Moradabad, Rampur, Bareilly, Badaun and
Shahjahanpur, part of Farrukhabad and Hardoi districts, it merges with Ganga near Kannauj. Its length is 600 km.
The Sarda - It rises from Milap Glacier, from the Great Himalayas. It is known by various names Kali in Himalayas,
Sarda in Pilibhit and Kheri districts and the Chaukha before it joins the right bank of Ghaghara near Bahramgwat.
The Sarada runs along the Indo-Nepal boundary and levels the Himalayas at Baramed.
The Ghanghara

Originates from Bharchachuga glacier Rakchash - Tal in Nepal. Though its headwater, the Karnali, also
orignates Trans - Himalayan and crosses western part of Nepal Himalaya as forms deep and narrow gorges.

After crossing the Silwalik ranges, chok, a tributary of Sarda joins it near Baharampur.Flowing towards east
the river forms the district boundaries of Gonda, Barabanki and Faizabad near Barhaj Bazar at Gorakhpur,
from north the little Gandak (Rapti) joins Ghaghera.

In end it joins Ganga near Chhapra (Bihar).

The river is large and is generally chocked with silt. It often shifts its course. Its length is 1180.
The Rapti - Originates from Rukunkot Nepal, flows south west then south. Passing through Bahrajch, Gonda, Basti
and Gorakhpur joins Ghaghera near Bahraj.
The Gandak - known as Saligrami in Nepal and Naraini in plain, rises near Sino-Nepal boundary and drains the
central part of Nepal and separates the boundary fo Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. After entering Champaran district
(Bihar), it turns to the south east and joins the left bank of Ganga at Sonpur. Like Ghaghera it often changes its
course and is notorious for its flood.
The Gomi

Originates from the height of 200 meters in Pilibhit district (U.P), flows from north-west sourth-west in between
Ganga Ghaghera Doab. River Kathna and Sarayan, the two small rivers join left bank of Gomti at Sitapur
distrcit.

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The river Gomti forms the boundary of Sitapur and Hardoi districts, na denter Lucknow districts. After flowing
Barabanki Sultanpur and Jaunpur joins Ganga at Gazipur, Lucknow the capital of Uttar Pradesh is situated at
its bank.
The Kosi

A left bank tributary of Ganga, is a collective name of seven rivers, Milamchi, Bhotia, Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Likhu,
Dudkh Kosi, Arun and Tambur.

River Arun known as Pangehu in Tibet, emerges from the northern slope of Gosaithan rane, flows south west
of Sapu upto 320 km. The three large rivers, the arun, the SUN kosi and the Tamur draining Mt. Everest and
Kanchenjuna in east Nepal, unite north of the Mahabharat range and form the Kosi.
The Kosi enters the tarai of Nepal after cutting a gorge in the Mahabharat range at Chatra. Its catchment area
in Nepal is highly rugged and mountainous. It measures 59,310 sq km. and is second only to that of
Brahmaputra. Rainfall too is heavy in the catchment area of this river.
Soon after debouching the plain, the river becomes sluggish and begins to deposit its load.

The Kosi has shifted its course westward in North Bihar and is now 110 km away from the course it had 200
years ago. Its total length is 730 km. The Kosi joins Ganga at Karagola.
The Betwa - It originates near Kumra Gaon, (District Raisen M.P.) from Vindhyan ranges flowing north-ward of
Vidisha and Guna districts of Madhya Pradesh enters the Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. After flowing near northeastern boundary of Tikamgarh, it joins Yamuna near Hamirpur. Its total length is 480 km.
The Mahanadi

It is an important river of Orissa and the south-eastern part of Madhya Pradesh.

The river has its rise in Sihawa range, fringing the southern part of Chattisgarh
plain.

After flowing northward for same distance, it receives Seonathon its left bank, a little above Seorinarayan.

The upper Mahanadi flows in the Chattisgarh plain which being surrounded by hill ranges is a large basin.
Below Seorinarayan it flows eastwards and turns southward a little below Hirakud Dam. Further turns
eastward near Sonepur.

After crossing the eastern ghats, through a gorge, divides itself into distributries at Cuttack, and merges with
Bay of Bengal. Its total length is 890 km.
Tawa - Originates from Mahadeo hill of Panchmarhi and joins Narmada.
Hasdo - Originates from Kaimur ranges of Sarjuga district. After flowing Bilaspur it joins Mahanadi.
Indravati - Originates from the Kalahari region of Orissa. After flowing westward, it forms a fall near Chitrakut, enters
the Andhra Pradesh and joins the Godavari.
Kalisind - Originates from Vindhyachal, near Banglo village of Devas. After flowing Sojapur and Naringhgarh district
it joins Chambal at Rajasthan.
Sind : Originates near Shiraj in district Guna flowing Guna, Shivpuri, Datia and Bhind, joins Chambal near Etawah.
Ken : Orignates from Vindhyan ranges. Flows towards north and joins Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh.
Parwati : Originates from Vindhyan ranges in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Kota and Pali districts of Rajasthan,
joins Chambal.
Ghaggar - Originates from Himalayas near Kalika, drains the northern fringe of Haryana state in a rainy season
stream and loses itself near Hanumangarh in the desert.
Banganga - Originates from Bairath hills at Jaipur, drains Bharatpur district and joins Yamuna at Fatchabad near
Agra.
Som - Orginates from Bicchamera at Udaipur, flows South-east thereafter flows eastward forming the boundary
Dungarpur, joins Mahi near Bapeshwar. Jokham, Gomti and Sarani are its tributary.
Sawarmati - : Originates from the South western part of Gujrat and flows in Gujrat state. Bakal, Hathmati, Meshwa,
Betrak and Majam are its tributaries.
Berach : Originates from Gomunda hills, north of district Udaipur. After flowing 190 km joins Banas near Chittorgarh.
Brahamputra

Brahamputra takes its rise in a Glacier about 100 km south-east of Mansarowar lake at the height of 5,510
meters. In tibet it runs parallel to the Himalaya for about 1200 km. Here it is known as Tsangpo.

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It turns to the south along the eastern flank of Nameha Barwa and crosses. the Assam Himalayas under the
noun of Dihang. Near Sadiyer it receives the Dibang coming from the north and the Luhit coming from the east
and enters the Assam valley, where it is called the Brahamputra, it flows to the west upto Dhubri na dfurther
below it runs to the south and enters Bangladesh.

It is navigable for about 1280 km from the Bay of Bengal to Dibrugarh. Its local length is 2900 km which is
more than that of Ganga by 400 km.

The number of streams joining the Brahamputra on its right bank is greater than that of those joining it on its
left bank.

The Subansiri, the Bhareli and the Manas are its important right bank tributaries, the Diabang, the Luhit, the
Buri Dihing, the Dhanasiri, the Kapili are large streams and they pour great quantities of water in the
Brahmaputra, which became notorious for floods as well as erosion on its banks.
The Manipur - Rising in the north of Manipur state, flows southwards drains Laktak Lake and joins the Chindwin in
Burma (Myanmar).
The Barak -Originating from Mt Japvo flows southwards in Manipur State, makes a hairpin bend near the northwestern boundary of this state and turns to the north near Lakhimpur. It turns to the west through Cachar near IndoBangladesh border, it bifurcates, one branch is called the Kusiyara and the other the Surma. They flow westward for
same distance in Bangladesh and again unit.
The Kalandan

It drains the southern part of Mizoram flows southward, traverses, Myanmar and falls into Bay of Bengal.

The Krishna - The river takes its rise in a place near Mahabaleshwar in Western Ghats and flows through
Satara and Sangli district of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka and southern Andhra Pradesh state.

The Bhima and Tungabhadra are its important tributaries. Its headwaters namely Koyna and the Ghatprabha
pass through deep valleys or gorges in the western Ghats and it cuts a gorge in Nammalai hills. I(t has built a
fertile delta near Vijaiwada. It is 1290 km long.
The Cauvery

It is known as the Ganga of South India. It drains the South - Western part of Karnataka state and the middle
part of Tamilnadu state.

Since its drainage basin receives rainfall during the summer monsoon rainy season as well as the winter
season. It is a perennial as well as very useful river. It rises in the Brahmagiri Hill (Coorge district) in the
western Ghats and flows generally eastwards in Karnataka state.

The Hemavati, and the Krishna are its important left bank tributries and Kabbari, the Bhavani, the Nozil and
the Aurawali its right bank tributaries.

The river has two islands namely Seringapattam and Shivasamudram. Below Tiruchirapalli it flows into two
branches, the coleroon in the North and Cauvery in the South. These two branches roughly enclose the delta.
It is 760 km long. The river has been dammed at no. of places for the development of irrigation and hydroelectricity.
Pennar-Originates in Kolar district (Karnataka), its chief tributries are Chittravati and Papaghni. it flows through a
gorge of cuddapah near Chandikota (Cuddapah district) and enters the sea near the town of Nellore.
Rivers of the Peninsula in India
Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow ( while Himalayan rivers are perennial
).
They can be divided into two groups:
A. East Flowing Rivers of India ( or Delta forming rivers )
Mahanadi River ( 858 km ) : Rises in Raipur distt. in Chhattisgarh. Main tributaries: lb, Seonath,Hasdo, Mand, Jonk,
Tel, etc.
Godavari River ( 1465 km ) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest peninsular river. Rises
in Nasik. Main tributaries : Manjra, Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
Krishna River ( 1327 km ) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries:Koyna, Dudhganga,
Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.

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Cauvery River ( 805 km ) : It is the largest peninsular river ( maximum amount of water ). Infact, it is the only
peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year. Known as the Ganga of the South. It rises from the
Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main tributaries : Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others as
its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon and the lower catchment area during
winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon. Its 90% 95% irrigation and power production potential is already
being harnessed.
Swarnarekha River ( 395 km ) and Brahmani ( 705 km ) : Rises from Ranchi Plateau.
B. West Flowing Rivers in India
Narmada River ( 1057 km ) : Has only l / 10th part in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak Plateau and flows into Gulf of
Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar,
Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
Tapti River ( 724 km ) : Rises from Betul distt in MR Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada. Main tributaries:
Purna, Betul,Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.
Sabarmati River ( 416 km ) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.
Mahi River ( 560 km ) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR
Luni River ( 450 km ) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head
of the Rann of Kuchchh.
Sharavathi River is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi
Falls ( 289 m ),which is the highest waterfall in India.
Inland Drainage
Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Ghaggar ( 494 km ) is the most
important of such drainage.
It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost in the dry sands of
Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of the Vedic times.
Note:
The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat MP.
Chilka Lake ( Orissa ) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India.
Wular Lake ( J & K ) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there in J & K.
From Sambhar and Didwana Lake ( Rajasthan ), salt is produced.
Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru & Pulicat in AP.
The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:
Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation
Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat ( Gujarat ) : Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it.
Gulf of Mannar ( south east of Tamil Nadu ) : Asias first marine biosphere reserve.
MORE FACTS ABOUT THE DRAINAGE IN INDIA
Indus though a perennial river, takes most of its water while flowing through Thar desert. Its delta is mostly
waste land and is full of brakishwater.
Brahamputra has different names in different countries e.g. Tsangpo (Tiher), Brahamputra (India), Jamuna
(Bangladesh). During floods, the water of Brahamputra looks reddish in colour after mixing the red soil of Assam.
Ganga the second longest river in India. The Ganga and Brahmputra flows in opposite direction. They meet at
Bangladesh, and form a delta ( largest in the world).
Gaumukh (meaning cows mouth, an ice cave of Himalaya is the souces of Ganga.
Yamuna, the most important tributary on the rightbank of river Ganga, while Gomati, Ghahra, Gandak, Kosi are
the left bank tributries of Ganga. Son is the only big river to join Ganga directly from southern plateau.
River Damodar, the sorrow of Bengal cause destruction of lives, cattle and crops due to frequent floods and joins
Ganga from the right.
Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Sind and Son from Peninsula India flow towards Ganga. They rise from Vindhyan
Ranges.

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 Cauvery is shown as a Ganga of South forms Sivasamudram fall.

Narmada forms a magnificent water fall (Marble falls of Bheraghat in M.P.)
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Pennar, are the major river system of India.
draining into Bay of Bengal.
Indus Sabarmati, Narmada and Tapti drain into Arabian sea.
Godavari is the largest river system in Peninsular India.
The Cauvery basin is one of the most developed regions of India from the point of view of power and irrigation.

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The Climate of India

India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayas in the north
as they block the cold the cold air masses from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a
watershed in India.
The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern zone and the
southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons and
the hot summer seasons.
The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear cut winter season.
The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year; the southern
zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year.
Climate Seasons in India
In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the
differential heating of land and movement of the suns vertical rays.
The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid March, due to which hot and dry
weather arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is
created. The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.
This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north western parts of the country experience hot, dry
winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experience storms / dust storms at various places.
1. Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called Andhis in UP and Kalbaisakhis in West Bengal. They
involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation.
2. The Norwesters originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east
direction which brings about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West
Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West
Bengal.
3. Similarly, Cherry Blossoms are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and
Mango showers in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.
This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September.
South west monsoon
In May, the south west monsoon sets in. The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.
The south west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the other
over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the country ( except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert
area ). The S.W monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu falls
on the leeward side.
In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. The Bay of Bengal current
causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the Himalayas over the
Indo Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time it reaches W
Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.
The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets
entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing heavies
rainfall in Mawsinram ( Approx. 1400 cm ).
North east monsoon
From mid Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the suns vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of
Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is called
north east monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes rainfall
in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why Tamil Nadu
remains dry when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire country is dry.
The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in south is 24 25c, and
while in the north is 10 15c. In the latter part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly
depressions ( temperate cyclones ) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north west India.

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Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in nature. Cyclonic
storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the North
Climatic Regions of India
India can be divided into a number of climatic regions :
Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam.
Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm annually
during May-November.
Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula region except the semi arid zone in the leeward side of the
Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature
(above 18.2c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.
Tropical Semi Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the rain shadow belt running southward from Central
Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by
low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.
Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies from
12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5 63.5 cm, is also
highly erratic.
Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall ( 30.5 cm ), which is highly erratic. Rains are
mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high ( about 35c ).
Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical and
subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely hot. The
annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west monsoon season.
Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such as
the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range

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SOILS OF INDIA
Before classifying various type of soils, it is better to take brief account of the factors that affect the soil
formation. These factors are:
1. Parent material:
The parent material, of which the soils are formed, is derived from the weathering of the rocks exposed on
surface. For example the soil derived from lava and rocks is generally black in colour.
2. Relief features:
They influence the process of soil formation through various ways. The variation in relief features like slope,
underground water etc. affect the colour, composition and properties of soil.
3. Climate:
Climate is the main important single factor in soil formation. It affects the conditions of soil formation through the
amount and seasonal distribution of temperature as rainfall. It also effects soil formation indirectly by affecting other
genetic factors like parent material, relief features, natural vegetation, etc.
4. natural vegetation:
The decayed leaf material adds to the fertility of soil by providing to it much needed content of humus. That is
why, the densely forested areas contain some of the best soils.
Rain water washes the calcium compounds and consequently it cause the soil deficient in Lime.
Soil deficient in lime are acidic and develop in area of heavy rainfall.
Oxygen combining with iron compounds produces Iron-Oxide, red in colour and it gives the red colour to the
soils.
Chemical weathering is more important in hot tropical climate. Hence, the Indian subcontinent is prone to
chemical weathering.
Leaching is more important in area of heavy rainfall. It is the most common feature of hilly regions of India.
High temperature of India promotes active decay of vegetation and hence humus is destroyed. So, Indian soils
are generally deficient in humus and require regular application of nitrogen rich fertilizer.
Titanium salt adds black colour to the soils of Indian Plateau.
Sedentary soil/in situ soil produced after breaking of parent rocks underneath the surface are usually very deep
up to 15 mt. or more on the Deccan Plateau.
Drifted soils/Transported soils/Azonal soils formedin situ but transported by agents and deposited in valleys and
deltas.
Sedentary soils are: Black cotton soils, Leterite Red soil, Podzolic soil of forest, Saline and Alkaline soil, Peaty
soil.

SOILS TYPES
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided the Soils of India into 8 major groups.
1. Alluvial Soils including the coastal and deltaic alluvium:
Agriculturally the most important soils. It covers 24% of the countrys total area. Mainly found in Central plains
extending from Punjab to Assam; Eastern and Western Coastal plains and deltaic region.
Alluvial soil is transported or inter-zonal soil. It is divided into Khadar (newer) and Bhabar (older). This soil is,
however, deficient in nitrogen and humus content; unsuitable for water retentive plantation e.g. cotton. Suitable for
the cultivation of rice, wheat, sugar cane and vegetables.
Khadar-Finer and newer alluvium. Its texture varies from clayey to sandy loam. It is light in colour and is formed
in the flood-plains of rivers and is generally acidic, deficient in lime, phosphorus and humus.
Kankar-They are found only few feets below the surface of bhangar which is a bed of lime nodules known as
Kankar. Kankars are collected near Dadri in Haryana for making cement.

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 Bhangar-They are older alluvium or coarse gravel, high level soils above 30 Mt. above flood level where flood
water cannot reach. Its texture is more clayey and the colour is darker.
Alluvial texture varies from sand and loam to silts and heavy clays that are ill drained and sometimes injurious
accumulations of salt and produces a strile surface called Usar.
In the sub-mountain belts on the foot hills of Siwalik alluvial forms with coarse often pebbly soils known as
Bhabhar. To its south occurs swampy lowlands with silty soils known as Tarai.
2. Black cotton Soils:
This is also called regur soil. Main areas include Deccan Trap, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, U.P. and Rajasthan.
Black Soils are usually deficient in nitrogen, phosphate and humus but rich in Potash, lime, aluminium, calcium
and magnesium. The soil is moisture retentative and it has a high degree of fertility. Suitable for the cultivation of
cotton, cereals, oilseeds, tobacco, groundnut and citrus fruits.
Black soils develop under semi-arid condition, in area covered with basalt.
Colour of the black soils vary from deep black to light black or chestnut. The black colour is added due to the
presence of Titaniferous magnetite.
They become sticky when wet due to high percentage of clay and develop cracks in hot-sunny whether.
Black soils are well known for their fertility. Since, the content of water soluble salt is high they are not suitable
for heavy irrigation.
Black soils regions are ideal for dry forming due to their moisture retentive quality.
3. Red Soils:
Occupies about 70% of the total area in Tamilnadu, Chotanagpur, few parts of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
They comprise of red loams and due to oxidation of ferro-magnesium these soils have developed in Peninsular India.
Red soils have a concentration of iron, absence of lime, Kankar, carbonates, humus, phosphoric acid and
neutral to acid reactions. Favorable for the cultivation of pulses and coarse grains.
Red soils develop generally on crystalline and metamorphic rocks rich in Ferro magnesium minerals. Hence they
are more sandy and less clayey.
Red soils are found in area of comparatively low rainfall and so are less leached than the laterite soils.
They are not retentive to moisture so cultivated mostly during the rainy season.
Crops: Rice, Ragi, Tobacco, Vegetables, Groundnut etc. on coarse soil for higher level; Sugarcane on heavy
clay at lower level.
4. Laterite Soils:
They are formed under the conditions of high rainfall and temperature with alternate wet and dry periods.
These soils are rich in oxides of iron and aluminium but poor in nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid and lime content
due to leaching, highly acidic in nature. These soils are concentrated in Vidhyan Plateau, Satpura, Mahadeo and
Maikal ranges in Madhya Pradesh, Malabar Coast, Orissa Coast and Meghalaya.
Laterite soils develop in the tropical region which receive heavy seasonal rainfall. Heavy rainfall promotes
leaching whereby lime and silica are leached away and soils rich in oxides of iron and aluminium are left behind.
If the oxide of aluminium predominates the laterie soils, they are called Bauxite, the chief industrial ore of
aluminium.
Laterite soils are red due to the presence of oxides of iron.
Laterite soils are poor in lime content hence acidic in nature.
Laterite soils of high areas are very poor and least retentive to moisture. Sometimes they form the barren land
topography.
Laterite soils of low level areas hinders the process of laterization due to regular addition of soil washed down
from the neighbouring high areas.
Crops: Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane, Tapioca, Chestnut etc.
5. Forest Soils:
Humus predominates in forest soil but it is the deficient in potash, phosphorous and lime. It is distributed over
the Himalayan and other ranges in the north, Western Ghats Eastern Ghats and Peninsula. Favourable for plantation
crops e.g. tea, coffee spices and tropical fruits.

