Lockheed U-2 (1957)

As with the SR-71 Blackbird, the U-2 Dragon Lady was designed and
manufactured by the Lockheed Skunk Works and is a high altitude
reconnaissance aircraft. During the Cold War, its main role was intelligence
over the Soviet Union and other countries more recently. It was also flown
over Afghanistan and Iran to support North Atlantic Treaty Organization
operations.

Directivity and
the Antenna Beam
Airborne Cigar jammer installation in B17 Fortress

he degree to which the antenna concentrates the

radiated energy in a desired directionreferred to
here as directivityis a key characteristic of virtually
every airborne radar. Besides determining the radars
ability to locate targets in angle, directivity can vitally affect the
ability to deal with ground clutter and is a major factor governing detection range.
In this chapter, we will learn how the energy radiated by an
antenna is distributed in angle and examine the salient characteristics of the radiation pattern: beamwidth, gain, and sidelobes. We will then see how the sidelobes may be reduced;
how fast, versatile beam positioning may be accomplished with
electronic scanning; and how high angular resolution and angular measurement accuracy may be achieved. Finally, we will
learn how the beam may be optimized for ground mapping.

8.1 Distribution of Radiated Energy in Angle

From common simplistic illustrations, it might be supposed
that a radar antenna concentrates all of the transmitted energy
into a narrow beamknown as a pencil beamwithin which
the power is uniformly distributed. If a pencil beam were
trained like a flashlight on an imaginary screen in the sky, it
would illuminate a single, round spot with uniform intensity.
While this might be desirable, it is even less true of an antenna
than of a flashlight.
Like all antennas, a pencil beam antenna radiates some energy
in almost every direction. As illustrated in the three-dimensional plot of Figure 8-1, most of the energy is concentrated in
a more or less conical region surrounding the central axis, or
boresight line, of the antenna. This region is called the mainlobe. If we slice the plot in two through the central axis of this
lobe, we find that it is flanked on either side by a series of

Figure 8-1. This three-dimensional plot shows the strength of the

radiation from a pencil beam antenna.

107

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PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

weaker lobes (Fig. 8-2). These are called sidelobes; to the rear
they are called backlobes.

Boresight Line

Figure 8-2. In this slice taken through the plot of Figure 8-1, note
the series of lesser lobes on either side of the mainlobe.

This lobular structure is due to diffractionthe phenomenon

observed when a beam of light passes through a small hole
(Fig. 8-3). The beam spreads and, if the light is all of one
wavelength, becomes fringed with concentric rings of light of
progressively decreasing intensity.
The phenomenon is most easily explained if we consider a
type of horizontal, one-dimensional antenna called a linear
broadside array. It consists of a row of closely spaced radiators,
each emitting in all azimuth directions a wave of the same
amplitude, phase, and frequency. To measure the combined
strength of these waves at various azimuth angles, we place
a field strength probe far enough away that the lines of sight
from the probe to all radiators are very nearly parallel. Starting
at a point on the perpendicular bisector of the array (boresight
line), we move the probe along an arc of constant radius from
the array center, as shown in Figure 8-4.

Light
Source

Hole

Screen

Figure 8-3. The lobular distribution of power shown here is due to

diffraction, the process that causes a beam of monochromatic light
projected through a tiny hole to spread and become fringed with
concentric rings of light.

At any one point, the field strength (measured in volts per

meter) depends on the relative phases of the received waves.
The relative phases, in turn, depend on the differences in distance to the individual radiators. These differences can best
be visualized if we draw a line from one end of the array,
perpendicular to the line of sight to the probethe line AB in
Figure 8-5. The angle this line makes with the array equals the
azimuth angle, , of the probe.
Now, if is zero (i.e., the boresight direction) and the probe
is far from the array, the distance from the probe to all of
the radiators is essentially the same. (The lines of sight to all
radiators, remember, are essentially parallel.) The waves are in
phase, and their fields add up to a large sum.

Array

Field-Strength
Probe

However, if is greater than zero, the distance to each successive radiator down the line is progressively greater. As a result,
the phases of the received waves are all slightly different, and
the sum is not as great.

Boresight Line

Figure 8-4. To determine the distribution of energy radiated by

an array, a field-strength probe is moved along an arc of constant
radius. The array consists of a row of closely spaced vertical
radiators.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

A
To Probe

Boresight Line

d = L sin

Figure 8-5. Line AB marks off the differences in distance from the
individual array elements to the probe. The angle that AB makes with the
array equals the azimuth angle, , of the probe.

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CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

A
To Probe

4
3
2

Boresight Line

d sin

5 6 7

8
9
10
1 12 11

Figure 8-6. When the distance from the probe to radiator No. 7 becomes
half a wavelength longer than the distance to radiator No. 1, the signals
received from these radiators cancel. So do all the others.

