UNIVERSITATEA DIN BACU

FACULTATEA DE LITERE

BACU
2007

COORDONATOR: prof.univ.dr.Cmeciu Doina

AUTORI:
Asist.univ.drd. Andrioai Gabriela: II.1.1.; II.2.2.1-4; II.2.7.5-8; III.1.1.7-8 ; III.1.6.2-3.
Conf.univ.dr. Bonta Elena: I.2; I.3; I.4; III.1.1.3-.4; III.1.1.11 ; III.11.
Asist.univ.drd. Bonta Raluca: III.1.1.1-2 ; III.1.1.10; III.1.1.3.
Lect.univ.dr. Cmeciu Camelia Mihaela: III.1.1.10; III.1.1.5; III.I.1.2.
Prof.univ.dr. Cmeciu Doina: I.1; III.11; III.2; III.3; III.5.
Asist.univ.drd. Corban Carmen Diana: II.2.3.1-5; II.2.6.1-2; III.2-4.
Asist.univ.drd. Culea Mihaela: II.2.5.5-10; II.2.7.1-4; III.1.1.11; III.1.5; III.5-6.
Asist.univ.drd. Dinulescu Mariana Alexandra: III.1.4-5; III.1.6.1.
Asist.univ.drd. Horubet Mircea: III.1.1.9; III.1.1.1-2.
Asist.univ.drd. Morarasu Nadia Nicoleta: I.4; II.1.1-3; II.2.2.5.1-4; III.1.6.1-3.
Asist.univ.drd. Nica Ioana: II.2.4.1-5; II.2.6.3-5; III.1.1.1-2; III.1.1.5-6.
Asist.univ.drd. Popescu Roxana-Iuliana: II.2.1.1.-6; III.1.1.10; III.7-10.

CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PART I GENERAL ENGLISH TOPICS

I.1. Education in Great Britain................................................................................................ 7
I.2. Shopping in London.................................................................................................... ....16
I.3. Getting to Great Britain & Away.................................................................................... 24
I.4. Engineering Jobs and Career Opportunities................................................................... .33

PART II TECHNICAL ENGLISH TOPICS

II.1. GENERAL TECHNICAL TEXTS
II.1.1. The Importance of Learning Engineering English or Technical English.............50
II.1.2. The Industrial Revolution.....................................................................................53
II.1.3. The Romanian Industry after 1990.......................................................................56

II.2. SPECIALIZED TECHNICAL TEXTS

II.2.1 TEXTS FOR INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL
DESIGN
2.1.1. Industrial Design......................................................................................60
2.1.2. Automotive Design..................................................................................64
2.1.3. Graphic Design........................................................................................68
2.1.4. Driving an Electric Car............................................................................71
2.1.5. Cigarette Pack Graphics..........................................................................74
2.1.6. Denim......................................................................................................78

II.2.2. TEXTS FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGETICS AND MECATHRONIC

ENGINEERING
2.2.1. How Radar Works....................................................................................84
2.2.2. The Electric Circuit and its Elements.......................................................87
2.2.3. Electrical Generators................................................................................90
2.2.4. Random Noise in Electronic Devices.......................................................93

II.2.3. TEXTS FOR INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

2.3.1. Management.............................................................................................96
2.3.2. Management Historical Development (1).............................................99
2.3.3. Management Historical Development (2)...........................................102
2.3.4. Industrial Management...........................................................................106
2.3.5. Quality Management..............................................................................110

II.2.4. TEXTS FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2.4.1. Mechanics...............................................................................................114
2.4.2. Determination of Velocity Ratio............................................................119
2.4.3. Aeroplane Crashes..................................................................................123
2.4.4. Train Crashes..........................................................................................127
2.4.5. Sea Collisions.........................................................................................131

II.2.5. TEXTS FOR CHEMICAL, BIOCHEMICAL AND FOOD

ENGINEERING
2.5.1. Acids, Bases and Salts...........................................................................135
2.5.2. Oxidation and Reduction........................................................................137
2.5.3. Catalysis.................................................................................................140
2.5.4. Aminoacids and Proteins........................................................................143
2.5.5. Food Fats................................................................................................146
2.5.6. Can Honey Heal?....................................................................................149
2.5.7. Are You Looking After Yourself? ........................................................153
2.5.8. The Humble Spud...................................................................................157
2.5.9. Eating Out Some Rules For Diners.....................................................160
2.5.10. Food Poisoning.....................................................................................163

II.2.6. TEXTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2.6.1. Development of Environmental Engineering........................................166
2.6.2. The Scope of Environmental Engineering.............................................169
2.6.3. Micrometereology..................................................................................173
2.6.4. Earthquakes (1).......................................................................................176
2.6.5. Earthquakes (2).......................................................................................179

II.2.7. TEXTS FOR INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

2.7.1. The Era of Communication...................................................................182
2.7.2. Microchips: A Look to the Future.........................................................186
2.7.3. Computer Viruses..................................................................................191
2.7.4. Messaging..............................................................................................195
2.7.5. Sampled-Data Systems..........................................................................198
2.7.6. Stored-Program Concept.......................................................................201
2.7.7. Time Sharing.........................................................................................204
2.7.8. Error Detection......................................................................................207

PART III ENGLISH GRAMMAR (THEORY AND PRACTICE)

III.1. THE VERB
III.1.1. THE INDICATIVE MOOD
1.1.1. The Present Tense Simple......................................................................211
1.1.2. The Present Tense Progressive...............................................................213
1.1.3. The Past Tense Simple...........................................................................218
1.1.4. The Past Progressive...............................................................................219
1.1.5. The Present Perfect Simple....................................................................224
1.1.6. The Present Perfect Progressive.............................................................225
1.1.7. The Past Perfect Simple..........................................................................230
1.1.8. The Past Perfect Continuous..................................................................231
1.1.9. The Future and Futurity.........................................................................236
1.1.10. Modals and Semimodals......................................................................243
1.1.11. The Passive Voice................................................................................254

III.1.2. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.................................................................258

III.1.3. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD................................................................261
III.1.4. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES..............................................................267

III.1.5. DIRECT AND INDIRECT/ REPORTED SPEECH..........................274

III.1.6. NONFINITE FORMS
1.6.1. The Infinitive..........................................................................................280
1.6.2. The Participle..........................................................................................281
1.6.3. The Gerund.............................................................................................282

III.2. THE NOUN............................................................................................................286

III.3. THE ARTICLE............................................................................................295
III.4. THE ADJECTIVE................................................................................................301
III.5. THE PRONOUN...................................................................................................308
III.6. THE NUMERAL..................................................................................................314
III.7. THE ADVERB......................................................................................................319
III.8. THE CONJUNCTION........................................................................................324
III.9. THE PREPOSITION...........................................................................................330
III.10. THE INTERJECTION.....................................................................................339
III.11. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS....................................................................342

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................349

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

geogr. = geografie.
geol. = geologie.
geom. = geometrie.
inf. = infinitiv.
info. = n informatic.
inf. = informal, neoficial.
interj. = interjecie.
intr. v. or v.i. = verb intranzitiv.
irreg. = neregulat (d. verbe)
jur. = juridic; termen legal.
lit. = (uzaj) literar.
man. = management.
masc. = masculin.
mat. = matematic.
med. = medicin.
met. = metalurgie.
meteor. = meteorologie.
mil = (termen) militar.
muz. = muzic.
n. = substantiv.
n.ph. = expresie substantival.
nav. = navigaie.
nom. = nominativ.
pict. = pictur.
pl. = plural.
pol. = politic.
prep. = prepoziie.
pron. = pronume.
psih. = psihologie.
pt. = pentru.
reg. = regulat (d. verbe).
rel. = religie.
sg./ sing. = singular.
smb. = cineva.
smth. = ceva.
sp. = scriere corect; ortografie.
superl.=
gradul
superlativ
adjective).
tehn. = termen tehnic, tehnic.
tel. = telecomunicaii.
tr.v. or t.v. = verb tranzitiv.
usu. = de obicei.
v. = verb.
v.ph. = expresie verbal.

abbr. = abreviere.
ac. = acuzativ.
adj. = adjectiv
adv. = adverb.
agr. = agricultur.
alim. = termen alimentar.
AmE = engleza american.
anat. = anatomie.
appr. = n sens admirativ.
arheol. = arheologie.
arhit. = arhitectur.
astr. = astronomie.
auto. = auto(mobilism).
autom. = automatic.
av. = aviaie.
biol. = n biologie.
bis. = (termen) bisericesc.
bot. = botanic.
BrE = engleza britanic.
chim. = n chimie.
cib. = cibernetic.
cin. = cinema.
com. = comer; n domeniul comercial.
comp. = gradul comparativ (d.
adjective).
conj. = conjuncie.
constr. = construcii.
d. = despre.
dim. = diminutiv.
disappr. = n sens peiorativ,
dezaprobator.
ec. = economie.
el. = electricitate.
ent. = entomologie.
etc. = et cetera; i aa mai departe.
etym. = etimologic.
farm. = farmaceutic.
fem. = feminin.
ferov. = (termen) feroviar.
fig. = n sens figurat.
fin. = finane.
fiz. = fizic.
fiziol. = fiziologie.
gen. = genitiv.

(d.

PART I
GENERAL ENGLISH TOPICS

I.1. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain does not have any constitutional provisions for education. The
system of education is determined by the National Education Acts. Schools in England
are supported from public funds paid to the local education authorities which are
responsible for organizing the schools in their areas. Scotland & Nothern Ireland have
their own education systems.
Education in Britain mirrors the country's social system: it is class-divided and
selected. The majority of schools in Britain are supported by public funds and the
education provided is free. They are maintained schools, but there is also a considerable
number of public schools. Most pupils go to schools which offer free education,
although fee-paying independent schools also have an important role to play.
Another important feature of schooling in Britain is the variety of opportunities
offered to schoolchildren. The English school syllabus is divided into Arts/or
Humanities/and Sciences which determine the division of the secondary school pupils
into study groups: a science pupil will study Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics,
Economics, Technical Drawing, Biology, Geography; an Art pupil will do English
Language and Literature, History, foreign languages, Music, Art, Drama. Besides these
subjects they must do some general education subjects like PE, Home Economics for
girls, Technical subjects for girls, General Science. Computers play an important part in
education. The system of options exists in all kinds of secondary schools.
The National Education Act in 1944 provided 3 stages of education: primary,
secondary and further education. Everybody has a duty to make sure that the child
goes to school until he or she is 16; that means that education is compulsory from the
age of 5 to 16 /11 years. There is no law which provides for education on the underfives.
In England about 47% of three and four-year-olds receive education in nursery schools
or classes. In addition many children attend informal pre-school play groups organized
by parents and voluntary bodies.
The National Curriculum introduced in 1994 sets out in detail the subjects that
children should study and the levels of achievement they should reach by the ages of 7,
11, 14 and 16, when they are tested. The tests are designed to be easier for teachers to
manage than they were in the past. Most pupils will also be entered for GCSEs (General
Certificate of the Secondary Education) or other public examinations, including
vocational qualifications if they are 16. Until that year, headmasters and headmistresses
of schools were given a great deal of freedom in deciding what subjects to teach and
how to do it in their schools so that there was really no central control at all over
individual schools. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland, where each
school decides what subject it will teach.
According to The National Curriculum schools are allowed to introduce a fast
stream for bright children. Actually after young people reach 16 they have 4 main
'roads' of their next life: they can leave the school, stay at school, move to a college as a
full time student, combine part-time study with a job, perhaps through the Youth
Training programme. School-leavers without jobs get no money from the government
unless they join a youth training scheme, which provides a living allowance during 2
years of work experience. But a growing number of school students are staying on at
school, some until 18 or 19, the age of entry into higher education or universities,
Polytechnics or colleges. Schools in Britain provide careers guidance. A specially

trained person called careers advisor, or careers officer helps school students to decide
what job they want to do and how they can achieve that.
(adapted from Internet URL: http://schools.keldysh.ru)

A. VOCABULARY
I. EDUCATION

I.1.a. Entry words

education n. = 1. instruire. 2. nvmnt. 3. educaie.
educational adj. = educaie/nvmnt (an ~ film/institution).
educationist, educationalist n. = pedagog teoretician.
educationally adv. = eg. a school for the ~ subnormal.
to educate v. = a educa. a instrui.
educated adj. = instruit. nvat (an ~ man; the educated).
educative adj. = educativ.
educator n. = educator.

I.1.b. Related words

Ministry of Education = Ministerul Educaiei Naionale (n Anglia).
Educational television = televiziune public (televiziunea ce asigur instruirea elevilor
(a studenilor, cteodat prin circuit nchis).

I.1.c. Synonyms
- n.: education. guidance. instruction. teaching.
tuition = nvmnt.
private tuition = lecii particulare.
tutorship = meditaii.
acquisition of knowledge. cultivation. erudition.
grind = toceal.
learning. scholarship. study. wide reading.
- v.: to acquire/gain knowledge.
to be taught.
to bone up on = a toci.
to burn the midnight oil.
to grind = a toci.
to learn by heart = a nva pe de rost.
to plunge into reading.
to study.
- adj.: diligent. hard-working. industrious.
painstaking = srguincios.

I.1.d. Types of education

- all-round education = nvmnt de cultur general.
compulsory ~ = nvmnt obligatoriu.
free ~ = nvmnt gratuit.
further ~ =nvmnt dup terminarea colii obligatorii exceptnd cel universitar).
higher ~ = nvmnt superior.
pre-school ~ = nvmnt precolar.
primary ~ = nvmnt primar.
secondary ~ = nvmnt liceal.
university ~ = nvmnt universitar.
vocational ~ = nvmnt profesional.
- artistic ~. economic ~. feminist ~. philosophical ~. political ~. practical~ / training.
religious ~.

I.2. Systems of education

- The old system of education:
- The "Eleven Plus" = children took an examination at the age of 11. If they
passed they went to a grammar school - its name comes from the medieval system
of teaching Latin grammar as the basis of education. If they failed they went to
secondary modern schools which were closed after 1965 when comprehensive
schools were introduced.
- The "monitorial" system = the younger pupils were largely taught by the older
ones.
- The new system of ~ = under the new system there is no examination at the age of 11.
The grammar and secondary modern school were replaced by large comprehensive
schools in 1965 to provide an equal secondary education for all people, regardless of
ability. Some comprehensive schools are "streamed" - streams A, B, C: A = "the top
stream"; C = the "bottom stream"; while others are "unstreamed": children of mixed
ability are placed together in the class. The average size of a class is 30 pupils.
I.3. Places where education is performed
kindergarten, nursery = grdini.
college = colegiu.
training centre/college = centru de perfecionare/institut.
polytechnic. school. university.
(day-care) centre.
II. SCHOOLING

II.1.a. Entry words

school n. = 1. locul unde snt educai i instruii elevii. 2. lecii, cursuri.3.secie, colegiu,
facultate. 4. curent literar/ artistic. metod (idei, opinii mprtite de un grup de
oameni). 5. banc de delfini; grup de balene. 6. (pl) examen. 7. clas.
to school v.=1. a nva, a trimite la coal. 2. a instrui. 3. a sftui. 4. a mustra. 5. a
dresa.

II.1.b. Related words

schoolage = vrst colar.
~ bag = ghiozdan.
~ day = zi de coal.
~ holiday: Easter ~. Christmas ~. spring ~. summer ~. winter~.
~ leaver = elev care termin coala, absolvent.
~ subject = obiect de studiu.
~ work = activitate colar.
~ yard = curtea colii.

II.2. People involved in the educational process

teaching staff = corp profesoral/didactic.
- teacher = nvtor, dascl, profesor.
coach = preparator, meditator.
crammer = meditator.
instructor. master. mistress. pedagogue. tutor = ndrumtor.
private tutor = profesor particular.
- tutor/professors assistant on probation=preparator universitar.
lecturer. senior lecturer = lector.
reader = confereniar.
professor.

- learner = elev, colar.

schoolchild (schoolboy; schoolgirl).
pupil: academic pupil = elev dotat. non-academic ~ = less able pupil.
- student = elev; student; cercettor, savant = orice persoan care studiaz.
- undergraduate = student.
fresher/freshman = student n anul I/boboc.
- graduate = liceniat.
post-graduate = persoan care continu studiile dup terminarea facultii, persoan care
urmeaz cursuri post-universitare.
doctoral candidate = doctorand.
- scholar = bursier; persoan care studiaz; savant; erudit; umanist:
Greek ~ = elenist; om nvat.
- beginner = nceptor.
apprentice = ucenic.
colleague = coleg de serviciu.
deskmate = coleg de banc. classmate. schoolmate.
fellow student = coleg de facultate.

II.3. People in charge of a school/university

- caretaker = intendent al unei cldiri, instituii.
cleaner = femeie de serviciu.
deputy master = director adjunct.
formmaster/mistress = diriginte/dirigint.
headmaster/headmistress = director/directoare.
supervisors = personal de supraveghere (kitchen/midday supervisor).
- parent teacher association = PTA.
- assessor = someone who checks for quality = inspector.
schoolboard = consiliu de administraie.
governing body = the members of the governing body of an English school may be appointed
by the LEA or may be elected by parents and staff.
- chancellor = the head of a British university = rector onorific. He is usually a prominent
statesman or Peer and is elected for life.
rector = rector.
vicechancellor = (pro)rector.
dean = decan al unei faculti.
don = membru al corpului didactic universitar, persoan marcant.
fellow = membru al consiliului.
the Senate = senat. the council of the Senate = biroul senatului.
governing board = consiliu de administraie.
examination board = comisie de examinare.
head of a chair = ef al unei catedre.

II.4. Types of schools/academies/colleges/courses/centres

- state schools: approved~ (= coal de corecie).comprehensive ~. grammar ~. high ~ (= liceu).
secondary modern ~.
nursery ~. primary ~. junior~. middle ~.
- private schools: public ~ = fee-paying ~ = coal privat/cu taxe/particular.
- residential ~ = boarding ~ = coal cu internat.
- single sex school = coal de biei / de fete. mixed ~ = coal mixt.
- day school = cursuri de zi. evening ~ = cursuri serale. summer ~ = cursuri de var. Sunday ~ =
cursuri de duminic (pentru ore de religie n special).
- Academy of Economic Sciences. ~ of music = conservator. Military ~ = Academie militar.

10

- college of commerce = colegiu/institut de comer. ~ of art. ~ of education = institut pedagogic.

training ~ = institut de perfecionare.
technical ~ = coal tehnic postliceal.
- Faculty of Arts. ~ of Biology. ~ of Chemistry. ~ of Agriculture and Land Use. ~ of Ecology.
~ of Earth Sciences. ~ of Economics: (marketing = studiul pieii; management = tiina
conducerii; science of commodities = merceologie; tourism; business correspondence;
etc.).~of Engineering. ~ of Law. ~ of Medicine. ~ of Dentistry. ~ of Social Work and Social
Policy. ~ of Statistics. ~ of Sociology, etc.
- advanced courses = cursuri pentru avansai.
degree ~ = cursuri pentru obinerea unei diplome.
extra-mural ~ = cursuri fr frecven; cursuri inute de profesorii unei universiti n afara
instituiei la care snt ncadrai.
sandwich ~ = cursuri intensive.
TV ~ = courses for the Open University students.
- adult education centre = centru de nvmnt pentru aduli.
youth training centre = a centre training unemployed school-leavers.

II.5. Periods of study and recreation

- academic/school year.
class = or de predare.
course = un numr de prelegeri universitare.
courses may be part-time, full-time and postgraduate.
form class = or de dirigenie.
lab-classes = ore de laborator.
lecture = or de curs.
practical ~ = ore de lucrri practice.
semester = semestru.
seminar = seminar.
teaching practice = practic didactic.
term = trimestru.
training period = a period that involves teaching or learning the skills that are needed for a
job = perioad de practic.
tutorial = consultaie.
- holiday = vacan colar. vacation = vacan n universiti/colegii.

II.6. Certificates, Degrees, Examinations, Assessments

- oral/written examination.
entrance ~ = examen de admitere.
final ~ = qualifying school-leaving exam = examen de absolvire, bacalaureat.
preliminary ~ = examen pregtitor.
partial ~ = examen parial.
qualifying ~ = examen de calificare.
- The "O" level exams = the General Certificate of Education, Ordinary Level, was
replaced by the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This is the name
of the examination taken by school children at the age of sixteen. Grades go from A to
G, but pupils can fail completely. The "A" Level - Advanced Level - was introduced in
1951. It is an examination taken by pupils at the age of 18 and it is open to anyone who
has studied for it. The "O" levels are taken in eight or nine subjects while the "A"
levels in two or three subjects. In order to be accepted by a university a pupil needs
eight good grades at "O" levels and 3 "A" level passes. Seven independent boards at the
major universities are required to write the "A" levels topics for the exams which are

11

taken in May and June. If the pupils fail, they can re-take the exams in November or
January.
- diploma paper = lucrare de licen.
essay = eseu.
dissertation = dizertaie; referat.
research project = proiect.
doctoral thesis = tez de doctorat.
- degrees = grade didactice.
baccalaureate = university degree of bachelor.
Bachelor of Arts / Science = licen.
Master of Arts (= grad didactic intermediar ntre licen i doctorat).
Master of Philosophy = this is a research degree. Students who wish to study for such
degrees are usually registered in the first instance for a Master of Philosophy, then for a
Ph.D = degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The M. of Phil. thesis, of not more than 65,000
words, is required to show ability to conduct original investigations, to test ideas
whether the candidate's own or those of others and to understand the relationship of the
candidate's investigations to a wider field of
knowledge. The Ph.D thesis must run
to 100,000 words and should make a significant contribution to knowledge.
II.7. Curriculum/ curricula
- Arts (= obiecte umanistice). Sciences (= tiine exacte).
Algebra. Arithmetic. Archeology. Botany. Drama. Geography. Geology. Geometry.
History. Home Economics = HE: cookery and needlework. Philosophy. Physics.
Psychology. Physical Education = PE: athletics, cricket, gymnastics, swimming etc.
Reading. Religious Education = RE. Social Sciences. Writing.
Art and Craft: metalwork, woodwork; colouring, drawing, dyeing (= vopsitul
esturilor), glueing, modelling, painting, sewing.
Design: fashion ~ (= design vestimentar); environmental ~ (= design ambiental).
Computer Studies.
- Tuition. The PE and Music Departments in most English schools are
also served
by visiting teachers who can be available for the child with the ability and will to learn
how to play an instrument or to take part in a wide variety of games and outdoor
activities. Children receiving tuition are expected to take part in the musical ensembles
and teams of the school.
- Extra-curricular activities involving teachers, other mates, adults.
- Club and society activities: library work; expedition work; photography; lace / toy /
soft toy making; choir; keyboarding (= dactilografie); karate; wind band; string
group; outings (= excursii scurte de o zi); extended excursions to other parts of the
country; charity work.
II.8. Stationery and other requirements
A4 paper = hrtie format A4.
ball-point pen = pix.
blotter = sugativ.
blotting paper = sugativ.
book-marker = semn de carte.
brush = pensul, perie.
carbon paper = indigo.
cardboard = carton.
cassette.

12

colour and wipe-off book = carte de colorat care poate fi tears.

coloured chalk = cret colorat.
coloured pencils = crayons = creioane colorate.
computer.
copy-book = caiet.
cover = copert.
drawing = schi.
drawing paper = hrtie de desen.
drawing pin = pionez/caps pentru hrtie.
envelope = plic.
flip chart = diagram (care se nfoar i se deschide uor).
folder = pliant, map, dosar.
fountain pen = stilou.
the gummed flap of an envelope = partea plicului cu lipici pe ea.
headed paper = hrtie cu antet.
ink = cerneal.
ink-pot = climar cu cerneal.
jotter/note-book = caiet de nsemnri/de notie.
label = etichet.
L-shaped square = vinclu.
nib = peni.
a pair of compasses = compas.
paper = hrtie.
pencil-box = penar.
pocket-calculator.
propelling pencil = creion automat.
protractor = raportor.
punch = perforator.
refill = min rezerv.
refill pad = rezerv (plicuri).
rubber = radier.
ruler = linie.
set tracing square = echer.
sharpener = ascuitoare.
simple charts = tabele, desene, grafice care uureaz transmiterea informaiilor.
soft cloth = crp, material folosit la orele de desen pentru a terge pensula.
staple = agraf/caps pentru prins dou coli de hrtie.
stapler = capsator.
student's pad = map studeneasc.
title strip = etichet cu titlu.
tracing = schi, desen, reproducere.
typewriting paper = hrtie de scris.
xerox ~ = hrtie de xerox.
water colours = acuarele.
writing pad = map cu plicuri.

II.10. School facilities

facility/facilities = dotri.
classroom ~. blackboard. desk. teacher's desk. map.
educational ~ = dotri de nvmnt.
indoor ~.
leisure/recreation ~.

13

outdoor ~.
research ~ = dotri pentru cercetare.
art and craft room = atelier.
chalk = cret.
cinema-projection hall = sal de proiecie.
club. arts ~. science ~.
computer room.
drawing-board = planet.
duster = crp de ters tabla.
festivity hall = sal de festiviti.
gymnasium = sal de gimnastic.
games hall (equipped for basketball, handball, etc.; swimming pool, heated indoor ~ =
bazin de not - cu ap cald, acoperit).
laboratory = lab (containing special equipment for experiments or research in biology,
chemistry, foreign languages, physics)
lecture hall = amfiteatru.
library (including: lending department = secie de mprumut. reading-room = sal de lectur.
reading-table. study-carrel = box pentru studiu individual. card catalogue = fiier.
computing facilities. photocopying room).
light-switch = ntreruptor.
meteorological office weather station = staie meteorologic.
playground.
workshop = atelier colar.

II.11. Facts and figures

- Length: imperial and metric equivalents:1 yd (yard) = 0.91m; 1 in (inch) = 25.4mm =
2.54 cm; 1mm = 0.04 in; 1 m = 1.09 yd or 3.28 ft (feet); 1 km = 0.62 miles; 3 feet =
1yd.
- Capacity: 1 pint = 0.035 ounces; 1 gallon = 4.546 litres; 1 litre = 1.759 pints.
- Weight: 1 g = 0.035 ounces; 1 kg = 2.21 pounds; 1 tonne = 0.98 tons; 1 ounce = 28.35
g; 1 pound = 0.45 kg; 1 stone = 6.35 kg; 1 hundred weight = 50.8 kg or 0.51 quintals.
- Fractions: 1. vulgar fractions: 1/2 = a half; 1/3 = a third; 2/3 = two-thirds; 15 1/4 =
fifteen and a quarter; 1/20 = a twentieth. 2. decimal ~: 0.5 = (nought) point five; 0.33 =
(nought) point three three; 16.25 = sixteen point two five.
II.12. Shapes
angle = unghi.
hexagon.
circle = cerc.
horizontal line = linie orizontal.
concave = concav.
oblong = dreptunghiular.
convex = convex.
rectangle = dreptunghi.
cone = con.
octagon.
crescent = semilun.
pentagon.
cross = cruce.
pyramid.
cube = cub.
square = ptrat.
cylinder = cilindru.
straight line = linie dreapt.
diagonal = diagonal, oblic. triangle = triunghi.
dome = n form de bolt. vertical line = linie vertical.

II.13. Secretarial work

- application form = formular de cerere.
assessment = evaluare.

14

certificate = adeverin, certificat.

copy = copie.
degree = diplom; grad didactic.
examination board = comisie de examinare (internal ~ = comisie de examinare din interiorul
colii; external ~ = comisie de examinare din exteriorul colii).
form = slip = formular.
grade = calificatif la un examen (grades may be: excellent, very good, good, average,
weak, poor / lowest).
letter of recommendation = scrisoare de recomandare.
list of attendance = caiet de prezen. matriculation = nmatriculare.
pass = examen luat cu un calificativ satisfctor.
pass mark = not de trecere.
qualification = calificare.
reference = referin; caracterizare.
registration = nscriere; nregistrare.
report = referat.
roll-call = apel, strigarea catalogului.
typewritten copy = exemplar dactilografiat.
- to award a certificate = a acorda un certificat.
to certify = a adeveri.
to fill in an application form = a completa o cerere.
to give a certificate/reference/a certificate of competence.
to issue a card = a elibera o legitimaie.

Requirements of application forms

To complete such forms applicants should:
- use a typewriter/write legibly/or use block letters.
- consult the prospectus before making formal application.
- submit (= a prezenta) a record of their activity to date.
- give reference forms to referees.
Samples of certificates:
- Certificate of attendance:
X attended the Summer school at the University of ... from ... to ... . The course ...
included lectures and tutorials on ... and was attended by ... overseas members and
... English/Welsh/Scottish teachers. Area officer - signature.
- Certificate of qualification: This is to certify that (= se adeverete prin prezenta
c ...) X has been awarded this certificate in ... . He/She was awarded Grade
Excellent/Pass/. He/She attended ... out of ... hours of the ... course in ... at this
Institute/Teacher Training Institute/University/etc. from ... to... . Director. Examination
Board. Secretary. Date.
B. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The qualities of a good language learner.