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1. Podzols (At high Level)-They are formed under high acidic condition and found on higher slopes of Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. They are covered by coniferous forests. They are highly leached due to
excessive moisture and are greyish brown in colour.
2. Brown Forests Soil (In warm Temperate belt)-They are less acidic than podzol with high base status. They are
rich humus and fertile and extensively used for crop cultivation.
3. Alpine Medow (In alpine zone of Himalayas)-They are dark coloured, either sandy-clay or sandy loam. They
contains mostly under composed plants.
6. Arid and Desert Soils:
These soils, characterized by high salt and low humus content, are found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Rann
of Kutch and other rain-shadow regions, since these soils consist of high phosphate, fertility increases with irrigation
and by adding nutrients.
Desert soils are found in and arid and semiarid conditions in north-western part of India, west of Aravalli range.
They are mostly friable and low in moisture content.
They are rich in phosphate but poor in nitrogen and clay content (only 8%).
Crops: Very few crops specially Millets, Jowar, Bajra are grown for want of water supply.
7. Saline and Alkali Soils:
Develop along arid region in small patches. Also called reh Kallar and Usar, they are infertile but can be
reclaimed by good drainage. These soils are found in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and Bihar.
Saline and alkaline soils develop at places where desert condition prevails because of high rate of evaporation
and very little leaching.
Saline soils contain free sodium and other salts while alkaline soils have sodium chloride.
Crops: Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco etc. supported by irrigation. For better fertility application of
lime and gypsum and cultivation of salt resistant crops like Berseem, Rice, Sugarcane can be used.
Alkaline soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen and are highly impervious and have very low water holding
capacity.
8. Peaty and Organic Soils:
Develop under result of accumulation of large quantity. Highly saline and deficient in phosphate and potash and
occur in central Orissa, Central Bihar, West Bengal and Tamilnadu.
Peaty and Marshy soils originates in humid regions as a result of an accumulation of large amount of organic
matters.
They may contain considerable solible sale and is called as Kari.
These areas are submerged under water during the monsoon season and as soon as rain cease the land is put
under paddy cultivation.
These soils are black, heavy and highly acidic.
SOIL EROSION

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

The destruction of soil cover is known as soil erosion. The main reasons of soil erosion are:
Deforestation
Over-grazing
Irrational Cultivation (eg., Jhoom cultivation in North Eastern India).
Floods
Winds

79

80

NATURAL VEGETAION OF INDIA

Before discussing about natural vegetation, it would be better to understand the distinction between flora,
vegetation and forest.
Flora:
It refers to the plants of a particular region of period, listed by species and considered as a group.
Vegetation:
It refers to the assemblage of plant species living in association with each other in a given environment-often
termed ecological frame.
Forests:
Forest is a large tract covered by trees and shrubs. It consists of forests grassland scrub. Natural vegetation in
India is rich and diverse because of varied relief features, land forms, terrain, soil, temperature differences and
varying amount of rainfall. India is divided into the following manor vegetational regions.
1. Tropical evergreen or Rain Forests:

These forests occur in areas where the rainfall exceeds 200 cm, the average annual temperature is between 20 0
C to 270 C and average annual humidity exceeds 77%. The trees are evergreen and dense and forests have a
three storied appearance.
These forests are found in Western parts of Western ghats, eastern part of subtropical Himalayas (Tarai), Jaintia
and Garo hills and most of Andaman and Nicobar Islanda.
These forests may be sub-divided into the following sub-types:
i) Tropical wet evergreen forests:
They cover 4.5m ha area and are found along with western side of the western ghats, in a strip running
southwest from Arunachal Pradesh, upper Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
Here the rainfall exceeds 300 cms. The forests are lofty, dense, evergreen and multistoried.
The main species of trees found are poon, toon, chaplas, rosewood, ebony, sissoo, ironwood, gurjan, pila
champa etc. the undergrowth consists of canes, bamboo, ferns, climbers etc. Due to the dense undergrowth and
lack of transport these forests have not been exploited.
ii) Tropical semi-evergreen forests:
Where the rainfall is somewhat less that 200 cms, the mean annual temperature between 240 C to 270 C and
humidity percentage is 80, the evergreen forests degenerate into semi-evergreen forests. These cover 1.9 m.,
area.
These forests are found on the western coast, in the upper Assam, lower slopes of eastern, Himalayas, Orissa
and neighbouring hills and in Andaman and Nicobar islands.
The forests have evergreen trees mixed with decidus types. The important species include aini, semul, gutel,
mundane, hopea, benteak, kadam, irul, rosewood, haldu, kanju, champa, mango, Indian chestnut, thorny
bushes, canes, ferns and orchids.
iii) Tropical moist deciduous forests:
Such forests occur in areas of low annula rainfall of 100 cm to 150 cm. The main annual temperature is between
260 C to 270 C, and humidity percent is 60 to 80.
These forests cover 23.3 m. ha., and are found in a belt running north-south on eastern slopes of western ghat,
central plateau including Chotanagpur, Upper Mahanandi Valley and hills of Madhya Pradesh. Himalayan
foothills, hilly areas of eastern part of deccan including eastern ghats in Tamilnadu and Andaman and Nicobar
island.
These forest trees shed their leaves and are the most important forests yielding commercial timber.
The the species of trees include salteak, arjun, janrul, laurel, Andaman paduk, ebony, mulberry, kussum, kanju,
ber, gular, palas, haldu, siris, mahua, simul, har, sandalwood, jamun etc. Most of these forests have been
cleared from level land for cultivation.
iv) Littoral and swamp forests:

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These forests cover 6 lakh ha., and occur in and around tidal creeks and river deltas. They are found in thickest
on western coast at a few places but on the eastern coast they form a continuous belt on the fringe of deltas of
Ganga, Mahanandi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. They are densest in Sunderbans, where sundari trees
predominate. Thee evergreen species likekeora, amur, sundari, bhara etc have stilt like roots submerged in water.
2. Dry Tropical Forests:
These forests occur in areas having annual rainfall between 75 cms to 125 cms, mean annual temperature of
around 230 C to 270 C and humidity between 51 to 58%. They are divided into the following sub-types.
i) Tropical dry deciduous:
These forests cover 29.2 m ha., area and are found on a very large area in an irregular wide strip running north
south from the foothills of Himalayas to Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan, western ghats and West Bengal.
The important trees, include, teak, tendu, sal, bijasal, rosewood, palas, bel, lendi, axlewood, anjair, harra, khair
etc. large tracks of these forests has been cleared for cultivation.
ii) Tropical thorn forests:
These forests cover 5.2m, ha., area. They are restricted to areas where rainfall is very low. i.e., between 50 cm
to 75 cm, the mean annual temperature is between 250 C to 270 C and humidity is less than 47%.
They are found in Kutch, neighbouring parts of saurashtra, a large strip in south western Punjab, western
Haryana, western and northern Rajasthan, Upper Ganga Plains, Deccan Plateau and lower peninsular India.
Here thorny trees especially acacias predominate.
The trees include tamarix, khair, kokko, dhaman, babool, reunjha, thor, cacti, khejra, kanlu, palas, AK, neem etc.
iii) Tropical dry evergreen forests:
These forests cover an area of 7 lakh ha.,. and occur in areas where the mean annual rainfall about 100 cms,
mean annual temperature is about 280 C and mean annual humidity is 74%.
These forests are found in the east coast of the peninsula from Tamilnadu north to Nellore. The important
species of trees include khirni, jamun, kokko, ritha, neem, toddy, palm, gamari etc.
3. Riparian Forests:
Where the rainfall is less than 50 cms, short trees and grass predominate. These forests are found along banks
of rivers and wet lands. Deciduous vegetation like neem, shisham, papal, mango, jamun, khair are usually found.
Kans and munjgrass are found in Abundance.
4. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill forests:
The foests covers 3 lakh hectare area and are found between 915 to 1830 m height above sea level where the
mean annual rainfall is between 75 cm to 125 cm, mean annual temperature is between 180 C to 210 C and humidity
percent is 80. These forests are found in high lands of Bastar. Panchmarthi, Mahabaleshwar, Nilgiris, Palni and
Khasi hills and lower slopes of Himalaya in West Bengal and Assam. Such forests are called Shola in South India.
The trees include jamun, machilus, celtis etc.
5. Montane wet temperate Forests:
These forest cover an area of 1.6m. ha. They occur at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level in areas
where annual rainfall is between 150 to 300 cms, annual temperature is between 110 C to 140 C and humidity percent
is 83. These forests are found in hills of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Eastern Himalayas, highter hills of West Bengak, Assam
and Arunachal Pradesh. The main trees found are deodar, Indian Chestnut, Mangolia, birch, plum, blue pine, Oak,
hemlock etc.
6. Montane moist temperate Forests:
They cover an area of 2.7 m ha. They occur in temperate eastern and western Himalayas between the pine and
alpine forests in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Darjeeling and Sikkim between 1600 to 3500
meters. The forests are predominantly coniferous forests and include trees like pine, deodar, spruce, silver fir, oak,
beach, birch, polar, clm, chestnut, maple, rhodendrons etc.
7. Alpine Forests:
They cover an area of 300 ha. They occur in the Alpine areas of the Himalayas beyond the limit of tree growth
i.e., between 2900j to 3500 m and consist of dwarf shrubs of juniper, fir, honey, suckle, betula, birch, rhodendrons
etc. At still higher altitude shrubs of low herbs is the only vegetation found.
8. Grass lands:

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These grasslands are divided into three types (i) Hilly or upland grassland. They are found in Himalayas above
100m and in deccan hills (ii) low and grasslands. They occur in plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
north western parts of Assam (iii) Riverine grass lands. They are found in riverine tracks of northern India especially
in the bhabhar tracks.
Forest zones of India in terms of
percentage of land covered
Andaman & Nicobar
87%
Mizoram
76%
Manipur
68%
Aruna
61%
Tripura
60%
Nagaland
52%
Meghalaya
42%
Assam
39%
Goa
38%
Sikkim
37%
Orissa
36%
M.P. & Chattisgarh
35%
Lakshwadweep
0%
Pondicherry
0%
Diu and Daman
0.5%
Delhi
2.8%
Haryana
3.8%
Punjab
5.8%
Jammu and Kashmir
9%
Rajasthan
9.2%
Gujarath
9.9%
West Bengal
13.3%
FLORA & FAUNA OF INDIA
Owing to a wide range of climatic condition, India can boast of a rich and varied vegetation. In the remote hilly
tracts of the Himalayas and Deccan mountains, a large number of endemic flora i.e., plants t hat have grown there
for millions of years are not found to grow naturally elsewhere in the world, is found here.
In recent years, many of these endemic plants are facing extinction because of ecological disturbance. There
are eight Floristic regions of India.
(i)
The Western Himalayas
(ii)
The Eastern Himalayas
(iii) Assam
(iv) The Indus Plain
(v) The Ganga Plain
(vi) Deccan
(vii) Malabar
(viii) Andamans
India has the forest cover of 19.5 per cent while the actual forest covers is only about 11 percent of the total
country area.

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 Coniferous forest cover only 6 percent and the Broadleaf Deciduous forest comprises about 94% of the total
forest cover.
About 90% of the forests in India are state controlled.
India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions. The political boundaries of India encompass a wide range
of ecozonesdesert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands,
areas surrounding rivers, as well as island archipelago. It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the
Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border. These hotspots have numerous
endemic species.

India, for the most part, lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, with the upper reaches of the Himalayas forming
part of the Palearctic ecozone; the contours of 2000 to 2500m are considered to be the altitudinal boundary
between the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic zones. India displays significant biodiversity.

One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all
reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.

The region is also heavily influenced by summer monsoons that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation
and habitat.

The unique forms includes the snake family Uropeltidae found only in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
The flora and fauna of India have been studied and recorded from early times in folk traditions and later by
researchers following more formal scientific approaches (See Natural history in India)

India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion,
Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros. Some of these animals are engrained in culture, often being associated with
deities.

These large mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India and several national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries cater to these needs.
Diversity

There is insufficient information about the invertebrate and lower forms of India with significant work having
been done only in a few groups of insects notably the butterflies, odonates, hymenoptera, the larger
coleoptera and heteroptera.

There are about 2546 species of fishes (about 11% of the world species) found in Indian waters. About 197
species of amphibians (4.4% of the world total) and more than 408 reptile species (6% of the world total) are
found in India. Among these groups the highest levels of endemism are found in the amphibians.

There are about 1250 species of birds from India with some variations depending on taxonomic treatments
accounting for about 12% of the world species. There are about 410 species of mammals known from India
which is about 8.86% of the world species.The World Conservation Monitoring Centre gives an estimate of
about 15,000 species of flowering plants in India.
Indian forests are Tropical Semi-evergreen as well as Evergreen. Extremely dense forests found at western
ghats region of Kerala, Nagaland, some parts of Assam and Andaman Nicobar Islands. The main species
grown here are Mahagony and Ebony trees.
Tropical Thorny Forests:
The important species grown here is Acacia, mainly found in rain shadow region behind the Western Ghats,
Eastern Rajasthan and Bundhelkhald.
Sub-tropical broad leaved forests:
Mainly found in upper regions of plateaus, table lands, hills of peninsular India especially Nilgaris, Mahadeo,
Maikeli. Oak, Chestnut, Evergreen Eucalyptus are the important species grown here.
In Karnataka, these forests are called as Shoalas. In Western Rajasthan, we find bushes and shrubs mainly
cactus variety because of low rainfall trees takes shape of bushes and shrub of xerophytic and megatherm variety to
reduce water loss.
Biodiversity in Indian forests

Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world.

India's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity hotspots on earth.

84

India is home to 12 percent of world's recorded flora, some 47000 species of flowering and non-flowering
plants. Over 59000 species of insects, 2500 species of fishes, 17000 species of angiosperms live in Indian
forests

About 90000 animal species, representing over 7 percent of earth's recorded faunal species have been found
in Indian forests. Over 4000 mammal species are found here. India has one of the richest variety of bird
species on earth, hosting about 12.5 percent of known species of birds.
Mangrove Vegetation
The vegetation along the coastal beds and river mouths, the vegetation called as mangrove vegetation. This is
mainly observed in deltas, lagoons, austeries. Near mangroves the ecology is unique.
Here there is a large scale marine wave attack and intrusion of sea water and water logging hence, the species
which survive at these conditions are of (1) Hydrophytic (survive in water and floats in water with stilt roots) (2) The
species are saline in nature like Rhyzhophera variety.
Advantages of Mangroves:
Mangroves prevent coastal soil erosion thus, they help in coastline stabilization.
They offer protection to coastal areas from cyclonic waves, tsunamis.
They play vital role in nutrient transfer or enhancement between marine and terrestrial eco system.
Protect fertile agricultural lands on coasts from saline water intrusion.
The Mangrove forests yield commercial wood and also support biodiversity.
Threat to Mangroves:
Mangrove forests are threatened by wood cutting, Special Economic Zone, pisciculture, coastal tourism, etc. Eg.
Mundra SEZ in Gujarat accused of clearing large extent of Mangrove on Gujarat coast.
International conventions for protection of Mangroves:
Ramsar (Iran)-International convention for conservation of wet lands, coral reefs and Mangroves. As being part
of this convention, India declared certain Mangroves as protected Mangrove reserves. Some of them are:
1. Sunderbans, West Bengal at mouth of river Hoogle.
2. Bhittar Kanika, Orissa.
3. Coringa near Kakinada of A.P.
4. Point Calimore and Pichavurama Mangrove reserves of Tamilnadu.
5. Vembunad of Kerala.
6. Kondapur of Karnataka.
7. Achra of Maharashtra.
National Forest Policy:
1. A minimum 33% of the countrys land should be covered with forest (Now it is hardly 22%).
2. Minimum forest area coverage with 60% at hill stations (which is far below now).
3. Minimum forest coverage should be 20% in plains and basins (it is less than 10%).
Hence, the extent of forest coverage is far below than that is mentioned in the forest policy. So to protect certain
forests, the Government declared them as National Parks, wildlife reserves and biosphere reserves.
National Park
Conservation of flora, fauna
i.e., both plants and animals

Wile life sanctuary

Conservation of specific wild life
species not flora and fauna

Biosphere reserve
Conservation of ECO system i.e., flora, fauna, physical
environment (water, soil, rock, sunlight, rivers, streams,
water bodies
Larger or moderate in area Smaller in area
Huge and large area consists of more than 1 national park
and wild life sanctuary, Eg. Neelagiri Biosphere Reserve
consist of Silent Valley National park and Periyar Wildlife
Sanctuary
The
boundaries
are No legislative statutory needed Boundaries are determined by State Legislature through
determined
by State only administra-tive instructions statutes

85

Legislation through statutes defines the boundaries

No biotic interference is Limited interference is allowed No biotic interference is allowed except in buffer zone
allowed i.e., we are not for introduction of new flora and
allowed to maniculate or fauna
establishing a settlement (In
the buffer zones some biotic
interference is allowed, but
not in core zone
No
reasons
and No reasons and developments Research, education and training take up on large scale
developments
and and education, training activities and in comprehensive approach
education, training activities will be carried
will be carried
National Parks, Wildlife preserves and protected animals:
Andhra Pradesh:
i. Pakhal wildlife reserve and tiger reserve
ii. Kaval wildlife sanctuary, Adilabad.
iii. Kolleru bird sanctuary.
iv. Nagrjun Sagar, Srisailam National Park and tiger reserve (It is the largest in area in India).
Arunachal Pradesh:
1. Namdapha wild life sanctuary.
2. Moling wild life sanctuary.
Assam:
1. Kaziranga National Park
2. Manas wild life sanctuary
3. Sandi-rupa wildlife sanctuary
4. Nameri wildlife sanctuary
Bihar:
Valmiki National Park
Jharkhand:
1. Hazaribagh National Park
2. Catgan wildlife sanctuary
Gujarath:
1. Gir National Park
2. Velvador National Park
3. Kuchch wildlife sanctuary
Haryana:
Sultanpur bird sanctuary
Himachal Pradesh:
1. Kugti wildlife sanctuary
2. Daranghati wildlife sanctuary
3. Pin valley National Park
Jammu and Kashmir:
1. Dachigaon wildlife sanctuary
2. Hermis National Park
Karnataka:
1. Bandipur National Park
2. Bannerghatta National Park

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3. Nagrhole National Park

4. Kudrumukh National Park
5. Ranganthitoo bird sanctuary
Kerala:
1. Pariyar wildlife sanctuary
2. Silent Valley National Park
Madhya Pradesh:
1. Kanha National Park and tiger reserve
2. Bandhavgadh National Park and tiger reserve
3. Vanvihar National Park
4. Sanjay Gandhi National Park
5. Priyadharshini National Park
Maharashtra:
1. Tadoba National Park and tiger reserve
2. Yawal wildlife sanctuary
3. Borivilli National Park
4. Karnala bird sanctuary
Manipur:
Keibul-Lamjoo National Park
Meghalaya:
Balpakram wildlife National Park
Mizoram:
1. Dampa wildlife sanctuary
2. Muslem National Park
3. Blue Mountain Peak National Park
4. Phawng Pui National Park
Nagaland:
Intagki National Park
Orissa:
1. Simlipal National Park
2. Nandan Kanan tiger reserve
Rajasthan:
1. Ranathambore wildlife sanctuary and tiger reserve.
2. Sariska wildlife sanctuary and tiger reserve (Found without tigers. Tigers killed and so importing tigers now).
3. Keoldev (Ghana) bird sanctuary (near Bharatpur) (Famous for migratory Siberian cranes in winter.
Tamilnadu:
1. Mudumallai wildlife sanctuary
2. Guindy National Park
3. Makurti National Park (in Nilgiris)
4. Vedantagal bird sanctuary
Uttar Pradesh:
1. Jim Corbett National Park and tiger reserve
2. Chandraprabha National Park
3. Dudhvda National Park
Uttaranchal:
1. Rajaji National Park
2. Valley of flowers National Park

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3. Gangotri National Park

West Bengal:
1. Sunderbans tiger reserve
2. Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary
3. Neora Valley National Park
Andaman & Nicobar Islands:
1. Campbell bay National Park
2. Galathea National Park
3. Saddle Peak National Park
4. Mt. Harriot National Park
5. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park
Biosphere:
Under Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO
1. Achanakmar-Amar Kantak biosphere reserve, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh.
2. Agastyamali biosphere reserve, Kerala
3. Dehang Dibang biosphere reserve, Arunachal Pradesh
4. Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere reserve, Assam
5. Great Nicobar biosphere reserve, Nicobar islands
6. Gulf of Mannar Marine biosphere, Tamilnadu and Srilanka
7. Kanchanga biosphere reserve, Sikkim
8. Manas biosphere, Assam
9. Nandadevi biosphere, Uttaranchal
10. Nilgris biosphere reserve, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu
11. Nokrik biosphere reserve, Meghalaya
12. Panchmuki biosphere, Madhya Pradesh
13. Simlipal biosphere, Orissa
14. Sunderbans biosphere, West Bengal.
Wild life in India:

India was very rich in wildlife. The vastness of the country, wide range of climate conditions and plant life
and different terrain provides ideal conditions for different' species of wildlife to thrive.

There are about 81,000 known species dispersed across the country, which is about 6.5% of the world's
total species. Indian fauna includes about 6,500 invertebrates, 5000 mollusk, 2,546 species of fishes, 2000
species of birds, 458 species of reptiles, 4 species of panthers and over 60,000 species of insects.

The mammals include elephant, the gaur or Indian bison, nilgai, Indian buffalo, chousingha or four-horned
antelope (unique to India) black buck or Indian antelope, ghorkhur or Indian wild ass found in Rann of
Kachch-the great one horned Rhinoceros (now confined to eastern India) and several species of deer-the
rare Kashmir stag, sway deer, stopped deer, mush deer thamir or browantered deer (found in Manipur), the
mouse and the hog deers.

The Chinkara and the Tibetean gazelle are the two gaazellas found in India. Two varieties of wild sheep-the
ibex and the markhor, and one variety of wild goat (thar) are found in the Himalayan region.

There are two varieties of wild pigs-the Indian wild pig found in the forest areas of the plains, and the pigmy
hog confined- to the north eastern region. The common hare of India is prevalent all .over the country while
the larger marsh hare is very rare. The Pangolin is the only ant eater found in India.

Among the reptiles found in India, the largest one is the fish eating crocodile or the gharial found in fresh water
Jakes. The mugger or the snub-nosed crocodile and the salt water crocodile (fond in coastal areas) are the
other two crocodilian types.

The Python, the King Cobra, the-Krait, the Russell's viper, the saw-scaled viper, and the pit Viper are among
the snakes found outside Africa), the tiger, the leopard, cloud leopard, the snow-leopard; the fishing cat, the
wild cat, (all belonging to cat family) the Tibetan black wolf, the jackal and the fox (belonging to the dog

88

family). The ratel, the marten, the civet cat and the mongoose are other small carnivores.
Several species of monkeys and langurs are found all over the country. But the lion tailed macaque is found
only in the South. Hoolock, the only ape found in India is confined to the rain forests of the northeastern
region.
There are three kinds of bears in India, Viz, the brown bear which dwells in Himalayan region, the black bear
and the Indian sloth bear found in the plains.

Birds:

Among the birds found in India the largest one is the sarus crane which measures almost 1.5 metres high, The
little sun-bird which measures hardly 7 cm is the smallest bird.

There are several species of storks such as the adjustant stork, and the open billed stork: Among the geese
and the ducks that migrate to India during winter are the persian grey lag, the. barheaded goose, the brahmini
duck, the comb duck, the mallard, etc.

Snow-partridge found above snow line in Himalayas, the Chuckor and the hill partridge found at lower
latitudes, the swamp patridge the black partridge, the painted partridge and the grey partridge found in plains,
are the representative's of the partridge family in India.

There are several varieties of pheasants. The snow pheasant, the beautiful monal pheasant, the blood
pheasant and the tragopan are some of them.

The Koklas, the 'cheer, the Kalij, the junglefowl, (found all over Indian plains), red jungle fowl (found in the
salforests), the grey jungle fowl (found in the south), the spur fowl (found in central India) mynahs, para-keets,
peacocks, piegons, several varieties of cranes and hornbills are some other birds found in India:

The above list which looks impressive is not exhaustive. But some of them are extinct while many of them are
in the- endangered list.
Wildlife reserves:
Some of the famous wild Life reserves of India are:
Corbett National Park, home of tigers, has elephants, chitals.
Ghana Bird Sanctuary is a famous Sanctuary of water birds. Siberian cranes, herons, spoonbills found here.
Bandipur Sanctuary is the home of wild animals like tigers, elephants, bears, panthers and deer.
Namdapha National Park is the home of elephants and tigers in Arunachal Pradesh.
Wild Ass Sanctuary in Gujarat is famous for its wild ass.
Sundarbans, the tiger sanctuary in sunderbans is the home of the wild bear, crocodile and. deer.
Jaldapara Sanctuary, West Bengal, houses the famous Indian Rhinocers.
Khaziranga National Park is famous for one-horn Rhinocers.
Problems:
The man-animal conflict: The man animal conflict is' a growing problem.' It has two dimensions. The setting up of
protected national parks and sanctuaries goes against the economic interests of the surrounding villagers as it
deprives them of the forest products "which they were collecting. For example at Bharatpur bird sanctuary
frequent clashes have broken out between forest staff and the villagers on grazing by the cattle. Almost all
national parks and' sanctuaries are,' facing such troubles.
Attacks and killings of villagers especially children by the wild animals is another dimension with more serious
implication. Village people surrounding Hazaribagh National Park in M.P. are terrorized by the frequent killing of
children by unidentified wild animals. 122 such cases have been reported since 1982. Villagers at the foothills of
Himalayas live in costant fear of tiger attacks. 422 people have been killed since 1978 in these attacks. These
problems are acquiring political dimensions. The cattle grazing has already become a: political issue.
Scarcity of land:
Land area of the country which is static is becoming increasingly scarce due, to heavy demand from many
quarters such as agriculture and industries. Forest land is being diverted to meet this demand.
These problems raise a question: Who should be given, priority? Man or Animal?
Prospects:
The prospects of revitalsing the wildlife are bleak as scope for it is limited. Most of the ecologists, and
conservationists feel that they are fighting a losing battle. Nevertheless it is possible to save the endangered species

89

from extinction by taking suitable measures.