As the azimuth angle increases, the differences in distance

increase. A point is ultimately reached (Fig. 8-6) where the
distance from the probe to the first radiator beyond the center of the array (No. 7) is a half-wavelength greater than the
distance to the radiator at the near end (No. 1). Consequently,
the wave received from radiator No. 1 is canceled by the wave
received from radiator No. 7. The same is true of the waves
received from radiators No. 2 and No. 8 and so on. The sum of
the waves received from all of the radiators, therefore, is zero.
The probe has reached an azimuth angle where there is a null
in the total radiation from the antenna.
If is increased further, the waves from the radiators at
the ends of the array no longer cancel exactly, and the sum
increases. As the difference in distance from the probe to the
ends of the array approaches 1.5 wavelengths, another peak is
reached (Fig. 8-7). The waves from the radiators in the central
portion of the arrayNos. 3 through 10still cancel. But the
waves from the radiators at either endNos. 1 and 2 and Nos.
11 and 12add up to an appreciable sum. The probe is now
in the center of the arrays first sidelobe.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Sum

2
B
1

10 3
9

5
7

11

12

Figure 8-7. As the difference in distance from the probe to the ends
of the array approaches 1.5 wavelengths, only those signals from
elements 3 through 10 cancel.

If is increased still further, the portion of the array for which

cancellation occurs increases, and the same general process
repeats. The probe thus moves through a succession of nulls
and progressively weaker lobes.
The field strength measured in an excursion through several
lobes on either side of the mainlobe is plotted versus azimuth
angle in Figure 8-8. The shape of this plot is given by the equation
E

sin x
x

where E is the field strength, and x is proportional to . This is

called a sine-x-over-x, or sinc function shape.
Actually, x = (L/) sin , where is the wavelength. So x is
directly proportional to only for small values of . As increases,
sin becomes progressively less than , with the result that the
higher-order sidelobes are spaced progressively farther apart.

0
1

Figure 8-8. This figure represents field strength measured in an

excursion through several lobes on either side of the boresight line.
The radio frequency phase of odd numbered sidelobes (e.g., 1, 3) is
reversed and hence these sidelobes are plotted as negative.

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PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

The (sin X)/X Shape

s the angle, , between the line of sight to a distant point and

the boresight line of a linear array antenna increases,

phasors representing the signals received from the individual

radiators fan out, and their sum decreases.

Sum

Sum
Sum

1 2 3 4
5

Sum
0

Sum

Sum = 0
1

12

3
1

4
12

5 6

7 8

3
2
1

9
10
11
12

5
4

9
10
11
12

3
2
1

10
1

12

11

The directivity of an array antenna has been explained here

in terms of field strength since it is both easily measured and
easily visualized.

sin x
x

In a radar, however, what is important is the amount of energy

radiated per unit of time: the power of the radiated waves (Fig.
8-9). Power is proportional to field strength squared. Expressed
in terms of power, therefore, the equation for the distribution
of the radiated energy in angle is

sin x
Power
x
()

(+)

Figure 8-9. The directivity of a linear array is expressed here in

terms of power.

Two-dimensional planar arrays, such as are commonly used in

airborne radars, consist essentially of a number of linear arrays
stacked on top of one another.

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CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

Two Common Types of Airborne Radar Antennas

Focus

Feed Point for

TTypical
ypical Array Module

Typical Slot
Array Module

Typical
Reactive
Power
Divider

Output to
Summing
Network

Face View

or years, parabolic reflector antennas were the most common type

used in airborne radars. The feed is located at the focus of

a parabola and directs radiation into the dish, which reflects
it. The curvature of the parabola is such that the distance from
feed to dish to a plane across the mouth (aperture) of dish is
the same for every path the radiation can take. Consequently,
the phase of the radiation at every point in the plane of the
aperture is the same, and a narrow pencil beam is formed.
The antenna is simple and relatively inexpensive to fabricate.

Back View

In a planar array antenna for an advanced fighter radar, radiation of equal phase is emitted from a two-dimensional array
of radiating elements (in this case waveguide slots) in the face.
Planar arrays provide relatively high aperture efficiency and
low back radiation (spillover). By controlling the excitation of
the slots through reactive (nondissipative) power dividers on
the back of the antenna, the distribution of energy across the
aperture can be shaped to minimize sidelobes. The principal
disadvantages are relatively narrow bandwidth ( 10 percent)
and higher cost. Also, circular polarization, if desired, is more
difficult to obtain.

112

PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

To give an antenna a circular or elliptical shape, the rows of

radiators above and below the central ones are progressively
shortened. The total radiation from the antenna is the composite of the radiation from the individual radiating elements. Even
if the radiation from every element were the samewhich it
never isa plot of the total radiation pattern would not have
a simple sin x/x shape. Nevertheless, the general shape of the
plot is much the same as the sin x/x function. (Incidentally, the
shape for a uniformly illuminated circular array is exactly the
same as the diffraction pattern mentioned earlier for light passing through a small round hole).1

1. This pattern has a J1(x)-over-x shape, where J1 is the Bessel

function of the first order.