The drawbacks and advantages of boarding-school education.
The influence of education on personality.
What is success in education? Is education motivated by self-interest?
The more you learn, the less you know - what do you think about learning?

15

I.2. SHOPPING IN LONDON

London is world famous for its shopping areas and famous shops. This
presentation concentrates on the shopping streets and places that anyone is most likely
to visit.
The best known street for shopping in London is Oxford Street, where you can
buy souvenirs, clothes, and so on. The good news about shopping at Oxford Street is
that so many big retailers are represented here that you will be spoilt for choice. The
bad news is that you may have to be prepared to struggle from store to store. To avoid
the worst of the crowds you have to be an early riser and come between 9am and 10am,
when most of the other London shoppers are either in bed or having a breakfast. The
nearest tube stations are: Marble Arch, Bond Street, Oxford Circus or Tottenham Court
Road.
The second London street that you are most likely to visit to do your shopping is
Regent`s Street. With Oxford Circus tube station on one end, and Piccadilly Circus on
the other, this street is packed with all kinds of shops. The main reason for us
mentioning this one is, the Hamley`s store. Hamley`s is every child`s dream come true.
Packed with all kinds of toys this shop will make a hole in your pocket from demands
from your children.
Just off Oxford Street, less known and less crowded, but more expensive are
New Bond Street and Old Bond Street. These streets have designer shops ready to
dazzle you. Most stores have a doorman who is there to open the doors for you, smile at
you and wish you a nice day.
The main difference with these two streets compared with the Oxford Street is
the friendliness of staff working there and the price of the things they will try to sell
you. So if you are looking to buy designer clothes, expensive furniture, paintings, or
maybe go to an Auction then this is the right place for you to be in.
Leaving it all behind, a few minute`s walk is Shaftesbury Avenue from where
Soho and the world famous Covent Garden and Chinatown are waiting for you. Any
time of the day or night there is always something going on in Soho. Covent Garden
with its market is a trendy place to have cup of coffee or maybe something stronger. A
huge number of cafes gives you chance to explore different foods. If you can force
yourself to rise early, go there on Sunday morning, sit outside and just watch
surrounding streets waking up. To experience a different culture and taste an exotic
meal go to Chinatown. Inexpensive restaurants and the chance to buy Far East spices are
there and if you are here for a Chinese New Year then you are in for a treat.
Still looking and not buying? Then go to the Bayswater Road. Just on the
northern side of the Hyde Park you will come across dozens of artists who bring their
paintings here so you can appraise them and maybe buy from them. Although many of
whom of these artists are amateurs you may be pleasantly surprised by the
craftsmanship displayed.
Harrods store, the most famous shop in London, began, in 1849, as a small
grocer`s shop and was further developed by the son of the founder, Henry Harrods. It
can boast that it is the store that has delivered an elephant to Ronald Reagan,
gooseberries to Saudi Arabia and a skunk to an American`s ex-wife. This was the first
store in the world to install an escalator and Victorian customers were so overcome by
the experience of riding a "moving staircase" that the store posted attendants at the top
of the to administer brandy to gentlemen and smelling salts to the ladies. Currently it is

16

owned by the Egyptian Mohamed Al Fayed and employs in excess of 3000 staff. It is
four acres in size and with more than 300 departments, bars, restaurants and even own
pub this store is London`s third top attraction with around 30,000 customers passing it
trough on daily basis.
(adapted from Internet URL: http://www.londononline.co.uk/Shopping/)
A. VOCABULARY
I. TOWN

I.1.a. Entry words

town n. = 1. ora. 2. oreni; toi locuitorii unui ora. 3. centru administrativ.
townlike adj. = orenesc.

I.1.b. Related words

townspeople/townsfolk = town-council/hall/house = primrie. oreni.
townsman/woman = orean/c.

I.1.c. Synonyms
county town/seat = ora de reedin
borough = trg.
capital = capital.
city = ora mare.
market town = orel;trg.
country-town = ora de provincie.
metropolis = metropol.

I. 2. Services offered to people

I.2.1. At the public library
- An English public library has different departments.
- The Lending department/Loan Room (= secie de mprumut).
Here you can find the card catalogue (= fiier). It is in two sections: the name
section (lists all the books by author or editor, and often title); the subject section (lists
the same books by their subject).
The classmark is a combination of letters and numbers that tells you where the
book can be found on the shelves. The book number or call mark (= cota crii) is
special to each copy or volume of a work. Books are arranged in classmark order.
Periodicals are arranged within each class in alphabetical order of their titles.
To borrow books, you will need a borrower's badge. The badges can be obtained
from the Issue Desk. Loan periods (= perioadele de mprumut) vary. You can renew
your books or reserve any that are on loan (= mprumutate) to others, by applying in
person to the Issue Desk.
- The Restricted Loan Room contains a collection of material which is in heavy
demand and this is why it is allowed out of the Library for short periods only. Most
material can be borrowed only overnight or for the weekend. For overdue books (=
crile aduse cu ntrziere), there is always a fine. If you lose or damage a book, you will
be invoiced for the replacement/repair cost.
- Audio Visual area contains the Library's stock of video-tapes and the machines for
using them.
- Record Library is a large lending library of records and cassettes.
- You may copy Library or private material under supervision, in the Photocopying
Room.

17

- Academic Network is a communication network that connects computers at British

academic sites including universities, politechnics and research institutes. It allows you
to access other online library catalogues.
Many bibliographies and abstract journals are stored on computer databases,
which are accessible at remote terminals via worldwide telecommunication networks.
Online searches are faster and more comprehensive than the manual searching of
printed bibliographies.
II. SHOPPING IN TOWN

II. 1. Shopping
II.1.a. Entry words
shop n. = 1.magazin. 2.prvlie. 3.debit. 4.atelier.
shopper n. = cumprtor.
shopping n. = cumprturi, trguieli.
to shop v. = a face cumprturi, a face trguieli.

II.1.b. Related words

shop-assistant = vnztor ntr-un magazin.
~ girl = vnztoare.
~ keeper = negustor.
~ lifter = persoan care fur din magazin.
~ man = 1.vnztor. 2.biat de prvlie. 3.mic comerciant. 4.lucrtor ntr-un atelier.
~ steward = reprezentant al muncitorilor la tratativele cu patronii.
~ walker = 1.responsabil de raion ntr-un magazin. 2.supraveghetor ntr-un magazin.
~ window = vitrin a unui magazin.
service ~ = magazin de deservire.
shopping area = zon comercial.

II.1.c. Synonyms
shop = (department) store. stall = chioc;dughean;tarab.
warehouse = depozit.

II.1.d. Types of shops

- chain stores = lan de magazine, filial a unei firme de magazine (can be found
in different towns, under the same name; some are specialized only in one kind of
goods, others offer a wide range of goods; their prices are cheap and reasonable;
sometimes they can afford cut prices).
- corner shops (they are small grocer's shops, usually on the corner of the street;
they offer most food and household products; they open earlier than other shops and
close later; many of them open on Sundays, as well).
- department store/general store = magazin universal (offers a large variety of
goods; it has different departments).
- individual shop = magazin mic de tip "boutique".
- hypermarket (a big shop with different types of goods; especially built outside
the town).
- supermarket/self-service system shop = magazin cu autoservire (specialized
in food products and household goods).
- shopping mall/shopping centres = centru comercial (a modern town
development; usually to be found in the centre of a town; a wide variety of shops are
concentrated in one place, usually in a covered area; they include food stores,

18

chemists, shoe shops, clothes shops electrical shops and boutiques; many of the shops
have no doors).
- street market (has a special characteristic atmosphere; offers colour to the
place around; sells especially vegetables, but you can also find clothes or antiques; it is
open on Saturdays and Sundays but it can also be open on a particular day of the
week).II.2. In a foodstore
In a foodstore (= magazin alimentar) you can buy foodstuff from different counters:
- groceries counter = raionul de bcnie.
- drinks counter = raionul de buturi.
- bakery counter = raionul de produse de panificaie.
- meats and fowl counter = raionul de carne i psri.
- confectionery/sweets counter = raionul de dulciuri.
- dairy counter = raionul de produse lactate.
- fish counter = raionul de pescrie.
- ham-and-beef counter = raionul de mezeluri.
- vegetables and fruit counter = raionul de legume i fructe.
II.3. In a department store
- At the gentlemen's, ladies' and children's ready-made-clothes department/men's
wear; ladies' fashion; children's clothes (= la raionul de confecii pentru brbai i copii).
coat = hain.
dinner-jacket = smoking.
dress = rochie.

dressing-gown = capot.
fur-coat = hain de blan.
jacket = jachet

mackintosh = impermeabil din

cauciuc.
overcoat = pardesiu.
raincoat = hain de ploaie
sack coat/sports jacket = sacou.
sheepskin coat = cojoc.
skirt = fust.
suit = costum de haine.
double breasted~=~ la dou rnduri.

single-breasted ~ = ~la un
rnd de nasturi.
two-pieces ~ = ~ fr vest.
three-pieces ~ = ~ cu vest.
tailor-made suit = taior.
trousers = pantaloni.
uniform = uniform.
waistcoat = vest.
wintercoat = palton.

- At the knitwear goods department (= la raionul de tricotaje)

cardigan = jachet tricotat cu nasturi n fa.
jumper/jersey/sweater/pull-over/slipover = pulover, scampolo, jerseu.

- At the hosiery department (= la raionul de galanterie)

bathing suit = costum de baie.
bra = sutien.
drawers/slips = chiloi.
garters = jartiere.
handkerchief = batist.
headkerchief = basma, batic.
knee-length stockings = ciorapi
trei sferturi.
muffler = fular.
night gown = cma de noapte.

shirt = cma.
scarf = earf.
socks =osete.
stockings = ciorapi.
stretchies =osete
supraelastice.
suspender belt = portjartier.
tie = cravat.
towel = prosop.
T-shirt = tricou.

19

panties = chiloi (scuri de dam).

undervest = maiou.
panties all/stretch tights = dresuri.
underwear = lenjerie de corp.
pyjamas = pijama.
- At the footwear department (= la raionul de nclminte)
boots = bocanci.
knee-high ~ = cizme.
rubbers = tenii.
overshoes/snow boots = ooni.
sandals = sandale.
high-heeled ~ =~ cu tocuri nalte.
heelless/low-heeled ~ = ~ cu tocuri joase.
walking~ = ~ de strad.
leather~ = ~ de piele.
slippers = papuci de cas.
trainers = adidai.
shoe string = iret de pantofi.
- At the leather goods department (= la raionul de marochinrie)
belt = curea.
strap = curea de ceas.
briefcase = serviet.
suitcase = geamantan.
gloves = mnui
umbrella = umbrel.
handbag = poet.
valise.
leather girdle = cordon din piele.
wallet = portofel.
- At the handicraft department (= la raionul de artizanat)
ceramics = ceramic, obiecte din
national costumes =
ceramic.
costume naionale.
earthen-ware = vase din lut.
present = cadou.
embroidery = broderie.
souvenir.
engraving = gravur.

- At the jewelry department (= la raionul de bijuterie)

bracelet = brar.
necklace = colier.
chain = lan.
cufflink = butoni pentru manet.
earrings = cercei.

brooch = bro.
buckle = cataram.
ring = inel (wedding = verighet).
watch = ceas de mn.

- At the drapery and textiles department/yard goods department (= la raionul de

stofe i textile/de produse textile, metraje)
calico = stamb.
cashmere = camir.
chiffon = ifon.
cloth = postav.
cotton = bumbac.
curtains = perdele.
damask.
linen-fabrics = pnzeturi.
bleached linen = pnz albit.
unbleached linen = pnz nealbit.
napkin = ervet.
nylon.
poplin.
prints = imprimeuri.

satin.
serge = serj.
silk = mtase.
pure ~ = ~ natural.
artificial ~ = ~ artificial.
suedette = diftin.
table-cloth = fa de mas.
taffeta = tafta.
tergal.
velvet = catifea.
voile = voal.
wool = ln.
all-wool = ln pur.
yard goods = metraje.

- Perfumery and cosmetics department (= raionul de parfumerie i cosmetice)

after shave = loiune dup ras.
alum = piatr ponce.
blade = lam de ras.
comb = pieptene.
cream = crem.

mouth water.
nail-file = pil de unghii.
nail-scissors = foarfece de unghii.
perfume.
powder = pudr.

20

face/skin ~ = ~ de fa.
hand ~ = ~ pentru mini.
shaving ~ = ~ de brberit.
curler = bigudiu.
deodorant.
shaving-set = trus de brbierit.
hairclip = agraf de pr.
hair-net = fileu pentru pr.
hair-restorer = loiune pentru pr.
hair spray = fixativ.
lipstick = ruj.
looking-glass = oglind.
make-up = fard.
mascara = rimel.

razor = brici.
electric~ = aparat de ras electric.
safety = aparat de ras.
shampoo.
eau-de-cologne.
hair-brush = perie de pr.
soap-box = spunier.
sponge = burete.
tooth-brush = perie de dini.
tooth-paste = past de dini.
tweezers = penset.
varnish = lac de unghii.
varnish remover = dizolvant.

- At the haberdashery department (= la raionul de mercerie)

button = nasture.
cord = nur.
crochet/hooked needle = croet.
hook = caps.
knitting = ac de mpletit.
needle = ac de cusut.
pincushion = perni pentru ace.

reel = mosor.
ribbon = panglic.
scissors = foarfece.
a spool of sewing silk = papiot.
thimble = degetar.
thread = a.
zipper = fermoar.

- At the musical instruments department (= la raionul de instrumente

accordion.
banjo.
clarinet.
contrabas.
drum = tob.
electric organ = org electronic.
flute = flaut.
guitar = chitar.
harp.
horn = corn.
instruments = instrumente.
bow ~ = ~ cu arcu.
brass wind ~ = ~ de alam, almuri.
percussion ~ = ~ de percuie.
string ~ = ~ cu coarde.
wind ~ = ~ de suflat.
lute = cobz.
mandoline.
mouth organ = muzicu.

panpipe = nai.
piano = pian.
upright~ = pianin.
pipe = fluier.
saxophone.
trombone.
trumpet.
viola.
violin = vioar.
(violon)cello.
xylophone.
cassette = caset.
cassette recorder.
radio-set.
record = disc.
record-player.
tape = band (pentru magnetofon).
tape recorder.
T.V.-set.

- At the toy department (= la raionul de jucrii)

ball.
(toy) balloon.
car = main.
clockwork train = tren mecanic.
clockwork train = tren mecanic.
doll.
hoop = cerc (de joc).
kite = zmeu.

marbles = bile.
rocking horse = cal balansoar.
roller skates = patine cu rotile.
sand moulds = forme de nisip.
skipping rope = coard de srit.
skooter = trotinet.
swing = leagn.
toy = jucrie (toy rabbit/bear/bus).

21

muzicale)

- At the sports articles department (= la raionul de articole sportive)

air mattress = saltea gonflabil.
anorak = hanorac.
ball.
fish-hook = crlig de undi.
basketball.
football.
table tennisball.
rugbyball.
rucksack = rucsac.
camping case = trus camping.
chess = ah.
chessboard = tabl de ah.

fishing-line = a (sfoar) de undi.

fishing-rod = undi.
gym tights/trainings = costum de
gimnastic/sport.
ninepins = popice.
puck = puc.
racket = rachet (pentru tenis).
bicycle.
skis = schiuri.
ski sticks = bee pentru schiuri.
sledge = sanie.
tent = cort.

- At the tobacconist's (= la tutungerie)

cigar = igar de foi/trabuc.
cigarette.
(filter tip ~ = ~ cu filtru;
without tip ~ = ~ fr filtru).
cigarette case = tabacher.
cigarette holder = igaret.
lighter = brichet.

lighter flint = piatr de brichet.

match-box = cutie de chibrituri.
matches = chibrituri.
pipe = pip.
stamp.
tobacco = tutun.
tobacco-box = tabacher pentru
tutun.

- At the chemicals department (= la raionul de chimicale)

- At the household goods department (= la raionul de articole de menaj)
- At the electrical appliances department (= la raionul de aparate electrice)
- At the stationer's (= la papetrie)
- At the glassware department (= la raionul de sticlrie)
- At the florist's (= la florrie)
- At the newsstand (= la chiocul de ziare)
II.4. Materials used to make objects
aluminium.
amber = chihlimbar.
bronze.
cast iron = font.
cellophane.
ceramics.
clay = argil.
cobalt.
copper = cupru.
crystal.
fur = blan.
glass = sticl.

gold = aur.
leather = piele.
lace = dantel.
mace reed = papur.
plaster = ipsos.
plush = plu.
silver = argint.
steel = oel.
stockinet = tricot.
tin plate = tinichea necositorit.
velvet = catifea.
wax = cear.

II.5. Collective nouns used to indicate quantity

a tin of soup/pears. a tube of toothpaste. a jar of jam. a bottle of lemonade. a crate of
beer. a joint of meat. a dozen of eggs. half a pound of butter/cheese. a loaf of bread. a
box of matches. a bar of soap. a packet of biscuits/crisps. a roll of film. a ball of string. a
bunch of grapes. an ear of corn. a cube of sugar. a pack of cards. a pad of paper. a
punnet of strawberries. a quiver of arrows. a skein of silk.

22

II.6. Asking for something in a shop

- Can I see that blouse?
- Can I have three metres of that material?
- Can you let me have this jumper?
- Can I possibly have half a pound of butter?
- Would you mind giving me that pair of trousers?
- I wonder if you could give me another pair of shoes. A larger size, please.
B. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Describe the main street in your town at midday and at midnight.
2. Advantages and disadvantages of doing one's shopping in a department-store.
3. Imagine a dialogue between a shop-assistant and a lady who cannot make up her
mind.
4. You want to buy a present for your friend's birthday. Imagine the dialogue with the
shop assistant.
5. Talk about the advantages and disadvantages of living in a small town.

23

I.3. GETTING TO GREAT BRITAIN & AROUND

I. Getting There & Away
London is one of the most important transport hubs in the world. As a result
there are an enormous number of travel agents, some of dubious reliability. As always,
buses are the cheapest and most exhausting means of transport, although discount rail
tickets are competitive, and budget flights (especially stand-by and last-minute offers)
can be very good value. A small saving on the fare may not adequately compensate you
for an agonizing two days on a bus that leaves you completely exhausted for another
two days. Until the opening of the Channel Tunnel, most people going to and from the
Continent bought combined rail/ferry or coach/ferry tickets between London and
European capitals like Paris, Brussels and Amsterdam.
There are international air links with London, Manchester, Newcastle,
Edinburgh and Glasgow, but shoestringers will find cheap flights all wind up in one of
the four London airports: Heathrow is the largest, followed by Gatwick, Stansted and
Luton. London is an excellent centre for cheap tickets; in particular, check the Sunday
Times, the Sunday Observer and the Sunday Independent. The best resource, however,
is TNT Magazine. Excellent discount charter flights are often available to full-time
students aged under 30 and all young travellers aged under 26 (you need a youth card),
and are available through the large student travel agencies.
For the first time since the ice ages, Britain has a land link (albeit a tunnel) with
Europe. Even without using the tunnel, however, you can still get to Europe by bus or
train it's just that there's a short ferry/hovercraft ride thrown in as part of the deal.
The ferries/hovercraft all carry cars and motorbikes.
Eurotunnel operates a round-the-clock shuttle service (Le Shuttle) for
motorbikes, cars, freight vehicles and buses on specially designed one and two-decker
railway carriages. The shuttle runs between terminals at Folkestone in the UK and
Calais (Coquelles) in France. Another service is a high-speed rail passenger service
(Eurostar), operated by the national railway companies of Britain, France and Belgium.
Eurolines, a division of National Express (the largest UK bus line), has an
enormous network of European destinations, including Ireland and Eastern Europe.
Youth fares are available for holders of the National Express Discount Coach Card.
Eurolines also has some good-value explorer tickets that are valid for up to six months
and allow travel between a number of major cities.
No one knew what will happen to the old British Rail International rail/ferry,
rail/hovercraft services because of the tunnel service. But the most popular services
continued relatively unchanged. British Rail International's European trains leave from
London's Victoria or Liverpool Street stations. There are a bewildering range of
alternatives between Britain and mainland Europe, but the best known ones are the
classical night ferries to several destinations.
II. Getting Around
Although public transport is generally of a high standard, most travellers are
going to want to get to the national parks and small villages where transport is worst. If
time is limited, a car becomes a serious temptation, although with a mix of local buses,
the occasional taxi, plenty of time, walking and occasionally hiring a bike, you can get
almost anywhere.
Buses are nearly always the cheapest way to get around. Unfortunately, they are
also the slowest and, on main routes, they are confined to major roads, which screen

24

you from the small towns and landscapes that make travel worthwhile in the first place.
With discount passes and tickets, trains can be competitive; they are quicker and often
take you through beautiful countryside that is still relatively unspoilt by the 20th century.
(adapted from Amstrong, Mark et al.: Western Europe, a Lonely Planet Shoestring
Guide, pp. 189-193)
A. VOCABULARY
I. TRAVELLING

I.1.a. Entry words

travel n. = 1.cltorie (de obicei mai lung). 2.(tehn.) curs a pistonului.
traveller n. = 1.cltor. 2.comis voiajor. 3.(tehn.) pod rulant.
travelling adj. = cltor.
to travel v. = 1.a cltori. 2.a fi comis voiajor.

I.1.b. Related words

agency = agenie turistic.
companion = tovar de cltorie.
impressions/notes = impresii/note de cltorie.
travelling agent = agent turistic.
travel ticket = bilet de cltorie.

I.1.c. Synonyms
drive = plimbare cu trsura, cu maina.
excursion.
expedition.
globetrotting = cutreierare a globului pmntesc.
hike = excursie pe jos.
journey = cltorie (pe uscat).
outing = plimbare de o zi n aer liber.
passage = cltorie (pe mare).
ride = plimbare, cltorie clare sau cu bicicleta.
sail = cltorie cu o ambarcaiune cu pnze.
tour.
trip = excursie.
voyage = cltorie (pe mare).
walk = plimbare.
wanderings = hoinreal.
wayfare = drumeie.
yachting = cltorie de plcere cu iahtul.

I.3. Ways of travelling and means of transport for people

I.3.a.Generalities
- By land (= pe uscat)
We can travel in town or outside the town:
by bicycle.
by car.
by (motor) coach = cu autocarul.
by motorcycle = cu motocicleta.
by motorcycle and side = motociclet cu ata.
by train = cu trenul. down train (= tren din capital sau oraele principale spre
provincie).express ~(= ~ expres).fast ~ (= ~ rapid, accelerat). goods ~(= ~ marfar). local

25

~(= ~ local, curs). long distance ~(= ~ de curs lung). passenger ~(= ~ de pasageri).
sleeper/over-night ~(=~cu vagon de dormit).slow ~ (= ~ personal, curs). through ~ (= ~
direct). up ~ (= ~ din localiti de provincie spre capital sau oraele principale).
- many years ago:
by carriage/coach = cu trsura.
by cart/waggon = cu crua.
by mail coach = cu potalionul.
- nowadays: the strongest and most fashionable means of transport is the
hovercraft (= vehicul pe pern de aer. It was invented by the British engineer C.S.
Cockerell. It hovers over (= plutete peste/deasupra) water or land on a cushion of
compressed air. It is used for regular passenger services around Britain's coast, and
across the Channel to France.
- in future: the hovertrain, travelling at speeds up to 300 miles per hour (m.p.h).
- By water (= pe ap)
by sea = pe mare.
boat = barc. ferry ~ = bac, feribot. jolly ~ = brcu. jawl ~ = iol. motor ~ = ~
motor. rowing ~ = barc cu vsle. ship's ~ = alup.
ship = vapor.
passenger ship/liner = ~ de pasageri.
steamship/steam vessel/steamer = ~ cu aburi.
yacht = iaht.
vessel/liner = vas de linie, pachebot cu curse regulate.
- By air (= pe calea aerului)
- aircraft = aparat de zbor, jet plain = avion cu reacie.
airplane/plane = avion. helicopter/hoverplane = ambulance~ = ~ sanitar.
- rocket/spaceship = nav spaial.- cable railway/ropeway/rope railway = teleferic.
- car lift = telecabin.
I.3.b. Travelling by train
- All the information about trains is offered by the timetable (= mersul trenurilor) or by
the information desk (= birou de informaii) at a railway station. They give information
about arrivals; connections (= legturi); departures; delays (= ntrzieri); about the
platform (= peron) the trains leave from or come to.
I.3.c. Travelling by car/by motor coach/by bicycle
A road is usually long. It goes from one town to another or from village to
village. On a road map they are marked by thick lines or thin lines. The thick lines are
for the main roads (going long distances across the country and from town to town). The
thin lines are for by-roads (= drumuri laterale) or country lanes (= alee, stradel de ar).
The roadway (= osea, parte carosabil a strzii) has lanes (bands)/ carriageways (=
benzi de circulaie).
Motorways are the newest roads. A motorway is very wide. Lines marked
down the road divide it into lanes. A motorway has three lanes going each way. The
right-hand lane (= banda de pe partea dreapt) is for slow traffic. The middle lane has
traffic going at a speed (= vitez) of sixty or seventy miles an hour. The left-hand lane is
used only for passing other traffic (= pentru depire). Between the three lanes going
one way (= ntr-o direcie) and those going the other way there is a grassy space. On it
stands a barrier (= barier). If a car bursts a tire (= are explozie de cauciuc) and runs off

26

the road, it will hit the barrier and stop. It will not run into the other three lanes of
traffic. There are no crossroads on motorways. Instead of crossroads there are flyover
bridges (= poduri suspendate), to ensure an uninterrupted flow of traffic. No cyclists or
pedestrians are allowed on motorways.
Roads can be made of gravel (= pietri), stone (= piatr) or asphalt. They are
marked by milestones (= borne kilometrice) and have road traffic signs that help the
traffic. The Romans were the first great road builders. They made roads of gravel and
stones. The surface paving stones were arched in the middle so that rain ran off into
ditches. Modern road building began during the Industrial Revolution, but their stony
surface was not good for vehicles with rubber tires. Later, macadamized roads were
built. They are covered with tar (= gudron, pcur) or asphalt, to make them smooth.
Streets are short roads in towns and villages; they have shops, houses, factories,
schools, etc. along them. They are "built-up" (= aglomerate).
(adapted from Illustrated Colour Dictionary and Websters Illustrated Dictionary
Encyclopedia)
- Only people over 18 may drive a car, after they pass a driving test (= examen pentru
luarea permisului de conducere) and get a driving licence (= permis de conducere). A
person driving a car, is called a driver.
- The parts of a car. Accessories
- battery = baterie de acumulatori.
blinker = semnalizator de direcie.
bonnet/engine hood = capot motor.
boot/trunk = portbagaj.
boot-lid/trunk lid = capot/portbagaj.
bumper = masc/bar de protecie.
carburator = carburator.
chassis = saiu.
dashboard = tablou de bord.
differential = diferenial.
door handle = mnerul uii.
door lock = ncuietoarea uii.
fender = arip protectoare din fa.
folding squab = sptarul rabatabil al scaunului.
gear box = cutie de viteze.
inflator = pomp de aer.
lamp = far (head lamp with high and low beam = far cu faz lung i scurt.
mudguard = aprtoare de noroi.
number plate = numr de nmatriculare.
radiator grill = masc radiator.
rear axle = puntea (axa) din spate.
rear side panel = arip spate.
rear view mirror = oglind retrovizoare.
rear window = parbriz spate.
seat = scaun (front ~ = ~ din fa; back ~ = ~ din spate).
shock absorber = amortizor.
silencer = muffler = tob de eapament.
sparkling plug = bujie.
spring = arc.
petrol tank = rezervor de benzin.

27

tail light with stop light = lantern spate cu lamp stop.

tire = pneu.
ventilator = clapet aerisire.
wheel = roat (spare ~ = ~ de rezerv).
wheel disc = discul roii.
wheel hub = cap de roat (cromat).
wheel rim = jant.
windscreen = parbriz.
- accelerator knob = buton de comand a ocului.
accelerator pedal = pedal de acceleraie.
ampermeter = ampermetru.
brake = frn (foot ~ = ~ de picior; hand ~ = ~ de mn).
cigarette-lighter = brichet.
clutch pedal = pedal de ambreaj.
direction indicator lever = manet comutator de semnalizare a direciei.
direction indicator control light = lampa de control a semnalizatorului de direcie.
fresh-air lever = manet de aerisire.
gasoline level gauge/indicator = indicatorul nivelului de benzin.
gear lever = manet schimbtor de viteze.
glove compartment = torpedo.
hand brake light = lamp de control pentru frna de mn.
heater fan switch = comutatorul ventilatorului sistemului de nclzire.
high beam indicator = lamp de control a fazei lungi.
horn = claxon.
ignition key = cheie de contact.
oil pressure gauge = indicator al presiunii uleiului.
radio receptor = radio.
speedometer = vitezometru.
steering gear = caset de direcie.
steering wheel = volan.
sun-visor = para-solar.
ventilator lever = maneta trapei de aerisire.
water temperature indicator = indicator de temperatur a apei.
windshield wiper = tergtor de parbriz.
wiper switch = comutatorul tergtorului de parbriz.