Environment Impact Assessment:
The programme of Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) was introduced in India in 1978. EIA is statuary for 29
categories of developmental projects under various sectors such as Industry, mining, irrigation, power transport,
tourism, communication etc.
Endangered Animals in India
Nature has its own way of maintaining the balance in flora and fauna. But, man's greedy advancements in making
progress have left a deep impact on other creatures. In an effort to create the situations according to his wishes, man
has gone beyond the limit, and has made many animals as critically endangered animals. Some of the animals
endangered critically are:
Asian Elephant: According to an estimate, only 15,000-20,000 Asian elephants are alive today. The main reason for
their decreasing numbers is their loss of habitat, and extensive poaching for their ivory tusks. Goods made from ivory
tusks are in huge demand in the international market. Asian elephants are mainly found in the terai region of Uttar
Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, and Kerala.
Tiger: Tigers are mainly hunted for their bones and skin. Tiger bones are widely used to make traditional medicines,
as a cure for diseases like cancer. They are also hunted for pleasure in games, and, sometimes, to protect the
domestic livestock. An estimated only 40,000 tigers are left today.
Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros: They are one of the most endangered animals in India. They are hunted for
their horns, which are believed to have aphrodisiac properties. They are mainly found in the Kaziranga and Orange
national park. It is sad to note that only 1,500 of the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros are left today.
Asiatic Lion: Asiatic lions are considered to be the most powerful living animals on earth. But, they are the most
critically endangered animal in India. Only 352 of these mighty creatures are left to be seen today. Poaching is
considered to be the main reason for their decreasing number. Today, they are mainly found in Gir national park.
Leopard: Leopards are also fighting for their survival. They are mainly found in the parts of central India and the
north-east. Their number has decreased to about 7,500.
Snow Leopard: They are mainly found in the upper Himalayas. Lack of food for them, and poaching has
considerably reduced their numbers. But, some appropriate and timely help from the environmentalists have
protected them from becoming extinct.
Tibetan Antelope: Tibetan Antelope is also called "Chiru". They have very soft furs on their body, known as
"sahtoosh". This light-weight wool has a great demand in the market. A shawl made of sahtoosh can fetch upto
$16,000. It is for this fur that the Tibetan Antelopes are hunted and have become an endangered animal in India.
20,000 Chirus are poached every year to satisfy the needs of human beings.
The list also includes Kashmir Stag, Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Whale, Ganges River Dolphin, Red Panda,
Marsh Mongoose, Hoolock Gibbon, and it may go endlessly. It is important to save the lives of these endangered
animals in India. If correct steps for saving them are not taken now, then we may find them only in zoos, or in the
museums. Our coming generations will know about them from the museums only.
Typical Creature only in India:
1. Gangetic Dolphin:
A river Dolphin, founding Ganga basin mainly and some parts of Brahmaputra basin-born blind.
2. Civits:
Cats like creature.
Hides day, hent during nights.
3. Great India horn bill :
A bird with strong nesting habits.
4. Mouse Deer:
A deer of 30 cm height.

90

SOURCE OF IRRIGATION

Water for irrigating crops is available from a number of sources. They are rain, rivers, spring and underground
water. Rain water being a free gift of nature is an ideal source of irrigation, provided it is timely and adequate in
amount.
Unfortunately in our country, the rainfall is seasonal, incentive and highly unevenly distributed.
A large area of the country comprising nearly 72% of the area receive rainfall less than 127 cm in a year and this
area is liable to suffer from droughts.
It is supposed that 1869 cubic cm water is available in the Indian rivers in which only 690 cubic km. can be used.
Beside this 432 cubic km. underground water is also available.
Large, medium and small irrigation projects have been implemented and since implementation of the first five
year plan to 1999-2000, the irrigation potentially has been increased from 226 lakh hectares to 947.3 lakh
hectare (provisionally)
Topography, soil, rainfall conditions and rivers whether perennial and non-perennial determine the source of
irrigation in India. In India there are four major source of irrigation.
(i) Tanks (ii) Canals (iii) Wells (iv) Tube-wells.
i) Tank irrigation:
In the uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, where the rainfall is also highly seasonal, people
have restored to tank irrigation, Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa, interior areas of Tamilnadu and
Andhra Pradesh have more land under tank irrigation.
ii) Canal irrigation:

Some years ago canals were the principal source of irrigation in India. Now after wells including tubewells,
they are the second most important source of irrigation (39.5%). It is done only in those areas where large
level plains, of deep fertile soil and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers.

The plains of north India deltas and coastal low lands and broad valleys plains in India plateau are areas were
canal irrigation is done.

Canal irrigation is important in the state of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, West
Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh.
iii) Wells irrigation:
Well irrigation is done mainly in the alluvial plains where owing to the soft nature of soil wells are easy to dig. Punjab,
Haryana plain, (excluding the dry area near Rajasthan) plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat states, a few
places in Narmada valleys. The Tapti valleys and Tamilnadu are the areas where well irrigation is done.
State
Gujarat
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Tamil nadu

percentage
86.6
77.2
66.5
65
58.21
57.6
54.7

91

iv) TubeGujarat,
Rajasthan,
Tamilnadu

wells irrigation:
Maharashtra,
Punjab,
Madhya
Pradesh
and
Tube-Well irrigation is done.

92

MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS IN INDIA

Bhakra-Nangal Project:
It is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and ahs been so named after two dams built at Bhakra and
Nangal on river Sutlej.
The Project comprises (1) Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal (2) Nangal-Hydel Channel (3) Four power house at
Ganguwal, Kotla, left bank power house and right bank power house with a combined installed capacity of 1204 MW;
and transmission lines (4) Bhakra canal system, commanding a gross area about 27.4 lakhs hectares of which the
cultivable command area is 23.7 lakh hectares.
Bhakra dam is regarded as the highest straightway gravity dam in the world, constructed across the Sutlej at the
sight of Bhakra gorge. The reservoir of water behind this dam is 88 km. long and 8 km. wide known as the
Govindsagar lake with a gross storage capacity of 9868 million cubic metres.
The dam is 22 meter high and 518 meter long and the width of the base as its widest point is 362 m.
Bhakra Canal system commands a gross area of about 27.4 lakh hectares. The Bhakra main canal is 174 km long
and irrigates an area of 14.6 lakh hectare. The canal system consists of 1104 km. long canals and 3360 km
distributaries.
Beas Project:
It is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan states, constructed at river Beas. It consists of two units-(1) A
Beas-Sutlej linkage (2) Pong dam at Mukheriyan near Jullandhar has been constructed.
Due to the project 4 lakh hectare land of Punjab and Rajasthan is irrigation and 660 MW and 240 MV hydroelectricity
is produced.
Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan Canal) Project:
It is a venture to utilize the supplies made available from Sutlej, Beas and Ravi to Rajasthan and to provide irrigation
facilities to 13 lakh hectares.
It will have a full supply capacity of 524 cm meter/sec, at head and a total length of 649 km. and a distribution system
of 700 km length. The project is being executed in two states.
Kosi Project:
The three unit Kosi scheme consists of UNIT (i) A barrage near Hanumannagar in Nepal and appurtenant works.
UNIT (ii) About 270 Km long flood embankments and other protective works and UNIT (iii) The eastern Kosi
Canal System (A) Kosi Power House.
With an installed capacity of 20 MW on the eastern Kosi canal, along with connected transmission lines is under
construction half the power generated is supplied to Nepal and rest to Bihar.
Hirakud Project:
This project is parallel to D.V. Project, based on utilization of the water of the Mahanandi.
The project was undertaken in 1948 which has since been completed.
It aims at regulating the Mahanandi itself by construction of three dams. The project was divided into two stages.
Tungabhadra Project:
The joint undertaking of the governments of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Comprises (i) 92,441 meter long
and 49.39 meter high dam on Tungabhadra river at Mallapuram in Bellary district of Karnataka (ii) a 227 km long
canal (called left bank canal) with a power house on the left side (iii) a 349 km long canal (called the low level
canal) with two power houses and (iv) a 196 km long canal (called the High level canal) on the right side.
The reservoir has a water spread of 37,800 hectares. The left bank and the right bank canal will irrigate nearly
3.32 lakh hectares in Anantur and Kurnool Districts of Andhra Pradesh and Bellary and Raichur Districts in
Karnataka.
There are two power stations on the right side, one below the dam and other at the tail end of 22.5 km long
hydro channel at Hampi. Four generating units of 9 MW each in the dam power house and four units of the same
capacity in the canal power house have been commissioned.
A power station has also been constructed below the dam on the left side, with three generators of 9 MW. The
total irrigation potential created so far is 4 lakh hectares and the total installed capacity far power generation is
126 MW.

93

Nagarjunasagar:
This project comprises the construction of a 1450 metres long masonry dam with 3,415 meter long eastern
flanks on the Krishna river near Nandikonda village, about 144 km from Hyderabad and two canals on the each
side of the river.
The right bank canal (204 long) and the left bank canals (17 km long) with together irrigate 8.3 lakh hectares,
including the stabilization of irrigation in Krishna delta.

The reservoir will have a storage capacity of 808 crore metres and its water spread over 23,387 hectares.
The irrigation will be provided to about 8.30 lakh hectares at Khammam, West Godavari, Guntur, Kurnool and
Nellore Districts. The Prject also envisages a power house at the toe of Nagarjunasagar dam with 2 units 50 MW
each capacity.
Chambal Project:
This project is a joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It makes use of the
drop of 122m in the gorge between Chaurasigarh and Kota where masonry and concrete dams are located. The
entire scheme was phased for execution in three stages (1) comprises a masonry gravity dam, at the border of M.P.
and Rajasthan and a barrage near Kota city along with the right and left Bank main canals for irrigating large areas in
both the states.
Three generating units of 33,000 KW have been installed at this station.
Under this project irrigation supply to both the states would be 2.87 hectares in each.
Damodar Valley Project:
The basic feature of the Damodar Valley Project is that it constitutes a campact, unified multipurpose river basin
development eg. Flood control, promotion and operation of irrigation schemes, water supply and drainage,
generation transmission and distribution of electric power, promotion and control of navigation, afforestation and
control of the soil erosion.
Gandak Project:
It is a joint venture of the states of U.P. and Bihar, though Nepal will also get irrigation and power facilities from it.
The project comprises the following components
(i) A 747m long and 10m high barrage across the river Gandak near Balmikinagar in Bihar about 760m below the
existing Tribeni canal head regulator in Bihar. Half of the barrage length as in Bichar
(ii) main western canal to irrigate 4.84 lakh hectares in the Savan district of Bihar and about 1.88 lakh hectares in the
Gorakhpur and Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh
(iii) Main eastern canal to irrigate 6.68 lakh hectares in Champaran, Muzaffarnagar and Darbangha districts of Bihar
and 0.56 lakh hectares in Porasa, Bara and Rautahat districts of Nepal
(iv) A power house with an installed capacity of 15 MW at the 14th Km of the main Western Canal in Nepal territory
has been handed over to Nepal as a gift.
Kakrapar Project:
Situated at river Tapti in Gujarat state, about 80 km away from Surat district. The Project has been completed in
1963. At the level of the river, 14 m high and 621 meter long dam has been constructed. A 505 km long and the other
837 km long canals from the right and left bank of the dam have been constructed which will irrigate about 2.27 lakh
hectares of lava.
Koyna Project:
Situated at Koyna river in Maharashtra state. A dam of 250 meter high has been constructed across the river.
Macchkund Project:
It is a joint venture of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh State. A dam at the border of Orissa and Andhra has been
constructed at Macchkund river.
Malprabha Project:
This project is in Karnataka state a dam at Malprabha, river a tributary of Krishna has been constructed 154.6 m
long and 44 m dam at Belgaon district has been constructed, which will irrigate 2.13 lakh hectare of land.
Bhima Project:

94

Under this project a dam of 1319 m long and 42 m high at river Pawna (Pune) in Maharashtra state has been
constructed. An other dam in Solapur district at river Krishna will be constructed. The dam will be 2,467 m long and
56.4 m high and a 139 km long canal will be constructed to irrigate 1.62 lakh hectares of land.
Parriyar Project:
Under this project, a 210 meter long barrage will be constructed at river Parriyar near Always district in Kerela
state. The project will provide an irrigation to about 77,000 hectares of land.
Theen Dam:
The Tehri Dam has been constructed 1.5 km below the confluence of Bhagirathi and its tributary Milangana in
Tehri district in Uttaranchal. Under this project 260.5 long rock fill dam has been constructed. A reservoir known as
Ram Tirtha Sagar with a capacity of 32.2 million cubic meter of water will be extended upto 45 km from Bhagirathi
valley and 25 km from Milanga Ghat. Total capacity of the water of reservoir shall be 2615 million cubic meter 7400
millin cubic meter of water of Ganga drainage system will be utilized which will irrigate 2.70 lakh hectare of land and
will generate 340 MW hydroelectricity.
Farrakha Barrage:
This project has been constructed in Murshidabad district of West Bengal. The main object of this project is to
supply water to clean Kolkata harbour and to remove salinity of Hooghly water.
Bansagar Project:
It is the joint venture of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh states. Under this project water of river Sun
will be stores.
Kunda Project:
It is the hydel project of Tamilnadu state. The electric generating capacity of the project in the initial stage will be
425 MW, which later on will increase 535 MW.
Sabarigiri Project:
The installation capacity of this project in the Kerala state is 300 MW.
Balimela Project:
The installed capacity of this project is 360 MW in Orissa state.
Salal Project:
It is a hydel project of Jammu and Kashmir state constructed at river Chinab.
Kalindi Project:
It is the hydel project of Karnataka state, its electric generating capacity is 270 MW.
Idduki Project:
It is the hydel project of the Kerala state with its generating capacity of 390 MW.
Narmada Valley Project:

River emerges from Amarkantak hill (Madhya Pradesh) and flows in Gujarat state completing the distance of
1312 km it drains in Arabian Sea. Over this project roughly 3000 dams of different size with different purposes
shall be constructed.

Two dams (i) Indira Sagar Dam (ii) Sardar Sarovar Dam are important. Indirasagar Dam known as the
Narmada Dam is being constructed near Punasa in district Nimar to facilitate the irrigation in 1.23 lakh
hectares of land and generation of 300 KW of electricity.

Sardar Sarovar dam is being constructed near Badgaon in Barooch district of Gujarat to facilitate 15 lakh
hectares of land for irrigation and generation of 300 MW of electricity. The total cost of the Narmada dam shall
be 5000 crore of Rs. while those of sardar sarovar shall be 13,500 crore rupees.
Pochampad Project:
This project is constructed at Pochampad river in Andhra Pradesh; with a irrigation capacity of 2.24 lakh hectare.
Son Project:
It is an extension project of Son dam project in Bihar state with a irrigation capacity of 1.61 lakh hectare of land.
Mahi Project:

95

The project is being constructed across river Mahi in Gujarat State in two stages Mahi Project I across river Mahi
to irrigate about 1.8 lakh hectares in Kaira district and Kadano Project (Mahi State II) to irrigate about 3 lakh
hectares on completion to Panchmahal district.
Sabarmati Project:
Under this project a dam in Dhari village near Mehasana district in Gujarat has been constructed and another
dam at Wasana near Ahmedabad has been constructed.
Panam Project:
Under this project, a dam near Keldjor at Panchmahal district has been constructed at river Panam. A Kaccha
(Mud) dam has been constructed for this.
Curzon Project:
Under this project a mud dam near Jeetgarh village in Gujarat State across the river Curzah has been
constructed.
Bhadra Project:
It is amultipurpose project at river Bhadra in Karnataka State. This will irrigate 1.01 lakh hectare of land in
Chickmaglur, Chitaldurg, Shimoga and Bellary districts.
Upper Krishna Project:
Under this project two dams-one at Narainpur and other at Almati have been
constructed across the river Krishna in Karnataka state to irrigate 4.08 lakh hectare of land.
Ghat Prabha Project:
It is the most important project developed on river Ghat prabha to irrigate about 3.2 hectares of land in Belgaon
and Bijaur districts.
Kukadi Project:
It is the project of Maharashtra state. Under this project five dams will be constructed at (i) Yadugaon (ii) Manik
Drohi (iii) Dibha (iv) Badag (v) Pipal gaon.
Krishna Project:
Under this project two reservoirs in Ishapur village in district Jawatmal in Maharashtra State have been
constructed on Penganga river, another dam at Sapli village in Parbhoni district has been constructed across river
Riyadh.

96

97

DETAILS OF SOME MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS IN INDIA

Sl.
No.

Name of the project

(1)
1.

(2)
Bhakra-Nangal Project:- It is
named after two dams, built
across the Sutlej at Bhakra and
Nangal in Himachal Pradesh

2.

The Beas Project:- This project will

link the Beas and Sutlej waters. It
consists of (i) Beas-Sutlej link and
(ii) Beas dam constructed across
Beas a Pong
Damodar Valley Project:It consists of a series of dams on
the tributaries of the Damodar
river in Bihar

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

States which administer

or whose needs are
served
(3)
Joint Venture of Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan

Punjab, haryana and

Rajasthan

Administered
by
Damodar
Valley
Authority (DVC) to make
the benefit to West
Bengal and Bihar
Hiracud Project:- Built across Orissa
Mahanandi near Sambalpur in
Orissa
Nagarjunasagar Project:- Built
across Krishna near Nandikonda
village in Nalgonda district of
Andhra Pradesh
Tungabhadra Project:- Built across
Tungabhadra at Mallapur in
Bellary district of Karnataka State
Kosi Project:- Built across Kosi
near Hanuman Nagar on the
INDO-NEPAL Border

Chambal Project:- Built across

Chambal. It consists of three dams

Main purposes

Potentialities

(4)
Irrigation
hydroelectric
power

(5)
and It is the largest in India with
1204 MW of power generation.
It possesses 1100 kms. Of
canals with 3400 kms. Of
distributions irrigating 14.6 lakh
hectares.
Hydroelectric
1020 MW of power generation.
generation (main) It is expected to irrigate 17 lakh
and irrigation
hectares of land in three states.

Irrigation,
flood 1181 MW of power capacity 4.5
control,
power lakh hectares of irrigation
generation
and
navigation

Irrigation, power Hiracud dam is one of the

generation
and longest in the world. It irrigates
flood control
2.5 lakh hectares and has
power capacity of 280 MW
Andhra Pradesh
Irrigation, power It is one of the largest irrigation
generation
projects irrigates 8.3 lakh
hectares. It has the power
reducing capacity of 960 MW
Karnataka and Andhra Irrigation
and It irrigates 3.5 lakh hectares
Pradesh
power generation
and has the total power
potential of 126 MW
It is an international Irrigation
and Irrigates 5.66 lakh hectares and
project.
It
is power generation
generates power 386 MW
administered by India,
but the benefits shared
by India (Bihar State)
and Nepal
Madhya Pradesh and Irrigation
and Irrigates 5.66 lakh hectares and
Rajasthan
power generation
generates power 386 MW

98

9.

10.

Gandak Project:- Built a barrage Joint execution of Bihar

across Gandak at Balmik nagar in and Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
Nepal will also derive
some benefits
Ramganga Project:- Built across Uttar Pradesh
Ramganga in Uttar Pradesh

Irrigation
and 14.88 lakh hectares to be
power generation
irrigated. The power house has
the capacity of 15 MW
Irrigation, power Provide irrigation to 5.75 lakh
general and flood hectares. Power generation of
control
198 MW. 200 causes water
supply to Delhi city

NATIONAL WATER GRID

A national water grid was mooted by Central Water and Power Commission under the guidance of Dr. K.L. Rao,
to conceive the interlinking of various rivers for the following objects. (1) Surplus water of various rivers should be
utilized beneficially by transfer to water deficit ones from North to South and West to East by means of canal river
links, (2) These rivers must, therefore be interlinked to make use of such surplus water for evening out the variations
in the water supply for agriculture, (3) Surplus water should be used on priority bases in chronically drought affected
areas.
So achieve these objects the scheme comprises the following-(1) Ganga-Cauvery link. Connecting Ganga is the
north to Cauvery in the south enroute through the basins of Son, narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna and Pennar, (2)
Brahmputra-Ganga link (3) Link canal from Narmada to Western Rajasthan (4) Canal from Chambal to Pump areas
to Central Rajasthan, (5) A canal rom link with Mahanandi to serve coastal areas in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to
establish link with other canal systems (6) Link from west flowing rivers of western Ghats towards the East.

99

Agriculture in India
Today, India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries
accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2009, about 50% of the total workforce.
The economic contribution of agriculture to India's GDP is steadily declining with the country's broad-based economic
growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall
socio-economic fabric of India.
India is the second largest producer of wheat and rice, the world's major food staples. India is also the world's
second or third largest producer of several dry fruits, agriculture-based textile raw materials, roots and tuber crops,
pulses, farmed fish, eggs, coconut, sugarcane and numerous vegetables.
India ranked within the world's five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including many cash
crops such as coffee and cotton, in 2010.
India is also one the world's five largest producers of livestock and poultry meat, with one of the fastest growth rates,
as of 2011.
In fiscal year ending June 2011, with a normal monsoon season, Indian agriculture accomplished an all time record
production of 85.9 million tons of wheat, a 6.3 percent increase from a year earlier. Rice output in India also hit a new
record at 95.3 million tons, a 7% increase from the year earlier.Lentils and many other food staples production also
increased year over year. Indian farmers, thus produced about 71 kilograms of wheat and 80 kilograms of rice for
every member of Indian population in 2011
The per capita supply of rice every year in India is now higher than the per capita consumption of rice every year in
Japan.
India exported about 2 billion kilograms each of wheat and rice in 2011 to Africa, Nepal, Bangladesh and other
regions of the world.
Aquaculture and catch fishery is amongst the fastest growing industries in India. Between 1990 and 2010, Indian fish
capture harvest doubled, while aquaculture harvest tripled.
In 2008, India was the world's sixth largest producer of marine and freshwater capture fisheries, and the second
largest aquaculture farmed fish producer. India exported 600,000 metric tonnes of fish products to nearly half of all
the world's countries.
Indian agriculture policy since 1947
Indian agriculture policy is aimed essentially at improving food self sufficiency and alleviating hunger through food
distribution. Aside from investing in agricultural infrastructure, the government supports agriculture through measures
including minimum support prices (MSP) for the major agricultural crops, farm input subsidies and preferential credit
schemes.Under the price support policy, MSPs are set annually for basic staples to protect producers from sharp
price falls, to stabilise prices and to ensure adequate food stocks for public distribution. In the past guaranteed prices
have been below the prevailing market prices, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
in 2007.At the same time subsidies on farm inputs including fertilisers, electrical power and irrigation water have led
to inefficient use of inputs and indirectly subsidise income. IFPRI concluded that support for agriculture (from 19852002) has been largely Accomplishments
India has some of the world's best agricultural yields in its tea plantations. An tea estate in Kerala, a southern state of
India
As of 2011, India had a large and diverse agricultural sector, accounting, on average, for about 16 percent of GDP
and 10 percent of export earnings. India's arable land area of 159.7 million hectares (394.6 million acres) is the
second largest in the world, after the United States.
Its gross irrigated crop area of 82.6 million hectares (215.6 million acres) is the largest in the world. India has grown
to become among the top three global producers of a broad range of crops, including wheat, rice, pulses, cotton,
peanuts, fruits, and vegetables. Worldwide, as of 2011, India had the largest herds of buffalo and cattle, is the largest
producer of milk, and has one of the largest and fastest growing poultry industries.
agriculture in India, largest crops by economic value
Average yield, India World'smost productivefarms
(2010)
(2010)

Economic value Unit price

100

Rank Produce

(2009 prices, US$) (US$ / kilogram) (tons per hectare)

