N'IAL'"Y

frT uing

tbc early Colonial years, many explorers and

colonists chose to Mite about their experiences.
both as a fom ofadvertisernent forprospective pilgrirns
and a a fom of jomalistic therapy to ward off the
intcns boredom md vicissitudes of life in the New
sl'orld. In fact, much ofthe writing ofthe time centers on
isucs of security in the wildemess. For instance, John
Smitt's joumls and propaganda present fascinating and
adminedly, overblown accounts oflndian skirmishes, all
the timc fmusing on the innate strength and strategic
ming of the early explorers.
With the riseofPuitanisnr in the New Wrrrl( especially
hjbe Northeastern colonies, the fledghng easr coast
bcgm a major shift in theology that would renrain long
afts the dcmise of rhe last Puritan. Based oo the
doctrines ofJohn Calvit's The Instittues ofthe Christian
Religion nd rhe "Bay Psalm 8oo*" (l'640), Purirans
adhercd to five basic tenets ofreligious Iife: original sin.
limiled atoocment, irresistible grace. persererance of the
siots, md predestination. Basically, humans are "cori
ropt and prone to evil," but only a few cm receive
sh?tion. Those who re members of ihe elect cannot
&ny their slvation because God, through predestination,
has already chosen those who will reach heaven.
On a largcr scale, Puritans believed that the universe is
divirely controlled by Go( and all humans, regardless of
wial
rclal or cconomic status, are equal in God's sight.
sieht.
Thu, Puritans sought to trmslate Cod,s word into
wery *pect of their daily lives. They were, after al[,
ric chosD pcoplc, much like the biblical Jews.
Catral to Puitan success is the extre me self-deteminism
that still infoms American idealism. Further, puritans
bcld a stong belief in preachirig, a tradition that continues
today- Thcir world view ras extremely intellectual, and
ir 1635, thcy cstablished Haruard.
BTliu Brrdford (1590 - I 657)--Of P I i nu t o t h P I u n ru.
nbtr (1650, published in 1856) Incjudes account of
problm *itt &e settlement of Merrymount.
Ar!. BndttHt (1612-1672)-.'The'Author (o Her
Bmlq"_ lte_Elcshjnd !hs_fuir.!."'.Meditarions,,'
Sml fueas(1678,
posthumouslyl. contains rnany ol
Bndsra's bcst pocrirs, including :tCp4fe44darc45,',
Cmidered rhc Frhr pct in rhe ndw colonieslEiiliu Byd tr (1674-1744YThe Hittorv of rtu Dit itlins
Lirc }tt*ixt Virgiaia and North Carciinb. Run in tlie
Yar o!Oy Lord !728 (184t) Se(rei Dia,]. ( tg41).
prtridcs yigntes of nyrAt
Byrd's ttie.
life. eyrO
Byrd wiiine
was bne of t(i
tlie
fil olonialisr-s who adiaated mariiage with lndians.
JoB.tlr-..E Edrrrds (1701.58|-Cfram c tir of a Iiuly vi rmw Paon, kaorcl Nanarive (1765),7 Divitie ond
Supenatuml Light (n34), Sinnei in ti;e Hantts oj qn
(l74ll, Freedon of the
(1754.r.-TE
Anw- H (t74t),
Aisrrhe lVill
Will (1754),-The
Naure of Tme miu (1755-5i'1, and The'Greai Doctrine of Origirul Sin DeJended (1757). Edwards is
considercd thc best of thc Puritan theologians and was
one of the anly prcsidcds of Princeton.

Z./

THE NINETBENTH
CENTURY

NEOCLASSICAL AGE

uring the eiglrteenth century, philosophy and politics. as well as literarure and rhe arts. begm to
evolve away from the homespun logic of the early colonial
years and towud a more fomal approach. Religion, also,
began a shift from the overi theism ofJonathan Edwrds to
the subtle deism ofTom Paine and Thomas Jeffemn. In a
theistic worl4 God is inrimately involved in the lives of
humans. In a deistic world, God, sometimes referrcd to as
a uatchmaker, creates a perfect universe then retrrats,
allowing the creation to function on its own. No more
could rulen enafi divine law as a precedent for their
aulocratic power. The common mm was now in power and
master of.his own fate. Thus, Thomas Jeffcrson md the
framers of the constitution could justify the tum from
poetry to nonfiction as a tum frdm religious md metaphysical idealism to a philosophical pragmalism. Poetry
represented the realm ofthe monied aristocrat; nonfiction
docrments written in plain, common sense Ianguage represeoted the common man. After all, Jefferson md his
contenpomries were building a new republic aD4 at the
same time, stablishing a national mindset geared toward
a Democratic union ofstates.
harles Brockden Brown (1771-181o)-edited the
Monthlv Magazine
Maoatinc and
md/ncriaaa
Fanaa frnm
Month\t
American Rsiew
ftom t?oo
1799,
pt/i e I a n t ((17
lt4eland
I 1 998),
8), O
r m o n d (1
(1199),
Ormorul
7 99), Art
Arthur
hur M
(177 99,
Mervyn
ervyt (l
1800), Edgar
(1799),
Clara
(1801\
Howard
_Hwtleyand,
ttd James
Jam e s Tal
Tolbot
b o t (1l| 80 l\.
"The Federalist" (l 788)-Writtea by AlexanderHamilton
(1755-1804),
(l
/))-rUU4), John Jay (1745-1829), and James Madison-(I751-18-36). A collection of letters supporting
ratification ofthe constitution and a strong, centralizei
governmenl.
Bcnjamin Frankli n (1106-90\--Do-good Papers \1722),
A dissertation on Libeti aild ltqtessio-. Pleasure and
Pdia I l'725), Poor Richd'rd's Alnailac lillZ-Sq, eennsylyanio Gazette which later became the Sanrday
Evening Posr, the Autobiogtnph! 1 I868) covers thi
years 1731-59, including the birth of the American
republic. Like Thomas Jefferson, Franklin represents
the best of the neoclassical thinkers. Knoqn as an
inventor and grmd diplomat, Franklin also contributed
to the founding fathers' philosophy.