- The parts of a bycycle

bell = sonerie.
brake.
chain = lan.
handle bars = ghidon.
lamp.
mudguard.
pedal.
pump = pomp.

rear light = lumini spate.

reflector.
saddle = a.
spoke = spi.
tire = pneu.
tool bag = geant pentru scule.
valve = valv, supap.
wheel = roat.

I.3.d. Travelling by plane

air = aer.
air-liner = avion de pasageri.
air-base = baz aerian.
air-mail = pot aerian.
air-bladder = bic de aer.
airman = pilot, aviator.
air-borne = aeropurtat.
airplane = avion.
air-brake = frn pneumatic.
air-pocket = gol de aer.
air-chamber = camer de aer.
airport = aeroport.

28

air-conditioning = aer condiionat.

aircraft = avion.
aircrash = accident de avion.
air-cushion = pern pneumatic.
airfield = aerodrom.
air-force = aviaie militar.
air-highway = traseu aerian.
air-jacket = hain pneumatic
de salvare.

airproof = ermetic.
air-screw = elice.
air-shed = hangar.
airship = dirijabil, aeronav.
air-sick = care are ru de avion.
airspace = spaiu aerian.
air traffic = trafic aerian.
airway = rut aerian.
air-line = linie aerian.

Travelling by air is as safe as any other means of transport; any risk is eliminated
by: thorough inspection of the planes before taking off (= decolare); information about
weather; modern and well-equipped airplanes; modern compasses (= busol); radio
beacons (= semnale radio).
- types of flight
all weather flight = zbor n orice condiie.
blind flight = zbor fr vizibilitate.
charter flight.
daily flight = zbor zilnic.
domestic/internal flight = zbor intern (pe rut intern).
international flight = zbor internaional.
motorless flight = zbor fr motor.
non-stop flight.
regular/scheduled flight = zbor conform orarului.

- Parts of a plane
aileron = eleron.
automatic pilot = pilot automat.
baggage hold = cabin, cal pentru bagaje.
cockpit = carling.
engine.
intercom = sistem de comunicare intern a avionului.
navigation light.
passanger cabin/compartment.
radio aerials.
rudder = crm de direcie.
seat (reclining ~ = scaun rabatabil).
seat-belt = centur de siguran.
wheels (retractable main ~ = roat retractabil).
wing = aripa.

- Airports
Airports have three main purposes: they must handle passengers, mail and freight
(= ncrctur); they must be sure that all aircraft take off and land (= a ateriza) safely
and on times; they must provide hangars and workshops so that planes can be
checked regularly.
The center of operations at the airport is the air traffic control tower (= turnul de
control al traficului aerian). Here, controllers organise the landing and take off of each
airplane, from a height (= nlime) of 5 or 6 miles (6 to 8 kms) onto a concrete (=
beton) runway about 3 kms long and 60 meters wide. The runways are usually parallel
and in line with the prevailing wind, so that an aircraft can land against the wind, which
is always safer. As soon as an airplane has landed, it moves along, or taxis (= ruleaz) to

29

an area called apron. Here trucks are waiting, ready to carry baggage to the terminal.
Fuel tankers move in to refill to airliner's tanks. Cleaners arrive to empty the cabin and
load (= a ncrca) on food for the next flight.
(adapted from Bowood, R: The Story of Flight)
I.3.e. Travelling by boat
It is pleasant and exciting to have a row (= plimbare cu barca) or a voyage on
board (= la bordul) a yacht or a vessel.
The first boats date back to prehistoric times, and were simply floating logs (=
trunchiuri de copac) or driftwood paddled with the hands. The first real boats appeared
later. One was the dugout (= pirog) canoe, which was a raft (= plut) made of logs or
bundles of reeds tied together. When there were no reeds or logs, boats were made of
skins (= piei de animale) stretched over a light framework. After a while the dugout and
the raft were built up with sides of wooden planks (= scnduri). Different types of
boats and sails were fitted so as to catch as much wind as possible.
Until the 1800s, all boats were driven by sails (= pnze) and oars (= vsle). The
invention of the steam engine made paddle wheels and propellers possible. Today,
motorboats, sailing boats and row boats are used by people in all parts of the world.
Being in a boat or yacht on a rough (= agitat) sea is quite dangerous. But it is not
dangerous to be on board a ship/vessel in such conditions.
A vessel is a craft bigger than a rowboat, used for navigation. It is well
provided with everything necessary to allow for the navigation in the best conditions
(a good crew and all sorts of facilities).
(adapted from Illustrated Colour Dictionary and Websters Illustrated Dictionary
Encyclopedia)
- The component parts and the accessories of a vessel:
anchor = ancor.
hold = cal.
antenna = anten.
larboard = babord.
~ for radio beacons = semnale
luggage room = magazie pentru
radio
pentru bagaje.
berth = cuet.
mast = catarg.
prow = pror.
porthole = hublou.
cabin.
propeller = elice.
captain's bridge = punte de comand. raft = plut.
deck = punte.
life ~ = ~ de salvare.
main ~ = ~ principal.
railing = balustrad.
lower ~ = ~ inferioar.
safety-belt = colac de
promenade~.
salvare.
~ house = cabina cpitanului.
safety-boat = barc de
three decker = vas cu trei
salvare.
puni.
starboard = tribord.
engine room = sala mainilor.
stern = pup.

The hovercraft is an entirely new form of transport, and it is quite different from
any wheeled vehicle, ship or airplane. It combines many of the capabilities of all three:
it can carry heavy loads (= ncrctur) over land, it can operate on the sea and is
airborne in operation.
A cushion of air is maintained between the craft and the surface by driving air at
pressure under the hovercraft. This cushion supports the weight of the craft and keeps it

30

clear off the surface. The hovercraft's air cushion is like a leaking tire, in principle. Air
must be pumped in continuously to maintain the necessary lift. Most craft are fitted with
flexible skirts which contain the cushion of air.
Generally, a hovercraft has no physical contact with the surface over which it is
travelling, so the controls must be aerodynamic - rather like aircraft controls. The idea
of supporting a vehicle on a cushion of air developed from early attempts at producing
vertical take off aircraft, and also the wish to increase the speed of boats by feeding
air beneath them to ease (=a uura) their passage over the water.
It is necessary to raise the chamber pressure only a little above atmospheric
pressure, in order to lift the hovercraft. This is done by a lift fan (= ventilator). It
requires tremendous power to drive it and uses most of the power developed by the
engine.
The propeller used to drive the hovercraft is usually an aircraft type. The
propellers used on hovercraft are fourbladed (= cu patru lamele).
Piston type engines have been used in early hovercraft, but current models
favour the use of gas turbines. This type of engine is smaller and lighter. The fuel used
is either low grade petrol or kerosene.
The fuel system is quite simple and consists of a fuel tank (= rezervor), a pump, a
throttle valve (= flutura) and as many injectors as there are combustion chambers. Fuel
is pumped to the throttle valve by means of an electrically driven pump. Basically, the
hovercraft requires lift and propulsion. Lift is entirely dependent on the speed of the
engine driving the lift fan.
Electrical power is used to start the engine and ignite (= a pune n funciune) the
fuel driving the engine. The lights, radio, radar equipment and many instruments require
(= cer) electricity. The supply (= aprovizionarea) is obtained from a generator which
charges a battery to maintain a supply when the engine is stopped.
An instrument panel (= panou/tablou de bord) is fitted in front of the commander,
to carry all of the instruments for safe operation of the hovercraft. They include:
compass (= busol); air speed indicator, engine, r.p.m. (revolutions per minute)
indicator, propeller pitch indicator.
Hovercraft are generally used more over the sea than elsewhere. Consequently,
the commander needs to be a person combining many of the piloting skills of an aircraft
pilot with the navigational skills of a sea captain.
The cabin for passengers is typical of the passenger aircraft except that seat belts
have not so far been considered necessary. Should an emergency occur, lifejackets are
available under the seats.
(adapted from Hayden, E.S.: The Hovercraft)
- Any journey or voyage has advantages and disadvantages
- advantages:
- each passenger has his/her own seat.
- independence of choosing the route.
- it doesn't make noise.
- it is comfortable.
- it is not dangerous.
- it is relatively cheap.
- it takes a short time.
- you can eat/drink/read/sleep.

31

- you can meet other people.

- you can see many things.
- you can stop where you want.
- disadvantages:
- it is crowded/cramped.
- it takes a long time to get where you want.
- it is dangerous.
- it is (quite) expensive.
- it is not comfortable.
- it makes noise.
- you can get air/car/seasick.
- you can't choose the route.
- you can't read/sleep. you can't stop where you want.
I.4. Means of transport for goods
- transport (n.): carriage. conveyance. removal. shipment. shipping.
transference. transportation.
to transport (vb.): to convey. to carry. to ship.
- The development of our national economy led to the development of transport.
- Road transport makes use of motor-vehicles, trailers (= remorci) and semi-trailers.
There are also different types of lorries: refrigerated ~; tank ~; tipping ~ (=
autocamioane, basculante). Road transport is more
expensive
than
railway
transport. Water transport uses bulkcarrier (= vase ce transport ncrcturi mari);
cargo-boats; tankers (= tanc petrolier, nav tanc, petrolier); barges (= lepuri).
B. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What are a few of the effects that the development of air travel has had on modern
life and world events?
2. Describe a journey you have just had.
3. You are on a train with a fellow-passenger who has visited the town you live in.
Imagine the dialogue.
4. Talk about advantages and disadvantages of different means of transport.
5. Describe your first trip on a plane.

32

I.4. ENGINEERING CAREERS AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES

Leading firms in the engineering sector are among the most international in their
outlook. Organizations such as Ford, Siemens, Philips, GE, Nokia and Shell all recruit
internationally and visit recruitment fairs across Europe. Oil exploration has always
been international in nature, with seismic investigations and the drilling of wells often
taking place in the most remote regions. The industry is used to working in
multinational teams, and English is their business language. Telecommunications
companies are also big on global reach. Vodaphone, for example, has employees in 28
countries and BT offers career opportunities across Europe.
The Association for Consultancy and Engineering (ACE) produces information
on the international work of its members. Arup, for example, has offices in eight
European countries and 16 elsewhere in the world. Project work could take you
anywhere the Hong Kong metro, airport terminals in Toronto and Tel Aviv, an oil
platform in the Philippines and the Channel tunnel are among their completed projects.
Fortunately, engineering qualifications are very portable. All European Union
(EU) countries have an agreement on what they call the formation of a professional
engineer, which takes around seven years and includes education, initial training and
experience. The order in which these occur differs around Europe. The French and
Germans prefer their students to gain industrial experience at home and abroad during
the course of their studies. In the UK, although we have sandwich courses, work
experience before graduation is more restricted and it is quite possible to graduate
without any. This inevitably places more emphasis on industrial training after
graduation. However, companies in the UK are placing increasing value on work
experience or internships during vacation time and/or sandwich degrees.
A career in engineering can be truly international. An MEng degree from a UK
university is recognized worldwide as an excellent grounding. The professional status of
chartered engineer also commands international respect. In the UK there is a severe
shortage of civil engineers, and in 2003 the government relaxed its work permit rules for
these engineers from overseas. This was followed in 2004 with a move to allow all new
graduates in engineering from UK universities to stay in the UK for at least a year after
graduating. When and if the telecommunications and automobile industries get back to
normal levels of recruitment there will be shortages of good engineers. Allowing the
numerous overseas students who come to the UK for an engineering education to stay
will certainly alleviate this problem.
While it is relatively easy to get employment around the world as an engineer, it
becomes easier once you have gained two or more years industrial experience. It is
unusual, but not impossible, for a graduate with a first degree to immediately gain
employment in the USA.
Attending a careers fair can be a great way of discovering who is recruiting.
Many large companies participate in fairs on campus. Fairs offer the chance to talk to
firm representatives face-to-face and can provide an opportunity to make contacts.
There are numerous publications advertising vacancies in the engineering sector
every year. Apply directly to those firms you find attractive that are offering career
opportunities in your area of engineering.
Websites of the professional bodies provide lots of careers and job information.
Each professional body has a list of organizations that offer accredited training for

33

new graduates intent on gaining professional qualifications. Speculative applications to

firms of your choice often pay off.
You can discover details of trade associations and of their members as well as
whether they are electronics companies, engineering consultants, aerospace
manufacturers or active in other parts of the engineering industry. Investigate their
vacancies and career development opportunities and, if they match your requirements,
send in a speculative application.
Selection procedures always include questions about competencies. In addition
to technical competence, the engineering sector also wants team players who can solve
problems and communicate with customers, clients and suppliers. They also appreciate
the ability to recognize commercially promising approaches rather than expensive
solutions that cannot be marketed. Most companies will list the required competencies
on their website and it pays to study these carefully before embarking on an application.
Be prepared to complete aptitude tests as part of the application and interview process.
Company training schemes often lead to professional qualifications. The
schemes will usually include secondment to various departments, plus training in the
area in which you will eventually work. You may need to keep a diary of your
experiences, complete a project or write a report to gain professional recognition.
Your career can develop in many different ways within the engineering sector.
You might start in a technical function and develop as a professional, before moving
into a management position. This may involve managing a facility such as
manufacturing, or a project for a client. In addition to your technical abilities, you will
also develop the skills necessary to manage people, budgets and clients expectations.
Alternatively, your career could progress in a different direction, perhaps marketing the
products you know so well technically, negotiating with suppliers, optimizing supply
chains or hiring new technical staff in human resources.
(adapted from Internet URL: http://www.prospects.ac.uk)
A. VOCABULARY
I. JOBS

I.1.a. Entry words

job n. = 1. lucru, munc, treab, ndeletnicire, ocupaie. 2. slujb, funcie, serviciu, post.
3. afacere. 4. ndeletnicire, lucrri mrunte.
to job v. = 1. a face afaceri. 2. a nchiria cai i trsuri.

I.1.b. Related words

jobber n. = 1. antreprenor. 2. intermediar. 3. afacerist.
jobbery n. = specul la burs.
jobless adj. = omer.
jobmaster n. = persoan care nchiriaz cai i trsuri.

I.1.c. Synonyms
activity. affair, assignment, business. calling, career. charge, duty. employment, function,
mission, occupation. position, profession. responsibility, task. trade. vocation. work.

I.1.d. Types of jobs

- attractive. dull. odd. risky.
- full-time. part-time. over-time.
- low paid. well-paid.

34

- indoors. outdoors.

I.2. Looking for a job/getting a job

- Newspapers and magazines have advertisements (= reclame) concerning possible jobs.
If you are looking for a job you have to read the job columns in the newspaper. Then,
you must write a letter of application (= cerere) or if possible, to fill in an application
form (= formular de cerere).
- A letter of application looks like this:
Sir,
With reference to your advertisement in ... (newspaper) ..., of... (date) ... , I
wish to apply (= a solicita) for the job. I hope you will be kind enough to consider my
application and grant (= a acorda, a admite, a aproba) an interview.
My address is ... .
Yours sincerely,
(signature)
For engineering positions, potential candidates will need to show evidence of the
following:
technical knowledge;
a high level of scientific knowledge and the ability to apply this knowledge to
practical problems;
communication and interpersonal skills;
managerial skills;
problem solving and analytical ability;
accuracy and attention to detail;
creative ability;
IT skills;
organisational skills, such as time and resource planning.
fluency in a second language, if required to work in an international company.
The letter must be accompanied by a Curriculum Vitae (CV) that should be typed, it
must be clear and not too long. It must include personal details, qualifications and
positions held, skills and achievements (= realizri). If you get a positive answer, you
must prepare for the interview when you must appear in front of an employer (= patron)
or a group of selectors. At the interview you should wear your best clothes (to give a
good impression), look tidy, show enthusiasm for the job, make notes on your
experience, qualifications etc.

35

CURRICULUM VITAE

PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name
Address
Telephone
E-mail
Nationality
Date of birth

VALEANU VALERIU
1 Letea Street, Apt.1, 600078, Bacau, Romania
0234-655525
valeriuvaleanu@yahoo.com
Romanian
10 July 1981

WORK EXPERIENCE
Dates
Name and address of employer
Type of business or sector
Occupation or positions held
Main activities and responsibilities
as a teaching assistant

From November 2006 to the present

SC MACHINE TOOLS SA Bacau, Romania
Manufacturing industry
Mechanical engineer on probation

designing

and
implementing
cost-effective
equipment
modifications to help improve safety and reliability;
developing a project specification with colleagues, often
including those from other engineering disciplines;
developing, testing and evaluating theoretical designs;
discussing and solving complex problems with manufacturing
departments, sub-contractors, suppliers and customers;
managing projects using engineering principles and techniques;
planning and designing new production processes.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Dates (from to)
Name and type of organization
providing education and training
Principal subjects

From 2005 to the present

Dates (from to)

Name and type of organization
Principal subjects
Title of qualification awarded

From 2001 to 2005

Dates (from to)

Name and type of organisation
providing education and training
Title of qualification awarded

From 1998 to 2001

MOTHER TONGUE

University Of Bacau, The Faculty of Engineering

Enrolled for a Master degree program in the Management of
industrial production

University Of Bacau, The Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical engineering
BEng

Vasile Alecsandri High School, Bacau

Baccalaureate
ROMANIAN

OTHER LANGUAGES
Reading, writing and verbal skills
Additional information

English and French: very good

driving licence, B category

36

II. WORK
II.1.a. Entry words
work n. = 1.lucru, munc. 2.oper (work of art). 3.treab, sarcin. 4.(pl) fabric mare,
uzin. 5.(pl) mecanism, mainrie. 6.prelucrare mecanic.7.cultivare (a pmntului).
8.(fig) aciune. 9.(pl) construcii.
worker n. = 1.muncitor, lucrtor. 2.(pl) muncitorime. 3.albin/furnic lucrtoare.
workmanship n. = 1.ndemnare, miestrie. 2.lucrare, oper de art. 3.execuie ngrijit.
4.lucrtur, execuie. 5.fabricaie.
working n. = 1.lucru, munc, activitate. 2.cultivare (a unui teren). 3.fermentaie (a
vinului). 4.(fig) agitaie. 5.manevrare, crmuire. 6.efect, aciune (a unui medicament).
workable adj. = 1.executabil. 2.asupra cruia se poate aciona.
working adj. = 1.muncitor, care muncete. 2.de lucru. 3. de exploatare. 4. n vigoare. 5.
mobil.
workaday adj. = 1. de lucru, pentru zilele de lucru. 2.(fig) prozaic.
workmanlike adj. = 1. ndemnatic. 2. iscusit, fcut de mini ndemnatice, bine
executat.
to work v. = 1. a lucra, a avea o slujb. 2. a elabora. 3. a manevra, a crmui (o main).
4. a prelucra. 5. a executa, a nfptui (un plan). 6. a conduce (o aciune).
to work by agreement = a lucra n acord.
to work for = a presta zile munc.
to work in relay = a munci n schimburi.
to work in a slapdash way = a da rasol, a lucra de mntuial.
to work overtime = a face ore suplimentare.
to work (on) short hours = a oma.
to work whole-heartedly = a munci cu avnt.

II.1.b. Related words

work-bag = saco de lucru (pentru croitorie).
~ bench = banc de lucru.
~ book = brour, crticic.
~ box = cutie pentru materiale si unelte.
~ force = for de lucru.
~ horse = cal folosit n special pentru munc.
~ house = fabric, azil de sraci.
~ load = norm.
~ man = muncitor, lucrtor.
~ mate = coleg de munc.
~ out = stagiu, antrenament.
~ people = muncitorime.
~ room = atelier.
~ sheet = carte de munc.
~ shop = atelier, secie (ntr-o uzin).
~ of art = oper de art.
working-clothes = haine de lucru.

II.1.c. Types of work

- brainwork. creative work. extra-work. manual work. office work. voluntary work.
research work.
- working alone. working inside. working away from home. working outside.

37

II.2. What does work imply?

- Actions: calculating, creating, compassing, inventing, research work, carrying, lifting,
moving, outdoor work, production line work.
- Clothes: overalls = salopet; protective clothing; safety helmet = casc de protecie.
- Tools/equipment: hitech equipment; mechanical tools; electrical equipment; physical
equipment; pen and ink; specialist tools.
- apparatus = aparat.
- device = 1.procedeu, mijloc. 2.dispozitiv, mecanism. 3.plan, proiect, schem.
- equipment = echipament, utilaj.
- gear = 1.aparatur. 2.aparat, mecanism.
- machinery = 1.mecanism. 2.ansamblu de maini, aparat.
- machine = main, aparat.
- mechanism = mecanism, dispozitiv.
- outfit = 1.echipament. 2.costum. 3.nzestrare, aprovizionare.
- tool = unealt, scul, instrument.
- Technique = tehnic.
- Technology = tehnologie.
= a technical method of achieving a practical purpose.
II.3. Places of work
agency/firm = agenie, companie.
airport.
embassy = ambasad.
aviary = cresctorie de psri.
bakery = brutrie.
bar. night club.
barber's.
barkery = tbcrie.
beauty shop/saloon parlour.
booking-office.
bookshop.
box-office = ghieu la teatru.
butchery = abator.
circus.
clockmaker's/watchmaker's.
conservatoire.
dairy = lptrie.
dental surgery = cabinet dental.
dockyard/shipyard = antier naval.
dyehouse = boiangerie.
farm = ferm.
poultry ~ = ferm de psri.
pig breeding ~ = ferm de porci.
faculty.
fishery = cherhana.
foundry = topitorie.
furriery = blnrie.
grocery.
haberdashery.
hairdresser's.
hosiery.

law-court = judectorie.
library.
millinery.
mine = min.
news-stand.
office = birou.
chambers = birou de avocatur.
editorial office = redacie.
inquiry office.
prosecutor's ~ = procuratur.
orphanage.
police-station.
post-office.
county hall = prefectur.
power station = central.
hydro- ~ = hidrocentral.
thermo- ~ = termocentral.
printing house = tipografie.
publishing house = editur.
quarry stone pit = carier de piatr.
restaurant.
saltworks = salin.
school.
farriery = potcovrie.
flower shop.
smithy = fierrie.
studio = atelier (al unui pictor).
surgery.
theatre.
tobacconist's.
tribunal.

38

hospital.
upholster's = atelier de tapierie.
hotel.
weather-station = staie
laboratory.
meteorologic.
laundry.
works = uzin.
joiner's shop = atelier de tmplrie, dulgherie.
plumbery = atelier de topit i prelucrat plumb.
meat-processing factory = combinat de industrializarea crnii.

II.4. Payment
For their work, people are paid. They receive payment (= plat; sum pltit). Money is
given by a paymaster (= casier), according to a pay-roll (= stat de plat).
- People receive:
- salary = salariu, leaf (for intellectual work) = payment made at regular intervals for
services.
- wages = salariu, leaf (for physical work) = payment for labour or services, according to
contract.
- fee = onorariu, remuneraie = the charge for a professional service, for a doctor/lawyer.

II.5. Unemployment
- employ n. = slujb, serviciu.
employee n. = angajat, slujba.
employer n. = patron.
employment n. = 1.ocupaie, serviciu. 2.utilizare, ntrebuinare.
employed n. = angajat.
unemployed n. = omer.
to employ v. = a da de lucru, a angaja.

III. DIFFERENT FIELDS OF ACTIVITY

1. Science and research
2. Economics - industry; agriculture; commerce/trade; transport.
3. Building
4. Health
5. Education
6. Cultural life. Arts
7. Public services
8. Army. Law
9. Religion
10.Other fields of activity
III.1. Science and research
- science n. = 1. a branch of study concerned with observation and classification of facts and
especially with the establishment of verifiable general laws. 2.accumulated systematized
knowledge especially when it relates to the physical world.

- Sciences and scientists

Aeronautics - dealing with the operation of aircraft or with their design and
manufacturing.
Astronomy - the study of celestial bodies (their motions, magnitude and
constitution); the one dealing with it = astronomer (= astronom).
Biology - the study of living things (organisms, plants and animals); deals with
living beings and life processes; the one dealing with it = biologist (= biolog).

39

Chemistry - deals with the composition, structure and properties of substance and
of the changes they undergo; the one dealing with it = chemist (= chimist).
Geology - deals with the history of the Earth and its life, especially as recorded in
rocks; the one dealing with it = geologist (= geolog).
Geography - the study of the Earth and what happens on it; the one dealing with it
= geographer (= geograf).
Medicine - deals with restoring and preserving of health; the one dealing with it =
physician (=doctor).
Mathematics = the science of numbers and their operations and the relation
between them; the one dealing with it = mathematician (= matematician).
Physics = deals with matter (= materie) and motion; the one dealing with it =
physicist (= fizician).
Psychology = the science of mind and behaviour; the one dealing with it =
psychologist (= psiholog).
Philosophy = a critical study of fundamental beliefs and the ground for them; the
one dealing with it = philosopher (= filozof).
Sociology = the study of the development and structure of society and social
relations; the one dealing with it = sociologist (= sociolog).
Technics = the study and science of mechanical and industrial arts.
- New sciences
Aerodinetics = the science of soaring in a glider.
Aerodynamics = the branch of aeromechanics that deals with the forces
(resistance, pressure, etc.) exerted by air or other gases in motion.
Bionics = the science of designing instruments or systems modelled after living
organisms.
Biotechnology: genetics ~ = the study and manipulation of the genes in plants and
animals.
Embryology = the study and manipulation of human embryos.
Microbiology = the science of using bacteria (microbes) in
industrial processes.
Cybernetics = the science dealing with the comparative study of the operations of
complex electronic computers and the human nervous system.
Ecology = the branch of biology that deals with the relations between living
organisms and their environment.
Electronics = the science that deals with the behaviour and control of electrons in
vacuums and gases and with the use of electron tubes, photoelectric cells,
transistors etc.
Oncology = the branch of medicine dealing with tumors.
Sociology = the study of the relationship and adjustment of human groups to their
geographical environment.
Sonicity = the study of sound waves.
- Research n. = cercetare
researcher n. = cercettor
to research v. = a cerceta

The work of research teams of scientists and engineers is hard. Sometimes, the
result is an invention (= invenie), meaning something new. So, it is the result of
inventing (making something for the first time, devising, fabricating).It is the work of

40

the inventors (=inventatori). Inventions in power and machinery brought the industrial
revolution; inventions in products brought the revolution in comfort and enjoyment.
Other inventions brought revolution in the way society organizes itself, or in health.

THE WONDERS OF THE WORLD

- The Wonders of the Ancient World: the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Pharos,
Lighthouse at Alexandria, the Statue of Zeus Jupiter at Olympus, the Colossus at
Rhodes, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the
Pyramids of Egypt.
- The Wonders of the Middle Ages: the people considered that there existed some
other sights quite so wonderful = the Colosseum of Rome, The Catacombs of
Alexandria, Stonehenge, the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the Great Wall of China, the
Porcelain Tower of Nanking, the Mosque of St. Sophia in Constantinople.
- Scientific Marvels (starting with the invention of the printing press and ending with
the atomic age).
The printing press (= tipografie) was invented by the German Johann Gutenberg
who printed the Bible in 1456. The first English printer was William Caxton who set up
his printing press in Westminster in 1476.
The telescope was invented by Galileo in 1611; he used it to study the heavens and
discovered the mountains on the Moon, the spots on the Sun, the sattelites of Jupiter, the
millions of stars forming the Milky Way.
When at sea on long voyages sailors use chronometers, which are very accurate
watches telling the true Greenwich time while travelling round the world.
The sextants invented in 1731 are instruments by means of which seamen can tell
their exact position by observing the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon and
then making a calculation from a book of tables.
In 1781 James Watt patented the steam engine which drove a wheel round.
In 1829 George Stephenson's famous railway engine, the Rocket, hauled a train at 30
miles an hour.
In 1884 Charles Parsons's steam turbine worked. In the steam turbine, jets of steam
expand between the vanes (= paletele de pe un ax) on a shaft and those on the casing,
and spin it round, providing power.
In 1831 Michael Faraday induced (= forced) an electric current which meant the
beginning of the dynamo, or electric generator.
Edison Thomas discovered that electricity could be used for lighting. If a current of
electricity passes through a fine thread or filament of carbon it will glow white hot and
give a strong light. The thread of carbon is enclosed in a glass bulb from which the air
has been extracted, making a vacuum.
The telephone was invented by A. Graham Bell in 1876.
Heinrich Hertz proved that J. C. Maxwell's "radio waves" (1864) had been correct.
These waves are known as "Hertzian waves" and they can be transmitted without wires
across space. But it was Guglielmo Marconi who discovered the importance of an
aerial-earth system and so made radio transmissions over great distances a real
possibility. Not long before 1939 the first radar set was invented. Radar is possible
because radio waves, travelling at 186,000 miles a second can be reflected like sound or
light waves. It determines the direction, distance, height and speed of a reflecting object.