8.2 Characteristics of the Radiation Pattern

0 dB

10 dB

A plot of the power (or field strength) of the radiation from an

antenna in any one plane versus angle from the antennas central axis is called a radiation pattern. In considering directivity,
the power at the center of the mainlobe is taken as a reference,
and the power radiated in every other direction is taken in
ratio to this value. The ratio is normally expressed in decibels
and plotted in rectangular coordinates as in Figure 8-10.
Since the pattern is usually not rotationally symmetric about
the center of the mainlobe, cuts must be taken through many
different planes to describe an antennas directivity fully. Also,
patterns are generally measured in two polarizations: the polarization for which the antenna was designed; and the polarization orthogonal to this, called the cross-polarization.
Generally, three characteristics of a radiation pattern are of
interest: the width of the mainlobe; the gain of the mainlobe;
and the relative strengths of the sidelobes.

20 dB

0
Azimuth Angle

Figure 8-10. A radiation pattern is normally plotted in rectangular

coordinates in dB relative to the gain at the center of the mainlobe.

3 dB

3 dB
nn

Figure 8-11. Beamwidth is commonly measured between points

where power has dropped to one-half of maximum (3 dB).
The 3 dB beamwidth, 3 dB, is roughly half of the null-to-null
beamwidth, nn.

Beamwidth. The width of the mainlobe is called the beamwidth. It is the angle between opposite edges of the beam.
Since the beam is generally rotationally symmetric, it is common to refer to azimuth beamwidth and elevation beamwidth.
Since the strength of the mainlobe falls off increasingly as the
angle from the center of the beam increases, for any value of
beamwidth to have meaning, one must specify what the edges
of the beam are considered to be.
The beam edges are perhaps most easily defined as the nulls
on either side of the mainlobe. In real antennas these nulls
are not always distinct, however. From the standpoint of the
operation of a radar (Fig. 8-11), it is generally more realistic to define them in terms of the points where the power
has dropped to some arbitrarily selected fraction of that at
the center of the beam. The fraction most commonly used
is . Expressed in decibels, a factor of in power is 3 dB.
Beamwidth measured between these points, therefore, is
called the 3 dB beamwidth.
Regardless of how it is defined, beamwidth is determined
primarily by the size of the antennas frontal extent. This
area is called the aperture. Its dimensionswidth, height,

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

Aperture

= Wavelength

113

Aperture

Figure 8-12. Beamwidth is determined primarily by the dimensions

of antenna aperture, in wavelengths.

or diameterare gauged not in inches or centimeters but in

wavelengths of the radiated energy (Fig. 8-12).
The larger the appropriate dimension is in relation to the wavelength, the narrower the beam in a plane through that dimension will be. As we saw earlier, the nulls on either side of
the mainlobe of a linear array occur at angles for which the
distance from the observer to one end of the array is one wavelength longer than to the other end.
Therefore, for either a linear array or a rectangular aperture
over which the illumination is uniformly distributed, the nullto-null beamwidth in radians is twice the ratio of the wavelength to the length of the array (Fig. 8-13).
nn

= 2 radians
L

where is the wavelength of radiated energy, and L is the

length of aperture (same units as ). The 3 dB beamwidth is a
little less than half the null-to-null width.
3 dB = 0.88

nn

nn = 2 2
L

Figure 8-13. For a linear array with uniform illumination, the

angle (in radians) from the boresight line to the first null equals
the ratio of the wavelength to the length of array. The null-to-null
beamwidth is twice this angle.

For a uniformly illuminated circular aperture of the diameter,

d, the 3 dB beamwidth is a bit greater.
3 dB = 1.02

A circular antenna 60 cm in diameter, radiating energy

of 3 cm wavelength, for example, has a beamwidth of
3
1.02
= 0.051 radian.
60
One radian equals 360/2 = 57.3 (Fig. 8-14). Thus, the beamwidth in degrees is 0.051 57.3 = 2.9.

R
1 Radian
= 57.3
R

If the antenna has tapered illumination to control the sidelobe

levels, such as is typically used in radars for fighter aircraft, the
beamwidth will be somewhat greater, typically:
3 dB

1.25
d

Figure 8-14. A radian is the angle subtended by an arc of length

equal to the radius, R. The circumference of a circle equals 2R.
Therefore, 2 radians = 360, and 1 radian = 360/2 = 57.3.

114

PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

A 60 cm antenna with tapered illumination would thus have a

beamwidth of about 3.6.

X-Band Beamwidth Rule of Thumb

For untapered illumination:

For tapered illumination:

3dB

216
d

3 dB

178

where d is the diameter in cm.