,-6
J.t

Philip Freneau

(17 52-1832)--Lhr2*lsrLeUehreniek
(1195), Posts lYritlen ancl Published hrring theAmuican
Revolutionun War (1809). Freneau is considered the

first.prolessional journalist in America. His political

writings and poetry helped fuel the movement for

American independence.

f
Z:

ROMANTICISM

ike many literary and artistic movements, Romanticism sraned ro a reaction against the perceived
strictures of lhe preceding age. h this case, early romantic
writers wished to move away from the phiiosophical
formalism of the neoclassical age. Man\ rLlationio thc

natural world wag rcestablished while the basis oI

philosophy began to shift toward what would later b
called Transcendentalism, the belief systen that places
God back in nature. Landscape an, gardcning, rirusic,
even theology reestabished rhe place oflrumans within a
completely untamed natuml world. The emphasis in all
areas of creative endeavor was in the reliance upon
emotions and thc natural scnses while placing humans in
a new Eden.
Critics and historians now look back uoon the vears
between t850 and 1855 as the American'Renaissince,
primrily due lo the fact thar so many wrirers of piYotal
importance were busily recording rheir world at the tinre:
Emerson, Thoreau. Melville, Hawthome, and others.
Moreover, Transcendentalism was taking its place as a
serious philosophical srance. Beginning in tha Far East
and lraveling rhrough Europe, Transcendentrlism finally
found its way to Arnerica rhrough the wrirings of Rolplr
Waldo Emeison and Hemy Da-vid Thoreau." The baiic
prernise resides in rhe realization lhar neither theism or
deism can adequately answer the burning question of
manb relationship wirh Cod. lnstea4Tmnscendentalists
chose a form ofpantheisnr ro aniculate their vierv ofthe
uiverse. The major group ofTranscendentalists comprised young intellectuals in the Boston area who rvere,
for th-e most part, concerned with the rheology of rhe
liberal Unitarian church. Indeed, much ofrhe ri6vement
centers on mysticism.

William Cullen Bryent (1794-1878)-"Thanatoosis"

(l8|7 l, Poems ( I 82 I ) Ehich esubtisheO-Eii-liEffiv

reputalion including-"lnscription for the Entrance to'a

Wood" and "To a Waterfowl." Bryant's manv .,odes" to
natural objects reflectsthe generai movemerit inAmerican culture from Puritanism to Transcendentalism.
Janres Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851)- -Ihe Spy Q82t),
The Pioneers (1823), Tlrc Last olthe Mohicitis ll826),
The Deenlu.ter(1841),The huit.ie 11827 l,saruasroe ( I 845 ).
One of the famous "Western Frontier" mite rs, CooDer
created memorable Indian and senler characters. tlnfortunately. Cooper's writing style and accuracy didl
leave something to be dcsired. Mark Twain \'rcte a I
culting criricism ofCooper's manv writins blundem. I

contiriltid ndt

pa'gc -

c9I_to!-M!!h9I q 6$-t7 28)-I1e_Es!rde!wtfieJ!!is.

ible frbrld (1692), a sumary of the Sate mlirctnrials

and ll agno I i a C hri s, i -1 meri cqn a |trffilated as Th e G re u t
AmericanWorks ofChnir( I 702). A rcmarkable rhinker
md witer, Mather did, howoer, fall for rhe rvitchcraft
hysteria in Salem, Massachusctrs.
Il{ery Rowlen4son (c,f 535*.f 578}-Cap rivi ty a nd Res tomtion (1682), a captivity nmtive that became the

first "best-sellei' bv a

wom-

Smirh (1580-i631)--The Generall Historie of

Virginia, N*'England and the Sumnrcr Isles (162i)
Heroic aciounts of non-Puritans and native Americans, especially Pocahontas.

Edward Taylor (16422 -1729)-"

lock and Death of Children" atd, Preoarutoru lvletlitation! (.c. 1682-1725, p. 1939, 1960), including some of
Taylor's test poetry.

metaphysical and theological

poer at heail, Taylor's poetry seeks to illustrale-the
absolute symmetry ofGod's universe througlr m appreciation ofnature and domestic issues.
Rogcr Williams (1603 -1683)-LKq:LUp-ltzlatg!sge
o-[America l1643t- The Bload),Teneilt of pcrsecltiu,
for Carsc oI Consciente 11644\ and The'Bloot]v Tenent
Ye t M ore R I o 04' ( I 652 ). Roger Williams rvas one of the
first Purirans who actively studied the Indians without
exploiting them. He remained an advocate for the

ethical tratment of Indians and for the spiritual

Many seek safery in the NewWorld frorn the English Civil

The first African Slaies arrive in

Virginia6l6iil

Thomas Jefferson (1743-f826), Third U.S. president-The^ Declarq!iot o,f ln,leoentince (1776) drafted by

Jeffereon with changes by john Adams and B. Franklir5

Notes on th( StoE of Viryiniu (1754-5\. .*ttobiosruohi
( 1 820). Jefferson is considered one of rhe great"suieimen, inventom, and thinkcrs in American culture.

Thomas Paine (1737-f809)--Edited the pennsylrania

Mugu:ine 1l,7151. The Anericun Crisis series 1177683) 13 pamphlets that helped srir sentiment for thc
revolutron, Connon Sense (17161, The Rights o!.lulqn
(1791-2), The Age of Reason {1794, 1796).
Phfflis.\Vheatley (c. 1153-84\--Menroir and Poems oJ'
P h1,l lis ll/heat let 11834 ), Let ters I I 86.{). Wheatlev. i
Boston slave, studied English, Latin, a;d Greek diiigently. Published posthumously, Wheatly uas one of
the first Black poeis in America.

ut
T
t
['

THII
NINETEENTH
CENTURY

R.OI}IANTICIS

co

Er-tt D.q!rs(ltl7?-1

ntinu ed

flieo
dfim olFrederick Douglass (1882).
d Eft
-slldo
(1E031882F'Ode to
Euciren (lE03l882)-"Ode
Eucrsn
BI-ELldo
B;-!f (tu7),'Dat/s"(i85 I )*Na!utc"(l 816)'
(
*AusUiscfurt<' I 837), "Self-Relimce"
(lSal),"IhcFoct( I 844), "Experience" (l 844)'
-Itoirr- (1862). Pan ofthe Americm Renaisrc ad r Dropoomt of Transcendentalism,
Uy Bqda4e and My Frcedom (1855)

Eusoo ady'oca'ted a liberal agenda based on

Lis effrliation with Thoreau and vuious social

mwrs
tGE rd

of the ninetcenth century With

his poctry, Emerson experimenkd at

lcltttwith oud md structue, and ln so dolng

gadv affc'tcd the course ofAmericil poetry.

I{itleiicl Erwthorne

(1804-I 864)-:'Young

t'l

I
I
I
I

qiticizc

thc Pmitans sharply for their religious

In his other work, he examines the
aimtenth century need to be rid of the old ways

inrolcme.

ad cmbrce the ncw American

culture.

Olivcr Wcndell Holmes (1809-1894)-'QA

,prlrdet "(1830), "The Deacon's Mailerpiece"
itls\, Ihe Aururat ol the qrcal;tasr Tuble
(lE5E). A descendent of Anne Bradstreel.
i{olma rcceived his M.D. degree and used his
Ecdil knwlcdge to augment his writing.