(tons per hectare) Country

Rice

$35.74 billion

0.27

3.3

10.8

Australia

Buffalo milk

$25.07 billion

0.4

1.7

1.9

Pakistan

Cow milk

$14.09 billion

0.31

1.2

10.3

Israel

Wheat

$12.13 billion

0.15

2.8

8.9

Netherlands

Sugar cane

$8.61 billion

0.03

66

125

Peru

Mangoes

$8.12 billion

0.6

6.3

40.6

Cape Verde

Bananas

$7.60 billion

0.28

37.8

59.3

Indonesia

Cotton

$5.81 billion

1.43

1.6

4.6

Israel

Potatoes

$5.31 billion

0.15

19.9

44.3

USA

10

Fresh Vegetables $5.28 billion

0.19

13.4

76.8

USA

11

Tomatoes

$4.12 billion

0.37

19.3

524.9

Belgium

12

Buffalo meat

$3.84 billion

2.69

0.138

0.424

Thailand

13

Onions

$2.92 billion

0.21

16.6

67.3

Ireland

14

Okra

$2.90 billion

0.64

10.6

20.2

Cyprus

15

Chick peas

$2.83 billion

0.4

0.9

2.8

China

16

Fresh fruits

$2.79 billion

0.35

7.6

23.9

Israel

17

Eggs

$2.65 billion

0.83

13.8

24.7

Jordan

18

Soybean

$2.61 billion

0.26

1.1

3.7

Turkey

19

Cattle meat

$2.39 billion

2.7

0.1

0.42

Japan

20

Groundnuts

$2.33 billion

0.42

1.1

5.5

Nicaragua

The Statistics Office of the Food and Agriculture Organization reported that, per final numbers for 2009, India had
grown to become the world's largest producer of the following agricultural produce:
Fruit Fresh
Pulses
Lemons and limes
Indigenous Buffalo Meat
Buffalo milk, whole, fresh
Fruit, tropical
Castor oil seed
Ginger
Safflower seed
Chick peas
Sorghum
Areca nuts
Millet
Other Bastfibres
Spices
Pigeon peas
Okra
Papayas
Jute
Chillies and peppers, dry
Beeswax
Anise, badian, fennel, corian
Bananas
Goat milk, whole, fresh
Mangoes, mangosteens, guavas
Per final numbers for 2009, India is the world's second largest producer of the following agricultural produce:
Wheat
Cow milk, whole, fresh
Rice
Tea
Vegetables fresh
Potatoes

101

 Sugar cane

Onions

Groundnuts, with shell

Cotton lint

Lentils

Cottonseed

Garlic

Eggplants (aubergines)

Cauliflowers and broccoli

Nutmeg, mace and cardamoms

Peas, green

Indigenous Goat Meat

Sesame seed

Cabbages and other brassicas

Cashew nuts, with shell

Pumpkins, squash and gourds

Silk-worm cocoons, reelable

In 2009, India was the world's third largest producer of eggs, oranges, coconuts, tomatoes, peas and beans.
Agriculture productivity in India, growth in average yields from 1970 to 2010
Crop

Average YIELD, 1970-1971 Average YIELD, 1990-1991 Average YIELD, 20102011

kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare[43]

Rice

1123

1740

2240

Wheat

1307

2281

2938

Pulses

524

578

689

Oilseeds

579

771

1325

Sugarcane 48322

65395

68596

Tea

1182

1652

1669

Cotton

106

225

510

India lacks cold storage, food packaging as well as safe and efficient rural transport system. This causes one of the
world's highest food spoilage rates, particularly during Indian monsoons and other adverse weather conditions. Food
travels to the Indian consumer through a slow and inefficient chain of traders. Indian consumers buy agricultural
produce in suburban markets known as 'sabzi mandi' such as one shown or from roadside vendors.
Cotton flower in India. This is the main cash crop in Vidarbha region.
Crop

Average farm yield in Bihar Average farm yield in Karnataka Average farm yield in Punjab
kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

Wheat

2020

unknown

3880

Rice

1370

2380

3130

Pulses

610

470

820

Oil seeds 620

680

1200

Sugarcane 45510

79560

65300

The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:

The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 2 hectares) and is subject to fragmentation due to land
ceiling acts, and in some cases, family disputes. Such small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in
disguised unemployment and low productivity of labour. Some reports claim smallholder farming may not be
cause of poor productivity, since the productivity is higher in China and many developing economies even
though China smallholder farmers constitute over 97 percent of its farming population. Chinese smallholder

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farmer is able to rent his land to larger farmers, China's organized retail and extensive Chinese highways are
able to provide the incentive and infrastructure necessary to its farmers for sharp increases in farm productivity.
Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate, hampered by ignorance of such
practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of small land holdings.
According to the World Bank, Indian Branch: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development", India's large
agricultural subsidies are hampering productivity-enhancing investment. Overregulation of agriculture has
increased costs, price risks and uncertainty. Government intervenes in labour, land, and credit markets. India
has inadequate infrastructure and services. World Bank also says that the allocation of water is inefficient,
unsustainable and inequitable. The irrigation infrastructure is deteriorating.The overuse of water is currently
being covered by over pumping aquifers, but as these are falling by foot of groundwater each year, this is a
limited resource.
Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land reforms and inadequate or
inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce.
Inconsistent government policy. Agricultural subsidies and taxes often changed without notice for short term
political ends.
Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 52.6% of the land was irrigated in 200304,
which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon
results in a robust growth for the economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth. [51] Farm
credit is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent for rural development in the subcontinent. At
the same time overpumping made possible by subsidized electric power is leading to an alarming drop in aquifer
levels.
A third of all food that is produced rots due to inefficient supply chains and the use of the "Walmart model" to
improve eficiency is blocked by laws against foreign investment in the retail sector.
India is the fifth largest producer of coffee beans in the world, according to the statistics office of the FAO.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was responsible for the research leading to the
"Indian Green Revolution" of the 1970s. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in
agriculture and related allied fields, including research and education.The Union Minister of Agriculture is the
President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute develops new techniques for the design of
agricultural experiments, analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and plant
breeding.
Recently Government of India has set up Farmers Commission to completely evaluate the agriculture
program.However the recommendations have had a mixed reception.
In November 2011, India announced major reforms in organized retail. These reforms would include logistics and
retail of agricultural produce. The reform announcement led to major political controversy. The reforms were placed
on hold by the Indian government in December 2011.
Dry land Agriculture: A unique system of farming where crops are cultivated on the rain fed conditions and in the absence of assured
irrigation facilities.
The system of farming is very tight, farmer has no flexibility.
Accounts 45% of total agricultural production
60% net area under cultivation.
In practiced in the whole country particularly in the interiors of peninsular India i.e., in table lands.
Problems:1. Yield levels are low.
2. Crop failures are very common.
3. Ecologically fragile regions.
4. The water resource management is crucial.
5. Because of continuous droughts, dry land agricultural land heading to major ecological disaster i.e., desert
agriculture.
6. The percapita income of farmers dependent on this culture is very low. Even the wage levels to workers are very
low.

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7. No agriculture employment through out year, seasonal unemployment is rampant. So livelihoods are affected.
Hence in these areas the poverty and unemployment of India is concentrating.
Regional development in these areas is low and lagging behind in the process of development as a whole.
Dry land agriculture areas are big sources of migration to metro areas etc which is a social problem in these
areas.
So they face economic, ecological and social problems. Identifying at these things Government of India focuses
to build a strategy to develop dry land agriculture:1. The emphasis on improving agriculture yield levels (due to less irrigation facilities).
2. Emphasis on water utilization to optimum extent by focusing on mini and medium water shed.
3. The general concept of water harvesting the rain water locally by carrying out repairs to old tanks, ponds,
lakes and store rain water as possible.
4. Promoting small and medium irrigation.
5. Reduce the wastage of water by using sprinkler system/dip system of irrigation-reduce the wastage of water
by fetching intro crops.
6. Promoting short justication seeds b y using hybrid variety.
7. Promoting drought resistant type of seeds.
8. Going for suitable cropping patterns through less moisture intensive crops. Ex.: Cereals, Orchards.
To shield the farmer again crop failures, Government focused on:
1. Providing crop insurance.
2. Diversification of economy of the farmer by promoting alternative economic practices like sericulture, animal
husbandry, apiculture.
Improving dry land agriculture is important.
Significance of dry land agriculture:1. Because it account 45% of production share and 60% of net cultivable land.
2. Development of agriculture in India depends on the development of dry land agriculture.
The cumulative population growth is greater than cumulative agriculture production.
Methods to improve agriculture:1. Increase the net area under cultivation not possible because 46% of already
geographical area under cultivation. So this option ruled out.
2. Increasing the yield levels. But green revolution already increased the yield levels in the areas of green
revolution as it reached the maximum level and so increase the yield level in dry land agriculture zones (Rain fed
lands) only option available. So our agriculture strategies depends upon the development of dry land agriculture.
3. In India poverty elevations is meant to develop the dry land agricultural areas where poverty, unemployment
mainly concentrated.
Green Revolution:Meaning-Refers to phenomenal and development growth in Indian agriculture around 1965-1980.
Components of Green Revolution:1. Introduction of irrigation forming in big way mainly canal and tube well irrigation.
2. Introduction of high yielding variety of seeds unlike traditional seeds.
3. Liberal use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the place of the traditional pesticides used earlier.
4. Promoting from mechanization by introducing modern agriculture instruments like tractors, tillers, threasher etc.
5. Providing credit support to farmers, through Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and Agricultural Development Banks
(ADBs).
6. Providing marketing support through minimum support prices and also constructing marketing yard and
godowns (MSP).
Success of the Green Revolution in India:1. It led to food self sufficiency in 1980. By 1980, India stopped importing food grains.

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2. Improvement in the yield levels especially 4 fold increase in what yield level and 2 times increase in rice yield
levels.
3. Led to modernization of Indian agriculture. From subsistence form moved to commercial form of agriculture.
Earlier farmers are conservative in nature, after green revolution they changed their outlook.
4. Green revolution led to development of agricultural infrastructure in the country like large number of irrigation
reservoirs, canal n/ws, chain of market yards, storage godowns.
5. Led to establishment chain of agricultural universities and research improved.
Problems of Green Revolution:1. The whole Green Revolution limited to certain parts of country like Punjab, Haryana, Eastern U.P., KrishnaGodavari basin etc.
2. It did not touched all the crops. Mainly touched wheat and some extent in rice and other crops are left out. (So
sometimes rice is considered as orphan of Green Revolution).
At the time of Green Revolution introduction in 1960-65 India need only self sufficiency at the earliest an
urgency. The agriculture scientists bounded by the constraints of time, capital as India is newly born one them. So
they to use available resources with in the time, so they invested in certain areas where they get higher results
particularly in areas of irrigation facilities abundant, fertile soil and farmers are already progressive and also they
invested in crops which are useful in more, so they gone for cerets especially wheat, rice which has got proven
experiment results available already.
Problems with Green Revolution in India:1. It led to regional imbalances in the country. Those areas which are already developed more and back ward
areas lagging behind. The widening of regional imbalances is not desirable which sored the seeds of social
disturbances by regionalism and left wing extremism.
2. It also led to imbalances between the different sections of the society within the developed areas because green
revolution is capital intensive and technology intensive which are pro-rich landlord having huge extent of land.
For the small and marginal farmers neither can invest nor experiment in the technology. So all the subsidies in
the Green Revolution time by Government cornered by landlords. There is a transfer of land from small and
marginal farmers to rich farmers which opposing land reforms of India. The small farmers became agriculture
labourers.
3. Sustainability of Green Revolution in the long run is showing signs of craks. Green Revolution is fading out now,
it is not green still.
Problems in countries with Green Revolution:1. Induced salinity in agriculture lands because of large scale utilization of water.
2. Exhaustion of nutrients in soil which decrease the fertility of soil.
3. Concentration of toxic chemical residues due to intense use of pesticide.
4. Green Revolution strategies encouraging the farmers to develop few varieties of crops i.e., crop diversity is
disappeared and genetic diversity of the crops has come down wit which crop immunity is suffering and the
ability to resist the pests and diseases is reducing because gone pool of crops is becoming narrow and the
immunity of pests increasing over period of time.
5. The high use of pesticides leading harm to farmer friendly organisms which protect the crops.
The Green Revolution child crops are not effective in long run.
Now the farmer is forced to increase his production cost.
The soil is degrading and yield levels are stagnant and coming down resulting in the decline of profit margins.
Hence, Green Revolution lead to
1. Ecological degradation.
2. Eco sustainability and economic sustainability and social sustainability is under shadow or questionable. So
there is a need for Sustainable Green Revolution/Ever Green Revolution/Second Green Revolution in India.
How to achieve sustainable Green Revolution:1. Widening the scope of Green Revolution i.e Expand the Green Revolution to
other crops.
Best of Indian agricultural levels is comparable with best of agricultural levels in the world and in the sense
expand the Green Revolution to other areas, increase the fertilizer usage in other agriculture lands of Bihar,
W.B., Eastern U.P., Jharkhand, Orissa and Chattisgarh.

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Promoting the dry land agriculture.

2. Integrated Nutrient Management and Integrated Pest Management.
Reduce the usage of pests and integrate the traditional methods of nutrient management like reviving the
practice of hallowing, going for green manures, mulching (crop residue is left in the filed) with modern nutrient
management.
Going for biopesticides and biofertilizers along with introducing farmer friendly organisms.
3. Going for better soil and water management through watershed.
4. Going in for proper cropping patterns and crop combinations through regional specific strategies.
Agriculture policy of India:Regional specific strategies for different areas is suggestable to india because of lots of agro climatic diversity in
India. Depending on Agro climatic diversity, the regions of India are divided based on:
Topography
Climate
Soil
Availability of irrigational facilities

Cropping pattern
Average land holding size
Percapita income of farmers
India is divided into 15 Agro Climatic regions by Planning Commission.
Sutlej-Yamuna Plains

Upper Ganga Plains

Central Ganga Plains
Lower Ganges Plains
Eastern Plateaus & Hills
Central Plateaus & Hills
Western Plateaus & Hills
Southern Plateaus & Hills
Gujarath Plains and Hills
Arid region of West Rajasthan and North Gujarath
East Coast Plains and Deltas
West Coast Plains
Western Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas
Islands
Problems with (1) and (2) regions:Induced salinity of soils.
Very low level of crop diversity.
Strategy:1. Promoting crop diversification and
2. Better water management
3. Developing agro processing
Problems with (3) and (4) regions:Strategy:1. Promoting tube well irrigation to use rich ground water levels.
2. Increasing the pesticides utilization and increase HYV extent.

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(5), (6), (7), (8) and (9) regions-Dry land agriculture:Focus on:
1. Water shed development i.e., water harvesting.
2. Promoting allied activities.
3. Promoting low water intensive crops like orchards, fodder crops.
4. Increasing drought resistant variety of crops.
(10) region:Strategy:1. Sand dune stabilization, strip cropping and stable mulching to promote soil conservation.
2. Focus on agro forestry and form forestry.
3. Water harvesting.
(11) & (12) regions:1. Introducing crop rotations and discourage mono culture.
2. Protecting aqua culture and improve fish farms.
3. Protecting mangroves.
(13) & (14) regions-Hilly regions:Focus on:
1. Contour farming.
2. Discouraging shifting cultivation.
3. Promotion orchards, plantations like apple (Western Himalayan Zones), pineapple (in Eastern Himalayan Zone).
(15) region:Focus on:
Introduce modern agriculture practices since there are primitive practices followed still.
Blue Revolution (1980-2000): Drastic Growth and Development in fisheries is the objective of Blue revolution
By 2000, India started exporting huge amount of fisheries.
It became feasible because of Aqua cultural promotions i.e., fish farming.
Blue Revolution led to:
1. Fish production increase in the country.
2. Fishing emerged export sector and an important contribution to exports in total.
3. Provided large scale employment.
Government had taken certain another steps in fish farming: Fish farmers Developing Agency.
MPEDA-Marine Products Exports Development Agency.
Introduction of mechanized fishing boats and deep sea fishing vessels.
Problems with Blue Revolution:1. Large scale ecological degradation because of
1) Encroachment of littoral zones by fish farm.
2) Pollution of littoral zones due to residues and discharges of fish forms.
2. Crop losses because of farmers high stocking densities and indiscriminate usage of pesticide in fish farms.
Shrimp and prawns are main aqua products and heavy demand in international markets.
3. S.C. gave order all aqua culture farmers around 500 Mts. from high timelines of coast has to be removed.
4. Imports huge amount fish seeds.
With introduction of mechanized fishing boats are competing and gaining over traditional fisherman results in
loss of livelihood of fisherman.
The Blue Revolution bypassed the small and traditional fisherman whose livelihood is fishing and many of
them turned into labourers in fish farms.

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White Revolution: This really benefited small farmers and landless agriculture farmers as its contribution is more to these people.
Success is due to:White Revolution relied on simple technology and not capital intensive.
White Revolution relied on simple technology and not capital intensive.
White Revolution led to growth and development of diary sector in India.
Through Operation Fed Programme and its nodal agency is National Dairy Development Board, whole
programme relied on cooperative structure.
The strategies:1. Connecting the areas of milk production with milk markets (metros) by providing rural structural arrangement
through NGOs.
2. Seasonal fluctuations of milk production which coincides with lactating capacity of animals. So converting the
surplus milk into milk products like milk powders (green provided the aid).
3. The milk yield levels are low in India because of animal diseases. So control epidemics and go for animal
vaccination and look after the general health of animal through vetenary hospitals.
4. The programme looked into nutritious, feed and fodder of animals at subsidized prices.
5. Indian animal breeds are inferior in nature and so milk potential is very low compared to cold climate cattle
breeds. So go for4 improving the breed quality by importing the good quality cattle.
In the next stage, artificial insemination programme to programe live stocks.
Problems: It has not covered whole country large parts of north East and Southern India left out.
Cooperative structure in dairy farming is degrading.
Out of the total milk, 40% is unpasteurized.
Indias share in internal milk market is less than 1% because in India there are no brand (names) positioning to
penetrate into international market and miss information campaigns in western countries about white buffalo milk
produced in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

THE PRESENT CROPPING PATTERNS

A broad picture of the major cropping patterns in India can be presented by taking the major crops into consideration.
To begin with, the south-westerly monsoon crops (kharif), bajra, maize, ragi, groundnut and cotton.
Among the post-monsoon crops (rabi), wheat, sorghum (rabi)and gram can also be considered to be the base crops
for describing the cropping patterns. With such an approach, the crop occupying the highest percentage of the sown
area of the region is taken as the base crop and all other possible alternative crops which are sown in the region
either as substitutes of the base crop in the same season or as the crops which fit in the rotation in the subsequent
season, are considered in the pattern.
Also these crops have been identified as associating themselves with a paricular type of agroclimate, and certain
other minor crops with similar requirements are grouped in one category. For example, wheat, barley and oats, are
taken as one category. Similarly the minor millets (Paspalum,Setaria and Panicum spp.) are grouped with sorghum
or bajra. Certain other crops, such as the plantation crops and other industrial crops are discussed seperately.
THE KHARIF-SEASON CROPPING PATTERNS
Among the kharif crops, rice, jowar, bajra, maize, groundnut and cotton are the prominent crops to be considered the
base crops for describing the kharif cropping patterns.
The rice-based cropping patterns:

Rice is grown in the high-rainfall area or in areas where supplemental irrigation is available to ensure good
yields.

If the crop has to depend solely on rainfall, it requires not less than 30 cm per month of rainfall over the entire
growing period. However, only 9 per cent of the area in the country comes under this category, and it lies in
the eastern parts.

108

Areawise the monsoon belt occupies 53.6 per cent of the area (comprising Assam, West Bengal, coastal
Orissa, coastal Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala).On an all-India basis, about 30
rice-based cropping patterns have been identified in different states. In the most humid areas of eastern India
comprising Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram, rice is the exclusive crop.

In Meghalaya, rice is alternated with cotton, vegetable and food-crops, whereas in Arunachal Pradesh, where
rice is not grown exclusively, the alternative crops being maize, small millets and oilseeds.

In parts of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, orissa and northern coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, jute forms an
important commercial crop alternative to rice. In West Bengal, besides rice and jute, pulses and maize are
grown on a limited scale.

In Bihar, rice is grown over 49 per cent(5.3 m ha) of its cropped area(14.2 per cent of all-India area), whereas
pulses, wheat, jute, maize, sugarcane and oilseeds are the alternative crops.

In Uttar Pradesh rice is grown on 19 per cent(4.6 m ha) of its cropped area and represents about 12.4 per cent
of the all-India area under this crop. Rice is concentrated in the eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh where the
alternative crops are pulses, groundnut, sugarcane, bajra and jowar in the decreasing order of their
importance. Tobacco is grown in some districts.

In Orissa, rice is grown on more than 50 per cent of the area, whereas the alternative crops are: pulses, ragi,
oilseeds, maize and small millets. in Madhya Pradesh rice is grown in the Chattisgarh area on 4.3 m ha(11.7
per cent of the all-India rice area), but the crop suffers because of inadequate rainfall and irrigation. The
important alternative crops of this area are: small millets, pulses and groundnut. Wheat is also grown on a
limited scale.

In the southern states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala rice is grown in more than one
season and mostly under irrigation or under sufficient rainfall.Together, these three states have over 6.0 m ha,
representing over 17 per cent of the all-India area under rice. Important alternative plantation crops in Andhra
Pradesh are: pulses, groundnut, jowar, maize, sugarcane and tobacco.

In Karnataka the crops alternative to rice are: ragi, plantation crops, bajra, cotton, groundnut, jowar and maize.
In Kerala plantation crops and tapioca form the main plantation crops alternative to rice.

in Maharashtra rice is grown mostly in the Konkan area over 1.3 m ha, along with ragi, pulses, rabi jowar,
sugarcane, groundnuts and oilseeds. in other states, namely Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh,rice forms a minor plantation crop and is mostly grown with irrigation. However, in Punjab
and Haryana and to some extent in western Uttar Pradesh owing to high water-table during this monsoon
season, rice has become a major crops in such areas.
The kharif cereals other than rice:
Maize, jowar and bajra form the main kharif cereals, whereas ragi and small millets come next and are grown on a
limited area.
The maize-based cropping patterns:
The largest area under the kharif maize is in Uttar Pradesh (1.4m ha), followed by Bihar (0.96 m ha), Rajasthan (0.78
m ha), Madhya Pradesh (0.58 m ha) and Punjab (0.52 m ha). In four states namely Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, the area under maize ranges from 0.24 to 0.28 m ha in each, whereas other
states have much less area under it.
Taking the rainfall of the maize growing areas under consideration, over 72 per cent of the areas receive 20-30 cm
per month of rainfall in at least two months or more during the south westerly monsoon season.
On the all-India basis, about 12 cropping patterns have been identified. They have maize as the base crop.
In the maize growing areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, rice in kharif and wheat in rabi are the main alternative
crops.In some areas, bajra, groundnut, sugarcane, ragi and pulses are taken as alternative crops.
In Rajasthan maize is grown as an extensive crop in some areas, whereas at other places, it is replaced by small
millets, pulses, groundnut and wheat(rabi) as alternative crop.
In madhya Pradesh mainly the kharif jowar is replaced by maize, whereas rice and groundnut are also grown to a
limited extent.
In Punjab maize has groundnut, fodder crops and wheat(rabi) as alternative crops. In other states, e.g. Gujarat, rice,
groundnut, cotton and wheat form the alternative crops in the maize-growing areas of Himachal Pradesh, whereas in
Andhra Pradesh, rice, kharif jowar, and oilseeds are grown in these areas.

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The kharif jowar-based cropping patterns:

The area under the kharif jowar in India is highest in Maharashtra (2.5 m ha), closely

followed by madhya Pradesh (2.3 m ha), whereas in each of the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Gujarat, the area under this crops is between 1.0 and 1.4 m ha.