2. Strictly speaking, the gain referred to here is directivity gain.

More commonly, antenna gain connotes directivity gain less
whatever power is lost in the antenna.

Pdirection

Pisotropic

Gain =

Pdirection
Pisotropic

Figure 8-15. Antenna directive gain is the ratio of power radiated in

the direction of interest to the power that would be radiated in that
direction by an isotropic antenna, that is, one that radiates waves of
equal power in all directions.

The 3 dB beamwidth of a 60 cm diameter antenna is thus about

216 60 = 3.6. If the illumination is not tapered, 178 should
be substituted for 216 in this rule.
Antenna Gain. The gain of an antenna is the ratio of the power
per unit of solid angle radiated in a specific direction to the
power per unit of solid angle that would have been radiated
had the same total power been radiated uniformly in all directionsthat is, isotropically (Fig. 8-15).2 An antenna thus has
gain in almost every direction. In most directions, though, the
gain is less than one since the gain averaged over all directions
is, by the law of conservation of energy, one.
The gain in the center of the mainlobe is thus a measure of
the extent to which the radiated energy is concentrated in the
direction the antenna is pointing. The narrower the mainlobe,
the higher this gain will be.
The maximum gain that can be achieved with a given size
antenna is proportional to the area of the antenna aperture in
square wavelengths times an illumination efficiency factor. If
the aperture were uniformly illuminated and losslessa practically impossible condition, even if it were desiredthe efficiency factor would equal one.
Actually, it ranges somewhere between 0.6 and 0.8 for planar
arrays and may be as low as 0.45 for parabolic reflectors. In
either case, for a given design, the efficiency factor tends to
vary with the width of the band of frequencies the antenna
is designed to pass. Typically, the greater the bandwidth, the
lower the efficiency.

Relationship Between Antenna Gain and Effective Area

onsider a rectangular antenna aperture of effective dimensions

a b. The beamwidths in the respective planes are

approximately /a and /b (radians), which subtend a
rectangular area R /a R /b on the surface of a sphere of
radius, R.
The gain of the antenna is the ratio of the power density in
the main beam to what would be obtained from an isotropic
antenna, that is, the ratio of the total surface area of the sphere
to the area R/a R/b:

G=
R
=

4 R2
R22/ab
4 Ae
2

where Ae = a b is the effective

area of the antenna

Thus, antenna gain is often expressed in units of decibels

with respect to isotropic, or dBi.

Because of the difficulty of determining the efficiency factor

analytically, in practice the gain is determined experimentally
and expressed in terms of an effective aperture area,
G = 4

Ae
2

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

where G is the antenna gain at center of mainlobe, is the

wavelength of radiated energy, and Ae = effective area of aperture (same units as 2).
Effective area is equal to physical area times aperture efficiency
(which as noted already is virtually always less than 100 percent), so an alternate expression for antenna gain is
G = 4

A
2

where A is the physical area of aperture, and is the aperture

efficiency.
Sidelobes. An antennas sidelobes are not limited to the forward hemisphere. They extend in all directions, even to the
rear (backlobes), for a certain amount of radiation invariably
spills over around the edges of the antenna. Moreover, when
the antenna is placed in a radome, the backward radiation
is increased. This occurs because the radome scatters some
energy from the mainlobe, much as the frosted glass of a light
bulb diffuses light from the filament.
The sidelobes are also not neatly defined and have sharp nulls
in between. As can be seen from Figure 8-16, the nulls tend
to fill in.
For a uniformly illuminated circular aperture, the gain of the
strongest (first) sidelobe is only about 1/64 that of the mainlobe. Stated in decibels, the first sidelobe has 18 dB less gain
than the mainlobe: it is down 18 dB. The gain of the other
sidelobes is substantially lower.

115

Estimating Antenna Gain

X-Band Rule of Thumb:
G d2
d = diameter in cm

= aperture efficiency
Example:
Diameter = 60 cm
Aperture efficiency = 0.7
G 60 60 0.7
2520
34dB
General Rule of Thumb:
G 9 d 2
d = diameter in wavelengths
Example:
Wavelength = 3 cm
Diameter = 60 cm = 20
Aperture efficiency = 0.7

G 9 (20)2 0.7
2520
34dB

Nevertheless, in aggregate the sidelobes rob the mainlobe

of a substantial amount of power. Because of the large solid
angle they cover, roughly 25 percent of the total power radiated by a uniformly illuminated antenna occurs outside the
mainlobe.
Against most small targets even the strongest sidelobes are sufficiently weak that they can generally be ignored,3 but against
the ground even the weakest sidelobes may produce considerable return. And, as will be explained in Chapter 22, buildings
and other structures on the ground form corner reflectors that
can return tremendously strong echoes, even when illuminated
only by sidelobes.
In military applications, the sidelobes also increase both the
radars susceptibility to detection by an enemy (on transmit)
and its vulnerability to jamming (on receive). Interference from
a powerful noise jammer, for example, can be much stronger
than the echoes of a small or distant target in the mainlobe.
Consequently, it is generally desirable for the gain of the sidelobes to be minimized.
Sidelobe Reduction. The degree to which the radiated power
is concentrated into the mainlobe is called solid angle efficiency. To make it acceptably high and to minimize problems

3. However, for some targets which in certain aspects reflect a

large fraction of the incident energy back in the direction of the
radar, sidelobe return can be substantial.