Tlrlir:tbr f rdng (17E3-1859't-The Sketch

Da*-of Geoftev Cravon, Getr, (1819-20)'
irtudcsl'Rip Van Winkie md "The Legend of
$ov Hollory." Wmhingron lruing is considered
&c iusr Americm writer, and his literature,
I midlv'Rio." convevs the cultuml and social
I aimegs fromiltc old World to thc New Wmld
I lfs ctrrters m oflen spoofs and stereorypes,
I bd lb.ry e, at the sme time, memorable.
Irtrrlri Lincoln (1809-1865), sixteDth PresiI H of Ite Unitcd Stats- "Gettysburg Address''
I (1t53) 8Dd'Seond lrnuguml Address" ( 1865).
I E:rryqtaworth Longfellou (1807 -821-Bal'
a tdt od Other Poeis (1842), includes "The
I wref of tt Hespems," "The Village BlackI oiU- ud'ThC Rainy Day," "Evangeline"
I lt84 tWb"gofHianatha(18551,TheCourta tLiD of Uilet Stazdist ( 1858).
l.rrrcu Irell(lil9-1891)-AYear\ Lrk
I nir
tus(1841),Poem, (184a), Biglow
I dtu
I h6(f &t.fEsrsics)."ComemomtionOde
! tti6sf "rui:tret l"(I870),'Aga$iz"(I874).
Mclvith (ltr9-r891\-T)'pee (18461,
I S.ilil
I ertFIlct (1851), "Banleby" (l85ll. Bill,
I lf (tc2l). uclville 's Moby Dick is considered
I !' Ey b bc 6c fmst piece of American literaLite this famous novel, most of
I kGrira
na mrcrs on tbe various ailegories
I tffir
I d-lfdtbdcsrrtimof wial "sacred cows."
fc (ltC!L49F Tbe Ravm" r 1845).
I l*rer
I ihtafthncdu$d'(1839)."TheMreque
I ft ldH-(lt42l"ThcskofAmontillado"
I (lls, GrdktdrtcttEsBof tre Gothic.
n'eel oz
I E:E DrIfbc.t'(ltl7-lE62l-A
d Mininacl /Rr'wrs (1849).
I *-C-l
(18541.
(otrrg'),
wolden
cnit
wa*
I
ad r proponent of TranI ni* Ufus
I sa.t--lis.Tbotau eniculated more lhan
I re
cl- tb brsic Amicu belief in the
end his orber place in
I .ilt*titriau
I e ffd dd Llah ofTborcau's uriting
I fe
o -lf-rclim ud slf-education

I tudcmrrcraary.(f
I frrr Crcrlcef.gfilrir

S0?-1892Fft1&r

Frictchie," strotr'
I f*tte6r)"ffii-Tabor
TtETqt @ rhc Berch (1867).
I lmatt$q

VLfter

SM
REALI
of
Civil Wr, little

the atrocilies

the

idealism

remained in the American consciousness.

The bucolic atmosPhere oi the Rommtic em had long

since vanished andihe rustic pantheism oflTmnscendenIallsm

llau WEAEI lEu ( unsrulr

4vu

rrr rrr! rren

v' v

vrvv v !

war fatalities. As a result, wriles such as walt wirman, I

Mark Trvain, and Kate Chopin lcft behind the.idealism of I
the eillv cenfurv and beqanexpenmentlngwlu roplcs or I
evewdiv life followine the Ciuil War. Inded Whitman, I
the 'hmericm Brd.' b'rought on his om litemry rcvolu' I
tion as he evoh,edpoetry into the languge of thc common !
mm, seeing America, especially its urbm enters' as a I
gmd pcri in itself. Aid at ihe age of.3l, Whitrnm I
iublished leaves of Gross. portraymg himself m "m !
Amsican. one ofthL rouqhs, a kosmos, distrdsly fleshy I
md smsul...eating md &inking md breedin{' (Sons of I
Mvsef\. Moreuel,his fre vemE allowd him to dwelop I
"tirc 5reath line," a line of poetry aPprcximating what a I
mmon would ufter with a single brcath
' While the age of Realish does represent a fresh Il
oueslionins ofihe literary status quo, it does, ncverthe- |
ILss- haveivithin it a dark skepticism for the future, I
esoeciallv a furure of indurrialiation and urbaniztion. I
Xirte Chooin (1851-1904)-Ile Au'oLening (1899'l I
Chooin. one of tJre earliest feminist miters' risked I
sociil condcmnation as she ventured into the area ofl
marital dishamony md fidelity (or the lack thereo0. I
ChoDin! most fanious shon story "The Story of an I
Houi" criticallv examines a marriage in which love I
has become a 6ondage and death the only way out. I
Emilv Dickinson (1830-t886F-wrote over 1700 po- |
-ost of which she never intended to be pub' I
"-ilished. "success is counted sweetcst," 'A Woudcd I
Deer--leaDs hiphest." "Safe in their Alabaster Cham' I
I n.rs-" "W'itd N'iehts--Wild Nishts!" "Much Madness l
I is divinest Sensi," "l heard a Fly buzz-when I die{'

"BecauselcouldnotstopforDeath."Dickinsonchose
I -to
investiqate metaphysical and sensual topics in her
I
I ooctrv. Althoueh not an innwator with regard to
I ilvthir or cadenie (Dickinson chox to base most of
I w6rk on popular hymns and jingles), her subject
I maner. noneiheless,iemains revolutionary in its reliupon psychological experience and in its someI
I "n"e
times blataht skeoticism ofblind faith.
I Joel Chandler Ha;ris (1E48-l 90E)--uncle Remus, His
I Sonss and His Sal'itres ( 1880), Uncle Remus oncl his
I f'r,""ra, t t tsz),,t 1': Rubb i, at H onrc (1895). Fmimted by
I Black siwe life in lgth cennrv Ammica. Hamis became
I famous for his finelv craffed Uncle Remus stories.
I Harris was also aware ofthe potenlanimal symbolism
I inemined in the African imagination and folklore
I Brei Harte (f8J6-1902)-i'ie Luck oJ Roaritg Camp
I and Other Sketches { I 870), includes "The Outcasts of
I Poker Flats." "Tennessee's Partner," "Brown of
I Catrvems." and "Plain Languge from Truthful Jones."

I Wtttiam Dean Howclls (1831-l9l6l-Venetian LiIe

I ( I 866). The Rise of Silas Lsoham (l 885), Crilicisn

I
I
I
I

nd Fic tion ( | 891 ). Horvells is known fortheTolsloyan

social concern of his work and the development of a
uniouelv savase and democratic Americm values.
u*o.i.li-". (i843-I9t6)--Roderick Hudson (1876),
o

NATURALI SM

,fhe rise of the Indusrial Revolulion and the urbm moe'l ment coupled with the cynical questioning stance ofRealism

evolved into Literarv Naturalism. a deterministic perspective that

firet found form in Eurooe in thc latc l9th ccntuy. Foreshadowing
Existentialism, Natunlisin fcuses on thc amorality of the universe:
momls mattcr lcss than circumstances. Thus Stephen Croc could
write his dark Moggie, and Frank Norris, his pessimistic Deal.i'
freot. Psvcholo-q-y was bolstered with Freud's theories, while
Daruin md'Mm al'tlrcd forws ttre fiekls of sciercc and politics.