41

The history of T.V. sets began in 1922 and the inventor of the black and white T.V.
was J. L. Baird. The colour Television is a very recent invention.
The pneumatic tyre was John Dunlop's discovery who made tyres of rubber tubes
filled with air.
Few inventions have made such a tremendous difference to everyday life as the
internal combustion engine (= motor cu ardere intern). The first motor car was made
in 1875 by the Australian Siegfried Marcus but the German Carl Benz made motocars
for sale in 1885. In 1906 the wellknown sportsman Charles Rolls went into partnership
with Henry Royce, an engineer; together they built the Rolls-Royce motor car.
The Diesel engine was first devised by an Englishman, H. A. Stuart, in 1890. The
German Rudolf Diesel was also working on the same idea, and although his invention
was patented two years after Stuart's, this kind of engines are named after him.
The jet engine was Frank Whittle's invention and was patented in 1935.
The first photo was taken by W. Fox Talbot in 1835, although many people had a
hand in inventing photography. The French Daguerre used copper plates covered with
silver, then, in 1851, glass plates were used for the first time and in 1884 film was made
of celluloid.
The next development was the moving picture and here again a number of people
were concerned. The first public showing of a film was in London in 1890. Many
improvements were made by inventors, mostly in the United States. In 1903 a complete
exciting story was filmed and, gradually, the cinema industry was born.
In 1911 Ernest Rutherford stated that an atom consists of a central nucleus which has
a positive electric charge and constantly circling electrons with a negative electric
charge. This is a tremendous discovery as it forms the basis of modern nuclear physics
and of the industries producing atomic power and nuclear energy.
Atomic energy is obtained by splitting atoms of a rare metal, uranium, in a reactor.
At an atomic power station the reactors get very hot; the gas passing through them
becomes hot too, then it goes into the boilers where it makes steam drive the turbines
which, in turn, drive the dynamos that make electricity.
In 1895 the German Rntgen discovered that rays coming from a tube through which
high-voltage electricity was passed, made a chemically-coated paper nearly glow. If
placing a hand in front of the apparatus, the rays passed through the flesh but left a
picture of the bones on a photographic plate. Rntgen called them X-rays which are
now used in radiography.
The discovery of the transistor in the 1950s and of the small silicon chip with
printed circuits on it in the 1960s made miniaturisation possible and brought computers
into every field of activity. Automatic cookers, digital watches, printers, flight
simulators, pocket calculators,desk-top computers are only few of the new computerbased inventions.
(apud Cmeciu, Doina & Elena Bonta: Essential English Topics)
III.2.a. Economics
economics n. =1.economie politic. 2.economie (a unei ri).
economist n. = 1.economist. 2.econom, persoan econom, strngtoare.
economy n. = 1.economie. 2.economie, agonisire. 3.organizare.
economic adj. = 1.economic, privitor la economie. 2.care aduce ctig, beneficiu, rentabil.
economical adj. = 1.econom, aduntor, chibzuit. 2.economic
to economize v.=1.a economisi, a aduna n mod chibzuit. 2.a face economii.

- Types of economy

42

- agrarian economy = economie agrar. market ~ = ~ de pia. branch ~ = ~ de ramur.

national ~. capitalist ~. planned ~ = ~ planificat. complex ~. socialist ~. feudal ~. state ~. grain
growing ~ = ~ cerealier. world ~ = ~ mondial. inflationary ~ = ~ inflaionist.

III.2 b. Industry
industry n. = industrie.
industrialist n. = industria.
industrialism n. = industrialism.
industrialization n. = industrializare.
industriousness n. = hrnicie.
industrial adj. = industrial.
industrious adj. = harnic, srguincios.
to industrialize v. = a industrializa.

- Industrialization represents the essential factor for the advance of national economy.
It plays a very important part in the development of productive forces, the development
of productivity (= productivitate) and is decisive for the rise of the people's living
standards (= nivel de via). It also guarantees the independence and the overeignity =
suveranitate) of a country.
- Places of work in industry
enterprise (= ntreprindere).factory. plant/works (= fabric, uzin).

- People working in a factory

engineer.foreman (= maistru). technician. worker.

- Types of workers
fire-teaser = fochist.
fitter = montator, instalator.
locksmith = lctu.
mechanic.
milling machine operator = frezor.
operator = operator, manipulant.
painter = vopsitor.
polisher = lefuitor.

printer = tipograf.
sorter = sortator.
staker = fochist.
storeman = magazioner.
turner = strungar.
weaver = estor.
welder = sudor.

- Things they use

- Tools
anvil = nicoval.
borer/drill = sfredel, burghiu (for boring holes in wood or metal).
callipers = ubler.
chisel/scoop = dalt.
chuck/jaws/vice = menghin.
file = pil (for smoothing or cutting hard surfaces).
hammer = ciocan (for driving nails into a piece of wood, etc.).
pass-key = peraclu.
pincers = clete (for pulling out nails, holding something).
plane = rindea (for smoothing).
pliers = patent, ciocan (for holding, bending, pulling wires/nails).
screw = urub.
screw-nut = piuli.
screw-wrench = cheie francez.

- Machines
- simple:
lever = prghie.

43

the inclined plane = plan nclinat.

pulley = scripete.
wheel = roat.
wedge = pan, ic.
- complicated:
boring/drilling machine = main de gurit.
comber/carding ~ = ~ de drcit.
cutting off ~ = ~ de retezat.
forging ~ = ~ de forjat.
gear cutting ~ = ~ de prelucrat roi dinate.
grinding ~ = ~ de rectificat.
lapping ~ = ~ de rodat.
milling ~ = ~ de frezat.
punching ~ = ~ de perforat.
sewing ~ = ~ de cusut.
sheet bending ~ = ~ de ndoit tabl.
sorting ~ = ~ de sortat.
spinning ~ = ~ de filetat, de tors.
straightening ~ = ~ de ndreptat.
thread rolling ~ = ~ de rulat filet.
tool grinder ~ = ~ de ascuit unelte.
lathe = strung.
automatic ~ = ~ automat.
copying ~ = ~ de copiat.
pipe threading ~ = ~ de filetat evi.
spinning ~ = ~ de presat.
universal ~ = ~ universal.

- Raw material used in industry

coal = crbune.
salt.
crude ore = iei.
solid fuels = combustibili solizi.
iron = fier.
timber.
natural gas.
wood.
oil and derivatives of the oil industry. hard ~ = lemn de esen tare.
raw skin = piele brut.
soft ~ = lemn de esen moale.
rubber = cauciuc.

- Processing (= procesul de prelucrare) includes:

boiling = fierbere.
breazing/welding = sudur.
buckling = deformare, ndoire.
casting = turnare.
chipping = dltuire, tiere.
chip removal = achiere.
dismantling = demontare.
drilling/ boring = gurire.
forging = matriare.

greasing = ungere.
grinding = lefuire.
metal working = prelucrare (a metalului).
milling = frezare.
quench = clire (prin rcire brusc).
reaming = filetare.
riffling = striere, zimuire.
riveting = nituire.
soldering/welding = sudare.

- Types of factories and plants/works

cannery = fabric de conserve.
car factory.
metal works = uzin metalurgic.
brewery = fabric de bere.
paper mill = fabric de hrtie.
brickyard = fabric de crmizi. saw mill = fabric de cherestea.

44

distillery = fabric de spirt.

shoe factory.
electric plant = uzin electric. soap manufactoring = fabric de spun.
furniture factory.
steel works = oelrie.
glass manufactory house =
textile factory.
lumber mill = fabric de
waterworks = uzin de ap.
cherestea.
weaving mill = estorie.
stocking manufacturing = fabric de ciorapi.
machine building plant = uzin constructoare de maini.

III.2.c. Engineering
- engineering n. = 1.inginerie. 2.construcie de maini.
engineer n. = inginer.
to engineer v. = 1.a construi (n calitate de inginer). 2.a lucra ca nginer.

Engineering is regarded as the most important branch of industry. It produces

machine tools for all branches of the economy: agriculture machinery; aircrafts; ballbearing (= rulment); computers; cars; control equipment for: iron and steel industry,
chemical industry, oil refineries, glass industry, food industry; diesel electric
locomotives; electrical generators; engines; equipment for nuclear plants; electronic
equipment; electric equipment; fitters; high-precision testing and control apparatus
(microscopes, cameras, laboratory, apparatus, installations for research); oilfield
equipment; tools for mining, forestry and light industries.
- Sub-branches: electronics, electrotechnology, electronic goods, hidraulic and
pneumatic components and installations, optics, precision mechanics.
- Engineers can be:
- mining engineers = find useful minerals.
- metallurgical ~ = separate metals from unwanted substances and
make them usable.
- chemical ~ = use chemicals to make things as explosives, paint,
plastics, soap.
- civil ~ = build bridges, tunnels, roads, railroads, ports, airports, etc.
- mechanical ~ = make and use machines; design jet engines and
factory machinery.
- electrical ~ = work with devices that produce and use electricity.
Using tools and machines implies perfect knowledge of their component parts,
skills in handling and controlling them, awareness of possible accidents, as well as
control of emergency situations.
Engineers have a new tool now: the computer. It is used in laboratories and
offices. The computer was used shortly after the war, to work out complicated
mathematical problems in science and engineering. It accepts information, stores it,
performs mathematical operations, as well as logical operations, supplying the results of
these operations as new information. It has the capacity of controlling the industrial
process and checking the processes automatically.
Computers use terms such as:
analogue = something that varies continuously; the opposite of digital.
binary members = a number coded in a series of 0 and 1 digits, in which the value
of each digit is twice the value of the digit to its right.
bit = a single digit of a binary number. Eight bits are known as "byte".

45

BASIC = Beginner's All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code; language most

widely used by microcomputers.
CPU = Control Processing Unit; it is the "brain of the computer"; it reads
instructions put into the computer and passes them on to other parts; it sorts out
information and does calculations; it sends the results to the input device.
floppy disk = a circular piece of thin plastic coated with a thin layer; the magnetic
material used in recording tape; it can be used to store large quantities of binary
information.
data = the information which is given to a computer for processing.
databank = large stores of data for computers.
digital = something that is separated in units; the opposite of analogue.
input = the data fed into the computer through devices (which are: keyboards,
sensors, cameras, etc.).
interface = a device placed between the computer and equipment connected to it,
which translates input into a code of electronic pulses, and which translates the
computer's results from the pulse code into a form the output device can act on.
hardware = the computer itself and devices connected to it.
output = the result of the computer's processing; it might be displayed on a screen,
printed as words or pictures or cause the movement of a robot's arm.
programme = the set of instructions for the computer either stored in its
permanent memory or fed.
RAM = Random Access Memory: the part of the computer's memory which
temporarily stores information fed into it.
ROM = Read Only Memory: the part of the computer's memory which contains
instructions the computer always needs to help work.
software = the term given to the computer programme.
VDU = Visual Display Unit: the screen on which information from the computer is
shown.
word processor = a specialized typewriter with a VDU used for producing letters in
an office.

History of engineering
Computers have different applications. The scientific technological revolution
has coupled man with the computer. The whole way to this coupling was a long and
difficult one. It started with the stone and continued with the wheel and the engine.
The industrial revolution coupled man with the motor car. Iron was the key to
the industrial revolution. New techniques of manufacture (= fabricare) and the use of
machines powered by waterwheels and steam engines took the place of the traditional
tools: hammers, files or hand-working machines (spinning wheel and hand-looms =
rzboi de esut manual).
The great advances in both the quality and the quantity of iron contributed to the
development of mechanization. The introduction of steam (= abur)-driven machinery
was the greatest achievement of the industrial revolution.
Later, the internal combustion engine (= motorul cu ardere intern) began to be
used. It is a type of engine that works by the combustion of a fuel (= combustibil) and
air mixture within the cylinders of the engine. It is of two types: gasoline engine and
Diesel engine.

46

In the gasoline engine, the fuel, a mixture of gasoline and air is ignited by an
electric spark (= scnteie). The explosion in the top of the cylinder forces the piston
downwards. The piston helps to turn the crankshaft (= arbore cotit). It is used in
automobiles (where 4 - 6 - 8 cylinders are firing one after another). The piston moves up
and down inside the cylinder. It is connected with the crankshaft by a connecting rod
(= tij de legtur). It has also a flywheel (= roat motrice cu aripi; volant) that keeps
the crankshaft moving when no pressure is exerted upon the piston. One valve has the
role of admitting the air and fuel into the cylinder; another one allows the exhaust gas
to escape.
In the Diesel engine the air is compressed in the cylinder. It becomes very hot
and when the fuel oil is injected into it, it explodes without a spark to set it off (= a pune
n micare).
The newest type of engine is the jet engine. It works on the same principle as a
rocket. The air is drawn into the front of the engine and is burned with paraffin. The
gas so formed expands violently and rushes out of the back of the engine - in a jet, and
propels the aeroplane forward with great power. In a rocket, the air is not pushed back
in order to make it go forward; its movement is caused by the action and reaction of the
expanding gases in its combustion chambers. Jet engines weigh less than piston engines
and they go wrong less often. A jet engine burns cheap kerosene instead of costly
gasoline
(adapted from Illustrated Colour Dictionary)
III.2.. Building
- build n. = constucie; statur.
building n. = cldire, construcie.
building-up n. = construire.
builder n. = constructor.
to build v. = a construi, a cldi.
building-site n. = antier.
- A building-site is the place where new buildings are erected/built.

- People working on a building site:

architect = arhitect (designs buildings and supervises their erection).
bricklayer = zidar (a person who builds or paves with bricks = crmizi).
builder = constructor.
civil engineer = inginer constructor.
construction worker = muncitor constructor (measures wood and cuts it into pieces; carries
bricks and metal parts; repairs buildings; follows a building plan in order to make houses,
apartments, stores).
craner = macaragiu (one who works on a machine for lifting and carrying heavy objects).
decorator = paints and papers rooms.
dyer = vopsitor (uses materials for colouring and staining).
electrician =designs, installs, operates or repairs electrical equipment.
glazier = geamgiu (fits glass into windows).
plumber = instalator (unites metal or plastic parts either by heating, hammering or pressing
together).
welder = sudor (unites pieces of metal into homogeneous mass).

III.3. Positions
In any field of activity there are persons who have a high position, who lead, run
and supervise the activity. Such a person is always called chief or boss.
So, we talk about:

47

the captain of a crew or of a team.

commander (of an organized body).
conductor (of an orchestra).
headmaster/headmistress (of a school).
post master = director de pot.
dock ~ = ef de antier naval.
station ~ = ef de gar.
principal.
manager (of a hotel, or a theatre).

B. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Careers for women.
2. What is success in engineering/law/medicine, etc.?
4. What would you like to be and why?
5. Talk about unemployment in your country.
6. You want to find a job for your summer holiday. Write an advertisement.

48

PART II

TECHNICAL ENGLISH TOPICS

II.1. GENERAL TECHNICAL TEXTS
II.2. SPECIALIZED TECHNICAL TEXTS

II.1. GENERAL TECHNICAL TEXTS

II.1.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING
ENGINEERING ENGLISH OR TECHNICAL ENGLISH
The world of modern science has progressed across hitherto impassable
barriers. Never was it more important to have available information on the countless
facts of modern scientific knowledge and achievement. The rapidly changing
technology demands more and more science oriented engineers. They have to refine and
foster widespread application of the developments which have kindled the expansion
of computers, television, synthetic materials, high temperature alloys, new
communication systems and, more recently, the rapidly unfolding fields of nuclear and
aerospace engineering.
The sharp upgrading in engineering has been emphasizing the need of updating the engineers knowledge in order to meet the technological needs of today.
Research people need knowledge of reports and publications in many languages. The
barrier that is set up by a difference in language may constitute as serious an obstacle in
pure science as in practical world of technology. Applied scientists are as anxious as
anyone to learn of the technical progress in other countries, and they are certainly more
interested in getting their information quickly and to apply it.
There are three ways in which scientific information may be acquired:
1. by adequate translation;
2. by persuading scientists to publish their work in the better-known languages;
3. by teaching scientists to read foreign languages.
But translations are not always accurate and sometimes they are hopelessly obscure. The
scientific vocabulary is now so specialized that it may be unintelligible but for the
specialist. It is quite impossible to translate all the received documents. Thus is not
possible to keep pace with the latest discoveries only by translations. In this case even
translating machines are not of great use. It is a great asset for any engineer to be able to
read foreign technical publications in the original.
Specialists should be persuaded into learning engineering English because the
abstract specialized vocabulary is quite limited and it can be easily and rapidly
mastered by reading typical technical texts.
Engineering English is no longer a problem nowadays. Every engineer can
easily and rapidly master it, provided he is set on learning it. This is the conclusion to
be drawn as far as the difficulties in the search for technical information are concerned.
A great philosopher used to say: The knowledge of a language is another weapon in
life.
(adapted from Dnil Viorica, Engleza tehnic i Dicionar de termeni i expresii)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
asset n. = 1. avantaj. 2. valoare.
expansion n. = extindere.dezvoltare.

50

to foster v. = 1. a avea grij de. 2. a incuraja, a favoriza. 3. a stimula. 4. a dezvolta (un

talent). 5. a nutri (sperane).
provided he is set on learning it = cu condiia s fie hotrt s o nvee.
the rapidly unfolding fields = domenii care se dezvolt rapid.
to keep pace with vb. = a ine pasul cu.
to kindle v. = 1. a aprinde, a amorsa focul. 2. (tehn.) a amorsa. 3. (fig.) a strni
(interesul, mnia).
to progress across hitherto impassable barriers = a se dezvolta peste bariere de
netrecut pn acum.
vocabulary n. = 1. vocabulary. 2. lexic. 3. list de cuvinte. 4. (info.) lista codurilor de
instruciuni.
scientific ~ = vocabular tiinific. specialized ~ = vocabular de specialitate.
updating n. = actualizare (a informaiei).
upgrading n. = 1. concentare. 2. ntrire. 3. mbuntire. 4. promovare.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
technical adj. = tehnic. ~ account = cont tehnic. ~ adviser = consilier tehnic. ~
atmosphere = atmosfer tehnic. ~ conditions, specifications = specificaii
tehnice. ~ control = control tehnic. ~ data management = gestiune de date
tehnice. ~ education = 1. invatamant tehnic. 2. nvmnt profesional. 3.
calificare profesional. ~ expression = termen tehnic. ~ manager = director
tehnic. ~ office = 1. birou de proiectare. 2. birou tehnic. ~ orders = prescripii
tehnice. ~ progress = progres tehnic. ~ publications = publicaii cu caracter
tehnic. ~ revision = revizie tehnic. ~ service = serviciu tehnic. ~ studies =
cercetri/studii tehnice. ~ text = text cu caracter tehnic.
technological adj. = tehnic, tehnologic. ~ advance/breakthrough = realizare
tehnologic. ~ gap = decalaj tehnic. ~ needs = cerine, necesiti tehnice. ~
restraint = limitare tehnologic. ~ unemployment = omaj tehnologic.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What does the rapidly changing technology demand?
2. What knowledge do research people need?
3. What are scientists interested in?
4. What is the importance of learning technical English?
II. Find the family of words of the verbs: to achieve, to invent and to create.
III. Choose the most suitable word for each space:
When faced with some new possibly bewildering technological change, most people
react in one of the two 1. They either recoil from anything new, claiming that
it is unnecessary, or too 2. .or that it somehow makes life less than
3. Or they learn to 4.. to the new invention, and eventually
5how they could possibly have existed without it. 6
computers as an example. For many of us, they still represent a 7 .to our
freedom, and give us a frightening sense of a future in which all 8..will be
taken by machines. This may be because they seem mysterious, and difficult to
understand. Ask most people what you can 9

51

A home computer for, and you usually get 10answers about how they
give you the information. In fact, even those of us who are familiar with computers,
and use them in our daily work, have very little idea of how they 11 . But it
does not take long to learn how to operate a business programme, even if things
occasionally go wrong for no apparent reason. Presumably much the same happened
when the telephone and the television became 12 . What seems to alarm
most people is the speed of 13 change, rather than change itself. And
the 14 that are made to new technology may well have a point to them,
since change is not always an improvement. As we discover during power cuts, there is
a lot to be said for the oil lamp, the coal fire, and forms of entertainment, such as books
or board games, that dont have to be 15.. to work.
1. a. moments
2. a. complicated
3. a. formerly
4. a. adapt
5. a. decide
6. a. discuss
7. a. hazard
8. a. measures
9. a. run
10. a. vague
11. are
12. a. in existence
13. a. future
14. a. objections
15. a. wired

b. kinds
b. much
b. lively
b. react
b. wonder
b. propose
b. risk
b. decisions
b. apply
b. such
b. work
b. widespread
b. machinery
b. appliances
b. batteries

c. ways
c. obscure
c. personal
c. conform
c. suppose
c. take
c. control
c. chances
c. learn
c. up with
c. manage
c. through
c. physical
c. criticisms
c. plugged

52

d. types
d. tiresome
d. human
d. use
d. admit
d. thus
d. threat
d. instructions
d. use
d. hundreds
d. consist
d. extensive
d. technological
d. fears
d. connected

II.1.2. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Britain was the first country to experience the Industrial Revolution, about the
middle of the eighteenth century, and by 1850 it was "the workshop of the world."
Already enjoying a vigorous commercial economy, Britain experienced a tremendous
population growth and increasing trade at home and abroad.
The population boom is attributed to several circumstances in Britain at that
time. Good harvests had produced abundant and therefore cheaper food. The plague
years were over, probably as a result of improved water supplies and the availability of
soap. With opportunities for work in industry, people were marrying younger and
producing larger families for whom they could earn the means to provide. The death
rate dropped, and the population increased. Labour was thus accessible for the
development of an industrial society.
Industry's need for fuel sparked expansion in coal mining. Production of iron
depended upon coal smelting, which produced cheap iron for machines and buildings.
The iron industry moved to the central and northern sections of Britain for coal.
Following the invention and improvement of the steam engine, water power was
supplanted by steam power with its ensuing requirement of access to fields.
Britain's foremost industries were wool and cotton weaving. Between 1733 and
1789, a series of ingenious labour-saving machines were invented. They would
dispense with water power and rely on steam for increased production. Hargreaves'
spinning jenny, a cotton-spinning machine that replaced the spinning wheel, and
Cartwright's power loom rejuvenated both the cotton and wool industries. Once the
countryside was dotted with mills beside rivers and streams, but the need for coal drove
the textile industry into the North where it continues to operate to this day.
Industrialization was complemented by a dynamic approach to cheap
transportation. A network of canals was constructed and covered 2,000 miles by 1815.
The canal system reduced coal prices and provided easier access to raw materials and
markets. Furthermore, a man named Macadam had the idea of solidifying road with
small stones, so road traffic was made easier.
This period of British industrial expansion is called the Industrial Revolution. The
rapid change in the nation's economy was effected by the steam engine and various
power-driven machines. Never again would England be an agricultural nation.
(adapted from McGraw-Hill, Encyclopedia of Science and Technology)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
coal smelting n. = prelucrare metalurgic (topire) a crbunelui.
to complement v. = 1.a complementa. 2. a completa. 3.a complini.
to effect v. = a cauza, a produce, a provoca.
foremost adj. = de frunte, de prim nsemntate.
industrial expansion n. = dezvoltare industrial.
labour-saving machine n. = main care face/presupune economie de (brae de)
munc.
plague n. = 1. cium. 2. (fig.) npast.
power loom n. = rzboi de esut mechanic.
population boom n. = explozie demografic.

53

power-driven machine n. = main acionat de motor.

to provide v. = 1. a asigura. 2. a da. 3. a aproviziona.
raw material n. = 1. material brut/primar/de baz. 2. materie prim.
to rejuvenate v. = a rentineri.
spinning jenny n. = prima roat de tors mecanic.
spinning wheel n. = roat de tors.
to supplant v. = a nlocui, a lua locul.
steam engine n. = main cu abur.
steam power n. = energie a aburului.
tremendous adj. = extraordinary/grozav/fantastic de.
water supplies n. = alimentare, aprovizionare cu ap.
wool and cotton weaving n. = esutul lnii i al bumbacului
workshop n. = 1. atelier (de lucru, de reparaii). 2. secie. 3. antier.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
II.1
Industrialization is the process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is
dominant; it entails both technology and profound social changes.
Industrial Revolution the complex of radical socioeconomic changes, such as the ones that
took place in England in the late 18th century, that are brought about when extensive
mechanization of production systems results in a shift from home-based hand
manufacturing to large-scale factory production.
James Hargreaves English engineer, the inventor of the spinning jenny.
Edmund Cartwright British cleric and inventor of the power loom.
John Macadam Scottish inventor of the macadam road surface.
Raw materials are unfinished goods used in the manufacture of a product. For example, a
steelmaker uses iron ore and other metals in producing steel, a semi-finished material.
Steel is then used as an input in many other industries to make finished products.
II.2.
Cause verbs and their collocations
Cause usually collocates with negative results and situations (sadness/unhappiness, an illness,
an accident, problems, trouble).
Produce is more neutral, and deals with more concrete results.
Give can be used for positive or negative ones (pleasure, happiness, a reason for, trouble, good
results).
Generate is often used in contexts where people are forced to do more than usual, and in
computer contexts. It is used in formal contexts (revenue, income, money, extra work,
controversy, documents, interest, enthusiasm, publicity).
e.g. The new computer system has caused us a lot of problems.
His stomach cancer was caused by exposure to atomic radiation.
Scientists can produce statistics and figures that can prove almost anything.
This car is giving me so much trouble, I'm going to get rid of it.
The government will have to generate the extra funds somehow or other.
II.3. Inversion after negative adverbials
In formal and literary language, we use negative adverbials at the beginning of a clause; the
subject and the verb are inverted.
e.g. Never again would England be an agricultural nation.

54

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What does the process of industrialization imply?
2. What made Britain the first country to experience the Industrial Revolution?
3. What are the circumstances that contributed to the population boom in Britain?
4. Give examples of British inventors of labour-saving devices.
II. Decide which cause verb best fits each gap. There may be more than one
possible answer.
1. The decision by the government to relax the regulations has ................. a lot of
investment in the poorer regions.
2. We need to ......................... a list of names and addresses by six o'clock tonight.
3. Her death was ................ by a sign falling from a shop front in the heavy winds.
4. The Governor's remarks almost........... a full-scale war between the two regions.
5. His stupidity ......................... in none of us being able to get home that night.
6. Your letters have .............. me so much pleasure. Please don't stop writing them.
7. The book ............................ a lot of anger amongst female readers.
8. I don't necessarily want to ...... a crisis, but I have some bad news to tell you all.
III. Rewrite these sentences using a more formal connecting expression to replace
'because of: thanks to, as a result of, owing to, due to, as a consequence of.
1. Because of the crash on the motorway, all traffic is being severely delayed.
2. We got there in time, because of your advice.
3. My computer crashed, because of which I lost all the data.
4. Because of one bad decision after another, he's lost all his money.
5. The flight was cancelled because of bad weather.
IV. Write new sentences with a similar meaning with one of the adverbials: never
before, not until, only by, on no account, scarcely.
1. Production of iron depended on coal mining.
2. A vigorous commercial economy, expanding trade, and a population boom
were the conditions requisite for making Britain the first industrial nation.
3. Good harvests had produced abundant and therefore cheaper food than before.
4. With the drop in the death rate and the increase in the birth rate, more labour
was available for industry.
5. Britain experienced a tremendous population growth and increasing trade at
home and abroad.
V. Translate into English:
Revoluia industrial este procesul tehnic complex prin care munca manual este
nlocuit cu mainismul. n acest proces muncitorului i revenea rolul de supraveghere,
reglare i alimentare a mainii. Apariia revoluiei industriale a avut ca efect creterea
produciei, dezvoltarea oraelor i a tiinei. Primul stat n care a avut loc revoluia
industrial a fost Anglia. Primul domeniu n care a fost utilizat maina cu abur a fost
industria textil. (adapted from Internet URL: http://ro.wikipedia.org)

55

II.1.3. THE ROMANIAN INDUSTRY AFTER 1990

The industrial sector increased its relative contribution to national income, but
it underwent a radical structural change. Three branches became much more important:
engineering and metalworking accounted for 25.8 percent of all industrial production in
1990, compared with 13.3 percent in 1950, while electricity and fuels increased their
share from 13.2 to 19 percent and chemicals from 3.1 to 9.6 percent. Two other
branches, metallurgy and building materials, showed a slight relative advance. The
main relative declines were in wood processing and paper, textiles and clothing, and
food processing. The following review gives priority to fuels, electricity, and
metallurgy.
The largest coal reserves are those of bituminous coal; half of Romania's bulk
coal production comes from the Petrosani Depression alone. Except for the Baraolt
Basin, which lies within the Carpathians, most deposits are found in the mountain areas.
A large lignite field in the Motru Valley supplies two of the largest power stations in
the country, Rovinari and Turceni.
Oil deposits are found in deposits in the plains. Bacau and Prahova districts have
long been famous for their oil-refining industry, and they have been joined by the
production from Arges. Oil was also discovered in the Romanian sector of the Black
Sea in 1981. Natural gases mainly methane are produced in the centre of the
Transylvanian Basin, and gases produced as by-products of the oil industry are
becoming increasingly important.
The Romanian iron industry has particularly strong connections with Galati as
well as with Hunedoara and Resita (the last having a record of activity extending back
to the 18th century). The nonferrous metallurgical industry, which also dates from the
Dacian-Roman period, is largely concentrated in the southwest and west, with copper,
gold, and silver production still active. Aluminium production is a more recent
development; small quantities of lead, mercury, and zinc are also produced.
The machine-building and metal-processing industry is the main branch of
the industrial economy, accounting for nearly a third of industrial production. It
provides a good index of the changing priorities in the Romanian economy: before
World War II it accounted for only 10 percent of the total, being exceeded in
importance by food processing and even the textile and ready-made clothing industry.
Contemporary centres of production are Bucharest, Brasov, Ploiesti, Cluj-Napoca,
Craiova, Arad, Resita, and many others, with a considerable degree of regional
specialization. There has been a strong tendency to concentrate on such modern
branches as the electronics industry, as well as to widen and diversify the range of
production.
In contrast to metallurgy (which relies on imports of ore and coke to supplement
the modest domestic resources), the timber industry can rely on domestic raw
materials. The emphasis, in what is a traditional industry, has switched from production
of sawn timber to finished products. A chain of modern wood industrialization
combines turns out a range of products, including furniture and chipboard, which have
done well in foreign markets. The building materials industry also utilizes a wide
range of resources across the country; cement manufacture represents an important subbranch. The main centres are at Turda, Medgidia, Bicaz, Fieni, and Trgu Jiu.