Figure 8-16. An antennas sidelobes extend in all directions, even

to the rear.

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PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

Uniform Illumination
Tapered Illumination

Aperture

()

(+)

Figure 8-17. Sidelobes may be reduced by tapering illumination at the

edges of the aperture.

of ground clutter and jamming, the gain of the sidelobes must

generally be reduced. This is done by designing the antenna
to radiate more power per unit area through the central portion of the aperture (Fig. 8-17) in a technique called illumination tapering. Using this process increases the beamwidth
somewhat and hence reduces the peak gain of the mainlobe.
But usually this is an acceptable price to pay for reduced
sidelobes.

8.3 Electronic Beam Steering

Figure 8-18. A beam is conventionally steered by mechanically
deflecting the antenna.

Wavefront
(Plane of Equal
Phase Radiation)

Figure 8-19. With electronic steering, the beam is steered by

progressively shifting the phases of the signals radiated by the
individual radiators.

In most airborne radars, the antenna beam is positioned by

physically moving the antenna through the desired azimuth
and elevation angles (Fig. 8-18). An alternative method made
possible with array antennas is to differentially shift the phases
of the radio waves emitted by the individual radiators. This
technique is called electronic beam steering (or electronic
scanning).
As with the simple linear array described earlier, the direction of maximum radiation from the array (i.e., direction of the
mainlobe) is that for which the waves from all of the radiators
are in phase. If the phases of the emitted waves are all the
same, this direction is perpendicular to the plane of the array.
However, if the phases are progressively shifted from one radiator to the next, the direction of maximum radiation will be
correspondingly shifted (Fig. 8-19). By appropriately shifting
the phases of the inputs to the individual radiators, therefore,
the beam can be steered in any desired direction within a large
solid angle.
Electronic steering has the advantage of being extremely flexible and remarkably fast. The beam can be given any shape,
swept in any pattern at a very high rate, or jumped almost
instantaneously to any position. It can even be split into two or
more beams that radiate simultaneously on different frequencies and can be trained simultaneously on different targets (at
the expense of a reduction in detection range).

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

117

Figure 8-20. This antenna is for side-looking air-to-ground radar in which a fan-shaped beam is electronically steered in azimuth. The antenna is
carried in a pod beneath an aircraft. By rotating it about its longitudinal axis, it can be made to look out on either side of the aircraft.

Depending on the application, electronic steering may be provided in one (Fig. 8-20) or two dimensions. Moreover, it may be
combined with either mechanical beam steering or mechanical
rotation of the antenna, as in the airborne warning and control
system (AWACS) radar.
Naturally, electronic steering also has disadvantages such as
increased complexity and degraded performance at large look
angles. Performance degradation is caused by aperture foreshortening when viewed from angles off dead center (Fig.
8-21). The length of the foreshortened dimension decreases
proportional to the cosine of the angle. The effect is negligible at small scan angles, but it becomes increasingly severe
at large angles. The result of the foreshortening (effectively
smaller aperture in the direction of illumination) is an increase
in beamwidth and more importantly a decrease in gain, which
limits the maximum practical look angle to 60.
With mechanical steering, no such limitation occurs: the plane
of the aperture is perpendicular to the direction of the mainlobe for all look angles.

L cos

Figure 8-21. With electronic steering, the apparent length of

the aperture, L, decreases as cosine of the look angle, . With
mechanical steering, no such reduction occurs.

8.4 Angular Resolution

The ability of a radar to resolve targets in azimuth and elevation is determined primarily by the azimuth and elevation
beamwidths. This is illustrated simplistically by the two diagrams in Figure 8-22.
In the first diagram, two identical targets, A and B, at nearly
the same range are separated by slightly more than the width
of the beam. As the beam sweeps across them, the radar
receives echoes first from Target A and then from Target B.
Consequently, the targets can easily be resolved.
In the second diagram, the same two targets are separated by
less than the width of the beam. As the beam sweeps across

Figure 8-22. The ability to resolve targets in angle is determined

primarily by antenna beamwidth. Targets can be resolved if
beamwidth is less than their angular separation.