(183 8-1910\-fi e E ducati on ofHe n ry A darc (19 8)'

wtriitr includis'"Ihe Virein md the Dvnamo," a darkly prophetic
visim of modm Amtric;'s tum from religious my*r to *rc dynamo'
Sherwmd Anders oa (187 6-19 4 l)- Wi n ei b ne. O hlo (19-l 9\' Duk

IlennAdams

Anderson is at his best as he describes small

town life and its vicissitudes.

tnghlq \1925).

Willr Csther ( t 873-1947>0 Pioneere ! (19 l3), Mv Antonis (19 l8)'

death Comq for the Archbishop (1927). Cathert best work

concems iinniigmnt and piooeei life in the west.

Crane (1 89I- 19321-ivhite Buildings \1926)'The Bridse (1930).
Crane's woik has had a major infl uence m post- 1946 poerry.,Stephen Crane (t 81 l -lg0i1--Ma8fje : A Girl olthe Stree* (1893)'Ile
Rbd Eadse o{ Cowge (1895). A prutitioner of literuy natumlism.
Masgie is the first naluralistic noYel in America. lts exPose ot clty

Hirt

souil-"m

md thc lives ofpeoplc caught up in thc slm sidc of ubaniztion

uis s shmkinp it forcedCianetopublish the novel with hismmoney.

E.E. Cummins-s (l 894-19621-IlzErcmpss-Baom (1922), Tulips
o"'d Chirtnevi(t923)."'nextioofcome eodmerica i"' (1926), "r'
oo-o-h-e-s-s-a-p,-r" IlSfS), el]"11 (tsf l). An ultimate individualist- Cumminss oiems strive to crilique authority and the sra,as 4xo'
Thebdore Driisir (lt7 l-1945)-SiifcLlee4k (19001, An American Trasedv ( 1925). An earlv Muist witer in the literuy
naturaliim movement, Dreisei is concemed with the effects of
industrialization on ciw life.
T.S. Eliot (t8tE-196s)-'" Lwe Song ofJ.Altu Prufrck" (1915)'
The Wntiland (1922), Fow Suarters (1943). AmajorproPonent of
frJffimisthweni6nt. Ei-iot's fiction seh,es as a tehing grcud
for thc omt to pmctice his krwledgc of Latin, Greek, ltalim,
c.-^-r l-l Ger;aE
n-*.al^nd wirh
w:rh a, vast
\,,<r udersandingofhistory
In.lc<andino of hisoru and
alons
French-;nd
poliiics. Eliot's c:
cat pcm becamc the basis of
wr'ai politics.
mytholbgy md wial
nrythology
Webber's
musical
Cars
Andrry Lloryd
Robert Frost (187 4-1963)-North'
Bmk (1928), A Ftnher Range (1
A ClurinpRanse(1962). The gandfathqofAren@ regoml pcty.
Roblnson"Jeffiri (l 887 -19 62)--Roan S ta I I i o n I I 925 ). Tow r
Boond Tmsedv (19251. Be Anqlv at the Sur (1941 ).
Jac( Lonaoi'(t826-1916)-Thetail of the llild (l903lnd white
fans( 1906). iondonb fmou shonnovelsrepresent the archtypical
stru-csle between the savaqe hean and civilization in mankind.
Marii-nne Moore ( 1887-- I 9 7 2)--C oll e ct ed Poe ns ll 9 5 l)'

Predilections (19551.
Fraok Norris (1870-1902)-Tlp Ocrolrc (l90ll, The Pit (1903), A
Deal in llheat (1903). A maior practitioner ofliterary naluralism
and social realism.

Eusene O'Neill (1E88-1953)--Iie Emperor Jones (1920\, The

Hl-airy epe (1922), Desire Under the Elms (1924\. Mourning
Bec6mei Electm

(lg3ll, fie

lceman Cometh

(1946\ Long Da:t s

Jouinev into Nieht (1956). Probably thc most influential playffi ch6f the-rdf Anturv,b'NeitlrclieauponEuropeanimalism.
Ezra?ound (lEE5-1972)-"ln I Station at the Metro" (19 6), &e
Cantos (1925-40). The great influenee on modem Americm
1

phoirv" (I875), "The Marches ofGlyn" (I878).

( r 835-t 920)-'The Celebmted Jumping
865),1nlocetils Abruad
Frog
Fros ofCalaveras County" (l 86
(18?t
(1869), Autobiography
871),), Roughing lt (1812t,
Autobiosraphy (l

Mark ilw'ain

fhcl4tcttsssrff

r(18'16),Pudd'nhead

Wilson (1894), Life on the MississipPi (18831, The

( I 885). Tmin (Samuel
eberru Fi nn
n n (
of I!
l! uckl
rckleberru
Adven
Adv
e n tnries
ue s qf
elemms) diveloped thi: use of comcdy as social
commentary using vernacular. As his work proqressed, however, liis drkening butjust as comic view
6f what he saw as a hypocritical and self-deceiving
world beqan to dominate his writing.
walt whliman (1819-1892)-Leaves o/ Gross (fiEt
editibn, 1855), including "out ofthe Cmdle Endlessly
Rocking." the "Calamus" poems, "Song ofMyself"
Whitmin was a proponent of Transcendentalism md
the elevated spirit bf the common man, which he
celebreated in his poetry. The overt sensuality in his
ooetrv defines him as a vital force in literature.

poetry, Pbund speirt his cueer redefining poetry in lhe modcmist

inovement, csp?:cially with regard to cadence and rhythm _
John CroweRairsom (1888-1974)-Cn iils and Fq* (1924), Gmci
and Meat (1924\, God Wirhout Thunder \1930), The New Criticism (194[1. Associated with the Vmderbilt Fugitives and New
Criticism. Much of his highly stylized poetry functions as elegy
md contrasts various elements of the modem world.
Mariorie K. Rawlinps ( I 896-1953)-The Yearlins (1938\.
Edwin Arlinston R6bi'nson (f869-f935)--i'lte Children of the
Night ll897l. Cqptain Crdig (19021, The Man Against ,he Slry
(1916l. Trisqam (1927). Resisting romanttc sentrmentaltty,
Robinson did much to energize Americanfr de srdc/e poetry.
Carl Srndburg(1878-1961 y-Chicago Poems (19 l6), Good Morninp America( 1926l.The People, Yes (1936\, Remeubrunce Rock
( t5+8). an iriragistic poet, Sandburgis style rests in his undying,
liberal allimce with the oridinarv citizen.
Walhce Stevens (1879-f955)--Ine Man with the Blue Guitar
(1937),The Aurorus of.4wumn (1950). Stwns'poetry concems

itself with the Dost-romantic realization that, pcrhaps' a

exlsr.
nantheistic
God does
ooes not exist.
Danthersilc uoo
Mirth ( 1905)' Etiaz
airh wharton (1862-1937\-The Houe oI Mirth
Eairh
Frume

(l9ll),

The

Age of Innocence \1920). Wharton\ social

diiintegmtion of American
aDDarent disintegmtion
commentarv followithd
iollows'thd apparent
iommeirtary
and Europe in the finalycars6fthe l9th century and the early years
Hemy James'succespr.
Jmes' succesmr
Wharton is considred
considrcd Hary
20th entury.
enturv. Whirton
of the 20ti

Washington is inaugurated U.S.enters

TheDeclarati<inoflndependence Missouri
to unite colonials in opposition to taxes

ivil War ivith 618.000 dead

ffi

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fi

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q

i{

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,,*,.r0,r*uo,n'o,ro"r6#dfi6.65##****,**r,,*u

Pums 1938-194i 11950t, Life Srudies 11959\.