56

The long-established textile industry has also undergone a steady development

since its radical overhaul in the 1930s. The closely connected ready-made clothing
industry has undergone considerable expansion, with a heavy investment in new plants.
Silkworm production retains a modest importance, despite the introduction of synthetic
fibres. Silk, the weaving of which was long the occupation of peasant women in the
south and southwest, has lent much to the beauty of local folk costumes.
Finally, the food industry formerly the foundation of the economy has been
all but eclipsed by the rapid development of other branches. It has, nevertheless,
continued to grow in absolute terms, and processing plants are distributed throughout
the country.

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
bituminous coal n. = crbune bituminos.
by-product n. = 1. produs derivate. 2. produs auxiliar/secundar.
chipboard n. = plac aglomerat din achii de lemn.
to exceed v. = 1. a depi. 2. a ntrece.
to increase v. = 1. a se nmuli. 2. a urca, a sui. 3. a crete.
decline n. = declin, scdere, micorare.
national income n. = venit naional.
to overhaul v. = 1. a examina. 2. a verifica. 3. a reconstrui. 4. a repara.
power station/plant n. = 1. termocentral. 2. uzin electric. 3. central electric.
processing plants n. = instalaii de prelucrare industrial.
slight adj. = 1. nensemnat. 2. superficial. 3. puin.
to undergo/underwent/undergone v. = 1. a trece prin. 2. a suferi.
wood industrialization combine (pulp and paper combine) n. = combinat de
industrializare a lemnului.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
II.1. Branches of industry
Engineering is regarded as the most important branch of industry. The main branches of
industry are:
building industry (industria constructoare), machine-building ~ (a construciilor de
masini), coal industry (industria crbunelui), consumer goods ~ (a bunurilor de
consum), electrical engineering ~ (electrotehnic), fertilizer ~ (ngrmintelor), food
~ (industria alimentar), footwear ~ (industria nclmintei), foundry ~ (metalurgic),
glassware ~ (a sticlriei), handicraft ~ (meteugreasc), iron and steel ~
(siderurgic), iron ore ~ (a minereurilor de fier), knitwear ~ (a tricotajelor), lumbering
~ (forestier), machine tool ~ (a construciilor de maini-unelte), oil extraction ~ (de
extracie a ieiului), pulp ~ (a celulozei), paper ~ (a hrtiei), petroleum ~ (a
petrolului), plastics ~ (a materialelor plastice), processing ~ (prelucrtoare), readymade clothes ~ (a confeciilor), rubber ~ (a cauciucului), sawn timber ~ (a
cherestelei), shipbuilding ~ (constructoare de nave), textile ~ (textil), wood working
~ (de prelucrare a lemnului).
II.2. Aspects of industrialisation
- heavy industry (steel works, shipbuilding) vs. light industry (manufacturing TV sets);
- manufacturing goods (making things) vs. service industry (serving people: tourism,
banking);

57

high-technology (software industry) vs. low-technology (involving little or no computer

technology);
privatisation (selling off state companies to private ones) vs. nationalisation or stateownership; many big industries are run as public-private partnerships, (partly stateowned, partly owned by private industries or businesses).

II.3. Problems in industry

black market = piaa neagr, bursa neagr.
money laundering = splare de bani.
copyright infringement = nclcarea drepturilor de autor.
industrial piracy (e.g. software piracy) = piraterie industrial (ex. piraterie soft, copiere
a unui soft commercial fr autorizarea productorului); industrial espionage =
spionaj industrial.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What are the main branches of Romanian industry after 1990?
2. Use diagrammatic representations (graphs or pie charts) to show the changes
undergone in the industrial production over the past forty years.
3. In what regions is the oil industry more developed in our country?
4. What raw materials are there used in the metallurgical industry?
5. How did the textile industry and the food industry evolve in the past years?
II. Use the expressions explained above to rewrite these sentences with more
appropriate vocabulary instead of the underlined words.
1. The economy cannot depend only on things like restaurants and hotels. We need
to encourage industries that make things we can sell.
2. In this area there are a lot of industries that use computers and things, while in
the north, they depend more on industries that don't use such up-to-date
technology.
3. The idea that everything should be owned by the government is not very popular
any longer, and selling industries off is the typical pattern all over the world
now.
4. Industry with big factories producing things like steel and so on has declined,
and now we're more dependent on industry that makes things like bicycles and
furniture.
III. Use expressions relating to problems in industry to fill the gaps in the sentences
below:
1. ....................is a serious problem in many parts of the world, with factories
producing illegal copies of top brand names.
2. It was a serious case of....................... The designs for the new aircraft were
photographed illegally and sold to a rival company.
3. ........................... is a problem for people who make a living writing books.
Illegal editions mean that the author receives no payment.
4. .......................................... is a huge international problem, as police and banks
try to trace money from the illegal drugs trade and terrorism.

58

5. There is a big ............. in the importation of untaxed luxury cars in some

countries.
IV. Translate into English:
Dei legea oblig companiile din industria energofag s elaboreze un plan de
reducere a consumurilor de energie, prea puini s-au grbit s respecte aceast cerin.
La apte ani de la apariia legii privind eficiena energetic, din peste 400 de
ntreprinderi, cu un consum foarte ridicat de energie electric, foarte puine s-au ocupat
serios s fac aceste planuri de eficien energetic, cu msuri de economisire a
energiei. Cu toate acestea, situaia industriei romneti din punctul de vedere al
consumului energetic este grav, crendu-i acestui sector probleme de competitivitate.
Nici privatizarea industriei nu a determinat modificri importante n ponderea
consumului de energie, ceea ce nseamn c s-a facut o restructurare nesntoas", cu
investitii puine n echipamente performante. Raportat la celelalte ramuri ale industriei
romneti, industria chimic are indicatorul de intensitate energetic cel mai
defavorabil, de 15 ori mai mare dect n rile dezvoltate. (adapted from Adevrul,
February 9, 2007)

59

II.2. SPECIALIZED TECHNICAL TEXTS

II.2.1. TEXTS FOR THE INDUSTRIAL DESIGN SECTION
2.1.1. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
Industrial Design represents art and science involved in the creation of machinemade products. It is concerned with aesthetic appearance as well as with functional
efficiency. The success of a design is measured by the profit it yields its manufacturer
and the service and pleasure it affords its owner.
The term industrial design was originated in 1919 by the American industrial
designer Joseph Sinel. Initially, industrial designers dealt exclusively with machinemade consumer products. Eventually, however, the scope of the profession enlarged to
include the design of capital goods, such as farm machinery, industrial tools, and
transportation equipment, and the planning of exhibitions, commercial buildings and
packaging.
Before the Industrial Revolution, goods were handmade by artisans, who were
usually involved in the whole process of creation, took pride in their work, and often
sold their wares directly to the customer. The development in the 18th century of the
factory system, with mass production and specialization of labour and the appearance
of middlemen, changed the situation. Factory workers tending machines had little
involvement with a product and felt no responsibility to the buyer. Factory owners were
often chiefly concerned with profits. As a result, although many products, such as castiron stoves and building units, were functional many more were ugly and badly made.
Applications of machine-made ornament in hopes of disguising low quality and
pleasing a mass market were usually an aesthetic failure. A few late 19th-century
reformers, such as the English designer William Morris and members of the Arts and
Crafts movement, protested and advocated a return to the standards of medieval
handicrafts. They influenced art nouveau style and the Vienna Secession movement,
but these attempts at improved design had little effect on mass production at the time.
Every design problem requires special procedures, timing, and techniques, but
there is a general routine applicable to all. After the industrial designer is informed of
the needs of the client-including data on the intended market for the product, budget
allocation, and company policy and equipment-specialists associated with the designer
conduct a study of competitive products and an extensive field survey of the
manufacturer's plant. A design program is planned, and preliminary designs of the
proposed product are then sketched on the basis of the available plant facilities. Rough
sketches are chosen for further refinement and study, and the client is then presented
with design studies, often in the form of a small model or of a mock-up. Following the
selection of the approved design, working drawings indicating the choice of materials
and the specifications for finishing and assembly are prepared. A handmade working
model is then manufactured and submitted to the client for approval. In the case of an
automobile, for example, one or several are handmade and tested at proving grounds
before final machine dies are ordered and production begins.
The industrial designer is essentially the creator of a pattern to guide the
operations of skilled persons or machines. The development of industrial design led to

60

the creation of new procedures, such as the method of encasing a product to be

redesigned in soft modelling clay, in order that the modifications in the design may be
moulded directly from the old products. Another industrial-design method is based on
the fact that small models do not reflect accurately the design characteristics of the fullscale product. Distortion often occurs in magnification as a result of highlights and
shadows that change basic spatial relationships. To view the design in full scale, the
profession employs a photographic system in which a small drawing is projected to full
scale on a section of a wall. Revisions of the design are then made directly on the wall
projection by the industrial designers.
(adapted from www.wikipedia.com)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
Industrial Design = Proiectare Industrial (Design/Desen Industrial).
design = I. n. 1. plan; proiect; schi; 2. desen. 3. proiectare. 4. tip, model. 5.
desen/model industrial. II. v. 1. a proiecta, a executa un proiect/un plan. 2. a
desena.
designer n. = desenator; proiectant; constructor; specialist n estetica industrial; stilist.
desingning n. = proiectare.
desingning engineer n.= inginer proiectant/constructor.
design paper n.= hrtie de desen.
machine-made n. = (produs, fabricat) de main.
handmade adj. = (produs, fabricat) de mn; manual.
yield = I. n. 1. producie, debit, randament, productivitate. 2. recolt, 3. venit, profit. II.
v. 1. a produce, a face. 2. a da, a oferi. 3. a aduce, a da randamentul, a aduce un
beneficiu de, a concede. 4. a raporta, a ceda, a rezista. 5. a (se) ndoi, a (se)
ncovoia. 5. a preda, a nclina, a nchina, a ndupleca.
deal, dealt, dealt with v. = a avea de-a face.
sell, sold, sold v. = a vinde.
lead, led, led v. = a duce la.
machinery n. = mainrie, mecanism, instalaie de exploatare, utilaj.
equipment n. = echipament.
packaging n. = ambalare; ambalaj; mbuteliere; mbidonare.
ware(s) n. = produse (finite), articole, fabricate, ceramic.
appearance n. = 1. nfiare; 2. aparen.
badly adv. = ru.
aesthetic adj. = estetic.
aesthetics n. = estetic.
to advocate v. = a sprijini.
handicraft n. = 1. meserie. 2. munc manual. 3. articol de artizanat.
attempt = 1. n. ncercare; tentativ. 2. v. a ncerca.
applicable adj. = aplicabil.
client-including data n. = date ce includ clientul.
plant n. = 1. plant. 2. instalatie, utilaj, fabric. 3. uzin, mecanism, echipament,
exploatare.
sketched adj. = schiat, desenat.
facilities n. = utiliti, faciliti.
refinement n. = rafinament.
drawing n. = desene.

61

pattern n. = ablon, tipar.

clay n. = argil, lut
scale n. = scar, scal.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to yield v.
1. give a natural product, a result, etc.
This technique might yield better results
The land in the valley yields very rich crops.
2. give away, cease opposition.
The bar may yield to the application of dynamic loads.
This theory has yielded ground in the last few years.
3. yield n. = amount produced (in agriculture, by a reaction, etc.).
Higher-yield seeds have been used this year.
They have obtained bigger yields per hectare by using modern fertilizers.
The reaction yield has been separated into several elements.
Do not mix up the following verbs:
to lie, lay, lain = a sta, a se afla, a consta in.
to lay, laid, laid = a pune, a aeza.
to lead, led, led = a duce, a conduce la.
to lie, -ed, -ed =a mini.
Examples:
The main difficulty lies in checking the values of some parameters. (const n)
The principle lying at the basis of this theory must be made clear.( ce se afl)
The town lay in a sheltered valley, at the foot of some hills. (este aezat)
He laid out the main exhibits side by side. (a aezat)
They have laid emphasis on the economic considerations that account for this
decision. ( au pus accent)
N. Wiener and C. Shannon laid the basis of the modern theory of
communications at the beginning of our century. (au pus baza)
Any rush decision may lead to unforeseen consequences. (poate duce la)
Once you have lied to somebody he will lose his faith in you. (ai minit)

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is Industrial Design?
2. What does Industrial Design include?
3. When did it first appear?
4. What does the process of designing imply?
5. What does an industrial designer do?
II. Change according to the model:
Model: client-including data = data which include clients.
people who speak English
satellites which carry messages
systems which process data
oven which burns oil
surface which carries load
lubricant which contains grease

62

III. Give the nouns corresponding to the following verbs: to appear; to create; to
introduce; to substitute; to accept; to complete; to acquire; to assume.
IV. Complete each sentence with a word from the box. One of the words is used
twice.
after away back down for in on out up with
0 Im longing for a few weeks holiday.
1 Excuse me, Id like to try ________________ this jacket. Where are the
changing rooms?
2 Ill lend you the money but you must pay me ________________ by Friday.
3 Christine said shed drop ________________ to see her aunt on the way home
from Scotland.
4 Do you think my new shirt will go ________________ these trousers?
5 Paul promised to help me with the decorating today but hes gone to a football
match instead. Hes really let me ________________ .
6 Joanna put ________________ a thick pair of boots as it was snowing outside.
7 Lets go ________________ to Paris for the weekend. Ive never been there.
8 Did you know that Louise is going ________________ with my ex-boyfriend?
9 Robbie wanted to dress ________________ as Batman for the party.
10 Jack takes ________________ his father. Theyve even got the same ears!
V. Underline the correct word in each sentence.
0 Before we set off, we listened to the climate/weather forecast.
1 My favourite/preferred time of year is Spring.
2 Our main bureau/office is in Swindon.
3 Can I just write that date down in my agenda/diary?
4 Your hair is too long. Give me those cutters/scissors and Ill cut it.
5 Im always pulling up crops/weeds in the garden. They get everywhere.
6 At present people resign/retire at 65. In the future it may be different.
7 The car has got a small engine/machine and is very economical to use.
8 Lots of chemicals farmers use harm/spoil the environment.
9 Julies studying to become a primary school professor/teacher.
10 Bill thanked the guest/host for the party and went home.
VI. Translate into English:
Drepturile proiectrii industriale reprezint un bun intelectual care protejeaz
proiectarea vizual de obiecte ce nu sunt pur utilitare. O proiectare industrial const in
crearea unei forme, configurarea sau compunerea unui ablon sau culori, sau
combinarea ablonului si a culorii ntr-o forma tridimensional cu valoare estetic.
Proiectarea industrial poate fi un ablon bi- sau tridimensional folosit pentru a produce
un produs, o marf sau un articol de artizanat.

63

2.1.2. AUTOMOTIVE DESIGN

Automotive design is a profession involved in the development of motor
vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This includes: automobiles, motorcycles,
trucks, buses, coaches, vans. The design and development of a modem motor vehicle is
typically done by a large team from many different disciplines. Automotive design in
this context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics
of the vehicle, though is also involved in the creation of the product concept. The task of
the design team is usually split into three main aspects: exterior design, interior
design, colour and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of automotive
design; this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit.
Exterior design (styling)
The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the
proportions, shape and surfaces of the vehicle. Exterior design is not the most important
factor in the program, but it does play an important role. People are different in tastes,
so whether it is how comfortable a car is or how good it looks depends on different
individuals. The designer's role is to put a little bit of both into the automobile. Exterior
design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively more
detailed drawings are executed and approved. Clay and or digital models are
developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are then used
to create a full sized mock-up of the final design.
Interior Design
Interior Design is a multi-faceted profession in which creative and technical
solutions are applied within a structure to achieve a built interior environment. The
stylist responsible for the design of the vehicle interior develops the proportions, shape
and surfaces for the facia, seats, trim panels etc. Here the focus is on ergonomics and
comfort of the passengers.
Colour and Trim design (AKA Colour and Materials design)
The colour and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and
development of all interior and exterior colours and materials used on a vehicle. These
include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim
and so on. They work closely with the exterior and interior designers. Designers draw
inspiration from other design disciplines such as: industrial design, fashion, home
furnishing, and architecture. Specific research is done into global trends in design for
projects two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from this
research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive
industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts which
are then further refined and tested on the vehicle models.
Colour, contrast, texture and pattern must be carefully combined to give the
vehicle a unique interior environment and personality.
Graphic design
The design team also develops graphics for items such as: badges, dials,
switches, kick or tread strips, liveries etc.
Practice
Originally it grew out of the American car industry where artists working with
water based paints would create visuals for future ideas. It is practiced by designers who
usually have an art background and a degree in industrial design or transport design.

64

The automotive designers today continue in this tradition but use more sophisticated
tools such as coloured markers and computers.
Automotive design tends to differ from the industrial design disciplines in that it
has an important kinetic dimension that involves emotion and dynamics. These qualities
have a strong influence on the way designs are created, especially with regard to
exterior designs and the visuals. It also tends to drift into futurism and fantasy art,
creating visions of future worlds often not event on Planet Earth. In many ways it has a
lot to do with our moving forward in the universe and the expression of ideas. Many
designers find places in the film creating designs and models on film sets such as Star
Trek and Blade Runner.
(adapted from www.wikipedia.com)

A. VOCABULARY
I . WORDS AND PHRASES
vehicle n. = vehicul.
truck n. = camion.
coach,-es n. = 1. autocar 2. trsur, diligen. 3. vagon de pasageri (obinuit). 4.
meditator, antrenor.
van n. = dub; camion de mobil.
amongst prep. = dintre, printre.
fit adj. = potrivit; corespunztor.
surface n. = suprafa. smooth ~ = suprafa neted. rough ~ = suprafa
aspr/neprelucrat.
to play, v. = a (se) juca.
clay and or digital models n.ph. = modele de lut i/sau digitale.
mock-up n. = machete, model.
facet n. = muchie, fatet, suprafa.
multi-faceted adj. = multi-faetat.
facia, fasciae n. = tablou de bord.
seat n. = loc (de ezut / stat).
trim panel n. = panou (mbrcat in estur, material plastic etc) care acoper structurile
caroseriei n habitaclu.
ergonomics n. = ergonomie; adaptarea muncii la om; antropotehnic, biotehnic.
comfort n. = confort; mulumire; consolare.
materials design n.ph. = proiectarea materialelor.
paints n. = vopseluri.
plastics n. = tipuri de plastic.
fabric n. = testur; stof; material.
leather n. = piele.
grain n. = 1. structur granular, granulaie; fibrozitate; 2. grunte, bob, smnt;
cereale. 3. granul, fibr, fir.
carpet n. = covor.
headliner (roof's fabric lining) n. = capitonarea capotei.
lining n. = dublur, cptuseal.
wood trim n.ph. = ornamente de lemn.
to draw inspiration v. ph. = a se inspira.
home furnishing n.ph. = mobilier si ornamente interiore.
trend n. = tendin.
to keep track, v.ph. = a nregistra, a ine socoteala.
environment n. = ambian; mediu.

65

badge n. = insign, semn.

dial n. = cadran, disc cu numere.
switch n. = ntreruptor.
livery n. = livrea.
to grow, grew, grown (out of) v. = a se dezvolta din, a proveni din.
background n. = fundal, istoric (trecut, experient); art ~ = istoric (trecut) artistic.
to drift v. = a fi purtat, a se ndrepta spre.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
coach box n. = capra vizitiului.
coach class n. = clasa a doua.
coach-and-four n. = caret cu patru cai.
coachman n.= vizitiu.
to split v. = (into) a mprti n, a despica, a sparge; ~ the atom = a dezagrega/a fiziona
atomul; ~ the differences = a da diferena pe din doua.
to draw, drew, drawn v.
tr.v.
1. To cause to move after or toward one by applying continuous force; drag: draw the
chair closer to the table; a team of horses drawing a wagon.
2. To cause to move in a given direction or to a given position, as by leading: The
teacher drew the children into the room to see the decorations.
3. To move or pull so as to cover or uncover something: draw the curtains.
4. To cause to flow forth: a pump-drawing water; a blow that drew blood.
5. To require (a specified depth of water) for floating: a boat drawing 18 inches.
7. To take or pull out: drew a gun from beneath the counter; drew out a fat wallet.
8. To cause to come by attracting; attract: afraid the casino will draw undesirable
elements to the town.
9. To select or take in from a given group, type, or region: draw clients from all levels of
society.
10. To bring to a certain condition or action; lead: drawn to despair; drew them to
resign.
11. To bring about deliberately; provoke: draw enemy fire; draw a penalty on an
opponent.
12. To formulate or devise from evidence or data at hand: draw a comparison.
13. To compose or write out in legal format: draw a deed.
intr. v.
1. To proceed or move steadily: a ship drawing near the shore.
2. To attract customers or spectators: The new play is drawing well.
3. To pour forth liquid: The patient's veins don't draw easily.
4. To take in a draft of air: The flue isn't drawing.
5. To use or call upon part of a fund or supply: drawing on an account; drew from the
experience of fellow workers.
6. To contract or tighten: material that draws when it dries.
7. To conclude a contest without either side winning; tie: The chess players drew in 32
moves.
8. To make a likeness with lines on a surface; sketch.
to play, v. = a (se) juca.
playful adj. = glume, vessel.
playfulness n. = zburdlnicie.
seat n.= 1. loc (de ezut / stat), scaun, banc, canapea. 2. loc, bilet. 3. loc (n parlament
etc.). 4. tblie (a scaunului). ~ belt = centur de siguran. ~ box = capra
vizitiului. ~ frame = rama scaunului.

66

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is Automotive Design?
2. What is the task of the design team?
3. What does exterior design imply?
4. What does interior design presupposes?
5. What does colour and trim design mean?
6. Who can practice automotive design?
II. Illustrate five meaning of the verb to draw, as a transitive verb and five
meanings as an intransitive verb.
III. Complete each sentence with a word formed from the word in capitals.
0 Nowadays its very important to get a good education .
EDUCATE
1. I dont have much ____________ of European history.
KNOW
2. My pencil has broken! Have you got a ____________?
SHARP
3. Tomorrow Im going to send off my ____________ form for the job. APPLY
4. Her brother works in the factory as an ____________.
ENGINE
5. The ________ in this city has got worse. I find it difficult to breathe. POLLUTE
6. Tony Blair is one of Britains most famous __________.
POLITICS
7. Ive been out of work for ages. Its not much fun being ________.
EMPLOY
8. If you go to court you will need a good _____________.
LAW
9. Our team is very _________. Weve won three international competition this
year.
SUCCEED
10. Its very difficult to live in London on a low ______________.
COME
IV. Translate into English:
Un nume rsuntor nu trebuie s fie lung. ntr-adevr, pentru muli iubitori de
maini, Opel GT este maina sport a anilor `70. Acum legendarul nume se ntoarce:
Opel a prezentat noul GT publicului n premier la Salonul Auto de la Geneva 2006.
Cu linii distincte, traciune spate i un motor turbo pe benzin cu patru cilindri, noua
main sport va fi ecoul succesului nregistrat de conceptul original GT, care a fost
produs ntre 1968 i 1973.
Este o plcere s conduci noul Opel GT mulumit motorului situat n partea din fa
i a traciunii spate, fapt ce asigur o distribuire echilibrat a greutii, i a celor 260 de
cp ai motorului 2.0 litri ECOTEC turbo pe benzin. Acesta accelereaz noul GT de la 0
la 100 km/h n mai puin de 6 secunde i permite o vitez maxim de peste 230 km/h.
Design-ul a fost inspirat de conceptul VX Lightning creat de GM Advanced Design
Studio din Birmingham, Marea Britanie n mai 2003 la a 100-a aniversare a mrcii
Vauxhall. Noul GT va fi produs n Statele Unite, acolo unde sunt produse i celelalte
modele nrudite lui, Pontiac Solstice i Saturn Sky. Noul Opel GT este prevzut s ias
pe pia n primvara anului 2007.
(http://www.streetracing.ro/lansari-si-noutati/noul-opel-gt.html)

67

2.1.3. GRAPHIC DESIGN

Graphic design is the applied art of arranging image and text to communicate a
message, or facilitate understanding. It may be applied in any media, such as print,
digital media, motion pictures, animation, product design, packaging, and
information signs.
Graphic design as a practice can be traced back to the origin of the written
word, but only in the late 19th century did it become identified as a separate entity.
Graphic design is a porous discipline, and overlaps significantly with other
disciplines, including, but not limited to, the visual arts, architecture, interior design,
illustration, photography, human computer interaction, user interface design,
information design and interaction design. Designers may produce ethnographies as
part of the qualitative research for defining needs or features for a product, service or
communication object. A relatively recent development is the closely related practice of
experience design.
Some fundamental principles of design are alignment, balance, colour, contrast,
emphasis, movement, pattern, proportion, proximity, repetition, rhythm, texture,
unity, and white space.
According to the classic theory of design (or graphic design, visual design, art),
the visual pleasantness of a work of design is a result of how the composition of the
elements of design follows the principles of design. There is no authorative classic
theory of design, since the recognition of these qualities has existed for thousands of
years. First conceptualized accounts have probably appeared in early books about
architecture, and composition in art.
The elements of design are the fundamental, isolated parts or element of design
may appear explicitly or implicitly (e.g. the boundary between two areas of contrasting
colour is an implicit line). They refer to point, line, form (shape), texture and colour. A
line is the track made by a point moving in space. Wherever the ends of a continuous
line meet, a shape is formed. Wherever the ends of a continuous line meet, a shape is
formed. Geometric shapes such as circles, triangles or squares have perfect, uniform
measurements and don't often appear in nature. Organic shapes are associated with
things from the natural world, like plants and animals. All colors are mixed from three
primaries: red, blue and yellow. Space can be two-dimensional, three-dimensional,
negative and/or positive. As in the real world, those things nearest to us can partially
overlap objects that are farther away. Everything, including works of art, has a texture
or surface. Texture can be rough, bumpy, slick, scratchy, smooth, silky, soft, prickly, the
list is endless.
The principles of design are general characterizations of relations between
elements in a composition: balance, rhythm, proportion, dominance and unity. Balance
is achieved by the resolution of weight, stress and tension. There are three different
types of balance: symmetrical, asymmetrical and radial. As a composition is developed
an artist may stress some elements of the design over others. The eye of the viewer will
focus on the area of emphasis or center of interest first, then take in the rest of the
composition. Repeated shapes, lines, or colors create movement and rhythm in a
composition.
(adapted from www.wikipedia.com)

68

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
media n. (pl.)= mijloace, medii (sg. media). print ~ = mijloace scrise (ziare, reviste,
etc). digital ~ = mijloace digitale.
motion pictures n.ph. = filme artistice.
animation n.= animaie.
product design n.ph. = proiectarea produselor.
packaging n.= ambalare.
information signs n.ph. = simboluri informaionale .
to be traced back v.ph. = a fi identificat.
only in the late 19th century did it become identified = de-abia n secolul al XIX-lea
a ajuns sa fie identificat.
porous adj. = poros.
to overlap v.= a nclca, a se suprapune.
ethnography, -ies n. = etnografie.
feature n.= trstur caracteristic.
experience design n.ph. = proiectare/design experimental.
alignment n. = aliniere.
balance n. = echilibru.
emphasis n. = accent.
movement n. = micare
pattern n. = model, ablon.
proportion n. = proporie.
proximity n. = proximitate.
rhythm n. = ritm.
texture n. = textur.
white space n.ph. = spaiu liber.
pleasantness n. = gentilee, amabilitate.
authorative adj. = autoritar.
recognition n. = recunoatere.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
boundary, ies n.= limit, granit, margine.
Examples:
boundary behaviour = comportare la frontier / la limit.
boundary cluster set = mulimea punctelor limit la frontier.
a boundary emission = emisiunea la limita de band.
boundary equation = ecuatie limita.
boundary value = valoare limit.
boundary value problem = problem la limit / la frontier.