118

PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

A
A

Superficially, angular resolution would appear to be limited

to the null-to-null width of the mainlobe. But it is actually
better than that because the resolution depends not only on
the width of the lobe but also on the distribution of power
within it.

Detection
Threshold

RCVR
Output

A
Angle Off Boresight,

Figure 8-23. Angular accuracy is sharpened by peaking of the

receiver output as the beam sweeps across the target. Unless the
target echoes are very strong, the azimuth angle over which the
return is detected is much less than the null-to-null beamwidth, nn.

0
3 dB =
6 dB =

BW3 dB
Signal
Power
(dB)

Transmitted (PT)
Received (PR)
PR = PT2

10

them, the radar again receives echoes first from Target A.

However, long before it stops receiving echoes from this target,
it starts receiving echoes from Target B. The echoes from the
two targets therefore merge together.

Azimuth Angle,

Figure 8-24. Since the antennas directivity is applied to both

transmitted and received waves, the plot of received signal
strength versus angle is more sharply peaked.

Figure 8-23 is a plot of strength of the received signal as the

mainlobe sweeps across an isolated target. When the leading
edge of the lobe passes over the target, the echoes are so weak
that they are undetectable. However, their strength increases
rapidly and reaches a maximum when the lobe is centered on
the target. The strength then drops to an undetectable value
again as the trailing edge approaches the target. Note that this
curve is not the same shape as the radiation pattern plotted in
similar coordinates but instead is more sharply peaked. The
reason is that the antennas directivity applies equally to transmission and receptiona characteristic called reciprocityso
the two-way beamwidth is narrower.
To illustrate, suppose the position of a target is such that the
power radiated in its direction is half that radiated in the center
of the lobe (down 3 dB). When the target echoes are received,
their power will again be cut in half. As a result, the received
echoes will be only one-quarter as strong (down 6 dB) as when
the target is in the center of the lobe (Fig. 8-24).
Because of this compounding, the plot of received signal
power is narrower than the radiation pattern. And because the
echoes received when the target is near the edges of the lobe
are too weak to be detected (unless the target is at short range),
the azimuth angle over which the target is detected is narrower
than the null-to-null beamwidth.
The net effect of this narrowing on angular resolution is illustrated by the three plots of Figure 8-25. They show a composite
of the bell-shaped curves for two equally strong targets, A and
B. When the targets are closely spaced, the curves combine
to produce a single broad hump. As the spacing increases, a
notch develops in the top of this hump. The notch grows until
the hump splits in two.
In practice, the notch becomes apparent at a target spacing of
1 to 1.5 times the antennas 3 dB beamwidth. The 3 dB beamwidth, therefore, has come to be used as the measure of the
angular resolution of a radar.

a b
0.5 3 dB

3 dB

b
1.5 3 dB

Figure 8-25. As separation between two closely spaced targets is

increased, a notch develops in the plot of receiver output versus
azimuth angle.

8.5 Angle Measurement

The foregoing should not be taken to imply that the accuracy
with which a radar can determine a targets direction is limited
to the beamwidth. Since the amplitude of the received echoes
varies symmetrically as the beam sweeps across a target, the

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

direction of an isolated target can be determined to within a

very small fraction of the beamwidth.

3 dB

By stopping the antennas search scan, target angle can be

determined with still greater precision. One technique for
accomplishing this is lobing.
Lobing. During reception, the center of the mainlobe is
alternately placed on one side of the target and then the
other (Fig. 8-26). If the target is centered between lobes, the
received echoes will be the same strength for both lobes. If
it is not, the echoes will be stronger for one lobe than for
the other.
Normally, the lobes are separated just enough to intersect at
their half-power points. Since the slope of the radiation pattern in this region is relatively steep, a slight displacement of
the target from a line through the crossover point results in a
large difference in the strength of the echoes received through
the two lobes (Fig. 8-27). By positioning the antenna to reduce
this difference to zero (i.e., to eliminate the angular error), the
antenna can be precisely lined up on the target.
Because the lobing is sequential, however, short-term changes
in the strength of the target echoescaused by scintillation
or electronic countermeasurescan introduce large, spurious differences in the returns received through the two lobes
and thus can degrade tracking accuracy. This problem may
be avoided by designing the antenna to produce the lobes
simultaneously. Since all the necessary angular tracking
information is obtained from one reflected pulse, instead of
simultaneous lobing it is more commonly called monopulse
operation.
Monopulse. Monopulse systems are of two general types. They
differ in regard to both the direction of the lobes and the way
the returns received through opposing lobes are compared.

119

0 dB

Lobe A
Time 1
Boresight
Line

Lobe B
Time 2

Figure 8-26. With sequential lobing, during reception the angular

tracking error is determined by alternately placing the mainlobe on
one side and then the other of the antenna boresight line.