$ Iloward Nemerov (1920-l99lY A Conmodity of Dreams
11959\, The B lue $wllqts ( I 967), We Storics ( I 987). Nmerw
focuses on the contrasl bemen romanticism md realim.
; sylvia Plath (1932-lg63Y The Colosw(1960),lr,el(1965).
illustrated in blatantly
o Plath focus on extrere personal agony

t-r Crb*LO&1963F Spdrg and AU

tuas {l9l&5t\ *'hiu ttule In the Money, ond The
a;p $y37 -51\ r/'y IN ad Otlet P I at s(l 9 6l) ? i.'firc s fru il
(1923)'

urcdical training, Mlliams sets

approach to poetry that
L lrq 6c EliiGhip bct*een words and emotions.
HmewildAngcl ( 1929)'
Agdn (1940). Wotfe's power lies in his
Go
di.totG &d pctic psssagcs along with realistic

,Edd(1962I SffiiDghis

qrl&&1,

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r
f

Tl-trE
'c C-t
Efl
b&dG

famalisic

(!*t'3tF
IIm

|i:

Isk

ttE &nir of Amim gmtility. Theodorc

Siss Cuie's a indictrient of swt shops.
dn.h, thc tmt prcfoud efect on liteBhE ud

Ddr.mrcd tmd

of

*ritcn gm

Tony Kushner (1956- ) - Angels ln Anreica (1922)firc six

houi twepart theaterepic defincsArcrica in thc age ofAIDS.
Denlse Lcvertov (1923- 1991) - JacobS ladder (1961)' rhe
Sorrcw Datce (196't), Life in the Forest (t978). Lwertov de'
pends on everyday obj@ts to symbolirc d@p monl issucs.
i\orman Maitcr 1t923- ) - The Naked and the Dud (1948),
Marilyn (1973), The Execfiionerb Sorg (1980). Mailer! main
themi cmems a mu n'ho is constantly m Patrol agaiost the
smicty within which he lives.
Bernird Malamud (f914-1986 \ - The Nanrla (1952)' The
Assistail (195'l), The Magic Barrel ( I 95 8). Malmud chronicles
Jewish life md vicissitudss.
Arthtrr Miller (1915- ) - Death of a Salesman (1941)' The
Creible (1953\. Miltq focuses on thc belnyal of the comon
by the forces of govemmert md society over \tich he hs

i.

thc Jewish expcrience.

:ll Gertrude Steln (1874-L946) - The AutobiogmPhv olAlice B.
. foAlos (1933). Hcr major litcmturc contribution deals with the
msipularions ofwords to exprcss abstra( cmotion.
* Joho Steiobeck (t 902-19681- The Graoes ofWmth ( I 939)'
Mice ond Men (1911\, Eut olEden (1952). Steinbeck used his
y prcfoud conqm for the disenfrochired to wite allcgories
about the hman condition.
(1943), Detta Wedding
F. Euaora wetty (fg 09- | - The llitle Net
E f tS+O). w.fry is pnmaiily a Southcm regional mircr whose
chamctcm transcend their origins to achieve mivesality.
Richard Wilbur (f921- ) The Beourdul Chaages ('1947\,
Ceremony ( 1950), frrirgs of This World \1956). Used humor
& and vemacular to bring poctry to thc avmgc person.
Rirhord Wrighl (t908-1960) - rvariv? Sotr (1940) Thc fist
African-American male *'hosc fiction was widely read by all
!"1 groups, thus making the best-seller list.

in the

Morrlson (l 931-) - The Blu6 t Eye (l 97 0), Sul a (197 3)'

of Solomon (1917), Tar Baby (1981), Beloved 11987).
Moftrcnb no,cl e mphasizc emotional snd phychological matu'

q[

1as imrcdialely follwing the w, prcmpting Gertrude Stein' a]rdr' liviog in Fmoe, to @in tlE term 'tE Lot Gcnemtion," in
rtc to H@ings6y, Fiegaald, andotren *iro wuld becme
rb EgEd of dE modmist. Both in America md Paris lwites

pocdinthatwltiG

ofAmcricm smiety.

sizcs thc itrhcrcnt inadcquacies

xllhrrdaiq
tu trs m *ith Wdd Wa I. The nireteetrtlt cmtry ideal of
gnirstrogBfu uremniowly. while my witeE, such
othe6 foud *Et
- hcl Lmdo, wi[im Fault$r, T.S. Eliot andmd
riblrrnlisl adutisin& the film indusry, *holmhip, it
E6ircthffi iosukeahandffi livingwith penmdpaper,
qodu

KathirlneAnne Porter (l tgGl980F Flos"rrn8rdar (l 930).

Pol" Horr" (1939\, Pole Rider \1939), Ship of Fools 11962).
Poncrb fiction emphuizes the impwcrishcd hman soul u'ying

cd uiCt $qr

The

clcar pctry.

S to subsist in the modem rcrld.

Theodore Roethke (1908-t9631'OPen House (19410, The
Wa6ng: Poems, 1933-1953 (1953), Collec,ed Poens (1966).
Roethke canbe comprcd ro Ememnin his reverence fornatw
fr but fmures on irs dark side.
Anne Sertor (t928-1974) .. To Bedlan (1960\, All Mv Pretd'
Qnrl:]ilg62), Liw or Die ( I 96?). Sexton is comideredAmqicab
ii most notablc confessioml Pt
q lsarc Beihevis Slnger (1904-f991) GinbPel in the Foal
(19'16\, Lost inAmerica
H^ (lgSl), ,l titrt" Soy in Searchfot God
L (1981). Singer use6 fables, myths md allegorics to explicatc

D * * o*,of qpqimal poety, art, md muic, spe

a-pdiae imgists in Eurcpe, few adwc* qere
c{yAtb
iii{y d in Arcia prw fiaion. In the aly part of the

.f,G b Lsc Amica.

Lrwrerce Ferlitrghtti (1919')'Piclurc Fren the Gonewot'ld

(1955), A Conq istond of the Mind (1958\, Brck Rmds to Fu
i,/o; (1971). F"rlinghitti is a mjtr Foponent of the Beat
gctreBtion md an edent iconmlast.
lJten Ginsberg (l 92 6-1991 \ - Howl (1956), Kaddish (1960j,
Reali4, Sandwihes (1963), Airplane Drean (1968). Cicbcrg
is considered thc fathe! of the Bat gmemtion.
Joseph Hetler (1923- ) - Catch-22 (1961).
Joh; Intng (1942- \ - 1he World Accoding to GarP (1978)'
The Hotel New Hampsirie ( I 98 I ). Ining's dark hmor cmpha'

$ Robert Lowell (19t7-1971Y Lord Weary's Castle (1946),

NAf UITIALXIM continued.

ration of her black chamctcrs.