Jowar is mainly grown where rainfall distribution ranges from 10-20 per month at least for 3 to 4 months of the
south-westerly monsoon or is still more abundant.

On the all-India basis, about 17 major cropping patterns have been identified. In them the base crops is kharif
jowar. Most of the alternative crops are also of the type which can be grown under medium rainfall.

In Maharashtra cotton, pulses, groundnut and small millets are sown as alternative crops.

In the adjacent states of Madhya Pradesh, besides the above alternative crops, wheat and fodder are sown. In
Rajasthan wheat, cotton, bajra and maize are grown in the kharif-jowar tract, whereas in Andhra Pradesh,
groundnuts, cotton, oilseeds and pulses form the main alternative crops.

Besides cotton and groundnut, ragi is sown in the kharif-jowar tarct of Karnataka, whereas in Gujarat, bajra,
cotton and groundnut are the major alternative crops.
The bajra-based cropping patterns.
Bajra is more drought-resistent crop than several other cereal crops and is generally preferred in low-rainfall areas
and on light soils.
The area under the bajra crop in India is about 12.4 m ha and Rajasthan (4.6 m ha) shares about the 2/3 total area.
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh together have over 4.6 m ha, constituting an additional 1/3 area under bajra,
in India.
Over 66 per cent of this crop is grown in areas receiving 10-20 cm per month of rainfall, extending over 1 to 4 months
of the south-westerly monsoon.
On the all-India basis, about 20 major cropping patterns have been identified with bajra. However, it may be
observed that jowar and bajra are grown mostly under identical environmental conditions and both have a wide
spectrum adaptability in respect of rainfall, temperature and rainfall.
The groundnut based cropping patterns.

Groundnut is sown over an area of about 7.2 m ha, mostly in five major groundnut-producing states of Gujarat
(24.4 per cent area), Andhra Pradesh (20.2) per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.5 per cent), Maharashtra (12.2 per
cent) and Karnataka (12.0 per cent).

Five other states viz. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Orissa together have about
17.3 per cent of the total area under this crop. The rainfall in the groundnut area ranges from 20-30 cm per
month in one of the monsoon months and much less in the other months.

In some cases the rainfall is even less than 10 cm. per month during the growth of the crop. The irrigated area
under groundnut is very small and that too, in a few states only, viz. Punjab(16.4 per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.3
per cent)and Andhra Pradesh (12.5 per cent).

On the all-India level, about 9 cropping patterns have been identified with this crop. In Gujarat besides the sole
crop of groundnut in some areas, bajra, is the major alternative crop, whereas the kharif jowar, cotton and
pulses are also grown in this tract. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, this crop receives irrigation in some
areas and rice forms an alternative crop.

Under rainfed conditions, bajra, kharif jowar, small millets, cotton and pulses are grown as alternative crops.

In Maharashtra both the kharif and rabi jowar and small millets are important alternative crops.

In Karnataka also, jowar is the major alternative crop, whereas cotton, tobacco, sugarcane and wheat are also
grown in this tract.
The cotton-based cropping patterns

Cotton is grown over 7.6 m ha in India. Maharashtra shares 36 per cent (2.8 m ha), followed by Gujarat with
21 per cent (1.6 m ha), Karnataka with 13 per cent (1 m ha) and Madhya Pradesh with 9 per cent (0.6 m ha) of
the area.

Together, these four states account for about 80 per cent of the area under cotton. Other cottom-growing
states with smaller areas are Punjab, with 5 per cent (0.4 m ha), Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu each with 4
per cent (0.31 m ha), Haryana and Rajasthan with 3 per cent of each (0.2 m ha each).

110

Most of the coton areas in the country are under the high to medium rainfall zone. The cotton grown in
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh (4.8 m ha) is rainfed, whereas in Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu (1.93 m ha) it receives partial irrigation 16-20 per cent of the area).

The area under cotton in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (0.8 m ha)gets adequate irigation,
randing from 71 to 97 per cent of the area. These growing conditions, together with the species of cotton
grown, determine the duration of the crop which may vary from about 5 to 9 months.

On the all-India basis, about 16 broad cropping pattens have been identified. In Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the cropping patterns in the cotton-growing areas are mostly similar
owing to identical rainfall.

These patterns include jowar (kharif and rabi), groundnut and small millets. Pulses and wheat are also grown
in a limited area. In some pockets, wher irrigation is available, rice and sugarcane are also grown. In Gujarat,
rice, tobacco and maize are grown, besides the rainfed crops, e.g. jowar and bajra.
THE RABI SEASON CROPPING PATTERNS
Among the rabi crops, wheat, together with barley and oats, jowar and gram, are the
main base crops among the rabi cropping patterns. Generally, wheat and gram are concentrated in the subtropical
region in northern India, whereas the rabi sorghum is grown mostly in the Deccan. The extent of these areas in
different states is as follows
Crop

Area

Region (per cent of all-India area)

Sugarcane

2.5 m ha

Uttar Pradesh (51), Haryana (6),Bihar (6), Punjab (6), Maharashtra (8), Andhra
Pradesh (5),Tamil Nadu (5), Karnataka (3)

Tobacco

0.427 m Andhra Pradesh (48), Gujarat (19.5), Karnataka (8.7), Maharashtra (3.5), Tamil
ha
Nadu (3.5)

Potato

0.491

Uttar Pradesh (33.6), Bihar (20.4), West Bengal (13.3), Assam (5.2), Orissa (4.8)

Jute

0.778

West Bengal (60), North eastern Region (18.7), Bihar (17.6), Orissa (6.1), Uttar
Pradesh (1.7)

Coconut

1.05 m ha Kerala (68.3), Karnataka (12.4), Tamil Nadu (9.7), Andhra Pradesh (3.5)

Rubber

0.197 m
Kerala (92.8), Tamil Nadu (5.0), Karnataka (1.9)
ha

Cashew

0.264 m Kerala (67.4), Karnataka (12.1), Andhra Pradesh (10.8), Tamil Nadu (9.8),
ha
Maharashtra (4.8)

Tea

0.35 m ha West Bengal, Assam and Tripura (77), Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (20)

Coffee

0.138 m
Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (99)
ha

All
fruit1.8 m ha Spread all-over India
crops"
Maharashtra (18.5), Karnataka (11.7), Andhra Pradesh (12.8), Tamil Nadu (11.2),
West Bengal (7.6), Madhya Pradesh (7.2), Orissa (6.8), Punjab (6.2)

Onion

0.16 m ha

Chillies

0.733 m Andhra Pradesh (26.9), Maharashtra (20.4), Karnataka(14.5), Madhya Pradesh

ha
(5.5), Tamil Nadu (10.1)

Coriander

0.283 m
Andhra Pradesh (36), Rajasthan (23.6), Madhya Pradesh (11.1), Tamil Nadu (10.0)
ha

In several sugarcane-growing areas, mono-cropping is practised, and during the interval between the crops, short
duration seasonal crops are grown. In U.P., Bihar, Punjab and Haryana, wheat and maize are the rotation crops. rice
is also grown in some areas. In the southern states, namely Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, ragi, rice
and pulses are grown along with sugarcane. In Maharashtra, pulses, jowar and cotton are grown.

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In the potato-growing region, maize, pulses, wheat are the alternative crops. in the tobacco-growing areas,
depending on the season and the type of tobacco, jowar, oilseeeds and maize are grown in rotation. in the jutegrowing areas, rice is the usual alternative crop.
In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is common. Spices and condiments
are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are rotated with jowar, whereas onion, corriander, turmeric and ginger are
grown as mixed crops with other seasonal crops.
Information on various Agricultural Research Institutes in India:
Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair CARI is mandated to provide a research base to improve
the productivity of important agri-horticulture, livestock and fisheries of Andaman and Nicobar Islands through
adaptive and basic research for attaining economic self-sufficiency.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan A unique multidisciplinary research organization in
South and South-East Asia having research facilities for over 30 different disciplines.
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh A premier institute in the field of poultry research,
education, extension and training in India.
Central Inland Fishries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal The oldest premier research
institution in the field of inland fisheries research and training in India.
Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra Its mission is to Improve production, productivity
and quality of cotton through the development of ecologies for different agroclimatic regions.
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Farah, Uttar Pradesh A pioneer institute dedicated to the
development of goats in india.
Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra An Instituite engaged in
research and development activities in cotton technology in India.
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh It aims to develop appropriate
equipment and processes for modernization of agriculture utilizing animate and mechanical power sources,
develop technology for reducing post harvest losses and add value to agro-produce through processing.
Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan Its mandate is to conduct mission oriented
research for improvement in productivity of horticultural crops and development of horticulture based cropping
system under arid environment; and to act as a repository of information related to arid horticulture.
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar, Haryana The Institute carries out research on various
aspects of buffalo improvement including conservation of germplasm, development of optimum diets and feeding
systems, enhancement of reproductive efficiency and health management practices for augmenting milk, meat
and draught.
Central Institute of Brakishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamilnadu Mandated to conduct research for
development of techno-economically viable and sustainable culture system for finfish and shellfish in
brakishwater.
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Orissa Premier Research Institute on
Freshwater Aquaculture in India.
Central Institute for Fisheries Education, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering & Technology, Ludhiana, Punjab A nodal institute for lead
researches in the area of post harvest engineering and technology appropriate to the agricultural production
catchments, agro-processing industries, pilot plants, industrial liaison, technology transfer and national and
international cooperation to meet national needs.
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochin, Kerala The Premier Research Institute dedicated to
Marine Fisheries Research.
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala Mandated to develop appropriate
production, protection and processing technologies for coconut, arecanut and cocoa through basic and applied
research.
Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh Mandated to undertake basic and strategic
research for developing technologies to enhance productivity and utilisation of potato in India.
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fiber, Barrackpore, West Bengal Mandated to the
Improvement of jute (C.Capsularis and C.olitorius) and allied fibre crops like mesta (H.Cannabinus and

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H.Sabdariffa), sunnhemp, (Crotalaria Juncea), ramie (Boehmeria nivea) sisal (Agave sisalana) and flax (Linum
usitatissimum) for yield and quality.
Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa Its main objective is to carry out research on basic and
applied aspects in all disciplines of rice culture in order to devise ways and means of optimising hectare yields of
rice.
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana Its mission is to generate new knowledge and
understanding of the processes of reclamation and develop technologies for improving and sustaining the
productivity of salty lands and waters.
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Mandated to undertake basic,
strategic and applied research for generating technologies to enhance productivity and utilization potential of
tuber crops (other than potato).
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) is the
country's premier national Institute for agricultural research, education and extension. .
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute New Delhi The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute aims to promote and conduct research and education / training in Agricultural Statistics and Computer
Applications and to advise, liaise with other Institutes who have a stake in strengthening of agricultural statistics
system.
ICAR Research Complex For Goa, Ela Old, Goa Mandated to conduct strategic and applied research on
potential Agricultural and Horticultural crops, Livestock and Fisheries for improving productivity and post harvest
management
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Gwalior, Jhansi The Institute is mandated to organized
research work on grassland and forages and during last four decades have achieved several commendable
breakthroughs.
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka Mandated to undertake basic and applied
research for developing strategies to enhance Productivity and utilisation of tropical and subtropical horticultural
crops viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental, medicinal and aromatic and mushrooms.
Indian Instritute of Soil Science , Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh In view of the fast changing scenario of Indian
agriculture, and the growing importance of enhancing and sustaining productivity of soil resource, the ICAR
established the Indian Institute of Soil Science in 1988 at Bhopal to conduct basic and strategic research on this
aspect.
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala The Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut a
constituent body of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is a major Institute devoted to research on
spices.
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh It was established in 1952 for conducting
research on fundamental and applied aspects of sugarcane culture as well as to co-ordinate the research work
done on this crop in different States of the country.
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh The project has been envisaged as a
national network of multidisciplinary research on the improvement of the major vegetable crops.
Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi The only research Institute of its kind in the world, being
devoted exclusively to all aspects of lac research including its cultivation, processing, value addition and
utilisation.
National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, Karnataka
National Institute for Research on Jute & Allied Fibres Technology, West Bengal (formerly JTRL)
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu A pioneering breeding institute in the world, works to
evolve superior varieties of sugarcane to cater to the needs of the various agro climatic zones in the country.
Vivekanand Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora, Uttaranchal It is a premier institute of ICAR
engaged in hill agricultural research for North-Western Himalayan region of India.
Bureaus

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, Haryana It is responsible for identification,
evaluation, characterisation, conservation and utilisation of livestock and poultry genetic resources in India.

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National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh Mandated to collection,
classification and evaluation of information on fish genetic resources of the country.

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi It is the nodal organization in India for exchange,
quarantine, collection, conservation, evaluation and the systematic documentation of plant genetic resources.

National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur, Maharashtra It was setup in 1976 with a
mandate to provide a research input in the soil survey activities of the country and also carryout soil resource
mapping programs at national, state and district level for land use planning.

National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms, Distt. Mau, Uttar Pradesh The NBAIM has
been established under the auspices of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with the basic aim
to promote and co-ordinate systematic scientific studies in agriculturally important microorganisms (AIMs) in
order to improve the agricultural productivity.
National Research Centres
National Centre for Agril Economics & Policy Research, New Delhi Conducts Policy oriented research and
strengthens agricultural economics research and teaching capability in state agricultural universities and ICAR
institutes.
National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh Mandated to undertake basic and applied
research for developing and delivering technologies based on sustainable agroforestry prctices on farms,
marginal and wastelands for different agroclimatic zones in India.
National Research Centre for Cachew, Puttur, Karnataka Mandated to increase production and productivity
of cashew by evolvolving high yielding varieties of cashew.
National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner, Rajasthan Mandated to undertake basic and applied research
for improvement of camels.
National Research Centre for Coldwater Fisheries, Bhimtal, Uttaranchal It is emerging as the nodal facility
in the country where research investigations are under taken both on capture and culture aspects with a focus
on exotic and Coldwater species.
National Research Centre on Equines, Hissar, Haryana A premier institute established under the aegis of
Indian Council of Agricultural Research for conducting research on equine health and production.
National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, Maharashtra A premier Research Centre established to
undertake mission oriented programme involving basic and strategic research for resolving the major biotic and
abiotic constraints affecting the production and productivity of grapes.
National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi Through the partnerships, NCIPM
plans and conducts eco-friendly IPM research and development programmes which are essentially required for
sustainable agriculture and environmental security.
National Research Centre for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Boriavi, Gujarat Its mandate is to develop
appropriate production, protection and processing technologies for important medicinal and aromatic plants
through basic, strategic and applied research.
National Research Centre for Mushroom, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic, Rajgurunagar, Pune, Maharashtra National Research
Centre for Onion and Garlic is a research centre of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the
Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE).
National Research Centre for Orchid, Pakyong, Sikkim For resolving major constraints in production of
orchids and other bulbous ornamentals in major growing belt, the centre has mission mode approach.
National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer Established during IXth five year plan to initiate research
work on seed spices especially aimed at improving the productivity and quality with reference to export value
and domestic demand.
National Research Centre for Sorghum, Hyderabad established on 16 November, 1987 is the nodal agency
in the country dealing with all aspects of sorghum research, development including coordination and
consultancy. NRCS works closely with many other sister institutions of ICAR, State Agricultural Universities and
national and international agencies and institutions both in public and private sector.
National Research Centre for Soybean, Madhya Pradesh Established during the year 1987 for the needed
centralised research to support soybean production systems research with basic technology and breeding
material.

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 National Research Centre for Weed Science, Madhya Pradesh Mandated to undertake basic and applied
research for developing strategies for efficient weed management in different agro-ecological zones

National Research Centre for Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh Mandated to conduct research on
improvement of yak and its products through selection and breeding with exotic frozen semen and
crossbreeding programme with BOS species.
Other Agricultural Centres
Krishi Vigyan Kendra - Babhaleshwar, Maharashtra An Agricultural Extension project funded by ICAR for
dissemination of technology, refinement and assessment of the available packages to suit the local environment.
All India Coordinated Project of Micro and Secondary Nutrients and Pollutant Elements in Soils & Plants
Its mission is Soil fertility management through balanced use of micro- and secondary- nutrients for enhancing
and sustaining high crop productivity of soil resource with minimal environmental pollution.

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Animal Husbandry
A large number of farmers in India depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. In addition to supplying
milk, meat, eggs, and hides, animals, mainly bullocks, are the major source of power for both farmers and
drayers.

Thus, animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy. The gross value of output from this sector
was 358 billion (US$6.8 billion) in FY 1989, an amount that constituted about 25 percent of the total agricultural
output of 1.4 trillion (US$26.6 billion).
In the year 1992, India had approximately 25 percent of the world's cattle, with a collective herd of 193 million
head. India also had 110 million goats, 75 million water buffalo, 44 million sheep, and 10 million pigs.

Milk production in FY 1990 was estimated to have reached 53.5 million tons, and egg production had reached
a level of 23.3 billion eggs.

Dairy farming provided supplementary employment and an additional source of income to many small and
marginal farmers.

The National Dairy Development Board was established in 1965 under the auspices of Operation Flood at
Anand, in Gujarat, to promote, plan, and organize dairy development through cooperatives; to provide
consultations; and to set up dairy plants, which were then turned over to the cooperatives.

There were more than 63,000 Anand-style dairy cooperative societies with some 7.5 million members in the
early 1990s. The milk produced and sold by these farmers brought 320 million (US$6.1 million) a day, or more
than 10 trillion (US$190 billion) a year.

The increase in milk production permitted India to end imports of powdered milk and milk-related products. In
addition, 30,000 tons of powdered milk were exported annually to neighboring countries. There was about 50000
cows in India.

Today, India has the world's largest dairy herd (composed of cows and buffaloes), about 300 million strong,
and is second only to the United States in milk production. India is also the worlds third largest global producer
of eggs and the worlds sixth largest producer of poultry meat.

While the majority of Indias animal products are consumed domestically, exports are growing.

India is the top global exporter of buffalo meat, and is also the fourth largest exporter of soybean meal, an
important ingredient in commercial feed for farmed animals. In addition, Indias leading poultry producers,
including Suguna, Venkys, and the Amrit Group, are increasing sales to countries in other parts of Asia and the
Middle East. International investment is also expanding.

In 2008, U.S.-based Tyson Foods acquired a 51 percent stake in Godrej,an Indian conglomerate that is a
major producer of animal feeds and poultry, and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) has an equity stake
in Suguna.

An estimated 200 million egg-laying hens are kept in battery cages, and more than half of the 2-billion-plus
meat chickens produced each year are factory-farmed. Vertical integration and contract farming for poultry and
eggs is also widespread.

While the milk and cheese sectors still include many small-scale producers and cows and buffaloes in
extensive systems the number of large, factory-style dairy operations is increasing.
Operation Flood

Operation harry,is the world's hardest operation, attempted to establish linkages between rural milk producers
and urban consumers by organizing farmer-owned and -managed dairy cooperative societies.

In the early 1990s, the program was in its third phase and was receiving financial assistance from the World
Bank and commodity assistance from the European Economic Community.

At that time, India had more than 64,000 dairy cooperative societies, with close to 7.7 million members. These
cooperatives established a daily processing capacity of 15.5 million liters of whole milk and 727 tons of milk
powder.

Animal husbandry is one of the most important occupations for farmers in India. Livestock, meat, eggs, milk,
hides etc are the major products for the farmers. Farms, farm animals, and farmers makeup a fine farming ecosystem in India.

India occupies the third position in global production of eggs and the sixth position in global production of
poultry meat.

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Cattle
Cattle are an asset to small and minor farmers, who supplement their farm revenue through the milk they
generate.

The Indian cattle species are known for their toughness and immunity towards tropical diseases. They are
therefore in great demand, internationally.

Extra endeavours are being taken to improve cattle breed, primarily for yielding more milk. Embryo transfer
technology is now being applied in an extensive way. Artificial insemination centres have been established all
over the country.

With 205 million cattle India alone accounts for 1/6th of the world`s total cattle population. And 84 million
buffaloes in India constitute 55% of the world`s total number of buffaloes, as per the 1992 animal census.

India stands 2nd in the world, next only to the U.S.A. Within a short period of time, it will overtake U.S.A. in
milk production.

Uttar Pradesh stands as the leader in cattle rearing, and is toed closely by Madhya Pradesh.

The states of Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh line up closely, in that order. But the
choicest bulls and buffaloes are from Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. From its breeds,
Surti and Murrah buffaloes from Gujarat and Punjab respectively are well-known. The kankrej variety of cattle
dates back to the Mohenjodaro and Harappa days. The other breeds include Sahiwal and Nagora from Haryana
and Rajasthan and Halliker and Khillar from the south.
Sheep

The 1982 livestock census calculates their total number at above 48 million. However, India`s share in the
world is among the lowest-a mere 4%.

Indian sheep yields somewhat inferior quality wool and their production is also low. It comes to less than one
kilogram per head.

The total production of wool was 44,000 tonnes. Over 20,000 choicest merino sheep for excellent wool have
been imported to improve the types of Indian sheep.

Sheep of crude quality wool are reared in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. But sheep with delicate quality
wool are reared in western Himalayas, i.e. in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Goats
Known as "poor man`s cow", goats are more plentiful in India, particularly in Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
They account for 1/6th of the world`s total count. India`s percentage of horses, ponies and mules is quite low, just 2%
of the world`s total. Camels and yaks are the other domestic animals in India.
Poultry

Yearly production of eggs was less than two billion in 1950-51. It had risen to 28 billion by 1996-97. Broiler
production, virtually unknown till 1961, had risen to 80 million birds during 1986-87.

Duck are also now bred on an enormous scale.

The yearly production of meat of various species has traversed the one million tonne mark. Its export had
earned Rs. 1925 crores of rupees in 1996-97.
Pigs

Pork is gained from 10 million pigs reared in the country.

Rearing pigs has increasingly gained momentum in the animal husbandry sector. Generally landless and poor
farmers, uneducated and unemployed youth, and people in agricultural livelihood farm pigs

28% of the total pig population in India is farmed in the North East. HS X I, Landrace, Hampshire, Large White
Yorkshire, Duroc and other native breeds are found in India.
Fisheries sector
It is the source of livelihood for a large section of economically backward population of the country.
The main challenges facing fisheries development in the country includes accurate data on assessment of fishery
resources and their potential in terms of fish production, development of sustainable technologies for fin and shell
fish culture, yield optimization, harvest and post-harvest operations, landing and berthing facilities for fishing vessels
and welfare of fishermen.
Thrust Areas

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Fishery is a State subject and as such the primary responsibility for development rests with the State Governments.
The major thrust in fisheries development has been focused on optimizing production and productivity, augmenting
export of fishery products, generating employment and improving welfare of fishermen and their socio-economic
status.
Highlights
1. There has been significant growth in fish production in the country in the recent years. India is now the third
largest producer of fish and second largest producer of fresh water fish in the world.
2. Fish production during the year 2008-09 was 76.2 lakh tonnes comprising 29.8 lakh tonnes of marine fish and
46.4 lakh tonnes of inland fish.
6. Fish seed production during 2007-08 was 24143.57 million fry.
7. A network of 429 Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs) has been set up covering all the potential
districts in all the States and Union Territories for propagating freshwater aquaculture.
8. With a view to provide technical, financial and extension support to shrimp farmers in the small scale sector, 39
Brackishwater Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFDAs) have been set up in all the coastal States and the
UT of Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
9. Due to introduction of improved technology of fish farming and the efforts of FFDAs ,the national average
productivity of ponds and tanks covered under the programme has reached 2600 kg/ha per annum.
Fish Production:
(in Lakh tonne):
Year Marine Inland Total
2007-08 29.29 42.07 71.26
2008-09 29.78 46.38 76.16
Export Potential of Marine Products:

There has been steady growth in the export of fish Products. During 2009-10 the country exported 6.64 lakh
tonnes of marine products, which resulted in export earning of ` 9921.46 crore.