Time 1
Tracking
Error

Lobe A

Error
Signal
Time 2

Boresight
Line
Tracking
Error

Boresight
Line

Lobe B

Figure 8-27. If the target is off the boresight line, the return
received through one lobe will be stronger than that received
through the other. The magnitude of difference corresponds to the
magnitude of tracking error, the sign of difference to the direction
of error.

The first type, called amplitude comparison monopulse, essentially duplicates sequential lobing with simultaneously formed
lobes (Fig. 8-28). Amplitude comparison monopulse is typically
used with reflector antennas.
Because the lobes point in slightly different directions, if a
target is not on the boresight line of the antenna the amplitude of the return received through one lobe differs from
the amplitude of the return simultaneously received through
the other lobe. The difference is proportional to the angular
error.
By subtracting the output of one feed from the output of the
other, an angular tracking error signal, often termed the difference signal, is produced. The sum of the two outputs, called
the sum signal, is used for range tracking.
The second type of monopulse is phase-comparison monopulse, which is typically used with planar array antennas. In
it, the array is divided into halves, and the resulting lobes

Amplitude Comparison
Monopulse
Patterns

Reflector

Feed
Horns

Lobe B
A
B
Lobe A

Figure 8-28. In essence, amplitude comparison monopulse

duplicates sequential lobing in every respect except that return is
received simultaneously through both lobes. The Error signal is the
difference between outputs A and B.

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PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

Phase Comparison
Monopulse

Outputs

A
B

Lobe A

Lobe B

From
Target

d~
A
~d
B
Phasor Representation
of Outputs

Figure 8-29. In phase-comparison monopulse, since lobes of two antenna

halves point in the same direction, amplitudes of outputs A and B are
equal. However, their phases differ by angle , which is proportional to
angle error, .

AB
(~ Angle Error)

A
B

180

Outputs
of
Antenna

(A B)
B

180

Figure 8-30. Phase difference between outputs of two antenna

halves is converted to error signal by introducing a 180 of phase
shift in one output and adding the two together.

point in the same direction. Consequently, the return received

through one lobe has the same amplitude as that received
through the other regardless of the angle of the target relative to the antenna boresight line. However, if an angular
error exists, the phases of the returns will differ because of
the difference in mean distance from the target to each half
(Fig. 8-29).
An error signal proportional to the phase difference may be
obtained by introducing a 180 phase shift in the output from
one half and summing the two outputs. If no tracking error
exists, the outputs cancel. If an angular error exists, the resulting phase difference only partially offsets the external phase
shift, and a difference output proportional to the tracking error
is produced (Fig. 8-30).
By combining the two outputs without the external phase
shift, a sum signal is provided for range tracking.

= A+ B + C + D
Az = (A + C) (B + D)

El = (A + B) (C + D)

4 quadrants of a planar array

or
4-horn reflector feed

Figure 8-31. Monopulse antenna feed provides sum signal for

range tracking; difference signals for angle tracking. Difference
signals for azimuth and elevation tracking may be processed on a
time-shared basis.

For monopulse tracking in both azimuth and elevation, the

antenna is typically divided into quadrants. The azimuth
difference signal is obtained by separately summing the
outputs of the two left quadrants and the two right quadrants and taking the difference between the two sums. The
elevation difference signal is similarly produced by taking
the difference between the sum of the outputs of the two
upper quadrants and the sum of the outputs of the two
lower quadrants.
Conventionally, three receiver channels would be provided:
one for the azimuth difference signal; a second for the elevation difference signal; and a third for the sum signal. The
receiving system can, however, be simplified considerably, by
alternately forming the azimuth and elevation difference signals (Fig. 8-31) and feeding them on a time-share basis through
a single receiver channel.

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

121

How to Calculate the Radiation Pattern for a Linear Array

f you wish, you can readily calculate the radiation pattern for a

linear array consisting of any number of radiators having any

spacing and any illumination taper.
Radiators
8

the array to the same observer. That difference equals the distance of the radiator from the array center, d2, multiplied by sin .

To Observerr

7
6
5
4
3

d2

d2 = d2 sin

2
1

For successive values of the angle, , you merely sum the contribution of the individual radiators to the total field strength
in the direction, . If the array is symmetrical about its central
axis, the summation needs to be performed for only half the
array, since the other half is a mirror image.

Dividing d2 by the wavelength, , and multiplying by 2

yields the phase in radians.
2 =

2d2 2d2
=
sin

Thus, the contribution of radiator No. 2 to the total field

strength in the direction, , is
2d2

E2 a2 exp j
sin

The total field strength, then, can be found by performing the

following summation.

4
3
2

N /2

Etotal

a exp j
i

i =1

As was illustrated in the blue panel describing the form of the

sinx/x function, the contribution of any given radiator, say, No.
2, to the total field strength in a given direction is proportional
to the amplitude of the signal, a2, supplied to the radiator times
the complex phasor of the radiation from this radiator relative
to the radiation from the radiator at the center of the array (in
this example a hypothetical central radiator).