Joyce Crrcl Oats (193t- \ IJnholv Loves (1919)' Contmr
(t987). A prolific witr, Oatcs un'
ie; 0981\, Renember
covers the grctesque *crets ofher chamcters 6 they exist b'
facades.
hind their ordinary
llise Blood (1952), The
Flsntrery O'Connor (192*1964\
Anilcial Nigger (1951), !fis-Yiolent Reat it Atw (1960), &a
(1955).
O'Comor's litenemihingThif Rises Mwt Converee
tm, sometims described d grotesque, clashcs her characten
with a violcnt world that is, ultimately inexplicable.
Thomas Pynchon (1937- ) - Gmvid'\ Rainbov'\19'13\, The
Crying of Lot 49 (1966). Pynchon's experiments with tire md
style virtually defined the 60's coutqcultue.
Adrlcnne Rich (1929- ) Snapshots of a Daughtet-in'Lon
(1963), Neces$itiet ofLtP (l 966). Rich describes in her poetry
thc changing yirys of women md mcn.
J.D.58llrger(1919- ) - Catcher in the \w (1951), Fruntt|
ZNey U96\, Raise High the Roolbeams, Carpenter (1963).
Salinger's work captures the ambivalence of mle adolescence
md the hypocrisy ofthe adult world.
W.D. Strodgrass (1926 ) - Heart\ Needle (1959).
Gary Snydir (1930- ) - A Range of Poens (1966),The Bacl
Country (1961), Earth House Eold (1969). Stryder's poetry investigates the differctrces betwEn eastem and rvcstcm cultures.
Confedmcy of Drorces
John Kennedy Tbolc (1937-1969) ( 1980). T@le's hilarious nwel ckoniclc the absurd life of Igantiu
Reilly, a wll-educatcd mlcontent liYing in Ncw Odem.
John Updtke (1932 - ) Rabbit Riln (1960), Pigeon Featherc
(1962), Rabbit Redw (197 t'), Rabbit is Rich <1981), Rabbit at
Resr ( I 990). Named the ''sweet, lotresome singq of Protestart
medimrity," Updike's works celcbratc thc comon mn and his
ability to "hold otr" to tEditional ideals.
Kurtvonnegut, Jr. (l 922- ) - Plal'er Piano (1952); Cat b Cmdle
(1963),Slaughterhowe-ffve (1969. Vonncgut's coorplex use
stire on sciencced rcligioncstablished a nwAmericmvoice.
AltceWalker (1944- ) - Ile-Cel9x-PtuplcQ982), Tle Tenple
of tdy Fuiliar (1989). Walkcr's cmphasis on the harsh realities
ofblack life ptaces her inthe forcfioot oftheAfrican-Americm
ralist movement.
Tenrcssee Willirms (1911-1983\ - The G lcs i,lenaga'ie (1945),
A Streetcar lfaned Desire(1941), Cat onA Hotlin Roof(1955),
Suddal"v Last Summer (1958).
Ausust Wilsotr (194* \ - Ferca (1987), Joe fumerb Conte
Goze (1988), The Piano lessoa (1990). Wilsonb many
award winning pieccs function within the renewed African'
Americatr realist moYemetrt.

liir

POST MODERNISM

(
of WWII saw Modemim Sive way lo Post"na Like Modemism, Post-Modemism remaim difficult
Modemism.
to define precisely, In essence, the scond halfofthe twentieth
century, has wn a rise in the vuious genres of diticisn: feminist
criticism, deconstruction, post-skucturalism, The major pro*
movc has ben tolvild neo-rcalism md its antithcsis "absudity",
which especially in light of the nuclcar'age, subsequctrt cold
car, thc increasing tension among various libcral and
fundamental *cts, and ehat has been temed thc 'Age of
Anxier,v" are sometimes puadoxically combim4 espccially in
such works as John Updikct Rabbit Angstrom series, and
Edward Albee's absudist dmms.
Io Theater, Tenassee Willim' rrcrt rvas ju5t bgiming to malie
its presence felt. Particularly, The Gloss Menagerie and A
Srreetcar Named Derire investigated thc subtle anempts
isolated womcn to escapc thcir situtions. Morc importetly,
these and othsr plays established th new th@ter ofrealism that
exists today, particularly rcgional
Edmrd Albee (192E
) - Zoo 9or,t (1958), The American
D,ean (1961),Who's4fidd ofn einiaWooU? (1962).A maior
proponetrt of Absurdist thcater.
A.R. Ammonds (192G ) - Exp,?ssiotts of Sea Level (1964),
Northfield Poeus (1966), The Snow Poentt (1977), A Coast oJ
Ilees: Poems (1981).
MayaAngelou(1928 l- I Knot lllry the CageBidSntSs(1970).
Angelou is considcrcd a mjor forcc in Africm'American pocry.
Not6 o.f d Natire Son (1956),
James Baldn'in (192+1987)
G ioomi 3 Ram (l956l,,4nother Country (1962). Baldrvin! ltctim
*eks to destroy mcial prcjudice betwn blacks and whit6'
Imamu Amlri Bsrrke (193,1- ) - (LeRol Jones) Prc/ace to a
Tweil},yolume Suicide Note (1961),The Systen ofDante\ Hell

lrc

tl ltirbop (lgll-lg7gYNorth and South (1946\, Po'

r .il"Iat
(1955), g!6rr"rc ofTravel (1966).
i GEdcayr Bmk (1917' Y A Street in Brcnza'ille (1945)'

'.

tut

(19'lO\, Delivemnce (1970), fte Zodiac (19'74).

imes il mture cm be seen through the recming

r E|it.!fs
in his litcraturc.
I rkon@
"rOmml Invisible Man (1952) Ellison
I nrlf tf".. (19f4-l9t3F
: e*
rtrr hc 6tls thc cssntial Amcricm theine, the search
- fr. ihiy, a4 iu this w, thrcugh the eyes of a Black man.
ie. cr (1t97-1962Y The somd and the Fum
I\ lI.ll tl ljrl! i, tu%t (1932), Absulon .4bsdloil! lls36)

. hH5EiiDtoftsttbuildson strcamof constiousness, disi fa rrrirc rithin mels as in The Wild Palms, convo: E iE tiF &a srggst &c relatiol bcn\en the past and

d uyrhiol symbiology.
I
i ;rt:aa,
f.Sc..rIIEJ (lit$1910)-The Beautiful antl the Damned
fu
11925 ).
.
4 rb -te lge (19221, nP A"a t G
. llrE
i * fE (l93,ll Onc of the losl generation^ erite6,
1*
fc his f-rcly crafted no\ els of social
I rureU I r*ca
- tAEEu$rrcL]
[-tL. EEr +..t
OtlffrF lre .so Also Rit6 (t926), A
o ihs ll9;E tu tr w ttp Bell Totk (1940), IlcgU
;H
Hsning\Ey's litemtw is
.; lhd&.h$6Zlrnqiq
s-vle, m a$leic Ptw.
- hr fu -pdtubd
I t--r tt=X t 1fi2- l$71 Tlc Ww* B I ue s ( 926 ), E !'
o * l- (t927} Er4L6 firled the Black Literarv
J*
i Raidrb 19203 rd Ia rhc fEsr Africil - American
I oqrruritliruiri4.
I fr"a.f Jftl (ltf+fiGiF Linlc Fnend, Linle Frieild
a ts

.{llSaSLain-fu-g.lmiffiiga(19t4). A sndflt of John

horcd his pmy o change affecting

! C* n--, t-ttO
tudmioErdpac

drm

I
,l

(1965\, Home, Social Essays (1966). Baraka sccks

"revolutionary edge" to his writing that empowem blacks.