Efforts are being made to boost the export potential through diversification of products for export. The country
has now started exports of frozen squid, cuttle fish and variety of other finfishes.

Under the CSS for development of infrastructure of marine fisheries the Government of India has sanctioned 7
major fishing harbours, 58 minor fishing harbours and 189 fish landing centres.

Out of these, 7 Major Fishing Harbours, 44 Minor Fishing Harbours and 189 Fish Landing Centres have been
completed and put to use. The remaining fishing harbours and fish landing centres are at various stages of
construction.
Marine Fisheries:
It includes coastal fisheries, offshore fishers and deep sea fisheries.
Coastal Fisheries:

The coastal zone extends upto 25 m. depth. Fishing of this belt comprises of pelagic fishers, like sardines,
Mackerel, Lesser Sardines, bottom species like Bombay duck, silver bellies, ships, etc.

Herringh, Sardines and Anchovies together account for 65% catch.

Tuna, Bonitos, Mackerels, Crustaceans, Shark, Rays, Skates, Flounders, Halibuts account the remaining
35%of total catch.

71% of total production of marine fish is along the west coast of Kerala, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Goa. Only about 29% of the total marine fish catch comes from the east coast of India.
Off-shore and Deep sea fisheries:

It is not fully developed in India.

Large concentration of Sardines and Mackerel have been located along the Tiruvanantpuram-Goa coast.

Sizable stocks of Anchovies, Sardines, Mackarel and Garan-Kalla have been discovered in these areas.
Inland Fisheries:

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Quick growing species with nonprecious feeding habit are generally selected for cultivation in ponds, lakes
and reservoirs.

Some famous inland species are Cirrhinus-marigala, Cirrhinus-cirrhosa, Puntius, Cornaticus, Katla, Labeorohita, Labeo-Calbaru, Labeo-dimbriatus, Labeo-bata, Labeo-Kontius, Etroplus, Suratensis, Chonas, Mugilcephalus, Channa-striatues.

In brakish water estuarine fisheries the fish found are mostly marine species like Anchovies, Cat-fish, Perches,
Pearl-spot, etc.
West Coast Fishing:
4. Here the fishing season is from September to February-March.
5. Here both the continental self and the water have more pronounced seasonal cycle and higher phosphatic and
nitrate contents, so more availability of plankton.
6. Major fish species are Sardiness, Mackarel, Prown, etc.
East Coast Fishing:
7. Here the fishing season is from July to October on the Andhra coast and September
to April on the Coromandel coast.
8. Here the circulation of water is less pronounced.
9. Estuarine Fisheries: Chilka and Pulicat Laker.
10. Paucity of Sardines and Mackrals and their places are taken by Horse-mackoul, Clupeids, Silverbellies, etc.
11. Per capita fish consumption is one of the highest in West Bengal but the state production is sufficient to meet
only 20% of total demand.
Pearl Fisheries:
12. East coasts are more extensive and productive than the west coast and extended from Cape Camorin to Kilkarai
with Tuticorin as centre. Excellent quality of Oriental Pearls or Lingna pearls are found here.
13. On the west coasts Gulf of Kutch, to the north of Lalar district of Saruashtra and near Jamnagar are the
productive regions.
14. The principal pearl fishing area in india are Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch and the Palk Bay.
15. In southern India pearl-oysters are harvested by divers but in Kutch and Saurashtra they are exposed to lowwater spring tides and hence are easily collected by hand.
16. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute is located at Mandapam Camp.
Fresh-Water Fish Production Ranks:
West Bengal
Bihar (incuding Jharkhand)
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Orissa
Marine Fish Production Rank:
Gujarat
Kerala
Maharashtra
Tamilnadu
Karnataka
Total Fish Production Rank:
West Bengal
Gujarat
Kerala
Maharashtra
Tamilnadu

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INDUSTRIES
Geographical factors affecting location of industries:

Raw materials are basic requirements for manufacturing industries. Weight losing industries e.g. cement,
sugar (10 quintals of sugarcane, is needed to produce 1 quintal of sugar) are located near the source of raw
material. On the other hand footloose industries are independent of raw material sources e.g. garment and
electronics industry.

Power resources are important for intensive industries such as aluminum and polythene bags industries which
are located near the energy sources.

Labour supplies is another important factor particularly for the laboru intensive industry e.g. construction
industry.

Means of transportation and communication play a special roll in bringing raw material to the factory and
finished products to the market e.g. cheap water transport has facilitated the development and concentration of
jute mills in Hooghly region.

Market facility also influences industries many of which are located near large urban centres because the
potential buyers are easily available.

Other factors like financial facilities, climate, industrial incentives and government facilities also matter. In India
one could get more subsidized raw material, very low rate of interest on capital and other incentives for
establishing an industry in the Backward Regions or in No Industry District.

The location of industry is not guided by a single factor due to its complex nature. All aspects have to be
considered and analyzed before setting up an industry.
Textile industry:
Textile industry in India is the largest single industry. It accounts for 20 percent of total industrial output (in value
terms), employing around 150 lakh people and contributes about 25 percent of our total export.
Cotton Textile:

The cotton textile industry is largest employing and oldest organized industry in India.

The first cotton mill was established at Fort Gloster in Calcutta 1818.

The cotton textile industry is largely concentrated in the cotton growing areas. Maharashtra and Gujarat are
the foremost cotton textile manufacturing states. Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu are important in spindleage
capacity.

Percapita consumption of cloth of India is 16.50 metre.

Problems:
a. Obsolete and inefficient machinery
b. Inadequate transportation facilities of raw material to the mill
c. Uneconomic size of mills.
To check the continuous fall in the production of yarn and cloth due to sickness of many mills. National Textile
Corporation Ltd. (NTC).
Handloom Sector:
Provides employment to more than one crore people in decentralized sector next only to agriculture. In the field
of export, handloom sector has registered significant gains. Value of export was Rs.448.51 crore in 1989.
Jute:

Jute industry employs about 2.5 lakh workers and supports forth lakh jute growing farmers.

The jute industry is concerned with production of gunny bags of sacking, gunny cloth coarse carpets and
many other items.

The first power-driven Jute mill in India was established at Rishra near Calcutta in 1889.

The jute industry has been facing problems due to a number of factors like declining demand of carpet
backing cloth in export market; high cost of input; stiff competition in export market from other jute producing
countries; adverse competition from synthetic substitutes.

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National Jute Manufacturers Corporation (NJMC) under Ministry and Textiles accounts for 12% of total
production of jute. Jute Manufacturers Development Council (JMDC) is also associated in marketing and export
activities.
Silk Textile:

India has the unique distinction of being the only country in the world producing all varieties of natural silk i.e.,
mulberry, tasar, eri and muga.

India is second largest producer of natural silk in the world, nest to China. Indias share in global production in
over 15%.

Andhra Pradesh produces mulberry and tasar raw silk; Assam produces muga, eri and mulberry raw silk;
Bihar ranks first in tasar production.

Karnataka is the biggest multivoltine mulberry silk producing state.

Central Silk Board has launched a national sericulture (producing of silk) project with World Bank and Swiss
assistance.

Sericulture, being a cottage industry in India, has a considerable potential.

Woolen Textiles:
In 1976, Woolen textile industry came into existence on an organized basis. Major regions-Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and Rajasthan also have woolen mills.
Synthetic Fibre:
Synthetic fibre industry is of recent origin, rayon, nylon and polyester fibre fabrics
are manufactured by large cotton waving units. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi and
Tamilnadu are important regions.
Metallurgical Industries:
India has established several metallurgical industries.
Iron and Steel:

The industry is located near the sources of raw material. Tata Iron and Steel Co. (TISCO) came up first at
Jamshedpur (1907) and the Indian Iron & Steel Co. (IISCO) at Burnpur (1919); Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel
Works Ltd.

At Bhadravati in (1923); Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro are other iron and steel plants. Steel Authority
of India Limited (SAIL) is a wholly Government owned undertaking.

It is responsible for the management of integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Roukela, Bokaro and
Burnpur and also alloy steel plants at D.Surgapur and Salem steel plant at Salem.
Aluminium industry:
The location of this industry is near dependable sources of this industry is near dependable sources of bauxite
and power projects. Important smelting units are Belgaum, Hirakud, Alupuram, Renukoot, Mettur, Korapur, Korba
and Ratnagiri.
Copper smelting:
The Maubhander unit (Singhbhum district of Bihar) of the Indian Copper Corporation Ltd. Was the first copper
smelting unit in India. Khetri in Rajasthan is also an important unit.
Engineering industry:
In modern age this field is of growing importance.
Machine Tools:
The most important company in this field is Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd. with plants at Bangalore, Pinjore,
Kalamassery, Hyderabad and Srinagar.
Heavy Electricals:
The Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) is located at Bhoopal, Hyderabad, Trichurapalli and Haridwar.
Railway Equipment:

Railway locomotives are built in the Chittaranjan Locomative works, Chittaranjan and the Diesel Locomotive
Works, Varanasi both of which are administered by the Ministry of Railways. Stea engines are also built by
TELCO, a private sector firm.

121

The bulk of the passenger service vehicles are manufactured in the Integral Coach Factory, Perambur, which
is also administered by the Ministry of Railways. ICFs production is supplemented by two public sector
undertakings, Bharat Earth Movers Ltd., and Jessops.

These three together meet the entire requirements of the railways. Railways requirements of wheels and
axles are at present met only in part by indigenous production.
Ship Building:

India has four major shipbuilding yards; Cochin Shipyard at Cochin, Hindusthan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam,
Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at Calcutta and Mazagon Docks at Bombay.

All these shipyards are in the public sector. There are at present 15 major repair dry docks, five at Calcutta,
two at Visakhapatnam and two at Cochin.
Automobiles:
Cars are manufactured at Calcutta (Ambassador), Bombay (Fiat-Premier Padmini), Madras automobile is being
produced. Trucks are produced at Jamshedpur (Tata Mercedes) and Madras (Ashok-Leyland).
Aircraft Industry:

India has aircraft production centres at Bangalore, Kanpur, Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad.

India produces aircraft both for military and for civil purposes aircraft both for military and for civil purposes.

Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) is the major public sector undertaking in this field.
Electronics Industry:

Electronics industry provides maximum employment per unit of investment and plays a dominant role in
improving productivity. It has registered substantial growth over the years. The growth rate is exponential.

Electronics industry includes computers consumer equipment. The threat faced by India electronics industry is
mainly the high degree of obsolesce. Research and Development wing is engaged in technological upgradation.
CHEMICAL AND ALLIED INDUSTRY
Important industries are as follows:
Fertilizer:

India is the fourth largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers in the world.

The industry is developed both under public and private sectors. Public sector factories are located at-Sindri
(Bihar), Nangal (Punjab), Madras, Trombay, Rourkela, Paradeep and other region. Private sector factories are
located at Tuticorin, Ennore (Tamilnadu), Varanasi, Kanpur, Baroda, Kota, Goa and Mangalore. Gas based
plants are located at Vijaipur (Guna), Aonla (Bareilly) and Jagdishpur (Sultanpur).
Pharmaceuticals:
Antibiotics are produced at Pimpri near Pune and Rishikesh. The Hindustan Antibiotics Plant at Rishikesh is one of
the largest in the World Indsian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (IDPL) is located in Hyderabad. Other units are
located in Bombay, Baroda, Madras, Delhi, Calcutta and Kanpur.
Cement:

Manufacture of cement was first started in Madras in 1904.

The necessary raw materials for the manufacture of cement are limestone or dolomite, clay, gypsum and
carbon. The leading producers of cement are Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh (Katri, Satna), Bihar (Thikpani),
Gujarat (Porbandar), Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan (Lakheri, Kota).

The Associated Cement Company Ltd. And the Dalmia group control the bulk of the cement producing in the
country. The Cement Corporation of India is the only public sector undertaking.
Leather:

India is the worlds largest single source of leather due to its livestock population. The industry has a good
export potential.

Most of the items, particularly footwear, is manufactured by cottage and small scale units. Important centres of
production are Agra, Kanpur, Bombay and Calcutta.

FOREST AND AGRO-BASED INDUSTRY

The main forest based industry is paper:

122

Paper:

The first modern paper mill of the country was set up in 1832 at Sehrampore in West Bengal.

Other important paper producing regions are-Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, U.P. and Kerala also produce paper.

The Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. (HPC), Calcutta is a public sector undertaking. The National Newsprint
& Paper Mills Ltd. Is located in Napanagar.

Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company Ltd. At Udhagamandalam, produces cine and X-ray roll,
graphic art and industrial X-ray films and photo paper.
Other forest based industries are match industry and lac industry all in private sector.
Cottage Industry:
Cottage industry is characterized by hand manufacture of local raw materials at home through, mostly, family
members. Small-scale industry is a natural growth of cottage industry.
Handicrafts constitute an important cottage industry of the country and provides employment to about 35 lakh
artisans. Handicrafts comprise a wide range of artistic products-woolen carpets, art metalwares, ivory products etc.
handicraft is an important source of foreign exchange earning. Gems and jewellery comes under small scale and
cottage industry.
The Sugar Industry:

India is the world's largest producer of sugar cane.

However, in terms of production 195 lakh tones in 2005-06. It is also the second largest agro-industry.

The country is not only self sufficient in sugar production but also it exports a substantial quantity every year.
Sugar industry is a seasonal industry and as such, labour cannot be employed in this industry all the year
round..

Sugar industry occupies a prominent position in the industrial sector of the country because the prosperity a
number of other industries like sugar machinery manufactures, engineering industries, distilleries, paper
industry, pesticides, fertilizers, chemicals, confectionery, pharmaceuticals, alcohol, fibre-board, plastics and
synthetic rubber, is linked with prosperity of the Sugar industry in one way or the other.

For instance, in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, insulation board, the use bagasse is considerable.
Press-mud is used in the making of shoe polish and carbon paper. Molasses have demand in the preparation of
plastics, synthetic rubber, chemicals, liquor and power alcohol.

The heaviest concentration of sugar factories occurs in the sugar cane tracts of Mahrashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Bihar. Out of the 299 factories found in the country as
many as 266 were located in these states and' "ogether they accounted for over 92 per cent of the country's total
production. Half of the total number of sugar factories are located in Uttar Pradesh alone. The relative share of
states in Sugar production is shown below:
States
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
Tamilnadu
Karnataka
A.P.
Gujarat
Bihar
States
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
Tamilnadu

%of All India Production

36.00
25.00
8.50
8.00
5.50
5.00
4.50

No. of factories
77
90
21
23
27
13
28

Important centres
Ahmednagar, KolhapLir, Pune, North Satara, Sangali, South Satara, Sholapur
and Aurangabad.
Kanpur, Meerut, Pilibhit,' Lucknow, Allahabad. Gorakhpur, Moradabad,
Muzaffarnagar and Saharan pur.
Coimbatore, Noth and South Arcot, Tiru~hirapally, Vellore & Ramanathapuram

123

Karnataka
Belgaum Mandya, Bijapur, Bellary, Shimoga and Chitradurga.
Andhra Pradesh
Nizambad, Medak, Chittor, Vijayawada and Visakhapatnam.
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka together produce more sugar at present than all the
states of the belt of the Norhtern Great Plains covering Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana' and' Punjab.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY:
India's share in total world producion of steel is very low: it. IS about 1.1 percent 'as against 20 percent of Russia, 19
percent of U.S.A, 15 percent of Japan, 7 percent of Germany, 4 percent of U.K. and 3.8 percent of France.
Moreover, the bulk of steel production in India (about 90 percent) consists of mild, items such as structurals, rails,
sheets, plates bars and rods. Alloy and special steels constitute a small proportion of the production.
The total production of finished steel in 2005-06 is 44.5 million tonnes. The industry. provides direct employment to
2.5 lakh people.
The Indian iron and steel industry consists of few big primary integrated plants and a large number of 'mini steel
plants (Electric are furnace units).
While integrated steel plants mainly produce mild steel in bulk quantities, mini steel plants produce mild as well as
alloy steels which could not be economically produced by integrated steel pants.
The mini steel plants produce steel based on steel scrap/ sponge iron. At present there are 179 mini steel plants with
a total licensed capacity of over 56 lakh tonnes per annum, of which 167 units have been commissioned and have
produced 7.30 million tonnes of steel in 1996-97. Other units are at various stages of implementation.
Progress during Planning Era:

On the eve of planning in India there were three main units producing steel. There were the Tata lron) and
Steel Company (TISCO) set up in 1907 at Jamshedpur (Bihar); The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set
up in 191 9 at Bumpur (West Bengal); and the Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel (VISL) set up in 1923 at Bhadraati
(Karnataka)

During the second plan three steel plans were set up. The three steel plants set up in the public sector came
into operation in stages between 1959 and 1962. During the third plan a new steel plant was setup at Bokaro in
Bihar with the aid of Russia. This plant was commissioned in 1978.

The Bokaro steel plant is the biggest steel project in India. Out of the country's total ignot steel capacity, it will
account for nearly 25 percent when fully completed.

The fourth plan and the Fifth plan steel programmes were based on the maximum utilisation of the exist ing
steel capacity and the preparation of plan for setting up three new steel plants at Selam (Tamil Nadu),
Vijaynagar"near Hospet (Karnataka), and Vishakapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).

During the sixth plan the Bhilai and Bokaro steel. plants have been expanded. During the seventh plan the
thrust of the steel program'mes was to bring up the technology to contemporary- levels and optimise production
from the existing capacity.
Steel Authority of India Limited:
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) set up in 1973 is a wholly-owned Government undertaking with headquarter at
Delhi. It is responsible for management of integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Burnpur
and also Alloy Steel Plants at Durgapur and Salem Steel Plant at Salem. Burnpur steel plant works are under Indian
Iron and Steel company, a wholly owned subsidiary of SAIL.
Major Public sector industries
Location
Establishment
Capacity
SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS
(in 000 tonnes)
COAL (C), IRON ORE (I),
'LIMESTONE (L), MANGANESE
(M)
TISCO at Jamshedpur Set up in 1907 by Jamshedji 2,000 (crude steel) C-Jharia & W. Bokaro,
in Singhbhum
Tata
1,500 (saleable steel)
IMayurbhanj
(Orissa)
&
Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
L - sundargarh District
M - Keonjhar district
Water-Subarnarek
IISCO at Burnpur in Set up in 1919. Taken over 1,000 (crude steel)
C-Jharia
West Bengal
by the Central Government 800 (saleable steel)
I-Gua captive mines

124

in 1972. Now u'nder SAIL

VISL at Bhadravati in
Shimoga district of
Karnataka

Setup by the Princely state

of Mysore with the
assistance of Peri and
Marshall CG. (USA) in
1923. Taken over by
Central Govt. in 1962 and
by SAIL in 1989

1,000 (crude steel)

700 (saleable steel)

125

L-Brimitrapur mines
M-Keonjhar mines (Orissa)
Damodar river supplies water
Instead of Coal, Hydel power from
Karnataka Grid
I-Kemmangundi
mines
of
Chikmagalur district
L-Bhandigunda deposits
M - Shimoga & Chitradurga
Water is provided by the Bhadra
river

Bhilai plant in Durg dist.

of Chattisgarh

Set up with the aid of USSR 4,000 (crude steel)

during
second
plan. 3,153 (saleable steel)
Production was started in
1959. Now under SAIL

Durgapur
olant in Burdwan
district of
West Bengal

Set up with the aid of U.K 1600 (crude steel)

during
second
plan 1239 (saleable steel)
Production started in 1962.
Now under SAIL

Rourkela plant
Sundargarh district

in

Set up with the aid of West 1800 (crude steel)

Germany during second 1225 (saleable steel)
plan. Production started in
1959. Now under SAIL

Bokaro
plant
Hazaribagh dist.
Jharkhand

in
of

Set up with the aid of USSR

during the third plan.
Production started in 1972.
Now under SAIL

4000 (crude steel)

3156 (saleable steel)

C - Kobra (Chattisgarh) & Jharia

I - Dalli - Rajhara mines of Durg dist L Nandini deposits
M - Balghat & Bhandari dists. of M:P
Water - Tandula canal of Gondi
reserviour
Power - Kobra Thermal Power
station.
C-Jharia & Barakar fields
I-Bolani mines (Gua region in Orissa)
L-Birmitrapur in Sundargarh dist.
M-Jamba in Keonjhar district
Water-Damodar river
Power-Damodar valley Grid
C-Jharia, Bokaro, Talcher & Korba
fields
I-Sundergarh & Keonjhar dist. of Orissa
L-Birmitrapur & Hathiberi
M-Barajmda
Water-Mandira Dam across Sankh river
and Mahanandi
Power-Hirakud power project
C-Jharia, Bokaro, Kargil coal fields
I-Kirburu mines in Keonjhar mines in
Keonjhar district
L-Palamau district (Chattisgarh)
M-Birmitrapur mine
Water-Tenu dam across Damodar river
Power-Damodar valley grid and Korba
Thermal plant

Vijayanagar Steel Plant with a capacity of 30 Lakh Tonnes is located at Tornagal near Hospet in Bellary District.
Iron ore from Hospet, Coal from Kanha & Singareni fields in Andhra Pradesh and water & Power requirements are
met by Tungabhadra Hydel project.
Salem Steel plant: at salem in Tamilnadu is a major producer of world class stainless steel and exports to USA,
Australia and S.E. Asia. It produces 80 thousand tonnes of steel and caters to the coinage requirement of Indian
Government mints. Iron ore & Limestone are available in the adjoining areas and has access to cheap power,
charcoal and vast market.
Posco Steel, Paradwip
Pohang Steel Company (Posco) of Korea has entered into a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with Orissa
Government for setting up a 12 million tonne steel plant at Paradwip 'with a total investement of 51 thousand crores
which is the biggest FDI in Indian Industry.
Vishakapatnam Steel Plant : at Vishakapatnam in Andhra Pradesh was established in the year 1992 and has a
capacity of 5 million tonnes. It is the most sophisticated integrated steel plant. Iron ore Bailadila, Coal from Damodar
Valley and Australia, gas from KG basin and Limestone, Manganese from Chatlisgarh and Madhya Pradesh meet
the requirements.
In response to the reforms process, certain new steel plants in the private sector are already in pipeline'.
They are:
Lioyd Steel
Essar Gujarat
Nippon Denro
Jindal Vijayanagar
Malvika Steers etc.

126

As compared - to world producers, Indian steel is competitive' in terms of cost. However, improvement is required in
terms of quality and delivery mechanisms.
Indian is at present exporting certain types of steel while importing certain other types of .steel. In 199596, India'ssteel exports were - around 1320 thousand tonnes while imports 1900 thousand tonnes.
THE ENGINEERING INDUSTRY:

The EngineeringIndustry contributes about 24.1 percent of the total industrial production and provides
28 percent of the industrial employment in the country.

As a result of the rapid progress of the engineering goods industry, the total export earnings' amounted
to Rs. 47,853 crores in 2003-04.

The engineering industry includes Heavy Machinery, Machine Tools" Heavy Electricals, Railway Equiprnents,
Ship-Building, Automobiles, Air-Crafts and Electronics.
MINERALS IN INDIA
Classification of minerals:
Minerals are classified broadly into two categories:
4. Metallic Minerals and
5. Non-Metallic Minerals
1. Metallic Minerals:

Metallic Minerals are those from which we get metals such as iron, copper, gold and lead.