2
a4

Phase of Sum
m
a3

2di

sin

By repeating the summation for values of from 0 to 90,

the radiation pattern for the array can be obatined.

()

(+)

In case youre wondering how this summation is related

to the sin x/x equation given in the text, the relationship is
direct. If we assume that the total excitation, A, is uniformly
distributed over the length of the array, L, we can obtain the
total field strength simply by integrating this same expression with respect to d over the length of the array.

a2
Contribution of
radiator number 2
to sum of radiation
from all radiators
= a2 cos 2

L/2

a1

The relative phase, of course, depends on the difference d

between the distance from radiator No. 2 to an observer (a long
way off) in the direction, , and the distance from the center of

L/2

A
2d

exp j
sin dd
L

sin sin

sin
A

sin x
L
L
, where x = sin for small
x

122

PART III: Fundamentals of Radar

8.6 Antenna Beams for Ground Mapping

Pencil Beam

Figure 8-32. For ground mapping, if the radar is at a low altitude,

or the range interval being mapped is narrow, a pencil beam can be
used. Otherwise, a fan beam is required.

For ground mapping, the entire region being mapped must be

illuminated by the antennas mainlobe (Fig. 8-32). If the radar is
operating at low altitudes or if the range interval being mapped
is relatively narrow, adequate illumination can be provided by
a pencil beam. Otherwise, the antenna must radiate a fanshaped beam.
Ideally, it is shaped so that the strength of the returns received
from equivalent ground targets will be independent of their
range. For that, the one-way gain of the antenna must be proportional to the square of the range, R, to the ground. This may
be achieved by making the gain in the vertical plane proportional to the square of the cosecant of the lookdown angle,
(Fig. 8-33). Hence, the beam is called a cosecant-squared beam.

R
h
R 2 cosec2
cosec =

Figure 8-33. To illuminate ground at all ranges uniformly, power

radiated at angle must be proportional to R2, hence to the
cosecant squared of the lookdown angle.

It should be noted that multipurpose antennas, which are not

exclusively designed for ground mapping, normally do not
have a cosecant-squared beam but a pencil beam. In this case,
reduction in strength of the return with range is compensated
by increasing the receiver sensitivity with range, a process
called sensitivity time control (STC) or automatic gain control
(AGC), described in Chapter 25.

8.7 Summary
A directional antenna radiates a mainlobe surrounded by progressively weaker sidelobes. The width of the mainlobe (beamwidth) is inversely proportional to the width of the antenna
aperture in wavelengths.
Antenna directivity is the ratio of the power radiated in a specific direction to the power that would be radiated in that direction if the total power were radiated isotropically (uniformly in
all directions). The gain on the axis of the mainlobe is proportional to the area of the aperture in square wavelengths.

Some Relationships to Keep in Mind

For a circular uniformly illuminated X-band antenna of diameter, d:

178
d
G = d 2

3dB =

( d in cm)

(If illumination is tapered, substitute 216 for 178 in expression

for beamwidth.)

For circular, uniformly illuminated antenna and wavelength, :

3dB =

radians
d

( d and in same units)

d
G = 9

Angular resolution = 3 dB

Sidelobes rob the mainlobe of substantial power and are a

source of undesirable ground clutter. Their gain can be reduced
by radiating more power per unit area from the central portion
of the aperture than from its edges.
Where extreme versatility and speed are required, the mainlobe of an array antenna may be steered electronically by
progressively shifting the phases of the waves radiated by successive radiating elements.
Angular resolution is determined by beamwidth. Angular measurement accuracy much finer than the beamwidth can be
achieved and, in single-target tracking, can be made extremely
fine through lobing. By designing the antenna to produce the
lobes simultaneously (monopulse), angle tracking degradation
due to short-term variations in amplitude of the target return
can be avoided.

CHAPTER 8: Directivity and the Antenna Beam

Further Reading
S. Drabowitch, A. Papiernik, H. D. Griffiths, J. Encinas, and
B. L. Smith, Modern Antennas, 2nd ed., Springer, 2005.
C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 3rd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.
L. V. Blake and M. Long, Antennas: Fundamentals, Design,
Measurement, 3rd ed., SciTech-IET, 2009.
W. L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design,
3rd ed., 2012.

Test your understanding

1. A circular antenna, operating at a
frequency of 10 GHz, has a diameter of
0.6 m, and has a gain of 34 dBi. What is
its aperture efficiency?
2. What is the 3 dB beamwidth of a
uniformly illuminated circular antenna
of diameter 0.6 m at a frequency of (a)
3 GHz, (b) 10 GHz, and (c) 30 GHz?
3. What are the corresponding 3 dB
beamwidths from question 2 if the
illumination is tapered?

123