John Barth (1930- )-fie Floatins Ooem (1956),The
Factor (1960), End ofthe Road (1958).
Donlld Barthelme (1931- 19a9) - The- Dead Fathet (1915\'

60 Stoies (1981), Paradise (1986). Barthelme mastrfully

mocks modern Americans od their idcals.
Srul Beltoil (191f ) - Seire the Da)'(196/.), Horlmon the Rain
KniO958\, Hnog(1964). Bellry'shem re ofto eughtin ttn
of *pir mn imdmmies. minsllv huctimitrc in sietv.

.{ s to the future; Will it be "Post Modm" c will we enter

still mother nw movement? Post Modemism has alrcady presnted e explosion in minority litemturc mong Africm'Ameri'
cms (e.g. Monison, Walkcc Wilson, et al); Hispaoics (e.9. Joho
kguzamo,); Orientals (e.g. Arny Til); md Cays & Lesbians
(e.g. Kushnq, Rita Mae Brom). Recently, hwevcr, writcs hue
bcgun ro cxperiment with the nry Computcr Techsology, such
as CD-ROM. write m like William Gibron use Hyper-texual and
Itrtenextual works blending various media to Prescnt a fuller,
md in very real ways totally uique experience to the reader.
Will "Cybemodeto" define itself ioto I new movement; *ill it
merely be seen as the logical extension ofPost'Modem?
Only time will tell.

WWII

NASA ip
War
and

established I Tkee Mile

Island nuclear accident

Berlin Wall is erected

l1 lands'onthemoon

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AbrrcFA

Deconstructionism--A controvcrsial approach to

GLOSSARY

srmmary of an article or book. Abstract

cen rlso rdrr o a gneral statement in contrast to a

cmEts strtarrctrt
A.*-A Eixdivision within a play.
AG'tlctic Dln.rcc-The psychological distance
e rcadcr and the work

bctrcca

mfy

ofart,

used synony-

with pcychic.l distance.

AfaE rt-An cxtcnded narrative within the story
p*colEa that actually represents another story
iri6 rmivqsal mcaning. cg.The Pilgrant s Progress
k$c sr6y ofmaokinds stuggle toward redemption;
Atbal Fmisthe story of the failure of the commmist rwolution.
Alitcntion-A reptition of consonant sounds
AlhsioeAbriefrcfercnce to a familiu person or thing.
Arechrodism-Something placed in thb wrong time
pcrio4 such as the clockinJulius Caesar.

Aregnm-A

u,ordorphrase formed from the transposition

as Samuel Butler's Eruiron (Nowhere).'
A.dog/-Using one event or thing to represt another'

ofleilcrs srch

process of examining a text by looking

at iis parts anal as an extension, forming an opinion

Areryai!-The

abou! the relationship between the parts and the

whole. A deconstructionist might focus on the parts,
themselves, while a formalist might look at the
parB in order to construct a meaning for the whole.
A.nrotrtion-A textual or editorial comment.
Artrgonist-The major character who opposes the
prctagonist
(the main character).
motagonist (the

.linrnol-ogv-A collection of fiction or non-ficti

pieces with a common dationship in one book.
hero who lacks the umal qualities
hero, ofter an antisocial hero.

Aiti-hero-A

of

Antith$i$--The direct and equal opposite within

goou.
ofgood.
the an[iInes$
antithesis oJ
format. e.g-ewt
e.g.evil is
$ tne
balanced
Dalanceo rorlnal.

Anchetype-Part ofCarl Jungls "racial mernory." An

imge or symbol basic to most readere ofa text, such as
'Young Goodman Brom's" trip into the dark woods.

Brll d:A

short narrative poem originally designed to

be sung.

Brroque-A

style dominant between the Renaissance

and Neoclassical periods that seeks to resolve the
tension between the sacred and the secular through
extmordinary means.
Bethos-A satirical back contruction of "pathos" that
goes from the sublime to the ridiculous.

Bert Gcnerrtion--A group of American writers

during the 1950s and I 960s who sought to express

their alienation from society through their art. Jack
Kerouac,Allen Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, Larvrence
Fcrlinghetti, among others.
Biuutgsmmn-t novel whose central theme is rhe
psychosial development of the youthful rnain charaer(i.e. Holden CaulfieldmThe Catchu in the R1e\
Bluk versc-Unrhymed iambic pentameter such as
Mllton's Parudise Lost.
Borrdlcrizc-Drived from Dr. Thomas Bowdler's expurgalion ofcertain offensive passages ilom a collectioo ofShakespeare's plays. Used as a synonym for
cxprguion to the point of dininishinglhe work.
Cecoplory-Harsh or discordant sounds.
carVc din-l-atin for "seize the day." A plea to enjoy
the pleasures oflife immediately rather than waiting
for the futurc-'
Crthersis-From the Greek meaning a purging
enotions through a display oftragedy.

Chicrgo Criticr-Infltrcnced by Aristotleb Poerics,

these Neo-Aristotelians sought 1o redefine the
various

litmry

gcnres and emphasize the relationship

bewecn criticism and rhc hmmities. WR. Keast,

Richard McKeon, Eldcr Olson, among others.
Clich&-An cxpression &ag through time and overuse, hat gronn staleand lost all effect.
Climax-The point in a play or novel when tension is
at iis highest and bcgins a move towtrd resolution.
Conterturllsm--In poetry, the differentiation
textual elements worthy of critical thought and
non-textual clcments lhat dd not u'arrant critical
attention. Popular with New Criticism.
Criticism--A particular way of evaluating a text.

Literary criticism functions through genre,

structural analysis, and value judgment. Ultimately,
criticism relfects the reader's values.

literanue coined by the French philosopher Jacques

Derrida, the aim ofnhich is to get at primal truth
"aporia," in atext though closereadingsofelements, even
vnrds within the text. J. Hillis Mills and Paul de Mm.
Dialogue-The witten expression of durm cmasain
Didactlc--A tem used to describe a piece ofwriting
whose primary function is to instruct in some way.

Elegy--a-poem mouming the death of an individual.

