Thermocouples

80 degree C

20 degree C

V , T

Seebeck started it all. As one end of a metal is heated, electrons gain energy, break away from their atoms and begin
to move towards the cold end, i.e. towards the lower energy state.
After some time, there would be enough electrons at the cold end that would stop further electrons coming from
hot end.
That would be equilibrium time, and IF WE CAN MEASURE without touching the metal ends with any other
conductor, we will have a voltage difference which will be proportional to temperature difference. This phenomenon
is called Seebeck effect.
V21 = k T = k(T2-T1)
Here, k is a constant that depends on type of metal and 2 denotes hot end and 1 denotes cold end and V 21 implies
that end 2 is at higher potential than end 1.
Suppose we get to know V somehow for this situation and since we know k, we will only get to know T and not the
exact temperature of the hot end unless we know the temperature of the cold end.
Another crucial point to observe is that as there lies a temperature gradient across the length of the conductor,
similar is the gradient for the voltage. Effectively, we can consider this element as a EMF producing element. Overall,
there is no charge movement beyond the boundaries of the bar, hence, macroscopically, it is still neutral.

Nikhil Kautilya

Thermocouples
80 degree C

Vbar

20 degree C

V
Vwire

Since we have no other way to measure the voltage difference, we use another conductor.
Here, we have created a thermocouple.
The bar creates a potential difference of Vbar as earlier. Now, the wire is joined at the hot end to the bar and the
other ends of both bar and wire goes to the voltage measuring device. The wire also produces a V, Vwire due to
the same reason as that of bar. If the bar and wire are of different material (but homogenous in construction), then
they will both produce different V, and since the circuit is complete a current will flow. The V doesnt depend on
the geometry or the junction of the materials but only on the type of materials. So bar and wire are totally fine (only
if you can manage to insert the bar into device terminal!).
What would be the voltage seen be the device?
Starting from the device towards the wire, we first see -Vwire and then Vbar.
Vtotal = Vbar- Vwire = kbar(T2-T1) kwire(T2-T1)
Had the materials been same, Vtotal would have been zero as the difference would have been cancelled.
When the two types of materials are involved, the relation between temperature and voltage does not remain that
linear. Actually, it was not completely linear before as well for a single material but it was safe to assume so. The
coefficient value changes with temperature segment in the whole range of the the thermocouple. For thermocouples,
we ideally use a table, where for a voltage difference produced a temperature is given assuming the other end to be
Nikhil Kautilya
at 0 degree C.

Thermocouples
80 degree C

20 degree C

VA

V
VB

Considering practical application, let us replace the bar with a wire of material A. The second wire is of material B. So,
A-B form a thermocouple and we get a similar equation as before.
But we still dont get the actual temperature of the hot end since the tables give us the temperature corresponding to
the 0 degree C and the cold end, generally wont be in those conditions.
VA12

T2

T1
VB13

T3

VA32

Let us write the equation, moving anti-clockwise, of the voltage as seen by the measuring device.
Vtotal = kA(T2-T1) + kB(T1-T3) + kA(T3-T2)
= kA(T3-T1) + kB(T1-T3)
We can see, that the voltage read depends only on the junctions of the dissimilar materials.
And now, if we know the temperature T3 and maintain it at constant level, we can know the T1. If T3 is 0 degree C, no
Cold Junction Compensation is required for calculating T1. In cold junction compensation, T3 (not equal to 0 degree
C) is measured by non-thermocouple method (e.g. RTD) and the required compensation is then applied since the
tables are based on 0 degree C. It is possible to mathematical model the Temperature-Voltage dependence but it is
not linear hence, tables are referred practically for better
Nikhilaccurate
Kautilya readings.

Thermocouples
Hot end, unknown temperature

Temperature at reference junction

Tables based on 0 degree C

We measure the temperature of the reference junction if it is not at 0 degree C using some other measuring element.
This gives us the voltage value from the table for that type of the Thermocouple. (Say, for K-type, at 20 degree C, we
get x mV. And, the measuring device gives us y mV reading. Hence, total mV = y mV + x mV.
Now, we can refer to the table for this total mV to get the actual temperature of the Hot end.
This is Cold Junction Compensation (or Reference Junction Compensation). This, in fact, is what is provided by Law
of Intermediate Temperatures.
[T1]

EMF13

EMF12

[T3] = [T1]

EMF23

[T2]

[T3]

EMF13 = EMF12 + EMF23

Thermocouple

Measuring junction

Cable inside
Voltmeter

Process (hot end)