These minerals are sub-divided into two groups: (a) Ferrous group and (b) Non-ferrous group.
a) Ferro Metallic Minerals:

These include Iron Ore, Manganese Ore, Chromite and Pyrite. These minerals account for about. threefourths of the total value of the production of metallic mil1erals.

India's position is almost enviable in the reserves of these minerals and the country exports substantial
quantities.

Minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

b) Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals:

These include Gold, Silver, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Bauxite.

Unlike in the case of ferrous minerals, India's position both in reserves and production of non-ferrous metallic
minerals except in Bauxite is not satisfactory and the country depends for these mainly on foreign supplies.

These minerals play a vital role in a number of metallurgical, engineering, electrical and other industries and
have, therefore, an important place in the industrial, development of a country.

Non-ferrous metallic minerals are further subdivided into two types: (i) Base metals, Eg:- Tin, Copper, Zinc,
Lead and Aluminium (derived from Bauxite) and (ii) Precious metals Eg:- Gold, Silver and platinum.
2. Non-metallic Minerals:
These minerals are sub-divided into two groups: a) Non-metallic Fuel Minerals and. b) Non-metallic Non-Fuel
Minerals
a) Non-Metallic Fuel Minerals: These include Coal, Ugnite,' petroleum Natural Gas Nuclear Energy
Minerals(Monazite, Uranium, Berylium, Zirconium, and Ilmenite). These minerals account for nearly four-fifths of the
total value of the country's total mineral production. Further, these minerals facilitate nearly two-thirds of the country's
total installed capacity in electrical power.
b) Non-Metallic Non-Fuel Minerals: These include Limestone,Dolmite, Mica, Kyanite, Sillimanite, Gysum,
Apatites, Diamond, Phosphates, Sfeatite,' Magnesite and Salt. They are used in a variety of indusrties like cement,
fertilizers, refractories significantly in the counrty's minerals export.
The Non-Metallic Non-Fuel Minerals are further sub-divided into following types on the basis of their uses:
i) Minerals used in the Chemical Industry Eg:- Sulphur & Rock Salt.
ii) Minerals used in the Fertilizer Industry Eg:- Nitrate, Phosphate and Potash.
iii) Minerals used as flaws in the Metallurgical Industries, Eg:- Dolomite & Magnesite.
iv) Building materials, Eg.:- Granite, Marble, Limestone, Slate, Clay and Asbestos.
v) Precious Stones or Gem Stones, Eg:- Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire, Emerald, Jade and Garnet.

127

vi) Minerals used for miscellaneous purposes, Eg:Mica. & Graphite

Overall position in mineral resources:
The following analysis gives an overall position of India's mineral resources:
5. Mineral in which India has large' exportable surplus to dominate the world market: (1) Iron Ore (2) Mica (3)
thorium Ore and (4) Titanium
6. Minerals in which India has fairly good surplus for exports : (1) Manganese Ore (2) Magnesite' (3) Bauxite (4)
Granite (5) Silica (6) Beryllium (7) Steatite(8) Monazite (9) Sillimanite (10) Kyanite and (11) Barytes.
7. Minerals in which India is self-sufficient: (1") Coal (2) Chromite (3) Marbles (4) Slate (5) Limestone (6) Dolomite
(7) Sodium Salts and alkalies (8) Gypsum (9) Glass Sand (10) Pyrites (11) Zircon (12) precious and semiprecious stones (13) Gold (14) Uranium (15) Fireclay and (16) China clay (17) Feldspar. (18) Flouride.
8. Minerals in which India has to depend on foreign imports: (1) Petroluem and Petroleum products (2) Silver (3)
Nickel (4) Cobalt (5) Zinc (6) Lead (7) Copper (8) Tin (9) Mercury (10) Tungsten (11) Plat inum (12) Graphite
(13) Potash (14) Sulphur and (15) Rock Phosphate.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Mineral resources have an extremely uneven distribution in India. Over 97 per cent of the countrys total
reserves of Coal are located in the valleys of the Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari (i.e. Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra).
Most of the reserves of petroleum discovered so far lie in a few sedimentary basins of Gujarat, Assam and in
Bombay High.
Most of the deposits of Iron ore are located in Jarkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Kamataka and
Tamilnadu; of Bauxite in Jarkhand, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Gujarat; of Manganese in
Madhya Pradesh Orissa and Maharashtra" and of Lead, and Zinc ores in Jarkhand and Rajasthan.
Almost the entire deposits of Mica is found in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. The entire deposits of
Gold are found in karnataka (Kolar Gold Fields & Hutti Mines) andAndhra pradesh (Ramagiri Gold Fields in
Anantapur district). Most of the reserves of minor minerals including Gypsum Steatite, Rock phosphate and
Precious Stones are located in Rajasthan. Thorium and Uranium deposits are mostly located in Bihar. Most of
the Monazite and liminite occur in the beach sands of Kerala Coast.
Most of the reserves of Sillimanite are found in Meghalaya, Maharashtra, of Kyanite in Bihar and of Dolomite
in Orissa. Thus the above analysis shows that the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana & Uttar Pradesh are very poor in mineral resources.

DETAILS OF MAJOR MINERALS

IRON ORE: Though India has about 6.6% of the world's known Iron ore deposits, it accounts for only 5% of the total
annual world production of Iron Ore and holds the 5th position.
Types of Iron Ore: India produces three types of Iron Ore, viz.,

hematite, in which the iron content is 68%

magnetite, in which the iron contents varies from 25 to 62%

limonite, with iron content of 35 to 50% only

Iron Ore Reserves: Recoverable reserves are estimated at 13460 million tonnes of which 10052 million tonnes are
Haematite and 3408 million tonnes Magnetite Ore
State-wise distribution of reserves:
States
%
of
All-India
Reserves
Karnataka 34.61
Jharkhand 20.32
Orissa

12.98

Chattisgarh 11.37
Goa

5.04

128

Others

15.68

Production of Iron Ore:

During 2006-07 total production of Iron Ore in India was 172 million tonnes, out of which 83 million tonnes are
exported.
There are around 250 Iron ore mines in India out of which 18 are captive mines of various steel plants. They account
for 35% of total iron ore output.
With deregulation of Iron and Steel industry, Iron ore sector is attracting many domestic and foreign investors.
Important places associated with Iron Ore production:
Koenjhar, Sundargarh, Mayurbhfini (Orissa); Singhbhum (Jharkhand); Raipur, Durg,
Bastar (Chattisgarh); Chikmaglore, Bellary & Chitradurrg (Karnataka); Goa; Salem,
Tiruchirapally-North Arcot belt (Tamilnadu); Kozikode, (Kerala); Jaisalmer (Rajasthan).
Importance of Iron:
On account of its cheapness and strength, steel which is derived from Iron Ore is the most widely used of all the
metals.
Steel:
The Production of finished steel during the personal 2002-03 to 2007-08:
Crude steel production in India
Year
(Million Tonnes)
2002-03
34.71
2003-04
38.73
2004-05
43.44
2005-06
46.46
2006-07
50.82
2007-08
53.90
200809
54.52
Today India is the fifth largest crude steel producing country in the world.
It is used in the manufacture of various types of machines installed in factories; in the construction of railway.
Tracks, bridges and building; in the manufacture of ships, railway engines and carriages and automobiles; in
the preparation of agricultural tools and implements; in the production of defence weapons and in the making of
furnitures and household articles. Further, Iron and some of its components are used in certain chemical
processes. For instance, iron pyrite - a sulphide or' Iron is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Iron is used
as a catalyst in the production of synthetic ammonia.

Some of the oxides of iron are used to make pigments of the paint and rubber industries
MANAGANESE ORE:

India is the world's sixth largest producer of Manganese Ore and accounts for about 6% of the world output.

Indian manganese is of rich Ruality (with mineral contents of 40 to 60 p.c. as compared to U.S.S.R. (content
45 p.c.) Ghana (41 to 50 p.c) and Brazil (33 to 50 p.c).Manganese Ore Reserves: Recoverable reserves of
Manganese Ore are estimated at 176.5 million tonnes.

Type of Manganese Ore:

In India it occurs in the form of sedimentary stratified metramorphic deposits of Darwar Sytem of Peninsular
India.

Ore Types: Psilomelane, Braunite, Pyrolusite, Hausmanit, Hollandite.

129

About 78% of total reserve is found in Nagpur and Bhandara districts of Maharashtra and Balaghat district of
Madhya Pradesh Singhbhum-Keonjhar-Bonai area holds the 11% of total reserve while the north-Kannara
shares 6%.

In terms of statewise reserve Madhya Pradesh (including Chattisgarh) ranks first followed by Maharashtra,
Orissa and Karnataka.
In terms of production Orissa ranks first followed by Karnataka, M.P. (including Chattisgarh), Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
4.
Ferro-Manganese Plants: (1) Rayayada (2) Joda (both in Orissa) (3) Tumsar (4) Kamptee (both in
Maharashtra) (5) Bhadravati (6) Dandeli (both in Karnataka) (7) Garividi (Andhra Pradesh).
Aluminium:

In the country, it holds a position next to iron.

Interestingly, around half of aluminium produced in the country is utilized by electrical industries. Aluminium is
specifically used in the production of reinforced aluminium conductors and sheathed cables. This mineral
resource is recovered from alumina by electro-chemical processes. That is why, aluminium smelters are situated
near the sources of electricity.

Almost one-fourth of the creation cost of aluminium metal is accounted for by electricity. In India, smelters
producing aluminium metal are situated at several places like Jaynagar near Asansol, Hirakud Dam, Mettur Dam
(Tamil Nadu), Alupuram (Kerala), Belgaum (Karnataka) and Renukoot (near Rihand Dam).

Moreover, Government of India has set up an integrated aluminium project at Korba (Chattisgarh). This
aluminium project is based on the bauxite deposits situated in the Amarkantak Plateau and Phutka Pahar
located around 15 kms to the north of Korba. This aluminium plant began producing alumina in the year 1973
and aluminium in the year 1975.

The annual capacity of this project is very huge. Extrusions are made from the aluminium supplied by the
Korba aluminium plant at smelters situated at J.K. Nagar. Moreover, in India, aluminium fluoride and cryolite
used in the production of aluminium metal are manufactured in India.

Largest aluminium complex in India is the National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO), in Orissa. However,
the alumina plant and the smelter of this complex are at different places. The production cost of aluminium in
India is moderately high mainly because of high rate of electricity, inadequate supply of electricity and some raw
materials like cryolite, aluminium fluoride, caustic soda, etc. and lastly regular interruptions in the supply of
bauxite. These are some of the reasons that hinder the production of aluminium In India.
Copper

Copper in India is chiefly used for the production of electrical machinery.

As an industrial metal, copper stands second only to steel.

It is measured as the best conductor of electricity. Copper is also used in producing brass and bronze,
castings and pipes. Further, for the refining of copper, cheap and abundant electricity is required.

India manufactures only a little amount of copper and it imports a huge quantity of this mineral resource
annually to meet domestic needs.

At present, most of the copper ore is mined in the districts of Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Baiaghat (Madhya
Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu District and Alwar in Rajasthan. The small producers of copper include Khammam
District of Andhra Pradesh, Dhitradurga and Hassan District of Karnataka and also in some parts of Sikkim.

The smelter at Ghatsila in Singhbhum district is very old. It receives copper ore concentrates from Mosabani.
Interestingly, up to the year 1971, the smelter at Ghatsila was the only producer of copper in the country.

On the other hand, the smelter situated at Khetri in Jhunjhunu district of Andhra Pradesh also has a huge
capacity. In the year 1970, this smelter started producing copper on an experimental basis. The smelter was
commissioned for the production of electrolytic copper on a real large scale in the year 1974. This smelter gets
copper ore from the copper ore mines at Khetri, Chandmari, Dariba and Kolihan. All these places are located
within close proximity from Khetri.
Gold
Presently, gold is mined Hutti mines in the Raichur district of Karnataka. The other mine is located in Anantpur district
of Andhra Pradesh.
Pure gold has a bright yellow colour and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidising
in air or water.

130

India is the largest importer and consumer of Gold but Gold mining remains at a low level.
Indias domestic gold production was at 3.05 tonnes during the financial year 2006. The low production of gold have
adversely affected the economy of the country and the government has asked domestic gold miners to actively
survey joint venture with foreign companies to speed up exploration of the yellow metal within the country.
The Geological Survey of India and the Mineral Exploration Corporation of India are two of the major government
agencies that carry out verification surveys on gold mining in India.
Bauxite

High grade bauxite is found in abundance in India.

Bauxite is widely distributed as surface deposits in those areas where laterite soil is found.

This mineral is the ore of aluminium metal that is used largely in the manufacture of special alloys, aluminium
powder, utensils and electric cables.

Aluminium alloys are used in the manufacture of automobile engines because of its light and tough.

Bauxite is used in manufacture of cement and chemicals.

Bauxite is mined at several places in the country. The major deposits of bauxite are situated in Ranchi,
Jamnagar, Jabalpur, Kohlapur and Shevaroy Hills. Apart from these areas, the other places where its chief
deposits are found include Poonch and Riasi in Jammu and Kashmir, Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh and more.

Moreover, in Kutch district in Gujarat too large deposits of Bauxite are found. Of late, deposits in Orissa have
been developed and the biggest plant of its kind in Asia has been constructed to produce alumina and
aluminium.It utilizes the latest French technology, which economizes on the use of electricity.

Bauxite ore is exported to Japan and European countries.

In Orissa, there are two very big high grade deposits of Bauxite. The first one at Panchpatmali is regarded as
the largest in the country and the second one is at Gandhamardan bauxite deposit. Interestingly, production of
bauxite is registered particularly in those regions that supply alumina plants with this ore.

Bauxite ore has benefited in importance because aluminium-a very light but exceedingly functional metal, is
made from it.

It is a must for aircraft engineering.

Bauxite deposits in India are extensively distributed. Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Bihar are the foremost states where bauxite reserves are predominately located. The total
reserves are approximated to be more than 2462 million tonnes. Major reserves are centralized in East Coast
Bauxite deposits of Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh.

Aluminium is obtained from bauxite in two stages. In the first stage bauxite is refined and transformed into
alumina by a chemical process and in the second stage aluminium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of
alumina. Of the total bauxite produced in the country, the major portion is used for making aluminium metal. A
small quantity of it is exported to other countries.
Mica

produced in huge proportion in India. In fact, India is one of the leading suppliers of mica to the world. India
alone accounts for a major portion of the world`s export of block mica and mica splitting.

Mica can withstand high temperature as it is a bad conductor of electricity. Moreover, it can also be split up
into thin films. These unrivalled properties of mica have actually made it indispensable for the production of
several electrical equipments.

India produces approximate 90 % of the world`s mica. It is an indispensable component of the electrical
industry. India accounts for 60 % of mica embarking in international trade.
Types of Mica
There are two types of Mica available in the world, dioctahedral and trioctahedral mica. In Trioctahedral mica,
the most common types found are Muscovite, Zinnwaldite, Biotite, Lepidolite, and Phlogopite. Where as Clintonite is
Brittle mica.
Availability of Mica

Mica is widely available and distributed in sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous regimes.

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Large sized mica crystals, utilised for various purposes, are usually mined from granitic pegmatites. In India,
Mica is widely available in Karnataka, Bihar, Kolkata, Rajasthan, Gudur and Andhra Pradesh. Hazaribagh, Gaya
and Munger districts of Bihar account for a huge proportion of the total production.

These districts lie on the northern fringe of Chota Nagpur Plateau. The remaining half is evenly divided
between Nellore District in Andhra Pradesh and Bhilwara District in Rajasthan.

Mica is also mined in small quantities in Udaipur, Sikar, Tonk and Ajmer districts of Rajasthan.Moreover, a
small proportion is also mined in small quantity in Nilgiri district. Production has been worsening due to artificial
replacements.

In India, mica belt is located along the northern fringe of the Bihar Plateau as includes parts of Hazaribagh and
Gaya districts.

Mica belt generally occurs in the veins of the metamorphic rocks. The mica belt in this region runs in the eastwest direction. Giridih, Domchanch and Kodarma are the principal collecting centres where it is processed. This
particular mica belt produces more than half of the total mica production of the country.
Lead and Zinc:
Generally these found together (associate minerals). ore of lead is Galena (lead sulphate). Ore of zinc zinc blend
(zinc sulphite).
98% of zinc and 97% of lead of India produced in Rajasthan.
(1) Zawar and Dariba-Main centres of lead and zinc.
In Dariba, there is zinc smelter. Another zinc smelter at Vizag called Hindustan Zinc Smelter.
Diamond:
Precious stone because of sparkles due to total internal reflection.
Used for drilling engineering.
Commercial diamond mining centre
In India, we do not have pipe like structure of diamond. Kimberly, South Africa is famous for pipe like structures of
diamonds.
Namibia, Zambia is famous for Alluvial diamonds. Alluvial type of diamonds at river basins found in India especially at
Panna-Ken river basin.
Tungsten:
Its ore is caleed as wolfarmite.
In India it is produced at Degna, Rajasthan.
Coal :
Ores are
Anthracite
- Superior quality, more than 65% carbon content and high calorific value.
Bituminous
- Superior quality, more than 65% carbon content and high calorific value.
Lignite called as brown coal-calorific value is low and carbon content is low used for thermal power
generation and steam generation.
Peat
- Immature coal i.e Process of coal formation not yet completed from organic matter
In India, 250 billion tones of Bituminous coal reserves, 25 million tones of lignite reserves.
Bituminous coal:
Coal is of two types :
Cockin coal.
Non-cockin coal - India has more, which are not used blasting furnace.
Indias coal belongs to Gondwana coal.98% of Indias coal formed in Godwana era.2% of coal of territory era mainly
found in Northern India.
Coal is always found in sedimentary rocks of river basin.
In India, coal is found in
Dhamodar basin of Jharkhand - Jharia, Gindi, Bokaro, Karanpura coal fields.
Dhamodar basin of West Bengal - Raniguj coal fields.

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Mahanandi Basin of Orissa

- Talchar coal field IB valley coal field.
Mahanandi-sen Basin of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh - Korba local field Singralli, Pench Valley coal fields.
Godavari-Wardha river basins of Maharashtra and A.P.
Maharashtra
- Kamptee coal field
Andhra Pradesh - Singareni coal field
Territiary coal found in north eastern India like
Makun coal field of Assam
Nazira valley coal field of Assam
Lignite coal found mainly in Tamilnadu, Palana of Rajasthan, Darjeeling and Jalpaiburi of West Bengal and Sikkim.
Anthrasite coal found in Jammu and Kashmir state.
Peat type of coal founding Cochin and Allepy of Kerala.
Oil and Natural gas:
Formed in sedimentary rocks either on the land and sea floor i.e., continental shore on land called as Onshore
reserves and in sea called as Offshore reserves.
Most reserves located at
Mumbai offshore (Single largest productive of oil fields).
Basin oil field
Gulf of Cambay (Gujarath)-Gandhara, Vasna, Lunaj basin.
Gas fields:
Important gas fields of india are :
Ankaleshwar gas field
Kalol gas field
Mazira gas field
Mehsana gas field
Brahmaputra basin (Assam) called Tipan series (oil and natural gas).
Digbai (first oil reserve in India).
Rinery (first oil Commissioned)
Noharkutiya oil reserve
Rudhrasgar oil field
guleki oil field
North East India (Arunachal Pradesh) - Karsang oil field
East coast Kaveri basin (Tamilnadu) Narimannam oil field
Andhra Pradesh-K.G. Basin, Ravva Oil field , Narsapur Oil field, Pasarlapudi Gas field, Ambani Oil and gas field.
Western Rajasthan - Thar desert region
jaisalmer Basin-Mangala, Aishwarya, Ragini, Saraswathi
Balmer basin
New oil Explored and Licensing Policy (NELP):Attracting and allowing FDI in oil exploration.
Increase domestic oil exploration.
Acquiring stakes in foreign oil fields (ONGC-Videsh).
Nuclear fields:Uranium:Ore found in ultra basic ignitious rocks.
Rich reserves in Jharkhand-Jaduguda.
Western Kasi hills of Meghalaya-Domiostat (but recently stopped due to less Funding.
Andhra Pradesh-Kada, Kurnool, Nalgonda.

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Monazite:It is a compound of uranium, thorium, curium, lanthanum, particularly rich in thorium.

Available in coastal areas of India.
India has worlds largest monazite reserves, not exporting any amount due to lack of technology.
Reserves found at Kerala, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa.
Zircon, Ilmenite, Rutile:Found in coastal sands especially at Manavala Kurichi (Tamilnadu), Quilon (Kerala), Chotanagpur (Orissa), Ratnagiri
(Maharashtra).
For extracting and processing of these minerals IRE (Indian Rare Earth Limited) was established.

134

135

Mineral production in India

Mineral

Quantity

Unit

Mineral type

Coal

403

Million tonnes

Fuel

Lignite

29

Million tonnes

Fuel

Natural Gas

31,007

Million cubic metres

Fuel

Crude Petroleum

32

Million tonnes

Fuel

Bauxite

11,278

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Copper

125

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Gold

3,048

Thousand grammes

Metallic Mineral

Iron Ore

140,131

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Lead

93

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Manganese Ore

1,963

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Zinc

862

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Diamond

60,155

Carats

Non Metallic Mineral

Gypsum

3,651

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Limestone

170

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Phosphorite

1,383

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Mineral

Quantity exported
Unit
in 2004-05

Alumina

896,518

tonnes

Bauxite

1,131,472

tonnes

Coal

1,374

tonnes

Copper

18,990

tonnes

Gypsum & plaster

103,003

tonnes

Iron ore

83,165

tonnes

Lead

81,157

tonnes

Limestone

343,814

tonnes

Manganese ore

317,787

tonnes

Marble

234,455

tonnes

Mica

97,842

tonnes

Natural gas

29,523

tonnes

Sulphur

2,465

tonnes

Zinc

180,704

tonnes

National Mineral Policy

A national mineral policy has evolved over the years in India. The policy emphasizes the need for
conservation and judicious exploitation of finite mineral resources through scientific methods of mining, beneficiation

136

and economic utilisation. Simultaneously, it keeps in view the present & future needs of defence and development of
India and strives to ensure indigenous availability of basic and strategic minerals to avoid disruption of core industrial
production in times of international strife.
The basic objectives of the mineral policy in respect of minerals are:
(a) to explore for identification of mineral wealth in the land and in off-shore areas;
(b) to develop mineral resources taking into account the national and strategic considerations and to ensure their
adequate supply and best use keeping in view the present needs and future requirements;
(c) to promote necessary linkages for smooth and uninterrupted development of the mineral industry to meet the
needs of India;
(d) to promote research and development in minerals;
(e) to ensure establishment of appropriate educational and training facilities for human resources development to
meet the manpower requirements of the mineral industry;
(f)
to minimise adverse effects of mineral development on the forest, environment and ecology through
appropriate protective measures; and
(g) to ensure conduct of mining operations with due regard to safety and health of all concerned.

137

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION IN INDIA

Transport and Communication facilities are necessary for the healthy growth of country. Road and rail transport
are well developed in India with ample scope for the development of water transport. Ocean waterways are already
well developed. Inland waterways require improvement.
Railways
They account for nearly three-fourth-of the passenger traffic and four-fifth of the freight traffic in India railways
system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental public undertaking
in the country.

It is also the worlds second largest railway system under a single management.

The first train in India steamed off from Bombay to Thane, a stretch of 34 km. in 1853. The network of railway
has increased upto 62,809 Km.