Epii-Anextended narrative poem of heroic quality.
Epigram--A pithy, rather ingenious statement
usuallv associated with satire.
Epigrafh-a short thematic quotation at the beginning of a work.
Epilogue-The conclusion of a speech.
E-pithat-a term used to describe a person or thing.
movement since WWll that stresses
with human's place in reality, the theory

Eiistentirlism-A
a concern

that reason alone cannot decipher the universe, the

awareness that anguish is a universal phenomenon,
and that morality is subjective. Kierkegaard Sartre,
Heidegger, among others.
Explicaii,on-The acl of explaining a text tkough
careful analysis of its parts.
Fable-A brief narrative structurc using'"impossiblc
events or characters usually to illustrate a moral
truth, e.g. the talking animals in Aesop.
Feminist Criticism--An approach to literature that
shesses gender differences in th construction of texts,
especially that of dominance and submission. Many
feminist critics have sough to recovcr works of art by
women that have gone unnoticed in a male dominated
world. Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millet, amongofien.
Free verse--Poetry which lacks regular metQrand line
length. Whitman's Leaves of Grass
Genre--a literary subclass (i.e. Italian sonnets, horror
novels, westems, etc.)
Cenre criticlsm-A critical approach that emphasizes
distinctions within various genres. Popular among
Chicago Critics and Northrop Frye
Gothic novel-A genre ofromance literature popular in
the early l9th century which evokes a medieval, supernatural theme. Poe's "Fall of the House of Usher."
Haiku--An unrhymed, Japanese poem consisting of
seventeen syllables, which captures a moment of
time between nature and human nature.
Harlem Renaissance-A flowering ofAfro-American

arts and literature in Harlem following WWI.

Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, Jean Toomer,

Zora Neale Hurston, among othbrs.
Hyperbole-Extreme exaggeration for effect.
Iambic pentameter-The most common poetic meter.
It consists offive verse feet, each ofwhich contains
the basic iamb, one unstressed syllable followed by
one stressed syllable.
Icon--The metamorphosis of a person or object to
mythical stature in literature or culture.
Imagism-A movement consisting of group of pogts
prior to WWI who argued that true verse can be
defined by its precise image. Ezra Pound H.D., Williams Cmlos Willims, James Jryce, among others.

'Intentionsl" fellacy--The error ofjudging

a work,

not on its inherent merit, but by whether the author

achieved his or her intention, e.g. 1984 did not

acheive a lessing of the world s march toward an
ever greater govet'nrnent inlervenlion in hinnn life,
notheless. it s a gleat slory.
Intertextuality*A system of recognizing how an
author might incorporate specific elements fiom
another work in his or her wor!, such as T.S. Eliot's
The Waste Land.
InvectivpAn abusive anack on a person or idea.
Irony--A structure that allows a writer to subvert the
literal meaning ofa text to something unexpected.
The Lost Generation-Gertrude Stein's description
of the ex-patriate writers living in Europe after

WWI'(Hemingway, Fitzgerald, etc.) who felt

culturally stifled after the war.

Marxist Criticism--A critical approach, sometimes
called New Historicism, that emphasizes social anci

cultural exoerience as determinants of a work's

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malism) for inherent meaning. John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren, among others. Popular among The Fugitivs.
New Humanism-The literary reaction to naturalism
in which advocates such as Irving Babbitt argued a
return to the ascendancy ofhumans aboYe nature. In
a sense, a reutrn to a modified classicism.
Ode--A lengthy lyric poem that is serious and diga!
fied in content and sryle.
Onomrtopoeia-Word! whose sounds echo their
meanings such as ilss, 6zz, or bang.
Paradox-A statement that appears self-contradictory
but which contains Some element of lruth that
reconciles the oppositds.
Pathos--An emotional response of pity or sadness
ioward a character or situation. A sense ofhelplessness separates.pathos from tragedy. Ophelia's death
in Hailet is ai example of pathos while Hamlet's
death is tragic.

Persona--The "mask" ofa work's narrdtoror speaker,

i.e. who is speaking.
Poetic justice--The traditional idea that good is
rewarded and evil is punished.
Post-structuralism--Usually considered a synonym

for deconstruction, but canrcfer to 4rrl development

in literature since Structuralism.

Psychoanalytic Criticism--An approach thdt

ehplpsizes Freudian and other psychoanalytic

concEpts in literary analysis.

Reader-response Criticism*An approach, based
on the German critic Hans Robert Jauss, that
emphasizes the reader! part in constructing a text.
Realism--An approach th'at emphasizes the truth
fulness of real experience as opposed to irnagination.
Regionalism-The representation of a locale by an
author or group of authorg.
Rhetoric--traditionally, the principles governing the
use ofwords in speech and written language.
Romanticism-The literary movemnt of the early
19th century that stressed the inherent goodness of
humankind and its place in rustic nature. Romanticism emphasizes emotion and intuition rather than
pure reason to know the sublime,
Satire-Ridicule ofsomething to lower its effectilt quality.
Scanslon--The analysis of poelic meter
Semantics--The study of words and their meanings
and how they have changed throughout history.
Also, the study of signs (especially words), their
meanings, and the mental and physical actions
evoked by them.
study of signs, both visual
and non:visual, concrete and abstract, within a culture.
Simile--A comparison ofobjects using like or as.

Semiology/semiotics-The

Structuralism-An approach emphasizing intellec-

tual analysis based on various French writers and

academics whose interests lie in a work's rhetorical
structure ratherthan itsvalue as literature. Saussure,
L6vi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, among others.

Textual criticism--The systematic study of an

original literary work in order to determine the
correct version, especially with older manuscripts
such as those by Shakespeare.
Theater of the Absurd--An experimental style of
drama after WWII and based on the tenets of Existentialism, especially that of humankind "out of
harmony." Popular with Samuel Beckett, Harold
Pinter, and Edward Albee, among others.

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i.e,Thelma& Louise, One Flew Over the Cuckoo s

Nest, Angels in America.
Transcendentalism-An essentially religious move
ment from, roughly, 1835-1845 that emphasizes

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sophical movement that suggests that humankind is

liriited in its attempt to understand the infinitc.
Thus much of the m&ment focuses on conduct ard
behaviorwithin society that mimics theprecise laus ofthe
physical unilerse: Literature instructs and entertains.
N;w Criticism-A critical movement dating from the
1920s that emphasizes close readings oftexts(for-

Ttagicomedy-A relatively recent neologism describing works that begin in comic vein and, as the
forces of life/reality mcroach turn to n"agic rcsults,

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first part of the 20th century- A forerunner of

Existentialism.
Mlth-A metaphor used to explain a phenomeno-nNituralism-Aliterary movement of the late l9th
century that eftphasizes an extreme reallsm, qn
undersianding that all phenomena are ultimately
knowable from a scientific perspective
Neoclassicism-The tSth cennry literary and philo-

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Modernism--The dominant literary movement of thg

the importance of the individual conscience. God's

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law is embodie! in nature, a kind of pantheism,

while truth stems from intuition. Based in Eastern
mysticism Emerson and Thoreau, among othels.