B. EXERCISES
I . Reading and comprehension:
1. What is graphic design?
2. What are the principles of design?
3. What are the elements of design?
4. What is the relation between the principles and the elements of design?

69

II. Write the number of sides corresponding to the names of shapes:

Example: 3-triangle
....-quadrilateral/square; ....-pentagon; .....-hexagon;....-septagon; ....- octagon;.....nonagon;....-decagon
III. Give the plural form of the following nouns: datum, date, axis, locus, criterion,
formula, medium, maximum, spectrum, index, focus, matrix.
IV. Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.
0 By 11.00 I felt so tired/tiring that I went to bed.
1 How many photos did you make/take on holiday?
2 I read a really interested/interesting article in the newspaper today.
3 That meal we had yesterday was horrible. I particularly/properly disliked the
fish.
4 Have you got any more clothes to put in the dishwasher/washing machine?
5 Ive told you now/time and again to do your homework!
6 John hates waiting more than ten minutes for a bus. He gets very
impatient/unpatient.
7 Sharon was early for her appointment so she read a magazine to lose/pass the
time.
8 Shall I turn the central conditioning/heating off. Its very hot in here.
9 Marcus always said/told the truth. It was impossible for him to lie.
10 It was awful/awfully difficult to read the sign as it was so dark.
IV. Translate the following text into Romanian; give more information on the uses
of robots:
Industrial Robots
The following are the three basic components of an industrial robot: controller,
manipulator, tooling. The robot controller functions as the brain and nervous system of
the robot. It can any programmable device from a rotary drum switch to a full computer.
The manipulator consists of the base and the arm of the robot, including the power
supply, usually hydraulic, electric or pneumatic. The manipulator is the component that
provides movement in any number of degrees of freedom. The hand or gripper, can be
mechanical, vacuum, or magnetic device for part handling. Generally, industrial robots
are classified into: simple robots, medium technology robots and sophisticated industrial
ones.
V. Translate into English:
Aria unei figuri n plan poate fi aproximat cu numarul de puncte cu coordonate
ntregi pe care le conine. Cu ct figura este mai mare, cu att aproximaia este mai
buna. n cazul unui poligon convex cu vrfuri ntregi, exist o legtur direct cu
formula Pick (1899), ntre numarul de puncte ntregi coninute n poligon, numarul total
de puncte ntregi de pe laturi i aria poligonului. n dimensiune superioar ns,
nlocuind poligonul cu un politop convex, calculul volumului devine complicat. De aici
ncolo, este nevoie de instrumente de lucru mult mai puternice dect o simpl analiz
combinatorial. Este exact locul unde intervine Geometria Algebric.
(Marian Aprodu, Introducere n geometria varietatilor torice - www.imar.ro)

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2.1.4. DRIVING AN ELECTRIC CAR

Electric cars are in many ways similar to gasoline powered cars. They are
comfortable, reliable and handle well. Electric cars are very quiet. So quiet that you
can barely hear the motor run, even at top speed. Electric cars are so quite that they
can be a danger to pedestrians crossing the street since pedestrians can not hear the
car coming. An electric car operator must be constantly aware of this problem while
driving in populated areas.
Until recently, most electric cars fell into two categories--cars converted from
gasoline power, such as a VW or a Chevy Chevette or tiny cars such as the 1975 CitiCar. In the case of the Citi-Car, it has a normal range in the summer of about 40 miles
and in the winter time about 30 miles per charge. With intermittent charging
throughout the day, one is able to travel up to 70 miles distance per day. The average
driver drives an estimated 28 miles per day. Most electric cars today have built in
battery chargers and all that is required to recharge is a long extension cord and plug
into a regular 110 Volt home outlet. It takes about 7 hours to fully recharge the
batteries. It is possible to greatly reduce the charging time by increasing the charging
voltage, however by doing this; the life of the batteries is shortened. The Citi-Car uses
eight special 6 volt "deep cycle" batteries. These batteries weigh more then normal car
batteries and are designed to endure up to 2000 charges. Under normal conditions, this
translates to about two years of use. A set of eight deep cycle batteries can cost as little
as $450. When recharging, the Citi-Car uses about the same amount of electricity as a
150 watt light bulb.
ACCELERATION: An electric motor has what is known as continuous torque
and therefore has almost the same horsepower at any speed, though an electric motor is
more efficient at high rotational speeds. For this reason, an electric car normally has
better acceleration from standstill than the acceleration of a gasoline powered car. The
Citi-Car can out accelerate most cars from 0 to 20 miles per hour. The top speed of the
Citi-Car is however only 40 miles per hour.
BUT ARE THEY SAFE? There are many different types and sizes of electric
cars. Most electric cars are much heavier then they look, due mostly to the weight of the
batteries. The Citi-Car for example, weighs about 1600 lbs. Since most electric cars are
limited production cars, they are built the same way as most racing cars, with tubular
steel frames. As a result, most electric cars are structurally very strong, stronger then
most conventionally produced gasoline cars.
NO POLLUTION? No, not exactly. Though the electric car itself does not burn
fuel, most power plants use fossil fuels to generate electricity, so we must consider the
pollution created at the power plant. It is estimated that an electric car, charging from a
conventional fossil fueled power plant, produces less then 20% of the pollution created
by a standard gasoline powered car.
WHAT ABOUT SOLAR POWER? With current technology, it is not possible
to effectively run a car directly from the sun. So-called solar powered cars are in reality
solar charging battery powered cars. The sun is used to charge the batteries.
Nevertheless, there have been remarkable developments in the area of solar cells and in
the development of ultra light weight solar charging battery powered cars. For example,
the GM Sunraycer, weighs 390 lbs, is 3.3 feet high, 6.6 feet wide and 19.7 feet long and
averaged 41.6 miles per hour over a total of 44.9 driving hours. The GM Sunraycer is

71

considered one of the most advanced "solar" cars in the world and in 1987 won the
Solar Challenge race in Australia--a 1,950 mile race. Other solar cars have attained
speeds of over 110 mile per hour.
ARE THERE MORE ELECTRIC VEHICLES OVERSEAS? There are
more electric vehicles in the United States than in all other countries in the world
combined. There are over 40,000 registered electric vehicles in the United States (over
15,000 in California alone). Japan, for example, has fewer than 2000 registered electric
vehicles.
(adapted from http://www.didik.com/driving2.htm)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
gasoline powered car n. ph. = main pe benzin.
reliable adj. = de ncredere.
to handle v. = a (se) manevra.
top speed n. ph. = vitez maxim.
pedestrian n. = pieton.
30 miles per charge = 30 mile de ncrcare.
70 miles distance per day = 70 mile pe zi (1 mile=1,609344 km).
built-in battery chargers n. ph. = ncrctori cu baterii ncorporate.
to recharge v . = a rencrca, a realimenta.
extension cord n.ph. = cablu de alimentare electric.
plug = I. 1. v. a bga n priza. II. 2. n. priz electric.
outlet n. = orificiu; scurgere; ieire.
charging voltage n.ph. = tensiune de alimentare.
to shorten v. = a scurta.
to endure v. = a suporta.
a 150 watt light bulb n.ph. = un bec electric de 150 watts.
torque n. = cuplu de torsiune.
horsepower n. = cal putere.
rotational speed n.ph. = vitez de rotaie.
standstill n. = 1. oprire. 2. incetare. 3. impas.
weight n. = greutate.
to weigh v. = a cntri.
tubular steel frames n.ph. = rame de oel tubulare.
power plants n.ph. = uzine electrice.
fossil fuel n.ph. = combustibil fosil.
390 lbs = 390 pounds (1 pound =453,59237 grame)
3.3 feet high = 3,3 picioare (n) nltime.
6.6 feet wide = 6,6 picioare (n) ltime.
19.7 feet long =19,7 picioare (n) lungime.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to run v. = 1. to work, to be in operation, journey to and for. 2. to manage.
run n. = operation, cycle, performance.
running characteristics = performance characteristics.
running order = operating condition.
running in period = testing period for engines or new machinery.
to run into somebody = to meet somebody by chance.
to run out of = to become shod of (supplies).
to run down = to stop working, be out of operation.
to run up to = to go up to, amount to (expenses).

72

run down adj. = tired, exhausted.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What are the characteristics of an electric car?
2. How is the acceleration of an electric car compared to that of a gasoline powered
car?
3. Are electric cars safe?
4. Do electric cars pollute the environment?
5. Can an electric car run with solar power?
II. Fill in the blanks with one of the following
A. to run
B. to run (a school, a plant)
run
to run into somebody
running characteristics
to run out of
running order
run down (adj.)
running in period
to run down
to run up to
A. Those old and noisy pieces of machinery have been replaced by new ones which
... very smoothly. The purchase of new equipment was inevitable since the old one was
no longer in ... Before they start operating these new machine, they will have to get
perfectly familiar with their. The curve described by the beam of an oscilloscope
during one ... can coincide with the curve described during the next. No buses or trams
will. . .in this area today because extensive road repair is being undertaken. Cars taken
straight from the assembly line will need a ... to test their reliability and performances.
B. We might. .. petrol if the next filling-station is closed, too. It's no use trying to
start the engine if the battery has ... The outlay (expenses) for the re-equipment of the
laboratory might. .. millions of lei. Yesterday, while coming out of the library I ... an old
friend, whom I hadn't seen for years. I didn't recognize him at first as he looked rather.
... The clock in the hall ':1as ... because nobody wound it up last night. The pew plant
will be ... by the board of directors.
III. Match the following words with the definitions: cruise, journey, tour, travel, trip,
voyage
1. the general activity of moving from place to place (uncountable noun)
______
2. going from one place to another, usually over a long distance or long time_______
3. going to a place, staying there, and coming back again
_______
4 a circular journey during which you visit several places
_______
5. a holiday on a large ship
_______
6. a long journey by sea or in space
_______
IV. Translate into English:
Motorul electric primete energia electric i o transform n energie mecanic.
Exist multe tipuri de motoare electrice. Motoarele cu curent alternativ pot fi: motoare
sincrone, motoare polifazate i motoare monofazate. Motoarele cu current continuu pot
fi grupate n 3 clase: motoare cu excitaie n serie, motoare n derivaie i motoare
compound.

73

2.1.5. CIGARETTE PACK GRAPHICS

Traditionally, the primary function of a package was to simply contain and
protect the product. However, factors such as increased competition and clutter on the
retail store shelf have meant that for most products, packaging must perform many
sales tasks, such as attracting attention, describing the product, and helping to make the
sale. The often cited four Ps of marketing - price, promotion, product, and placementare concepts that summarize the domains of marketing strategy.
As a crucial part of the both the product and promotion, packaging assists
consumers to select among other relatively homogenous products. Cigarette packaging
is no exception. In the case of cigarettes, however, packaging is even more critical for
several reasons.
Firstly, unlike many other products where the packaging is discarded after
opening, smokers generally retain the cigarette pack until the cigarettes are used and
keep the pack close by or on their person. Thus, cigarette packs are constantly being
taken out and opened, as well as being left on public display during use. This high
degree of social visibility leads cigarettes to be known as badge products. A cigarette
package designer, John Digianni, states: a cigarette package is part of a smoker's
clothing, and when he saunters into a bar and plunks it down, he makes a statement
about himself. When a user displays a badge product, this is witnessed by others,
providing a living testimonial endorsement of the user on behalf of that brand and
product.
Cigarette brands enjoy the highest brand loyalty of all consumer products, with
less than 10% changing brands annually. Brand choices are usually made early during
the life of a smoker, with a high concordance between the brand first smoked and the
brand eventually selected as usual brand. Thus, once a consumer embraces a cigarette
brand, it is quite unlikely that they will change.
When there is less opportunity to establish brand imagery through traditional
methods of advertising, as is increasingly becoming the case as advertising restrictions
come into force, packaging plays a more important role in establishing and driving
brand image.
The primary job of the package is to create a desire to purchase and try. To do
this, it must look new and different enough to attract the attention of the consumer. So,
have a look at these questions and answer them as you consider best:
1. What roles do colour, pack size, and pack construction, for example, play in
influencing potential consumers -especially starter smokers, but also other subgroups of
consumers - to select one brand over another?
2. What role does packaging play to maintain brand choice against increasing
concerns about smoking health risks?
(adapted from www.designboom.com)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
clutter n. = agitatie, dezordine, harababur.
retail n. = vanzare cu bucata.
sales tasks n.ph. = sarcinile vanzrilor.

74

homogenous adj. = omogen, compact.

to discard v. = a renunta, a indeprta, a inltura, a arunca (crtile la joc).
public display n.ph. = expunere/prezentare public.
badge products n.ph. = produse de marc.
to saunter v. = a face o plimbare.
to plunk something down v. = a arunca; a aseza (ceva pe).
brand n. = marc, brand.
to embrace v. = a imbrtisa.
brand imagery n.ph. = stilul legat de marc.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARIES
Mind the possible ways to render the Romanian a face, a executa into English:
To do
-a syntax analysis;
- a calculus by hand;
- work on a body;
- an accurate determination;
- an experiment - your duty;
To make
- progress, advances;
- efforts, attempts;
- generalizations, predictions;
- a comparison;
- an approximation;
- an assumption, an assessment;
- a list;
- a choice;
- a decision;
- connections;
- transistors, diodes, circuits;
- an experiment, a measurement;
To carry out - an operation;
- calculations;
- instructions;
- commands;
- experiments;
- a study, an investigation;
- a research project;
- a process;
To perform
-a specified activity;
- a task, a function;
- duties;
- operations, calculations;
- validity checks;
- a logical process;
- specific jobs;
To effect
-a regulation;
- adjustments;
- an extension;
To execute
- an instruction;
- a command;
- operations;
To accomplish - simplification;
- improvements;
- an analysis.

75

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is the function of a package?
2. Why is cigarette packaging important?
3. How can a brand influence peoples choice?
II. Use the right preposition or adverbial particle from the list below in the
following sentences:
make up of = a alctui.
make up with = a se mpca cu cineva.
make up for = a compensa, a recupera.
make out = a ntelege, a completa.
make for = a se ndrepta spre.
1. He made straight .the library, when he finished his work.
2. The term is made . several initials.
3. When he made ... his friend, after their quarrel, he admitted he had been wrong.
4. We couldn't make ... the inscription on the stone, though we tried very hard.
5. Let us quickly check the results and make ... the time we wasted with setting up
the device for our experiment.
6. Every molecule is made ... of a number of elementary particles.
7. Take a look at this diagram; I can't make ... what is wrong with it.
III. Supply one of the English equivalents for the Romanian a face, a executa as
required in each sentence:
1. While accompanying Davy on his tour in Europe, Faraday had many duties to
.....
2. A further extension to sampled data systems was ... with the post war
development of Z-plane operational methods.
3. A computer program 'consists of a huge number of individual instructions which
are ... one by one to operate on data.
4. The developments being ... in the use of light pens are quite spectacular.
5. In ten days Faraday ... a series of experiments successfully demonstrating the
existence of electromagnetic induction.
6. This simplification was ... at the expense of the response speed.
7. An individual fact ... nothing more than provide the single piece of information
it contains.
8. Such transistors are currently ... at the Electronica Factory.
9. Regulation is ... with respect to a set point.
10. Mathematical logic can be.by letting the ON and OFF states refer to true and
false.
11. Some computers could five million internal operations.
12. The state of a body can be changed by work on it.
13. A computer ... its functions fast and accurately.
14. The assumption is ... that the system is stable.
15. They always try to ... their duty to the best of their ability.

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IV. Underline the most suitable word.

0 Anyone who has high stress levels/layers/rates should read this book.
1 Margaret has some beautiful flower boxes on her window sill/frame/shelf.
2 I always put the central conditioning/heating/warming on as soon as it starts to
get cold.
3 The departs/departure/leaving lounge is a non-smoking area.
4 They booked their holiday through a tour/trip/travel agent on the High Street.
5 After he was made redundant, Chris got a temporary job/work/employment in a
restaurant.
6 The level/cost/price of living is much higher in the south of the country.
7 My sister won first place/prize/class in a cookery competition last weekend.
8 Ive got a spare ticket for the tennis court/game/match on Friday. Would you
like to come with me?
9 Keith prefers to wear shirts with short sleeves/arms/cuffs to work.
10 I enjoy window shopping/buying/looking when I havent got much money to
V. Translate into English:
Ambalajul constituie forme de acoperiri care au un anumit scop: de acoperire a unui
produs sau a unui coninut. Cu toate aceasta sau chiar prin aceasta ele au o importan
foarte mare n potenialul de difereniere pe pia i reprezint chiar o strategie
investiional cuprins n forma de prezentare. Designul ambalajului poate fi vzut ca un
caz special al designului produsului.
Acesta este definit prin legtura deosebit pe care o are ambalajul cu produsul i
prin funciile concrete care le deine. Prin mbinarea produsului cu ambalajul se obine
un pachet, care poate fi uor folosit. De aceea, cerinele unui ambalaj depind de coninut
(de ex. consisten, pericol, sensibilitate, mrime), de funciile i cerinele care trebuie
ndeplinite i care pot veni de la consumator, societate, mediul nconjurtor, comer,
logistic sau chiar de la productor. Din cauza creterii n ultima vreme a gunoiului de
ambalaje, au fost create discuii critice despre materialele i mrimea ambalajelor. S-a
ajuns n unanimitate la concluzia c acestea trebuie reduse. Despre posibilele soluii nc
nu exist claritate (ambalaje de unic
Designul ambalajului, bazat pe o textur repetitiv care pune n valoare elementele
identitii vizuale (logo i palet de culori), comunic o imagine tnr, cald i
optimist, identificnd n mod unic brandul n rndul produselor concurente avnd drept
culoare dominant tonuri albe sau reci i fiind identificate primar eventual doar prin
logo.

77

2.1.6. DENIM
Denim is also called blue jeans, jeans, dungarees, or Levi's. The word jeans
comes from a kind of material that was made in Europe. The material, called jean, was
named after sailors from Genoa in Italy, because they wore clothes made from it. The
word 'denim' probably came from the name of a French material, serge de Nimes: serge
(a kind of material) from Nimes (a town in France). The traditional denim is a durable
twill-woven cotton fabric with coloured (usually blue) warp and white filling threads;
it is also woven in coloured stripes.
Denim has quite a history, as the fabric phenomenon of the last centuries:
the 18th century: in the eighteenth century as trade, slave labour, and cotton plantations
increased, workers wore jean cloth because the material was very strong and it did not
wear out easily.
the 19th century or the California gold rush: the gold miners wanted clothes that
were strong and did not tear easily. In 1853, Leob Strauss started a wholesale
business, supplying clothes. Strauss later changed his name from Leob to Levi.
the 1930's: westerns cowboys - who often wore jeans in the movies-became very
popular.
the 1940's war: fewer jeans were made during the time of world war 2, but
they were introduced to the world by American soldiers, who sometimes wore
them when they were off duty. After the war, rival companies, like Wrangler
and Lee, began to compete with Levi for a share of the international market.
the 1950's-rebels: in the 1950's, denim became popular with young people. It
was the symbol of the teenage rebel in TV programmes and movies (James Dean
in the 1955 movie A Rebel Without A Cause). Some schools in the USA banned
students from wearing denim.
the 1960-70's: hippies & the cold war: different styles of jeans were made, to
match the 60's fashions: embroidered jeans, painted jeans, psychedelic jeans,
etc. In many non-western countries, jeans became a symbol of 'western
decadence' and were very hard to get.
the 1980's designer jeans: jeans became high fashion clothing, when famous
designers started making their own styles of jeans, with their own labels on
them. Sales of jeans went up and up.
the 1990's: recession: although denim is never completely out of style, it
certainly goes out of 'fashion' from time to time. These years the youth market
was not particularly interested in 501s and other traditional jeans styles, mainly
because their parents: the 'generation born in blue' were still busy squeezing their
aging bodies into them. Since no teenager would be caught dead in anything
their parents are wearing, the latest generation of rebellious youth turned to other
fabrics and other styles of casual pants, such as khakis, chinos, combat and
carpenters and branded sportswear pants. They still wore denim, but it had to
be in different finishes, new cuts, shapes, styles, or in the form of aged,
authentic, vintage jeans, discovered in markets, secondhand- and thrift shops,
not conventional jeans stores. Levi Strauss & co., the number-one producer of
jeans and the "single most potent symbol of American style on planet earth" (as
the Los Angeles times succinctly put it), is in trouble. Eleven North American
factories close, a nation grieves.

78

2000: reinventing denim: something decidedly weird is happening in the world

of denim. The products need to be reinvented from time to time and jeans have
been back on designers catwalks, at Chanel, Dior, Chloe and Versace. The single
most potent symbol of fashion, summer '99, Tom Ford's feathered, beaded,
beat-up, torn-knee Gucci blue jeans, seen globally, sell out instantaneously at
$3715 a pop. And then, on the internet, there was the shining image of Helmut
Lang's silver-sprayed pants, striding out beyond our conception of basic
utility.
Freed of all social and creative restrictions, denim is assuming any number of
disguises and contexts to be worn in and has broken through almost any limitation on
price. It can also be found in home collections, appearing in cushions, bed spreads and
furniture-coverings.
But if denim is making a major fashion statement, where does that leave the
traditional jeans brands? The old mass market has segmented, fragmented, shattered
into a multitude of mini, micro and niche markets. The last generation has a vast
quantity of brands to choose from, a different perception of the cult value of owning
small insider labels and a fanatical loyalty only to what is hot on a daily basis.
Denim is no longer a cotton only product. Denims come with either polyamide,
lycra, polypropylene or with polyester and a special bonding with a 100% nylon net for
a more active look. Two-way stretch fabrics and special coatings or rubberized
effects continue to be a strong trend. The shabby, rotten or dirty look in line with the
trend for vintage denim looks set to be around with the 'homespun look' with his
irregular appearance. Lighter, softer denims in dress and shirting weights were
introduced. Various natural fibers, such as linen, hemp or wool and for the luxe looks
even silk and cashmere are turning up in new denims to give them different aesthetics.
(adapted from www.britannica.com)
FACTS
- Why is denim blue? Denim is unique in its singular connection with one
colour. The warp yarn is traditionally dyed with the blue pigment obtained from indigo
dye. Until the introduction of synthetic dyes, which was at the end of the 19th century,
indigo was the most significant natural dye known to mankind, linked with practical
fabrics and work clothing. The durability of indigo as a colour and its darkness of tone
made it a good choice, when frequent washing was not possible. In 1870 BASF in
Germany, originally suppliers of natural indigo had started the search for a synthetic
substitute; in 1894 the process was perfected.
- Who invented the fasteners? A big problem with the miners clothes was
represented by the pockets, which easily tore away from the jeans. Jacob Davis had the
idea of using metal rivets (fasteners) to hold the pockets and the jeans together so that
they would not tear. Davis wanted to patent his idea, but he did not have enough money,
so in 1872, he wrote to Levi Strauss and offered Strauss a deal if Strauss would pay for
the patent and Strauss accepted.
- When did the label first appear? The label first appeared in 1886, when Levi
sewed a leather label on their jeans. The label showed a picture of a pair of jeans that
were being pulled between two horses.
- Who started to prewash them? Jack Spence for Lee
- Who started with stone-wash? Francois Girbaud

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-What stones where used? First pea gravel, then pumice, because they floated
around with the jeans, instead of lying on the bottom of the water; Turkish stones are
preferred for their porosity and cleanliness or stones from Sicily, but their supply is
limited.
- Who started sandblasting? Different brands used it in 1988 in Italy
(adapted from www.olah.com)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
fabric n. = esatur, stof, material.
twill-woven cotton fabric n.ph. = material din bumbac cu estur n diagonal.
warp n. = estur, urzeal.
filling thread n.ph. = fir de umplutur.
to weave, wove, woven = a ese.
stripe n. = dung.
phenomenon n. = fenomen (pl. phenomena).
to wear out, wore, worn v. = a (se) uza.
to tear, tore, torn v. = a rupe.
off duty adj. = n afara serviciului.
banned students from wearing denim = a interzis studentilor s poarte denim.
jeans n. = jeansi; embroidered ~ =jeani brodai. painted ~ = jeani pictai. vintage ~
= jeansi vintage ( cu o aparen de uzat: guri, poriuni decolorate, franjuri i
tivuri descusute). beaded ~ = jeani impodobii cu mrgele, inte, paiete,
trasuri sau broderie. torn-knee ~ = jeani sfaiai.
to go up v. = a crete.
out of style adj. = stil demodat.
out of 'fashion' adj. = demodat.
khakis n. = nuante de kaki.
chinos n. = chinezrii.
combat pants n.ph. = pantaloni de camuflaj.
carpenters pants n.ph. = salopete.
branded sportswear pants n.ph. = pantaloni sport de firm.
finishes n. = finisaje.
cuts n.= tieturi.
thrift shops n.ph.= magazine economice.
to grieve v. = a supra; a se ntrista.
weird adj.= ciudat.
catwalk n.= podium de mod.
feathered adj.= 1. cu pene, mpnat. 2. fig. naripat, avntat. 3. fig. bogat, avut.
to beat-up v. = a lua cu asalt.
to sell out v. = a (se ) vinde.
$3715 a pop n.ph. = 317 $ perechea.
silver-sprayed pants n. ph . = pantaloni cu argintiu.
striding out v. = ntrecand.
niche markets n. ph. = niele de piat.
on a daily basis n. ph. = zilnic.
bonding n. = legtur.
nylon net n. ph. = plasa de nylon.
two-way stretch fabrics n. ph. = esturi elastice n ambele sensuri.
special coating n. ph. = mbrcminte special.

80

rubberized effects n. ph. = efecte cauciucate.

shabby adj. = 1. zdrenros; 2. srccios. 3. jerpelit.
rotten adj. = 1. stricat. 2. cariat. 3. groaznic.
dirty adj. = murdar, obscen.
in line with prep. = n pas cu.
homespun = I adj.1. lucrat n cas. 2. fig. simplu, modest; fr haz. II. n. 1. estur de
cas. 2. fig lucru simplu.
fiber n. = fibr.
linen n. = in.
hemp n. = 1. canep; 2. marijuana.
wool n. = lan.
silk n. = mtase.
cashmere n. = camir.
turn n. = rotire; ntoarcere; curb; cotitur; rnd ; aptitudine; plimbare.
warp yarn n.ph.= fir textile in testur.
dyed adj. = vopsit.
fasteners n. = capse, clame, fermoare, etc.
label n. = etichet.
to prewash v. = a prespla.
pea gravel n. = pietricic.
pumice n. = cuguar, puma.
to float v. = a pluti.
cleanliness n. = curenie.
sandblast n. = a laundry process where jeans before washing are literally shot with
guns of sand to make the jeans look as if they have been worn. While originally
done only by hand, this processing has recently become automated. Chemicals
are now used in many laundries replacing sand. (sablare).
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
at every turn = la tot pasul.
by turns = cu schimbul.
to turn v.= a (se) nvrti; a (se) ntoarce; a (se) roti; a (se) transforma; a deveni.
to turn a deaf ear = a refuza s dea ascultare.
she has turned fifty = a mplinit 50 de ani.
to turn in = a se culca.
to turn off = a nchide (un robinet).
to turn on = a excita.
to turn out = a da afar.
to turn up = a se ivi.
to turn down = a refuza.
to turn out= a se dovedi.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is denim?
2. Identify some stages of denim usage in clothing.
3. Who prefers to wear denim?
4. What are the new types of denim?
5. What is the colour of denim and why?

