Logic notes

Philosophy
etymological meaning (from the Greek word Philein means Love and Sophia means
Wisdom)
So, what is the difference between Knowledge and Wisdom???
Technical Definition: Knowledge of All things in their ultimate causes and principles
which can be acquired through human reason ALONE.
Philosophy begins with wonder.
It is innate that we are all born with wonder to investigate everything around us.
Periods of Philosophical Development
A. Ancient Philosophy- the Greek ancient Philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and many
others) raised the question Where am I?. The limelight is directed to
COSMOS/world/nature, the origin of everything. They used natural elements to explain
the origin of the cosmos that is why they are commonly known as natural philosophers.
The Asian Philosophers (Lao Tzu, Confucius, Mencius) on the other hand, asked the
question what am I. This Philosophers led their way toward the principle on HOW TO
LIVE LIFE(MORE ON VIRTUES).
The Indian Philosophers (Buddha, Mahavira, Shankara and many others)focused the
question WHO AM I. The central teaching involves how to attain wisdom of the soul.
ENLIGHTENMENT.
B. Medieval Philosophy- The significance of this Philosophy focused on the question of the
existence of the world and man in relation to GOD. (Most of the issues raised during this
period were all about how to prove that God exists.)
C. Modern/Contemporary Philosophy- the question is shifted to man himself. Man
questions himself in relation to economics, politics, morality, science, discipline, power
and many other issues which basically predicated on the sole issue of man being a selfcentered being.
Branches of Philosophy
1. Logic- Science of correct reasoning
2. Ontology- the science of being
3. Epistemology- the study of knowledge and its validity
4. Cosmology- the study of the material universe.
5. Psychology- the study of human minds (physiological function)
6. Ethics- the study of morality
7. Theodicy- the study of God (with the use of human reason alone)
What are the benefits of studying Logic? (5)

Logic
Aristotle an ancient philosopher who is generally credited as the father of Logic.
He was the one who first devised systematic criteria for analysing and evaluating
arguments.
His chief accomplishment is called Syllogistic Logic.

So, what is Syllogistic Logic?- a kind of logic which the fundamental elements are
terms, and arguments are evaluated as good or bad depending on how the terms are
arranged.

What is an Argument?- is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone

of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion.

An Argument is composed of one or two premise statements and one conclusion.

Premises are statements that give support or evidence to a conclusion.

Conclusion is the statement that is inferred from the premises.

Example of an Argument:
All Logic Students did well on the exam.-----> Premise
Sophia is a logic student ------------------ Premise
Therefore, Sophia did well on the exam. ---Conclusion

------- ARGUMENT

Examples of Conclusion indicators:

Therefore; Hence; thus; as a result
Examples of Premise indicators:
Since; Because; For; As; Inasmuch
Kinds of Arguments:
1. Deductive the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premise. The
conclusion necessarily follows from its premise.
Eg. It's sunny in Singapore. If it's sunny in Singapore, he won't be carrying an umbrella.
So, he won't be carrying an umbrella.
2. Inductive -the premises of an inductive logical argument indicate some degree of
support (inductive probability) for the conclusion but do not entail it; that is, they
suggest truth but do not ensure it.
Eg. Two independent witnesses claimed John committed the murder. John's fingerprints
are the only ones on the murder weapon. John confessed to the crime. So, John
committed the murder.
(Comment: The last argument is no doubt good enough for a jury to convict John, but
none of these three arguments about John committing the murder is strong enough to
be called valid.)
REMEMBER:
If the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises definitely
establishes the truth of the conclusion (due to definition, logical entailment, logical
structure, or mathematical necessity), then the argument is deductive.
If the author of the argument does not think that the truth of the premises definitely
establishes the truth of the conclusion, but nonetheless believes that their truth
provides good reason to believe the conclusion true, then the argument is inductive.
Symbols may be used to translate statements into visual form
Operator
~
.
V
=

Name
tilde
Dot
wedge
Horseshoe
Triple Bar

Logical Function

Used to translate

negation
conjunction
disjunction
implication
equivalence

not, it is not the case that

and, also, moreover
or, unless
if, .then,..only if
if and only if

Application:
Note: in doing this, we must comply with the well-established rule in propositional logic
so that we can consider the symbolic expression (well-formed formulas) meaningful,
otherwise the symbolic expression becomes confusing or uncertain.