T1
Reference junction

Cable carrying
voltage signal from
Process condition
to voltmeter

T2

Terminal block for

Thermocouple and cable

T3

Voltmeter

T4

Voltmeter
terminal block

The above figure shows a typical connection technique for temperature measurement using a thermocouple and
voltmeter. T1 is the temperature we want to measure. T2 is the temperature of the terminal block (part of the
thermocouple set) where we connect our cables, that will carry the voltage signal, to the thermocouple. The other
ends of the cable go to the voltmeter connection terminals where the temperature is T3 and T4 is the temperature
inside the voltmeter where cables terminate finally (the circuit inside is complex, this is just indicative).
Then,
Kautilya
Vtotal = ky(T4-T3) + kb(T3-T2) + kr(T2-T1) + Nikhil
kg(T1-T2)
+ kb(T2-T3) + ky(T3-T4) = kr(T2-T1) + kg(T1-T2)

Thermocouples
In the previous figure, if the Voltmeter terminal block would have been at temperature, T2, then also it would have
had no effect even if two different cables were to be used to carry voltage signals from Reference junction to the
voltmeter as the temperatures would have cancelled out. This gives us the Law of Intermediate metals.
This, in effect, says that we can put any number of metals in a thermocouple circuit if both of its ends are the same
temperature.
An issue we just noticed in case of Cold Junction Compensation was that we had to use another temperature
measuring instrument to measure the Reference junction so as to compensate for it. So, why should we use
thermocouple if we had to use another element to facilitate the thermocouple in its measurement? It is because of
the high temperature measuring capability of the thermocouple. The reference temperature is often near ambient
conditions and there are several easy and inexpensive options available but for the high temperature measurement
we often have to resort to thermocouple. Also, a thermocouple is cheaper than a RTD.
Type

Positive wire

Negative wire

Min. temperature

Max.
temperature

Remarks

Chromel

Alumel

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic applications)

1250 deg C

Most linear, more expensive than J and T

Iron

Constantan

0 deg C

800 deg C

Linear between 140-400 deg C, most

economical, becomes brittle below 0 deg C

Copper

Constantan

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic applications)

400 deg C

Limited temperature range, resistant to

corrosion due to moisture

Chromel

Constantan

-180 deg C (covers

cryogenic applications)

1000 deg C

Highest mV/deg C, quite linear

Nicrosil
(NickelChromiumSilicon)

Nisil (NickelSiliconMagnesium)

Same as K-type

Same as K-type

More stable than K-type, better repeatability

between 300 deg C and 500 deg C, accurate
at high temperatures (can replace K-type),
more expensive than K-type.

Nikhil Kautilya

Thermocouples
The below graph shows the mV generated as per the temperature by various thermocouples.

Response time: It depends on diameter, medium of submersion, alloy type and temperature level. The smaller the
diameter, the faster is the time response of the thermocouple. Time constant is lower by about 50 percent for
grounded tip as compared to the ungrounded. Exposed type tip are much faster than both of them. (why?)

Time response comparison. Exposed Nikhil

type isKautilya
fastest (that is lowest time constant)

Thermocouples
There are three types of cables used for connecting the open end of the thermocouple to the reference junction in
scenarios where the conductor of the thermocouple does not connect directly to reference junction.
-Thermocouple grade cable has both the conductors as that of the thermocouple. It has the same temperature range
as that of the thermocouple.
-Extension cables are manufactured from conductors having the same nominal composition as those of the
corresponding thermocouple , ambient cable temperature is lower than the thermocouple grade thereby affording to
be have sheath/insulation for lower temperature range, cheaper than thermocouple grade but expensive than
compensating types. (BS 60584)
-Compensating cables are manufactured from conductors having a composition different from the corresponding
Thermocouple but providing similar emf output as that of the thermocouple. Their temperature range is also low
(upto 200 deg C.), cheaper than both, generally used for S, B, R type where the thermocouple is made of Platinum,
hence both thermocouple and Extension type cables would become too expensive. (BS 60584)
Duplex type Thermocouple: Two pairs of thermocouple in one probe so that in case of failure of one pair other can
be connected without removing the probe from the system or if TC is to be connected to two systems separately or
for local indication. Triplex configuration can also be ordered with some manufacturers.

Nikhil Kautilya

Thermocouples
Sources:
-Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, Tony Kuphaldt
-Instrument Engineers Handbook, Volume 1, Bela Liptak
-BS 60584-3:2008
-Thermocouple fundamentals, RICHARD M. PARK
-The Basics of Thermocouples, C. J. Abate, Circuit Cellar
-Introduction To Thermocouples, AN106, Dataforth Corporation
-Practical Thermocouple Temperature Measurements, AN107, Dataforth Corporation

Nikhil Kautilya