81

II. Kinds of material. Match the following names of materials with their definitions
1. corduroy; 2 cotton; 3. denim; 4. flannel; 5. lace; 6. leather; 7. linen; 8. nylon; 9. silk;
10. suede; 11. velvet; 12. wool
a. a.cloth made of flax, used especially for making shirts, bed-sheets,
tablecloths
b. cloth made from soft hair of sheep, used for making sweaters
c. thread spun from a soft white fibrous substance found round the seeds of a
plant: used for making shirts, underwear, etc.
d. material made from the soft thread from the cocoons of certain insects, used
for making scarfs, etc .
e. material made from animal skins, used for making shoes, gloves, bags, etc.
f. kind of soft leather made from the skin of goats, with the flesh surface
rubbed into a soft nap, g. used for making gloves, shoes, etc.
g. synthetic fibre used for making stockings and blouses
h. cloth with a thick soft nap on one side, used for making dresses, etc.
i. thick strong cotton material with raised lines on it; used for making trousers
or suits
j. a delicate fabric of interlacing threads; used for making wedding dresses,
nightgowns, etc.
k. a soft, nappy, woollen cloth of loose texture; used for making shirts or
trousers
l. a coarse cotton cloth used for jeans

III. What do the following symbols mean? Match the symbols with the
corresponding instructions

.do not wash

.hand wash in lukewarm water
. do not use chlorine bleach
.dry flat
.tumble dry

..hang to dry
..drip dry
..do not iron
..dry clean only

82

IV. Match the styles with the pictures.

......baggy;
.belted
.checked; .crew/turtle neck
..floral; ..high heeled;
..pleated; .... striped
V. Translate into English:
1. Un produs textil care conine dou sau mai multe tipuri de fibre nregistrat cu
85% din produsul final trebuie s fie marcat cu tipul de fibr urmat de un
procent, ex. Bumbac 80% Polyester 15% Nylon 5%.
2. Dac un produs are n compoziie dou sau mai multe componente cu coninut
diferit de fibre, ex. o jachet cu cptuseal coninutul fiecreia trebuie
menionat pe etichet.
3. Orice material decorativ care se gsete n produs n proporie de 7% sau mai
puin este exclus din indicarea coninutului de fibre.
4. Cuvntul 'pur' trebuie utilizat numai n cazul n care produsul este confecionat
dintr-o singura fibr.
5. Cuvantul 'mtase' nu poate fi utilizat pentru descrierea texturii oricrei alte fibre;
ex. mtase acetat nu este permis.

83

II.2.2. TEXTS FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGETICS AND

MECATRONICS

2.2.1. HOW RADAR WORKS

Many people think that radar is something mysterious and hard to understand.
Actually, the idea of radar is simple. The word radar stands for radio detection and
ranging. A radar device sends out very short radio waves. The waves bounce back
from any solid object they meet and report where it is. The bouncing of these radio
waves is very much like that of sound waves. You know that when you shout you may
sometimes hear an echo. The sound waves of your voice bounce against a hill or a wall
and return to your ear. Your voice is transmitter (sender). Your ear is the receiver. To
hear an echo, you must wait until the sound waves have time to return to you. The
longer they take, the farther away they have been.
Radar must wait for the return of waves, too. But radio waves move very much
faster than sound waves. The radar transmitter sends out its waves in pulses lasting
one or two thousands of a second. Between pulses, the transmitter, turned off, becomes
a receiver. For one or two thousandths of second this ear picks up echoes.
The big radar antenna at an airport turns round and round watching the skies. It
sends out a narrow beam of radio waves. The antenna fans up and down. It brushes the
sky in a circle about 30 miles in radius.
The radio waves hit any airplane that comes within about 30 miles of the airport.
They bounce back from the plane to a big reflector near the receiver. The reflector
focuses them on the receiver. From the receiver, these signals from the radio waves are
sent electrically to the control room. There they appear on a screen as little spots of
light, called blips. A blip does not look like a plane. But observers in the control room
can recognize a blip that means a plane.
The screen is like a television screen, though it is circular. From its centre an
arm swings round, matching the swings of the radar antenna around the sky. When a
plane approaches, the electric charge of its echo reaches the arm. The charge causes
a blip at the point on the screen that matches the planes position. While both the
antenna and the arm on the screen are swinging, the blip glows. The screen is coated
with a chemical that holds the blips light for a short time. As each new blip appears, the
old blip fades. The trail of the blip shows the planes direction.
By watching the blips, the observer can see airplanes coming and trace their
courses. At the same time, the observer knows the distance of each plane from the
airport. The distance is figured electrically by measuring the time that each radar signal
takes to bounce back.
There are many other kinds of radar devices. For instance, one kind is used on
ships to prevent crashes. Another kind is the speed-trap radar used by the police. Each
kind has extra features. In all of them, though, the principle of radar is the same: send
bounce report.
(Banta, Andrei & Poreanu , Rodica, Limba englez pentru tiin i tehnic, p.123)

84

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
beam n. =1. grind, bar, travers. 2. (bra de) balan. 3. raz, mnunchi de raze. 4.
nimb, aureol. 5. lime (a navei). 6. travers de punte, travers mobil, travers.
blip n. = impuls scurt, punct luminos.
duplexer n. = anten simultan, unic de emisie recepie.
electric charge n. = sarcina electric.
pulse n. = impuls, vibraie.
radar n. = 1. radar, radiolocator. 2. radiolocaie, staie de radar. ~ antenna = antena
radar. ~ devices = aparat/ dispozitiv /mecanism/ instrument radar. speed-trap ~
= zona de control a vitezei. ~ transmitter = emitor / transmitor /
manipulator / microfon / staie de radio / emisie.
radio ranging n. = radiobalizare. radiodetecie.
radius (-i) n. = 1. raz (de cerc). 2. distan, ntindere. 3. spi (la roat).
reflector n. = 1. reflector. 2. imagine reflectat, reflex, reflecie, reflectare.
to bounce v. = 1.a lovi. 2.a ricoa. 3.a se reflecta.
to coat v. = 1. a placa. 2. a acoperi. 3.a mbrca.
to swing v. = 1.a oscila. 2.a se balansa. 3.a se roti.
wave n. = 1. val, und. 2. fluturare a minii, semn cu mna. 3. val (de cldur, team,
violen) radio ~ = und radio. sound ~ = und de sunet. electric ~ =
electromagnetic. ground ~ = und terestr. heat~ = val de cldur, raz
caloric. light ~ = und luminoas.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to stand against (to withstand, to resist = a se mpotrivi, a rezista la)
No one could stand against this argument.
to stand back (to move back = a se da ndrt)
They stood back to let the car pass.
to stand for (to be in favour of, to advocate = a susine, a sprijini)
He stood for justice at the latest national conference.
to stand out (to be distinct/better than others = a se distinge)
His work stands out from that of others
to stand up for (to defend = a apra)
The rebels stood up for their rights.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is radar?
2. Where does the word radar come from?
3. What principle lies at the basis of all radar operation systems?
4. Have you ever seen a radar? If so, where?
5. What radar applications do you know?
6. What other forms of communication can you list?
II. Make up sentences of your own with the phrasal verb to stand.
III. Match each problem (aj) with a solution (1-10).
a. The door squeaks. ......

85

b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.

The battery is dead. ......

The pencil is blunt. .......
The screw is c o mi n g loose. .........
My watch has stopped. ......
The car seat is too far back. ......
The light bulb is flickering. .......
The car's got a few t h i ng s wrong with it. ......
The wall looks very bare. ......
The TV isnt picking up the signals from the video recorder.

1. It needs servicing.
2. It needs tightening.
3. It needs painting.
4. It needs oiling.
5. It needs re-programming.
6. It needs recharging.
7. It needs sharpening.
8. It needs winding up.
9. It needs adjusting
10. It needs replacing.
IV. Fill in each blank with a one of the following words: radar, antenna, range, echo,
target, duplexer, indicator, detection.
1. The..is a device used to isolate the transmitter from the receiver during
radar operation.
2. The pulses are sent by an.and are reflected as an .by the
..back to the antenna.
3. The direction at which the.points gives the direction of the..
4. The time interval is measured through an.
5. ..was used for the of the ship
6. The transmitter and the receiver have the same
7. The.of the ship was beyond our capabilities.
8. The distance from the spot to the center of the screen corresponds to
the.of the target.
9. Many ships use a PPI (plan position indicator) indicator as well as other.
10. Theis used to measure the distance.
V. Translate into English:
Radarul este una din cele mai importante cuceriri ale tiinei secolului XX.
Funcionarea radarului se bazeaz pe fenomenul e reflecie a undelor electromagnetice
n banda de frecven ultrascurt. Domeniul de aplicare a radarului este foarte variat. El
se ntrebuineaz cel mai adesea pentru detectarea obiectelor n micare, pentru
orientarea avioanelor, pentru cercetarea fundului mrii, n meteorologie i n multe
altele. Radarul care folosete efectul Doppler este capabil nu numai s pun n eviden
direcia unui obstacol, dar i s evalueze viteza cu care acesta se apropie sau se
ndeprteaz. Instalaiile de radio locaie de acest fel folosesc o emisie continu i
recepie curent. Pe acest principiu sunt construite instalaiile de radar ale poliiei pentru
depistarea autovehiculelor care circul cu vitez excesiv.

86

2.2.2. THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT AND ITS ELEMENTS

The simplest electric circuit consists of a source of energy, or power source
(e.g. a primary cell, accumulator, or generator), a receiver of energy (e.g. an electric
lamp, electric heating device, or electric motor), and two conductors connecting the
receiver and power source terminals. The power source transforms mechanical,
chemical, radiant, or other energy into electromagnetic energy, which is often simply
called electric energy; the energy receiver, on the contrary, transforms the electric
energy to other forms of energy: radiant, thermal, mechanical and so on. The power
source, together with the conductors and receiver (load) connected to it, forms a closed
loop, along which an uninterrupted stream of electric charges (an electric current) flows.
This is called an electric circuit. With respect to the source, the conductors and receiver
(load) from the so called external circuit.
The direct cause of flow of electric current in a circuit is the electromotive force
(E M F) of the power source. Conventionally, the direction of the current in the circuit is
taken to coincide with the direction of the e m f. The direction of the current is thus
from + to in the external circuit and from to + inside the source. Both the external
circuit and the source possess resistance, the value of which depends upon the material,
shape and dimensions of the conductors comprising these parts of the electric circuit.
The magnitude or intensity of the current in the circuit depends on the
magnitude of the e m f and the resistance of the whole circuit. The relationship
between these quantities is expressed by Ohms law, which plays a very important role
in electrical engineering, being the basis of many practical calculations. According to
this law, the current 1 in a circuit is directly proportional to the e m f E and the inversely
proportional to the resistance R of the whole circuit. Ohms law can be applied to the
circuit as a whole and, separately, to any portion of the circuit outside the power source.
(adapted from Banta, Andrei & Poreanu , Rodica, Limba englez pentru tiin i
tehnic, p. 69)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
conductor n. = 1. conductor, director, responsabil.2 . dirijor. 3. taxator. 4. dispozitiv de
ghidare. 5. coloan de ghidaj.
device n. = 1. dispozitiv. 2. aparat. 3. mecanism. 4. instrument.5. deviz. 6. procedeu
(stilistic). 7. truc. 8. iretlic.
electric adj. = 1. electric. 2. electrizant.
flaw n. = 1. defect. 2. crptur, fisur, ruptur. 3. punct slab. 4. viciu. (aici) flux,
curgere.
load n. = 1. sarcin, ncrctur. 2.solicitare. 3. povar, greutate. 4. grmad, mulime.
loop n. = 1. bucl. 2. deschidere, orificiu, ochi. 3. arc, resort. 4. luping, bucl.
magnitude n. = 1. mrime, dimensiune. 2. importan, nsemntate.
intensity n. = 1. intensitate, putere, trie, vigoare. 2. tensiune. 3. ncordare, concentrare,
atenie.
power source n. = surs de energie.
primary cell n. = element galvanic.
receiver n. = 1. receptor, primitor. 2. destinatar. 3. consignator. 4. ncasator, preceptor.
5. recipient, rezervor, collector.

87

relationship n. = 1. relaie. 2.legtur. 3. raport.

shape n. = 1. form, chip. 2.aspect. 3.configuraie. 4. model, mostr, tipar. 5. aspect,
nfiare, inut.
terminal n.= 1.born. 2. capt. 3. sfrit. 4. terminal (la aeroport), final. 5. terminus,
ultim.
thermal adj. = termic, caloric, calc, fierbinte.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Phrases / idioms with the verb to take

to take something in one's hand = a lua ceva n mn
to take a taxi = a lua un taxi.
to take somebody by the hand = a apuca pe cineva de mn.
to be taken ill = a cdea bolnav.
to take a journey = a face o cltorie.
to take a bath = a face baie.
to take a nap = a trage un pui de somn.
to take a look/glance = a arunca o privire.
to take a step = 1. a face un pas. 2. (fig) a lua o msur.
to be taken in a trap = a cdea n curs.
to be taken in the act = a fi prins asupra faptului.
to take five from ten = a scade cinci din zece.
to take great pleasure in = a-i face mare plcere s fac ceva.
to take into account = a lua n considerare.
to take effect = a fi eficace.
to take leave = a-i lua rmas bun.
to take offense at = a se supra pe.
to take along = a lua cu sine.
to take away = 1. a sustrage (un document, etc.). 2. a lua, a duce cu sine (pe cineva).
3. a retrage (un copil) de la coal. 4. a tia (respiraia). 5. a nltura, a suprima;
to take down = 1. a demonta. 2. a demola. 3. a nota. 4. a umili.
to take in = 1. a adposti (pe cineva). 2. a fi abonat la, a primi (un ziar). 3. a include. 4.
a pricepe, a sesiza. 5. a trage pe sfoar.
to take off = 1. a dezbrca, a scoate (o hain). 2. a lua, a duce (pe cineva undeva). 3.
(nav) a lua (pasageri) pe bord. 4. a reduce (preul), a lsa mai ieftin. 5. a copia.
6. a ucide. 7. a scdea. 8. a ndeprta.
to take on = 1. a ntreprinde. 2. a-i asuma (o responsabilitate). 3. a se msura (cu
cineva). 4. a conduce mai departe.
to take out = 1. a scoate (un dinte). 2. a scoate la plimbare. 3. a invita, a duce (la teatru,
la restaurant).
to take over = 1. a trece (pe cineva dincolo de un ru, etc.). 2. a prelua (un serviciu,
etc.).
to take up = 1. a culege. 2. a ridica. 3. a aduna, a strange. 4. a bea. 5. a relua (un
refren). 6. a accepta (o provocare). 7. a lua n mn (o afacere). 8. a adopta (un
copil).
to take after = a semna cu.
to take from = a diminua (valoarea, venitul).
to take off = 1. a pleca. 2. (av.) a decola.
to take to = 1. a porni, a se ndrepta (ctre). 2. a recurge la.
to take to one's heels = a o terge.

88

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is an electric circuit and what does it consist of?
2. What is a loop?
3. What is the direct cause of flow of electric current in a circuit?

II. Complete each sentence with one of the words given: agent, competitor,
executive, industrialist, producer, client, dealer, foreman, labourer, trainee. Use each
word once only.
1. Nowadays you often find that the top in a company is a woman.
2. If you have any problems with your work, talk to the .
3. Happy chips is the number oneof potato crisps in the country.
4. Im starting next week as a .. chef in a large hotel.
5. Our company is the for several large insurance companies.
6. David was not content until he had become a rich..
7. Our firm is quite a long way ahead of our nearest.
8. With mechanization it is difficult to find work as an unskilled
9. I have been working as a used car.for the past six months.
10. A company should make every.feel important.
III. In the following text, complete each space with a word or compound
word formed from these words: cylinder, fight, safe, protect, proceed.
Attach the rotating motor to the (1) ...... lead-pipe. Screw the motor down into place.
If the motor does not engage, remove it and (2) ...... the lead-pipe. All engineers
installing or repairing this machinery must observe all necessary (3) ...... precautions.
This includes the wearing of goggles, masks and other (4) ...... equipment.. For
instructions on how to remove the outlet valve, please refer to the (5) ...... described
on page 28 of this manual.
IV. Translate into English:
A.
1. Noi depindem de rezultatele tale pentru a termina lucrarea.
2. Opiniile lui nu au coincis niciodat cu prerile mele.
3. Legile lui Ohm se aplic circuitelor electrice.
4. Energia solar poate fi transformat n energie termic i electric.
5. Computerul nostru va foi conectat la banca naional de date.
6. Te-am ateptat ieri sear s ne aduci tiri despre experiena ta.
7. Banii pe care i-ai ctigat sunt proporionali cu timpul ct ai muncit.
8. Importana acestei descoperiri const n largul ei domeniu de aplicare.
9. Coninutul crii trebuie s corespund cu descrierea ei.
B.
Absena ineriei s-ar putea s fie determinat de viteza axial a electronilor. Aadar,
pentru a nregistra procese foarte rapide, ar trebui folosite osciloscoape de nalt
tensiune. S-au putut urmri dou mrimi variabile simultan pe ecran. Alegerea unui
ecran corespunztor va trebui s fie fcut cu mare grij. Se poate explica principiul de
funcionare al unui astfel de tub cu ajutorul unei diagrame simplificate. Osciloscopul
este ct se poate de util n studierea proceselor periodice.

89

2.2.3. ELECTRICAL GENERATORS

An electrical generator is a rotary converter which transforms mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The simplest form of electrical generator is a two pole magnet,
with a coil of wire mounted in such a manner that it can be rotated between the poles to
cut the lines of force passing from pole to pole. As the coil rotates, a voltage is
generated in it. The voltage depends on the speed at which the magnetic lines of force
are being cut by the coil.
According to the current produced, generators can be divided into alternating
and direct-current generators.
The excitation of direct-current generators is provided by a stationary electric
circuit consisting of one or more field coils of wire placed on each of the field poles.
The magnet motive force produced by these coils, when current flows through them,
provides the required amount of magnetic flux across the air gap and through the
armature of the generator. The early types of direct-current generators had only two
poles. Such machines are known as bipolar generators. With the demand for high
capacity generators it was found necessary to use more than two poles, hence today
practically all direct-current generators have at least four poles. High-speed generators
will have smaller diameters and fewer poles than low speed generators.
Practically all modern alternating current generators are wound three-phase.
Alternating-current generators can be classed as engine type, water-wheel type, or
steam-turbine type. Since the angular velocity of any type of internal-combustion
engines is not uniform, it is necessary that such generators be operated with a large
flywheel mounted on the same shaft as the generator and the engine.
Water-wheel type alternators are driven by water turbines. The range of
operating conditions for this type of units is very great.
Turbo-generators are all of the horizontal type. The high speed at which these
generators run necessarily makes their relation of length to diameter much greater than
in the definite-pole engine type machines; also since a high-speed machine is so much
smaller for the same capacity than a slow-speed one, the amount of heat liberated will
be much greater in proportion to the size of the machine. This requires forced
ventilation and in order to place the ventilating air properly at the point where it will do
the most good, turbo-generators are totally enclosed, with definite air passage through
the machine.
Direct-current generators used for lighting should not have a voltage regulation
higher than 2 percent. In contrast to such a value, the regulation of an alternator at 80
percent power factor may be as high as 42 percent. Good voltage regulation of
alternators means very low synchronous reactance, and hence very high values of
current under short circuits. It is more important to the operating engineer that
generators be able to stand without injury a complete short-circuit than to have
generators of good voltage regulation.
When an alternator is to be connected in parallel with others already in
operation, great care is necessary in closing the switches at the proper instant. The e.m.f.
(electro motive force) of the incoming machine must have the same frequency as the
line. The difference between two instantaneous e.m.f. values will circulate a shortcircuit current which may be injurious to the apparatus. In order to indicate to the
operator the proper moment for closing the switches, various synchronizing devices are

90

used. (adapted from Banta, Andrei & Poreanu , Rodica, Limba englez pentru tiin
i tehnic, p. 155)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
alternator n. = alternator. turbine - alternator = turboalternator.
angular velocity (-ies) n. = vitez unghiular.
coil of wire n. = spiral/bucl.
cut v. = 1. tietur. 2. lovitur. 3. (med.) incizie. 4. fason, croial. 5. linie (a
trsturilor). 6. bucat, felie. (text) cupon. 7. scoatere a unei pri (dintr-un text).
8. micorare. 9. (i shortcut) scurttur. 10. gravur (n lemn, n aram). 11.
tiat. 12. (fam) cut and dried = de-a gata, (fig) lipsit de prospeime.
definite-pole engine type machine = main cu poli apareni.
generator n. = 1. generator. 2. surs. high-speed generator = generator de mare
vitez. low-speed generator n. = generator de mic vitez. water wheel
generator = hidrogenerator.
incoming machine n. = main care se pune n paralel.
internal-combustion engine n. = motor cu combustie intern.
short circuit n. = scurtcircuit
steam- turbine n. = turbin cu aburi.
synchronizing device n. = dispozitiv de sincronizare.
synchronous reactance n. = reactan de sincronizare.
velocity n. = vitez, iueal.
ventilating air n. = ventilaie cu aer.
voltage regulation n. = reglarea tensiunii.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Phrases / idioms with the verb to cut

to cut down = 1. a dobor. 2. a cosi, a secera. 3. a reduce (cheltuieli, preuri).
to cut off = a tia, a desprinde prin tiere.
to cut off an arm = a amputa un bra, a ntrerupe, a pune capt la.
to cut off all communications = a ntrerupe orice legtur. (la telefon)
to be cut off = a fi ntrerupt, deconectat.2. a izola, a exclude.
to cut off with a shilling = 1. a dezmoteni (pe cineva).2. a nu mai da bani (cuiva).
to cut out = a decupa.
to be cut out for = 1. a fi nscut, potrivit pentru. 2. a pregti dinainte
to have one's work cut out = a trebui s munceasc din greu, serios.
to cut no ice = 1. a nu avea succes; a nu face impresie deosebit.2. a nu avea effect.
to cut to pieces = a distruge.
to cut short = a scurta, a reduce, a ntrerupe brusc.
to cut and run = a o lua la sntoasa.
to cut in = a interveni n discuie.
to cut up rough = a se nfuria.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is a generator?

91

2.
3.
4.
5.

What are the component parts of a generator?

How are generators classified according to the current produced?
How many types of alternating current generators do you know?
What precautious ought to be taken about switches and when?

II. Underline the most suitable word.

The tree twig/trunk/branch was about two meters wide because it was so old.
Flies were buzzing/barking/galloping around the uncovered meat in the kitchen.
Mary is always so sympathetic/cheeky/cheerful you always see her smiling and
happy.
I was really greedy/grateful/frank when you came to see me in hospital because I
was feeling a bit lonely.
Chris uses an electrical/electrician/electric shaver when he goes on holiday.
Point the icon/cursor/mouse to the place on the screen where you want to type, and
then click.
The invasion/earthquake/devastation made a lot of buildings collapse and thousands
of people were made homeless.
International charity/organisation/aid is being sent to help the victims survive the
winter.
I broke my chin/nose/face when I was young my brother punched it!
The last time I had toothache I had to get an urgent appointment at the
dentists/doctors/hospital.
III. Complete each sentence with an appropriate word or phrase:
1. Can you remember what you ten years ago today?
2. This is the first jazz concert I to.
3. Dont eat any more ice cream, you sick.
4. I have hated this place ever here.
5. I hope that by the end of the month I all the decorating.
6. Sheila and George..to each other since their last quarrel last week!
7. Do .. going to the football match tomorrow?
8. We cant go skiing because it.enough yet.
9. Penny.to going on holiday, but she ended up very disappointed.
10. I began to recover my strength later, once I.a good meal.
IV. Translate into English:
1. Este de dorit ca maina s fie testat n condiii normale de lucru.
2. Este important ca studentul s cunoasc n detaliu condiiile de funcionare ale
unui generator.
3. Pentru a asigura o sudur durabil este de dorit ca piesele s fie curate nainte
de sudare.
4. Este posibil ca generatoarele de curent continuu s aibe patru poli.
5. Pentru ca reeaua s fie economic este de dorit s fie dotat cu receptori de
putere potrivit.
6. Pentru a micora uzura pieselor este important ca acestea s fie bine prelucrate.
7. Pentru o funcionare ndelungat este important ca piesele s fie bine reglate.

92

2.2.4. RANDOM NOISE IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

The term noise or random noise is used to describe any spurious signals
which ultimately appear in the output of an electronic device. Noise may be produced
by causes which are external or internal to the system.
There are two fundamental sources of internal noise. The first results from the
fact that the electrons in the circuit elements of the amplifier are in a state of
continuous agitation. This activity produces fluctuations in the electron distribution
within the elements and this appears as a thermal-agitation voltage. The second cause
arises from the statistical fluctuations in the various thermal and electronic processes
involved in charge carrier emission, diffusion, recombination and drift. Such
uncorrelated noise sets a lower limit to the signal levels possible with a given device.
Random noise appears as a hiss in radio receivers and as snow on the screen of a
television receiver. It can cause spurious operation of electronic circuits.
The frequency spectrum of a source of noise can be calculated and can also be
approximated experimentally from measurements. Three different spectral distributions
over a bandwidth are possible.
Thermal noise. Independent of any signal that might be applied to the terminals
of a resistive circuit element, there is a fluctuation voltage which appears across the
open-circuit terminals. This fluctuation voltage arises because the free or conduction
electrons in the conductor are all in random motion, resulting in slight deviations in the
statistical most probable distribution function. Moreover, because this thermal agitation
motions are random, it is reasonable to expect that thermal agitation voltages of all
frequencies are produced. Consequently, the total rms (root mean square) voltage
expected in a circuit which is frequency sensitive will depend on the bandwidth of the
circuit, among other factors.
Shot noise. Among the various sources of noise in the electronic device, shot
noise is important. The shot effect results whenever charge carries are produced at an
emitting surface or diffuse across a junction. Random fluctuation components exist in
these processes even if the time average current is constant.
Excess noise and flicker noise. Flicker noise arises from surface imperfections
in emission processes. It has been found that the flicker effect produces noise
components that are important at the lower frequencies and the resultant noise roughly
varies inversely with the frequency.
(adapted from Blndu, Mihaela: Limba englez. Automatic i calculatoare, p. 108)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
bandwidth n. = 1.band de transparen. 2.gam, band de transparen a ueni antene.
3. lime de banda a informaiei.
electron n = electron (el, fiz) electron; (met, poligr) electron (aliaj uor de magneziu,
aluminiu, cupru i zinc)
electronic adj. = electronic. electronic device =disopzitiv electronic. electronic circuit
= circuit electronic . electronic process = process electronic .
free of = lipsit de, fr.
hiss n. = zgomot de fond, uierat, ssit.
mean squared value n. = valoare medie ptratic.

93

most probable distribution function = funcia de distribuie cea mai probabil.

noise n. = zgomot. ~ figure = factor de zgomot. random ~ = .shot ~ = zgomot de alice.
flicker ~ = zgomot de licrire. white ~ = zgomot alb. band-limited white ~ =
zgomot alb cu band limitat.
plot n. = (tehn.) grafic, curb. vb. a reprezenta graphic, a ridica o curb prin puncte, a
trasa.
root mean square voltage = tensiune medie ptratic.
resistive circuit adj.= 1. circuit rezistent. 2. circuit capabil s reziste.
spurious adj. = parazitar, cu parazii.
spurious signal = semnal accidental.
thermal agitation = agitaie termic.
time average constant = constanta de timp medie.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases / idioms with the verb to set
to set a book on a shelf = a aeza o carte pe o poli.
to set a dish on the table = a aeza, a pune o mncare pe mas.
to set a hen = a pune o gin pe cuibar.
to set the clock = a potrivi ceasul.
to set a violin = a acorda o vioar.
to set a stick in the ground = a nfige un b n pmnt.
to set a scene = a monta un decor.
to set the course = nav. a trasa ruta.
to set a day = a fixa o zi.
to set a person against another = a aa o persoan mpotriva alteia.
to set the fashion = 1. a stabili moda. 2. a da tonul.
to set an example = a da un exemplu.
to set a task = a trasa o sarcin.
to set somebody on his way = a ndruma pe cineva pe calea cea bun.
to set a file = a recondiiona o pil.
to set fire to = a da foc la.
to set a problem = a pune, a ridica o problem.
to set one's hands to = 1. a se pune pe (treab, lucru). 2. a pune o semntur pe un act.
to set one's heart/mind to = a-i pune n cap s obin.
to set one's wits to a question = a cuta rspuns la o problem.
to set forth = 1. a declara. 2. a ncepe (o cltorie sau o expediie).
to set off = a scoate n eviden
to set out = 1. a echipa (pe cineva). 2. a aranja, a rndui.
to set out one's ideas clearly = a-i orndui ideile.
to set out a curve = a trasa o curb.
to set off = 1. a porni la drum. 2. (poligr) (despre cerneala umed) a se ntinde, a pta.
to set out = 1. a porni la drum. 2. (nav) a se mbarca.
to set out in pursuit of somebody = a porni n urmrirea cuiva
to set to = a se apuca de lucru.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. How is random noise defined?
2. Which is the first fundamental source of internal noise?
3. Which is the second?
4. What is the thermal noise caused by?