Rule 1: The first rule tells us that symbols such as "A", "B", "C" to Z (letters of the
alphabet )are all WFFs.
Rule 2: tells us is that whatever Capital letter is, if it is a WFF, then when you add "~"
(tilde) to the front of the letter you will end up with a new and longer WFF. So from rule
1, we know that "A" is a WFF. Then we can apply rule 2 to "A" to infer that "~A" is also
a WFF.
Rule 3: Consider the formula "(P^~P)"by using the logical operator conjunction AND
(^). This is a WFF because "P" is a WFF according to rule 1, so "~P" is also a WFF
according to rule 2. Combining them according to rule 3 then, "(P^~P)" is also a WFF.
Rule 4: Even though "~P" is a WFF, "(~P)" is not, because as we can see from rule
3, any WFF that contains a pair of brackets must have at least one of the four other
connectives inside.
Exercise:
The Miami Heat will win if and only if they let him play-----------> Symbols
Note: Lets represent the statement to symbols. The Miami Heat will win may be
represented as capital letter M pursuant to rule 1 (any capital letters of the alphabet
may do). If you happen to determine any logical operator which is used to translate, set
aside for a moment. Put them together when you are finished representing all phrases
to any capital letters pursuant to rule 1. Here, the wordings if and only if is a logical
operator used to translate with a symbol (=). The wordings they let him play may be
converted to capital letter H pursuant to rule 1. Therefore, the statement may be
represented as: M=H (this is considered well-formed formula and therefore meaningful
and not ambiguous)

Truth Table to test the validity of arguments. Used to determine when a compound
statement is True or False.
Note: There are four possible cases for the combined truth values.
Formula:
For conjunction (AND)
P(True) AND Q (True), then P AND Q is True
P(True) AND Q(False), then P AND Q is False
P(False) AND Q(True), then P AND Q is False
P(False) AND Q(False), then P AND Q is False
Application:
1 Hour is 60 minutes AND blue is a color: convert it to variables, thus 1 hour is 60
minutes to capital letter H any letter of the alphabet may do. And blue is a color to
capital letter B. Thus, we have H AND B.
Next step is to determine whether the statements are true or false.
Here, H is true and B is true, therefore, H AND B is TRUE. (the statement 1 Hour is 60
minutes AND blue is a color is TRUE )
Please follow the same procedure in the above-mentioned example based on the given
formula to all other instances.

For disjunction (OR)

P(True) OR Q (True), then P OR Q is True
P(True) OR Q(False), then P OR Q is True
P(False) OR Q(True), then P OR Q is True
P(False) OR Q(False), then P OR Q is False

Note: Same procedure in the above-mentioned example. Just determine whether the
statements are True or False, then follow the given Formula.

LANGUAGE
Man uses a certain words and phrases to describe people, places and things.
Through language man can make friends, gives warning, order meals and open
up feelings, likes and dislikes.
Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined
into words.

Fundamental Uses of Language:

1. Informative- the common function of this is usually attested to by textbooks and all
other books of different subject matters. Newspaper, magazines and dictionary uses
informative language.
Eg. PCcr is a pioneer school for criminology
All lawyers are members of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines.
2. Expressive- this function is best illustrated in poetry where EMOTIONS and
ATTITUDES are expressed beautifully. It is also an expression of thoughts and
feelings.
Eg. Oh! I love you so much!
Wow! We are the champion!
3. Directive- this function of language is most easily seen in COMMANDS and
REUESTS.
Eg. Please stand up and sing the national anthem.
Write me a line when you reach California.