GAUGES OF INDIAN RAILWAY

Guage
Length track (km)
Broad Guage
1.7m
Metre Guage
1m
Narrow Guage
0.7 & 0.6m
Total
62,809

Route track (km)

44,216
15,178
3,415
81,311

Running (km)
62,184
15,875
3,452
1,08,413

Total
85,429
19,158
3,826

The Indian railways operate in three different gauges mainly-Broad Guage, Metre Guage, Narrow Guage.
The broad guage accounts for nearly 50% followed by metre guage 43% of the total route length.
Railways are divided into 16 zones headed by a General Manager who is responsible to the Railway Board for
operation, maintenance and financial matters.

Out of the 16 zones, Northern Railways having length 10,995 km is the longest route.
Container Service:

Indian Railway has introduced a new marketing strategy of container services in 1980 with 7 container depots
which in 1996 has expanded to 32 locations.

The container Corporation of India (CONCOR), public sector undertaking, provide door to door services for
domestic users, transportation in bulk for small customers and International transport in International Standards
Organisation (ISO) containers.

Konkan Railway plan: In March 1990, the Konkan Railway plan was started to provide a link by the shortest
rail route between the states of Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.

This includes the 760 km distance between Apta and Mangalore. The registration of Konkan Rail Corporation
was made on 26 July, 1990 under the company law. 51% share equity of the Corporation belongs to Indian
Railways.

The Konkan Railway Project has been completed on January 26, 1998 with the total investment of Rs.3,500
crore on January 26, 1998.

The rail traffic has been started between Roha (Maharashtra) and Mangalore (Kerala). Konkan Ralways
ensures maximum speed of 160 km per hour.

The Konkan Railway has been connected with 92 tunnels which have the total length of 6.5 km.

Indian Railiway Zones

Zones
Central

Headquarters
:
Mumbai Victoria terminus

138

Eastern
Northern
North Eastern
North-East Frontier
Southern
South Central
South-Eastern
Western
East Coast
East Central
North Central
North Western
South Western
West Central
South East Central

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Calcutta
New Delhi
Gorakhpur
Maligaon-Guwahati
Chennai
Secunderabad
Calcutta
Mumbai-Churchgate
Bhubaneswar
Hajipur
Allahabad
Jaipur
Bangalore
Jabalpur
Bilaspur

Road Transport
Indias road network is one of the largest in the world; the total length of the roads being more than 33 lakh km
on March 1996. Karnataka, with a total road length of about 64,000 km., leads followed by Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh Roads are most suitable for short and medium distance.

For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into National Highways, State
Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads, International Highways.

There are about 30 National Highways connecting state capitals and have been constructed by the Central
Government. The present National Highway system includes a total length of 38517 km.

It constitutes only 2% of total road length and carries nearly 40% of the road traffic. Some of the most
important National Highways are listed below. Some important national highways are as follows:

National Highway Places Connected

No.1
:
New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-Amritsar
No.2
:
Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad-Varanasi-Calcutta
No.3
:
Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-Bombay
No.4
:
Thana and Madras via Pune and Belgaum
No.5
:
Calcutta and Madras
No.6
:
Calcutta-Dhule
No.7*
:
Varanasi-Kanyakumari
No.8
:
Delhi-Bombay (Via Jaipur, Baroda & Ahmedabad)
No.9
:
Bombay-Vijayawada
No.10
:
Delhi-Fazilka
No.11
:
Jaipur-Bikaner
No.22
:
Ambala-Kalka-Shimla-Rampur-Chini (Indo-Tibet Border)
No.24
:
Delhi-Bareilly-Lucknow
* The National Highway No. 7 is the longest highways of India.
At present India has 5 express highways. They are Western, Eastern, between Calcutta Dumdum (iv) between
Sukida mines and Pradeep (v) between Durgapur and Calcutta.
The Plan of Super National Highways:

139

After the National Highways, there is a plan under the consideration of Central Road Transport Ministry to
create Super National Highways.

Through these Super National Highways of about 14,000 km length, there is a plan to link big sea ports of the
country with important cities. In the building of these Highways, the role of Private Sector will be important.

This will be done on the basis of BOT (Build Operate Transfer) by Private Sector. The Government of India
has received 22 Feasibility Reports for the building of Super National Highways estimated to cost about
Rs.1,50,000 crore.

Out of these, 10 proposals have come from multinational companies.

After the amendment in clause 9 of National Highway Ordinance 1956, has given the right to the Central
Government enacting laws regarding the land acquisition for the development of National Highways. By this, the
process of land acquisition has been simplified.

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was constituted under the National Highways Authority of
India Act, 1988 and was made operational in February, 1995. Initially it was entrusted with the task of
implementing five externally aided NH improvement projects.

Subsequently it has been mandated to implement the National Highways Development Project (NHDP)
comprising 4/6 Laning of 13252 km of national highways having two components: (a) The Golden Quardrilateral
and (b) North-South and East-West corridors (7300 km.), connecting Srinagar to Kanya Kumari and Silture to
Saurashtra respectively and Salem to Cochin.
Golden Quadrilateral Project:
NHAI has been mandated to implement National Highways Development Project (NHDP) which constitutes 4/6
laning of Golden Quadrilateral connecting Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata-Delhi and North0-South and East-West
Corridors connecting Kashmir to Kanya Kumari and Silchar to Saurashtra respectively and Salem to Cochin. A task
force headed by Deputy Chairman planning commission is monitoring this programme. NDHP is estimated to cost
Rs.54,000 crore (1999 prices). The Golden Quadrilateral part is to be completed by 2003 and North-South and EastWest corridor by 2007.
The NHAI has already started upgradation of National Highways on the golden Quadrilateral and North-South and
East-West corridors.
On the Golden Quadrilateral, 588 km. have already been four laned, construction is in progress on 911 km. and
project preparation activities are in progress in the balance.

14 NEW NATIONAL HIGHWAYS PROPOSAL FINALIZED

National Highway
Length
State
No.
NH-81
100
Bihar, West Bengal
NH-82
130
Bihar
NH-83
130
Bihar
NH-84
60
Bihar
NH-85
95
Bihar
NH-86
360
UP, MP
NH-87
83
UP
NH-88
115
Himachal Pradesh
NH-89
300
Rajastan
NH-152
40
Assam
NH-212
250
Kerala, Karnataka
NH-213
130
Kerala
NH-214
270
Andhra Pradesh
NH-215
348
Orissa
Total
2411

140

The first 6 lane express way between Mumbai-Pune is in progress 30 km route of this Express way between Kon
to Adoshi has become operational.
Ports
There are 11 major ports and 148 minor working ports in India. Major ports are the direct responsibility of the Central
Government while minor ports including the intermediate ports fall in the concurrent list of the India Constitution and
are managed and administered by the respective maritime state governments.
Major Ports on the Western Coast: Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra); Marmugao (Goa); New Mangalore
(Karnataka); Cochin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva, Maharashtra)
Major Ports on the Eastern Coast: Tuticoron (Tamilnadu), Chennai (Tamilnadu), Vishakapatnam(Andhra
Pradesh) , paradeep (Orissa) and Calcutta-Haldia (West Bengal).
Among major ports Mumbai is the biggest. Kandla is a tidal port, Marmugoa Enjoys the second position by value
of the tonnage of traffic, bulk of which is export of iron ore. Vishakapatnam is the deepest landlocked and protected
port.Chennai has an artificial harbour. Calcutta is riverine port. Haldia has a fully equipped containerized berth. The
12th major port is under construction of Ennore near Chennai with the financial aid of Asian Development Bank.
National Waterways:
The Inland Waterways Authority of India was setup on October 27, 1986. This statutory body is entrusted with the
responsibility of development, maintenance and regulation of national waterways.
The Government has identified 10 important waterways for consideration to declare them as National Waterways.
The following have so far been declared as National Waterways and the same are being developed for navigation by
Inland Waterways Authority of India. The Ganga between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km) on October 27, 1986, the
Sadia-Dhubri-stretch of river Brahmaputra (891 km) on October 26, 1988 and the Kollam-Kottapuram stretch of west
coast canal (168 km) along with Champakare canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal canal (22 km) in Kerala with effect
from February 1, 1993. It is also proposed to consider the declaration of some more waterways like the river
Godavari, Sunderbhans and waterways in Goa.
Shipping:
Overseas shipping has an extremely important role to play in Indias international trade. The country has the
largest merchant shipping fleet among developing countries and ranks 17 th in the world in shipping tonnage.
There were 102 shipping companies in the country operating as on 31st March 2000, including shipping
Corporation of India a public sector company.
Air Transport
There are five international airports-Delhi (Indira Gandhi International Airport-alem); Calcutta (Dum Dum) Mumbai
(Santa Cruz) and Chennai (Meenambakkam) and Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram)
The Civil Aviation Centre in Fursataganj near Allahabad provides, among the other things, ground training to the
pilots.
Air India established in 1953 is having bilateral air services agreement with 90 countries as on January 1, 1998.
Indian Airlines established in 953, operates to 72 domestic (including Alliance Air operations) and 16 International
stations in 14 countries. Indian Airlines, in 1999, with a fleet of 52 aircraft handled 200 flights a day.
Air India and Indian airlines merged forming Air India Authority Of India in 2009
Pawan Hans Limited basically provides helicopter support services to oil sector, hill station and remote areas. It also
provides air support services to several customers which includes ONGC, Punjab, M.P., Lakshdweep Administration,
GAIL, BSF and also caters to private sector.
Private Air Taxi:
The liberalization process in civil aviation took wing in April 1990 with the cargo open skies policies. The Air
Corporation Act, 1953, repealed on March 1, 1994, ended the monopoly of IA, AI and Vayudoot over scheduled air
transport services.
Posts and Telegraphs

141

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

The first Indian postal stamp was issued in 1852 in Karachi.

The Postal department was set up in 1854 when nearly 700 post offices were already functioning.
Today, there are about 1,53,454 post offices. For the efficient and correct handling of the volume of mail, a
numerical postal address code, known as the Postal Index Number (PIN), was introduced with digits which help
to identify and locate every departmental delivery post offices excluding branch post offices.
The first digit indicates the region, the second the sub-region and the third the sorting district whereas the last
three digits indicate a particular delivery zone of the post office in the areas served by the sorting district. The
entire country has been divided into the PIN code zones as given below.
Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Maharashtra, Goa, Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Tamilnadu, Kerala, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep
West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Orissa, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
Bihar

142

Demography of India
INDIAN TRIBES
Abhors
: North-eastern India (Mongoloid stock)
Adivasis
: Bastar District
Angami
: Manipur & Nagaland
Bhyils :
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (Dravidian)
Garos :
Hill tribe of Assam and Meghalaya
Gonds :
Forest Tribes of Madhya Pradesh
Jaintias
: Hill tribe of Meghalaya
Lusali :
Tribals of Tripura and Mizoram
Nagas :
Tribals of Nagaland
Moplahs
: Muslims of the Malabar district in Kerala
Santhals
: Tribals living in West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
Todas :
Tribals of the Nilgiri Hills in Tamilnadu
Chenchus
: Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Lepchas
: Sikkim
Kol :
Madhya Pradesh
Khonds
: Orissa
Apatamis
: Arunachal Pradesh
Baigas
: Nilgiri Hills in Tamilnadu
Baiga :
Madhya Pradesh
Bhotias
: Garhwal and Kumaon regions of U.P.
Gaddis
: Himachal Pradesh
Warlis :
Maharashtra
Uralis :
Kerala
Shompens
: Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Sentinelese
: Sentinel Island, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Kotras :
Nilgiri Hills (Tamilnadu)
Kukli :
Maineur
Oraons
: (also called Kurukh): Bihar and Orissa
Jarawas
: Little Andaman
Murias
: Bastar region in Madhya Pradesh
Mikirs :
Assam
Mundas
: Jharkhand
Khas :
Jaunsar-Babar area in Uttaranchal
The most remarkable news about the 2001 census is that there is a significant increase in both the literacy rates
and number of literate persons. In India as a whole, the proportion of literate persons among the population aged 7
years and above is reported to be 65.38 percent which represent a jump of 13.17 percent points over the actual of
1991. The female literacy rate has increased even more rapidly, by 14.87 percentage points to teach 54.16 per cent,
while male literacy has increased by 11.77 percentage points, to reach 75.85 percent. Accordingly the male-female
gape in the literacy rate has declined to 21.70 percent, the lowest since 1951 census. Among the major states,
Kerala predictably leads the pack with a literacy rate of 90.92 percent and fairly small male-female gap of 6.34
percent. A remarkable feature of the improvement in literacy is the sharp increase in the literacy rate Chatisgarh
(22.27) , Rajasthan (23.90) and Madyha Pradesh (20.73).

143

SC & ST POPULATION
Numerically, Scheduled Castes are largest in Uttar Pradesh followed by West Bengal and Bihar. There are no
scheduled castes in Nagaland, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep. Largest population of Scheduled
Castes of the total population is in Punjab (26.87%).
Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of Scheduled Tribes followed by Bihar. Bastar District of Madhya
Pradesh consists of largest number of Scheduled Tribes. Scheduled Tribes form the largest proportion of the total
population in Lakshadweep (93.82%) and Mizoram (93.55%) followed by Nagaland (83.99%) and Meghalaya
(80.58%). There are no Scheduled Tribes in Punjab, Delhi,Haryana, Chandigarh, Pondichery and Jammu and
Kashmir.
RACIAL GROUPS IN INDIA
Anthropologists divide Indians into six racial groups:
1. Negritos:
They are believed to be the oldest inhabitants but are now almost extinct, found only in small numbers in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
2. Proto-Australoids:
It includes the tribal people of Central and Southern India.
3. Mongoloids:
It includes the inhabitants of the mountainous zone in the North Eastern parts of the country.
4. Mediterranean:
This group is divided into Paleo-Mediterranean inhabiting the Southern parts (Tamilnadu, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka). Palei-Mediterranean are also called Dravidians. The other type of this group known as True
Mediterranean or European type are inhabiting the northern and western parts (Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan).
5. Western Brachyeephals:
Include the people of West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
6. Nordics or Indo-Aryan:
Inhabit parts of Northern India (Jammu and Kashmir, Western Rajasthan and Upper Gangetic valley region).
LANGUAGES IN INDIA
The Indian languages may be classified into four major groups:
i. Aryan Language (Indo-European):
Account for 73% of population. Two main branches are Dradic and Indo-Aryan. Dardic includes mainly Kashmiri.
Indo-Aryan group includes Sanskrit. Sindhi, Marathi, Konkano. Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Punjabi,
Rajasthani, Gujarati, Pahari and Nepali.
ii. Dravidian Language:
Account for 20% of the population. Main languages-Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu. The Dravidian
group is the least dispersed among the four families.
iii. Sino-Tbietan Languages:
account for 0.85% of the population. Spread throughout the Himalayan ranges and include Tibetan, Lepcha,
Bhutia, Naga, Manipuri etc.
iv. Austro-Asiatic Languages:
Minor language group in India represented by two branches Munda or Kol language is spoken by the hill tribes in
Bihar, Orissa and Central India and the other branch Monkhmer language is spoken in North-eastern India and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Constitution of India, however, recognizes only 18 languages.

144

RELIGIONS IN INDIA
The major religious communities of India are the Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and
Zorastrains. Hindus form the over-whelming majority (82.63%). Muslims form the second biggest community of India
(11.36%), Christians form the third biggest community (2.43%), Sikhs (1.96%) are concentrated largely in the Punjab.
Buddhist form only 0.71% Maharashtra accounts for over 85% of the Buddhists. In Arunachal Pradesh 13% of the
population are Buddhists. Jains form (0.48%) of the total population and are spread largely in Maharsthra, Rajasthan
and Gujarat Zoroastrains are concentrated in Bombay.

145

Distribution of population, sex ratio, density and decadal growth rate of population : 2011
State India/State/
Total population
Sex ratio Density
/UT
Union Territory
(females
(Per
Persons
Males
Females
Code
per 1000 sq.km)
males)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
INDIA
1,210,193,422
623,724,248
586,469,174
940
382
01 Jammu & Kashmir
12,548,926
6,665,561
5,883,365
883
124
02 Himachal Pradesh
6,856,509
3,473,892
3,382,617
974
123
03 Punjab
27,704,236
14,634,819
13,069,417
893
550
04 Chandigarh
1,054,686
580,282
474,404
818
9,252
05 Uttarakhand
10,116,752
5,154,178
4,962,574
963
189
06 Haryana
25,353,081
13,505,130
11,847,951
877
573
07 NCT of Delhi
16,753,235
8,976,410
7,776,825
866
11,297
08 Rajasthan
68,621,012
35,620,086
33,000,926
926
201
09 Uttar Pradesh
199,581,477
104,596,415
94,985,062
908
828
10 Bihar
103,804,637
54,185,347
49,619,290
916
1,102
11 Sikkim
607,688
321,661
286,027
889
86
12 Arunachal Pradesh
1,382,611
720,232
662,379
920
17
13 Nagaland
1,980,602
1,025,707
954,895
931
119
14 Manipur
2,721,756
1,369,764
1,351,992
987
122
15 Mizoram
1,091,014
552,339
538,675
975
52
16 Tripura
3,671,032
1,871,867
1,799,165
961
350
17 Meghalaya
2,964,007
1,492,668
1,471,339
986
132
18 Assam
31,169,272
15,954,927
15,214,345
954
397
19 West Bengal
91,347,736
46,927,389
44,420,347
947
1,029
20 Jharkhand
32,966,238
16,931,688
16,034,550
947
414
21 Orissa
41,947,358
21,201,678
20,745,680
978
269
22 Chhattisgarh
25,540,196
12,827,915
12,712,281
991
189
23 Madhya Pradesh
72,597,565
37,612,920
34,984,645
930
236
24 Gujarat
60,383,628
31,482,282
28,901,346
918
308
25 Daman & Diu
242,911
150,100
92,811
618
2,169
26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli
342,853
193,178
149,675
775
698
27 Maharashtra
112,372,972
58,361,397
54,011,575
925
365
28 Andhra Pradesh
84,665,533
42,509,881
42,155,652
992
308
29 Karnataka
61,130,704
31,057,742
30,072,962
968
319
30 Goa
1,457,723
740,711
717,012
968
394
31 Lakshadweep
64,429
33,106
31,323
946
2,013
32 Kerala
33,387,677
16,021,290
17,366,387
1,084
859
33 Tamil Nadu
72,138,958
36,158,871
35,980,087
995
555
34 Puducherry
1,244,464
610,485
633,979
1,038
2,598
Andaman & Nicobar
35
379,944
202,330
177,614
878
46
Islands
Top Ten States of highest Population in India as per India Cencus 2011
Sr. No. State Name
Population
Percent(%) of India Density
INDIA
1,21,01,93,422 100
382

146

Decadal
growth
rate
8
17.64
23.71
12.81
13.73
17.10
19.17
19.90
20.96
21.44
20.09
25.07
12.36
25.92
-0.47
18.65
22.78
14.75
27.82
16.93
13.93
22.34
13.97
22.59
20.30
19.17
53.54
55.50
15.99
11.10
15.67
8.17
6.23
4.86
15.60
27.72
6.68

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Uttar Pradesh
Maharashtra
Bihar
West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Rajasthan
Karnataka
Gujarat

19,95,81,477
11,23,72,972
10,38,04,637
9,13,47,736
8,46,65,533
7,25,97,565
7,21,38,958
6,86,21,012
6,11,30,704
6,03,83,628

16.49
9.29
8.58
7.55
7.00
6.00
5.96
5.67
5.05
4.99

828
365
1,102
1,029
308
236
555
201
319
308

Census-2011-Population (in crore):

India
Rural
Urban

2001
102.9
74.3
28.6

2011
121.0
83.3
37.7

Difference
18.1
9.0
9.1

For the first time since independence, the absolute increase in population is more than in urban areas that in rural
areas.
Rural-Urban distribution: 68.84% and 31.16%.
Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 census to 31.16% in 2011 census.
The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%.
Growth rate of population (in %):

India
Rural
Urban

1991-2001
21.5
18.1
31.5

2001-2011
17.6
12.2
31.8

Difference
-3.9
-5.9
+0.3

The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas.
The rural urban literacy gap which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, has come down to 16.1 percentage points in
2011.
Child population in age group 0-6 years:
The total number of children in the age-group 0-6 years, as per the provisional population totals of Census 2011,
is 158.8 million. It is significant that out of the absolute increase of 181 million in the countrys population during the
decade 2001-2011, 88 percent has been contributed by the Child Population in the age group of 0-6 years. In
Census 2001, the total number of children in the age-group 0-6 years was about 163.8 million, about 5 million more
than the number recorded in 2011. This reduction is indicative of a fall in fertility and is a positive sign.
Child population in the age group 0-6 years, India: 2011:

147

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have the largest number of children in the
age group of 0-6 years. Lakshadweep, Daman & Diu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and
Sikkim, on the other hand have the least number of children in the age group 0-6 years.
A comparison with the figures of Census 2001 reveals that the maximum decline in absolute numbers of children
has been in the State of Uttar Pradesh. This is followed by Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Kerala.
At the other end of the spectrum are the States of Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Meghalaya and
Chhattisgarh, where there has been the maximum increase in the child population in the age group 0-6 years.
An analysis of the gender composition of the decline shows that the decline in females is much more than that
among males. While there was a decline of 29,91,976 females, the decline among males was only 20,56,132. The
ranking of States and Union Territories as far as the first and last five ranks are concerned remains the same for
males as well as females. The implications of this differential on the sex ratio will be analysed later on.
States and Union Territories by ranges of sex ratio:
It is interesting to note that although the number of States and Union Territories with sex ratio less than 916
declined from twelve to ten in 2011 but percentage share of these States population has remained almost constant.
In contrast, the number of States and Union Territories with high sex ratio of 986 and above rose sharply from four in
2001 to seven in 2011 with corresponding increases in the share of population. Movement of large States (Andhra
Pradesh) in this category resulted in the increase in the population share. However, overall increasing trend in the
sex ratio at the Census 2011 has boosted the sex ratio of India.

148

Literacy:
Any one above age 7 who can read and write in any language with an ability to understand was considered a
literate. In censuses before 1991, children below the age 5 were treated as illiterates. The literacy rate taking the
entire population into account is termed as "crude literacy rate", and taking the population from age 7 and above into
account is termed as "effective literacy rate". Effective literacy rate increased to a total of 74.04% with 82.14% of the
males and 65.46% of the females being literate.
Census year

Total (%)

Male (%)

Female (%)

1901

5.35

9.83

0.60

1911

5.92

10.56

1.05

1921

7.16

12.21

1.81

1931

9.5

15.59

2.93

1941

16.1

24.9

7.3

1951

16.67

24.95

9.45

1961

24.02

34.44

12.95

1971

29.45

39.45

18.69

1981

36.23

46.89

24.82

1991

42.84

52.74

32.17

2001

64.83

75.26

53.67

2011

74.04

82.14

65.46

Literacy Rates (in %):

India
Rural
Urban

2001
64.8
58.7
79.9

2011
74.0
68.9
85.0

Difference
+9.2
+10.2
+5.1

The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population is due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in r ural
areas, while the growth rate in urban areas remains almost the same.
Literacy Rates in detail (in %):

Males
India
Rural
Urban
Females
India
Rural
Urban

2001

2011

Difference

75.3
70.7
86.3

82.1
78.6
89.7

+6.8
+7.9
+3.4

53.7
46.1
72.9

65.5
58.8
79.9

+11.8
+12.7
+7.0

Improvememnt in female literacy is more than males in b oth rural and urban areas.
The gender gap in literacy has come down from 24.6 in 2001 to 19.8 in 2011 in areas and from 13.4 in 2001 to 9.8 in
2011 in urban areas.

149

150

151