94

5. What is shot noise?

6. How does shot noise differ from flicker noise?
II. Build up nouns by adding the correct suffix to the following verbs: carry, own,
follow, produce, support, pass-by, speak, listen, employ, lead, direct, write, create,
transmit, send, reflect, receive, control, indicate, compute.
III. In most lines of this text there is either a spelling or punctuation error. Write
the correctly spelled word, or show the correct punctuation. Indicate correct
lines with a tick.
When faced with some new and possibly bewildering technological
0
change, most people react, in one of two ways. They either recoil
1
from anything new, claiming that it is unnecessary, or too complicated 2
or that it somehow makes life less personal. Or they learn to adapt to
3
the new invention, and eventually wonder, how they could possibly
4
have existed without it. Take computers as an example, for many of
5
us, they still represent a threat to our freedom, and give us a
6
frigtening sense of a future in which ail decisions will be taken by
7
machines. This may be because they seem misterious, and difficult
8
to understand. Ask most people, what you can use a home computer
9
for, and you usually get vauge answers about how 'to give you
10
information'. In fact, even those of us who are familiar with computers', 11
and use them in our daily work, have very little idea of how they
12
actually work? But it does not take long to learn how to operate a
13
business programme, even if things occasionally go wrong for no
14
apparant reason. Presumably much the same happened when
15
telephone and the television became widespred. What seems to
16
alarm most people is the speed of technological change, rather than is 17
18
change itself. And the objections that are maid to new technology
may well have a point to them, since change is not always an
19
improvement. As we discover during power cuts there is a lot to be
20
said for the oil lamp, the cote fire, and forms of entertainment, such
21
as books or board games, that dont have to be plugged in to work.
22

IV. Translate into English:

Principala surs de zgomot ntr-un tub electric este zgomotul de alice care apare n
procesul de emisie electronic a catodului la care se adaug zgomotul de licrire care
devine important la frecvene mai mici de 1000 Hz. Zgomotul de alice total va fi
proporional cu curentul anodic. Pe de alt parte, semnalul de ieire va depinde de
transconductan. Rezult, deci, c pentru un raport semnal/zgomot mare tubul ar trebui
s aib o transconductan mare i s lucrez la un curent anodic mic. S-a gsit de
asemenea, c distribuirea curentului catodic ntre ecran i anod produce zgomot. Ca
urmare, pentodele cu un curent mic de ecran sunt mai puin zgomotoase dect cele cu un
curent de ecran mai mare. n general triodele funcioneaz cu un zgomot mai sczut
dect pentodele de tip comparabil.

95

II.2.3. TEXTS FOR INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

2.3.1. MANAGEMENT
The term "management" characterizes the process of and/or the personnel
leading and directing all or part of an organization (often a business) through the
deployment and manipulation of resources (human, capital, natural, intellectual or
intangible).
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word manage comes from the
Italian maneggiare (to handle especially a horse), which in turn derives from the
Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later mnagement) influenced the
development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th
centuries.
Management has to do with power by position, whereas leadership involves
power by influence.
Functions of management
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning,
organizing, leading/motivating and controlling.
Planning: deciding what has to happen in the future (today, next week, next
month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for
action.
Organizing: making optimum use of the resources required to enable the
successful carrying out of plans.
Leading/Motivating: exhibiting skills in these areas for getting others to
play an effective part in achieving plans.
Controlling: monitoring - checking progress against plans, which may need
modification based on feedback.
Theoretical scope
Mary Parker Follett (18681933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentiethcentury, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". One
can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a
regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's
intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From
this perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol considers management to consist of five
functions.
1. planning
2. organizing
3. leading
4. co-ordinating
5. controlling
Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The
phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of
defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of
managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business
administration", although this then excludes management in places outside commerce,
as for example in charities and in the public sector. Nonetheless, many people refer to

96

university departments which teach management as "business schools", and some

institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name.
Speakers of English may also use the term "management" or "the management"
as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a
corporation.
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
personnel n. = personal.
to lead, led, led v. = 1. a conduce, a ghida. 2. a fi in fruntea, a conduce, a dirija.
deployment n. = desfurare (de fore).
intangible adj. = intangibil.
to manage v. = 1. a mnui, a dirija, a conduce. 2. a conduce, a guverna, a administra. 3.
~ to + inf. = a reui, a izbuti s.
to handle v. = 1. a manevra, a mnui, a manipula. 2. a conduce, a dirija. 3. a discuta, a
rezolva (o problem)
whereas conj. = n timp ce.
optimum adj. = optim. to make ~ use of = a folosi n mod optim.
to require v. = 1. a cere, a reclama, a pretinde. 2. a necesita. 3. a impune, a obliga.
to enable v. = a da posibilitatea, a permite.
to carry out v. = a ndeplini, a duce la bun sfrit.
to exhibit v. = 1. a etala, a expune. 2. a manifesta.
skill n. = abilitate, ndemnare, pricepere.
to check v. = a verifica.
to reach v. = 1. a ajunge; 2. a atinge (un scop). ~ a goal = a atinge un scop.
useful adj. = util, folositor.
narrow adj. = ngust, limitat, mic.
shifting adj. = 1. mobil, mictor. 2. schimbtor, nestatornic.
habit n. = 1. obicei, deprindere, obinuin. 2. purtare, conduit.
sector n. = sector. public ~ = sector public.
nonetheless adv. = totui, cu toate acestea.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to carry, v. = 1. a duce, a purta, a cra. 2. a transporta. 3. a susine, a sprijini (despre un
stlp). 4. a purta a avea bani asupra sa. ~ forth = a arta, a prezenta, aexpune. ~
forward = a duce mai departe, a continua. ~ on = a continua. ~ out = a
ndeplini, a duce la bun sfrit.
effective, efficient, effectual, efficacious
effective adj. = causing a result, especially the desired or intended result:
an effective solution to the water supply problem
efficient adj. = capable of achieving the desired result with the minimum use of
resources, time, and effort:
an efficient use of personnel
effectual adj. = (formal) potentially successful in producing a desired or intended
result(formal):
This idea exerts a direct and effectual influence on his thinking.
efficacious adj.= (formal) having the power to achieve a desired result, especially an
improvement;
Diet may be as efficacious as medication in controlling the condition.

97

I. Reading and Comprehension:

1. What does management mean?
2. What is the difference between management and leadership?
3. How did Mary Parker Follet define management?
4. What are the five functions of management according to Henri Fayol?
5. What does the phrase managers is what managers do suggest?
6. What is the meaning of management as a collective noun?
II. Uses carry forth, carry forward, carry on, carry out in sentences of your own.
III. Explain or paraphrase the following.
Romanian.
1. a sinewy-looking animal
5.
2. a sweet smelling flower
3. a nasty-tasting medicine
6.
4. a heartbreaking story

Then translate them into

a self-supporting member of the
family
a blood-freezing scream

IV. Look up the following phrases and use them in sentences of your own: to
lead a cat-and-dog life; to be catty; as sleek as a cat; to let the cat out of the bag; like a
cat on hot bricks: to see which way the cat jumps: as faithful as a dog: to give/throw
something to the dogs; to lead a dog's life; a dog in the manger; not stand (even) a
dog's chance.
V. Fill in the blanks using only one word for each space:
Imagine a machine consisting ... (1) a system of levers and cables with the
capacity to lift hundreds of pounds, but ... (2) also to construct minute and
intricate instruments, such ... (3) the jewelled movements of watches. Suppose
that this machine had ... (4) ... (5) heating and ... (6) conditioning, allowing it to
range ... (7) the tropics to the poles. Imagine that it ... (8) propel itself across
the land ... (9) speeds of 30 feet per second and higher, and, moreover, could
function 600 feet ... (10) the sea ... (11) given helium and oxygen fuel mixtures at
high pressures. Let us say that our machine could ... (12) up plans for
skyscrapers and then ... (13) them; write its own symphonies, and then ... (14)
them. Suppose, too, that this machine could build ... (15) machines, some
capable of ... (16) to the moon. Surely a machine with so many diversified
properties ... (17) prove enormously helpful ... (18) mankind. The fact is that ...
(19) of us possesses this miraculous machine: our own flesh and ... (20) body.
VI. Use one of the prefixes dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, un- with each of the following
words: attentive, aware, cautious, discreet, fortunate, honest, literate, logical, loyal,
modest, natural, practicable, relevant, resolute, respectful.
VII. Translate into English:
Planificarea este funcia cea mai important a managementului, deoarece reprezint
activitatea de luare a deciziilor. Se stabilesc obiectivele i cele mai adecvate ci
(strategii) pentru atingerea lor. Celelalte funcii deriv din aceasta i conduc la
ndeplinirea obiectivelor. Rezultatele planificrii sunt reflectate n planurile de
activitate.
(http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/StiinteADM/management/2.htm)

98

2.3.2. MANAGEMENT HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT (1)

Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by
definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. Others,
however, detect management-like activities in the pre-modern past. Some writers trace
the development of management-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders
of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the
problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or
recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did
not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However,
innovations such as the spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and
the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management
assessment, planning and control.
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized
record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most
owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for
themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between
owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day
managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more
common.
19th century
Some argue that modern management as a discipline began as an off-shoot of
economics in the 19th century. Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723 - 1790)
and John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) provided a theoretical background to resourceallocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli
Whitney (1765 - 1825), James Watt (1736 - 1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728 - 1809)
developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control
procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of
these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US
economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it,
"managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.
By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924)
and Lon Walras (1834 - 1910) and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the
theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiarylevel course in management in 1881.
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to arise, arose, arisen, v. = 1. a se ridica. 2. a se ivi, a aprea. ~ from the dead = a se
scula din mori. ~ from = a reiei, a decurge din.
to trace v. = 1. a schia, a trasa, a desena. 2. a urmri. 3. a urmri n decursul istoriei, a
urmri filiaia.
however adv. = 1. oricum. 2. totui, cu toate acestea.
trader n. = comerciant, negustor.
pyramid n. = piramid.

99

slave-owner n. = proprietar de sclavi.

to face v. = 1. a fi orientat spre. 2. a se confrunta cu.
scale n. = 1. scal, scar. 2. dimensiune, mrime, proporie. on a large ~ = pe scar
mare. 3. ~s = cntar.
to compel v. = a obliga, a fora.
spread n. = 1. rspndire, difuzare, propagare. 2. ntindere, extindere.
to spread, spread, spread v. = 1. a se ntinde, a se desface, a se desfura. 2. a se
rspndi, a se mprtia, a se propaga.
book-keeping n. = contabilitate.
lack n. = lips.
growing adj. = crescnd.
to grow, grew, grown v. = a crete.
split n. = 1. despicare. 2. sciziune, dezbinare.
to split, split, split v. = 1. a despica. 2. a diviza, a dezbina.
dynasty n. = dinastie.
shareholder n. = acionar.
to provide v. = a furniza.
background n. = fundal, fond.
layer n. = strat, nveli.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to be staring somebody in the face = to be obvious but unnoticed.
Why call in a management consultant, when the cause of the problem is staring
you in the face?
to be staring something in the face = to be facing something undesirable but
inevitable.
We were staring bankruptcy in the face.
face to face = in the actual presence of another person in direct contact with, or having
first-hand knowledge of, an unpleasant fact or situation.
to fly in the face of something = to defy something deliberately or recklessly.
to get in somebody's face = to annoy somebody (informal).
get out of my face = used for impolitely telling somebody to stop annoying you
(informal).
to have a long face = to look miserable or disappointed.
in (the) face of something = when confronted by or in spite of something.
remained united in the face of strong opposition
to set ones face against something = to oppose something with determination.
to show ones face (somewhere or at something) = to put in an appearance
somewhere.
He won't dare show his face at her house again.
written all over somebody's face = obvious from somebody's expression (informal).
She was standing by the broken window with guilt written all over her face.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension:
1. When did management appear?
2. What were the factors that provided tools for management assessment, planning
and control?
3. What were the factors that led to the split between owners and day-to-day
managers?

100

4. When did modern management begin?

5. What innovations did Eli Whitney, James Watt and Matthew Boulton develop?
6. Name the marginal economists that introduced a new layer of complexity to the
theoretical underpinnings of management.
II. Insert the necessary articles:
Of all ... (1) countries of ... (2) former British Empire, it is ... (3) United Kingdom
that I would like to visit most, although I am certain that in ... (4) United States and ...
(5) Canada one can find many ... (6) tourist attraction too. I sometimes dream that,
having landed at ... (7) Heathrow airport, I travel by ... (8) underground to central
London, to ... (9) Piccadilly Circus or ... (10) Marble Arch. I find accommodation at ...
(11) inexpensive hotel, not far from ... (12) Thames, within ... (13) walking
distance of ... (14) Buckingham Palace. ... (15) first day I visit ... (16) National Gallery
and ... (17) Tate Gallery and there are so many beautiful things to see in ... (18) two
museums that I have no time left for anything else. On my second day I wander about ...
(19) Bloomsbury, ... (20) intellectual centre of Britain's capital city, see ... (21) Senate
House, where ... (22) University of London has most of its offices, then ... (23). British
Museum and the old houses in ... (24) Russell Square. Later, I walk around ... (25)
Houses of Parliament and listen to ... (26) Big Ben strike the hour. ... (27) Parliament, as
everybody knows, is in ... (28) Westminster and consists of ... (29) House of Lords and
... (30) House of Commons. ... (31) visitors can see ... (32) latter at work on some
days of ... (33) week.
When my English vacation draws to ... (34) end, I decide to cross ... (35) English
Channel by ... (36) ferry-boat and from there to travel home across the Continent by ...
(37) rail.
III. Give the nouns corresponding to the following verbs: begin, give, utter, fly, lose,
inquire, imagine, think, see, remember, suppose, disappear, bury, know, confess, mix,
reveal, add, laugh, maintain, offend, seize, signify, starve, succeed, transform,
withdraw.
IV. Illustrate the meanings of face in sentences of your own.
V. Explain the figurative use of colours in the following: a black look, a black
outlook, once in a blue moon, to feel blue, in a brown study, green-eyed, to get the
green light, in the pink (of health), to paint the town red, to see red, a white elephant,
the yellow press.
VI. Translate into English:
Problemele de etic constituie adevrate dileme manageriale pentru c ele reprezin
conflicte declanate ntre performanele economice ale firmei (venituri-costuri-profit) i
performanele sale sociale (formulate n termenii obligaiilor personale, att n interiorul
ct i n exteriorul organizaiei). Natura acestor obligaii poate fi, desigur, deschis spre
mici interpretri, dar cei mai muli dintre noi suntem de acord c ele includ elemente de
protecie a loialitii angajailor, de meninere a competitivitii pieelor, de realizare a
unor produse i servicii utile i sigure.
(adapted from http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/StiinteADM/management/2.htm)

101

2.3.3. MANAGEMENT HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT (2)

20th century
By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they
regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis. Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science
of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's Scientific management (1911),
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts
(1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912
Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of
the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese qualityassurance.
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The
Harvard Business School invented the Master of Business Administration degree
(MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841-1925) and Alexander Church described
the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th
century, people like Ordway Tead (1891-1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the
principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo
(1880-1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933), Chester Barnard (1886-1961), Max
Weber (1864-1920), Rensis Likert (1903-1981), and Chris Argyris (1923-) approached
the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.
Peter Drucker (1909-2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied
management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred
Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the
organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.
H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890-1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced
statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined
these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of
operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science"
(but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific
approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and
operations.
Some of the more recent developments include the theory of constraints,
management by objectives, reengineering, and various information-technologydriven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management
theories such as Cog's Ladder.
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th
century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain
amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to
peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do
with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.
Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of
six separate branches, namely:
Human resource management
Operations management or production management
Strategic management
Marketing management
Financial management

102

Information technology management responsible for management information

systems
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
basis, bases n. = baz, temei, punct de plecare.
textbook n. = manual
pioneer v. = 1. a fi un pioner/deschiztor de drumuri. 2. a deschide drum/cale.
comprehensive adj. = cuprinztor
phenomenon, phenomena n. = fenomen
corporation n. = corporaie
to result v. = 1. (from) a rezulta, a decurge din. 2. ~ in = a avea drept rezultat.
chairman n. = preedinte al unei adunri
vein n. = 1. ven, vna, nervur; 2. dispoziie, ton. in the same ~ = n acelai stil, n
aceeai manier
microeconomic theory n. = teorie microeconomic
give, gave, given v. = a da . ~ birth to = a da natere la.
to attempt to v. = a ncerca s
approach n. = abordare
to solve v. = a rezolva, a soluiona.
logistics n. = logistic
constraint n. = constrngere
management n. = 1. management. 2. conducere. ~ by objectives = managementul prin
obiective. quality ~ = managementul calitii.
reengineering n. = restructurare
information technology n. = tehnologia informaiei
recognition n. = recunoatere
practitioner n. = practicant
amount n. = cantitate
to consist of v. = a consta din
responsible for adj. = responsabil de
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
give, present, confer, bestow, donate, grant (to hand over something to somebody)
to give = to place something that you are holding in the temporary possession of
another person
I gave her my key.
to present = to give something in a formal or ceremonial way;
He was presented with a consolation prize.
to confer = (formal) to give something such as a title, honor, or favor to somebody;
Several other honorary degrees were conferred at the ceremony.
to bestow = (formal) to present something, especially something valuable or
undeserved, to somebody;
The award for lifetime achievement was bestowed on her not long before she
died.
to donate = to give a contribution to a charitable organization or other good cause, or,
in a medical context, to give blood for blood transfusions or organs for
transplant;
The painting was donated to the gallery by the artist's widow.

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to grant = to agree to allow a request, favor, or privilege, or formally or officially to

give money or property;
We were granted the right to appeal.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension
1. When did J. Duncan write the first college management textbook?
2. When did Yoichi Ueno introduce Taylorism to Japan?
3. Who pioneered Japanese quality-assurance?
4. When did the first comprehensive theories of management appear?
5. What did The Harvard Business School invent in 1921?
6. Who applied the principles of psychology to management in the early 20th
century?
7. Name some writers that approached the phenomenon of management from a
sociological perspective.
8. What does operations research attempt to do?
9. What are the six separate branches of business management?
II. Supply the correct prepositions in front of the gerunds and gerundial
constructions:
The rainy weather prevented us ... (1) taking our usual morning walk. He is very proud
... (2) having become a lionized author. Jennifer grew tired ... (3) bearing her husband's
rudeness. Everything depends ... (4) our being in the right place at the right time. We are
quite surprised ... (5) your refusing such a tempting offer. At dinner he got on my nerves
... (6) drinking water between the courses. She takes great pleasure ... (7) humiliating
other girls. Acting on the stage is very different ... (8) playing in films. There is no
harm ... (9) giving her an expensive birthday present. As I work the morning shift, I
am used ... (10) getting up early. She has always experienced great difficulty ... (11)
attending social functions. Allow me to congratulate you ... (12) being nominated for the
prize.
III. Find the best Romanian equivalents for the following phrases: up to the eyes, to
keep an eye on, to make eyes at somebody, to see eye to eye with somebody, to escape by
the skin of ones teeth, tooth and nail, to have a sweet tooth, in the teeth of, to bite ones
lips, to hang (up) on somebodys lips, to keep a stiff upper lip, to smack ones lips.
IV. Fill in each space with the correct preposition:
killed ... (1) a car accident;
dependent ... (11) drugs;
covered ... (2) snow;
travel ... (12) a great speed;
saved ... (13) bankruptcy;
written ... (3) ink;
saved ... (14) the bell;
engaged ... (4) a girl;
filled ... (15) air;
translated ... (5) Romanian ... (6)
devoid ... (16) meaning;
English;
full ... (17) sense;
surrounded ... (7) enemies;
faithful ... (18) one's wife;
attitude ... (8) abstract art;
abstain ... (9) strong beverages;
tremble ... (19) fear;
addicted ... (10) violence;
thirsty ... (20) power

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V. Supply articles where necessary:

Long before ... (1) birth of Christopher Columbus, ... (2) people in ... (3) Europe
believed that ... (4) earthly paradise, ... (5) land of plenty, with ... (6) perfect climate, lay to
... (7) West, across ... (8) Atlantic Ocean. In his letters, Columbus wrote of ... (9)
Caribbean landscape and described ... (10) abundance and fertility of ... (11) newlyfound islands. In ... (12) report sent home from ... (13) other side of ... (14) ocean, he
wrote: " ... (15) islands are fertile to ... (16) extraordinary degree. There are ... (17) trees
of ... (18) thousand kinds, some in ... (19) flower, some with ... (20) fruit." From ...
(21) West Indies he wrote: " I learned by ... (22) signs that there was ... (23) king in ...
(24) South who owned many vessels filled with ... (25) gold." When ... (26) later
explorers reached ... (27) Andes and found ... (28) gold for ... (29) taking, it seemed that
their dreams of ... (30) paradise on ... (31) earth had at last come true.
VI. Translate into English:
Structura unei organizaii este considerat cadrul, scheletul organizaiei. Scopul ei
este s reduc sau s uniformizeze incertitudinea privind comportamentul salariailor.
Din perspectiv managerial, structura presupune numeroase scopuri.
Mai nti, ea clarific compartimentele i sarcinile posturilor individuale, precum i
responsabilii de realizarea sarcinilor.
n al doilea rnd, clarific ierarhia organizaional, adic cine este superiorul i cine
este subordonatul.
n al treilea rnd, clarific canalele de comunicare. Comunicarea se desfoar ntre
compartimente i posturile definite.
n final, structura organizaiei permite managerilor s aloce resurse ctre obiectivele
definite prin plan.
(http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/StiinteADM/management/2.htm)

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2.3.4. INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

The term industrial management applies to highly organized modern methods of
carrying on industrial, especially manufacturing, operations.
The Rise of Factories
Before the Industrial Revolution people worked with hand tools, manufacturing
articles in their own homes or in small shops. In the third quarter of the 18th century
steam power was applied to machinery, and people and machines were brought
together under one roof in factories, where the manufacturing process could be
supervised. This was the beginning of shop management. In the next hundred years
factories grew rapidly in size, in degree of mechanization, and in complexity of
operation. The growth, however, was accompanied by much waste and inefficiency. In
the United States many engineers, spurred by the increased competition of the postCivil War era, began to seek ways of improving plant efficiency.
The Development of Industrial Management
Studies of Worker Performance
The first sustained effort in the direction of improved efficiency was made by
Frederick Winslow Taylor, an assistant foreman in the Midvale Steel Company, who in
the 1880s undertook a series of studies to determine whether workers used
unnecessary motions and hence too much time in performing operations at a machine.
Each operation required to turn out an article or part was analyzed and studied
minutely, and superfluous motions were eliminated. Records were kept of the
performance of workers and standards were adopted for each operation. The early
studies resulted in a faster pace of work and the introduction of rest periods.
Management of the Machine
Industrial management also involves studying the performance of machines as
well as people. Specialists are employed to keep machines in good working condition
and to ensure the quality of their production. The flow of materials through the plant is
supervised to ensure that neither workers nor machines are idle. Constant inspection is
made to keep output up to standard. Charts are used for recording the accomplishment
of both workers and machines and for comparing them with established standards.
Careful accounts are kept of the cost of each operation. When a new article is to be
manufactured it is given a design that will make it suitable for machine production, and
each step in its manufacture is planned, including the machines and materials to be used.
Other Aspects of Management
The principles of scientific management have been gradually extended to every
department of industry, including office work, financing, and marketing. Soon after
1910 American firms established the first personnel departments, and eventually some
of the larger companies took the lead in creating environments conducive to worker
efficiency. Safety devices, better sanitation, plant cafeterias, and facilities for rest and
recreation were provided, thus adding to the welfare of employees and enhancing
morale. Many such improvements were made at the insistence of employee groups,
especially labor unions.
Over the years, workers and their unions also sought and often won higher
wages and increased benefits, including group health and life insurance and liberal
retirement pensions. During the 1980s and 1990s, however, cutbacks and downsizing
in many American businesses substantially reduced many of these benefits. Some
corporations permit employees to buy stock; others make provision for employee

106

representation on the board of directors or on the shop grievance committee. Many

corporations provide special opportunities for training and promotion for workers who
desire advancement, and some have made efforts to solve such difficult problems as job
security and a guaranteed annual wage.
Modern Trends
Modern technological devices, particularly in the areas of computers,
electronics, thermodynamics, and mechanics, have made automatic and semiautomatic
machines a reality. The development of such automation is bringing about a second
industrial revolution and is causing vast changes in commerce as well as the way work
is organized. Such technological changes and the need to improve productivity and
quality of products in traditional factory systems also changed industrial management
practices. In the 1960s Swedish automobile companies discovered that they could
improve productivity with a system of group assembly. In a contrast to older
manufacturing techniques where a worker was responsible for assembling only one part
of the car, group assembly gave a group of workers the responsibility for assembling an
entire car.
The system was also applied in Japan, where managers developed a number of
other innovative systems to lower costs and improve the quality of products. One
Japanese innovation, known as quality circles, allowed workers to offer management
suggestions on how to make production more efficient and to solve problems. Workers
were also given the right to stop the assembly line if something went wrong. By
carefully controlling the manufacturing process, Japanese managers were able to cut
waste, improve productivity, and reduce inventory, thus significantly reducing costs
and improving quality. By the early 1980s, Japanese companies, which had once been
criticized for producing low-quality goods, had established a reputation for efficiently
producing high-quality, high-tech products. In the 1980s and early 90s many U.S.
companies looked to increase their competitiveness by adapting Japanese methods for
improving manufacturing quality.
(http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-indust-man.html)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to carry on v. = 1. a continua, a duce mai departe. 2. a conduce (un proces); a se ocupa
cu, a fi angajat n (o afacere); a ntreprinde (o aciune).
to manufacture v. = a fabrica , a confeciona , a produce.
steam n. = aburi. ~ power = energie cu abur.
machinery n. = 1. utilaj , instalaii mecanice, maini. 2. mecanism, mainrie. 3. organ
de main. 4. mecanism, masinarie, structur. 5. combinaie.
mechanization n. = mecanizare.
growth n. = 1. cretere, dezvoltare. 2. sporire, mrire, cretere. 3. dezvoltare, progres. 4.
cultivare, cultur (a unei plante).
to spur v. = 1. a mboldi, a ndemna. 2. a se grbi.
to seek, sought, sought v. = a cuta.
plant n. = 1. uzin. 2. instalaie. machine ~ = uzin constructoare de maini. coke ~ =
cocserie. draining ~ = instalaie de drenare. pilot ~ = instalaie pilot /
experimental. waterpower ~ = central hidroelectric. cat ~ = rafinrie de
petrol.
foreman, foremen n. = 1. supraveghetor, ef de echip, brigadier, maistru. 2. primul
jurat.

107

to undertake, undertook, undertaken v. = 1. a ntreprinde, a iniia, a face. 2. a ncerca,

a experimenta, a proba. 3. a prelua, a lua.
whether conj. = dac.
motion n. = micare. perpetual ~ = micare perpetu. reversing ~ = micare n sens
retrograd. rotary ~ = micare de rotaie. self-~ = micare independent,
autopropulsie.
to turn out v. = 1. a ntoarce/a scoate (picioarele) n afar. 2. a izgoni, a alunga, a da
afar; a evacua (un chiria); a concedia. 3. a rsturna (un guvern). 4. a produce,
a fabrica, a face, a confeciona.
minutely adv. = minuios, n amnunt.
rest n. = odihn.
to ensure v. = 1. a asigura (ndeplinirea planului, independena etc.), a garanta. 2.
(against) a se asigura (mpotriva), a lua msuri.
flow n. = 1. curgere, flux, curent. 2. scurgere, vrsare. 3. curs (al unui ru).
neither ... nor = nici ... nici
chart n. = 1. hart marin. 2. schem, diagram, tabel, grafic. flow ~/diagram = schema
procesului tehnologic.
suitable adj. = potrivit,corespunztor.
conducive to adj. = favorabil, care duce la, care cauzeaz/determin.
device n. = dispozitiv.
sanitation n. = sanitaie, salubritate. indoor ~ = instalaii sanitare.
cafeteria n. = bufet/restaurant cu autoservire.
welfare n. = bunstare, prosperitate.
to enhance v. = a mri, a spori, a intensifica.
morale n. = moral.
labor union n. = sindicat.
life insurance n. =asigurare pe viat.
retirement n. = 1. retragere. 2. pensie. 3. pensionare. ~ pension = pensie de btrinee.
cutback n. = 1. retezare, scurtare, tiere. 2. reducere, micorare.
stock n. = capital, fonduri. ~s = aciuni.
board of directors n. = comitet de conducere.
grievance n. = 1. plngere, revendicare, dolean. 2. nedreptate, abuz.
automation n. = automatizare.
to bring, brought, brought about v. = a cauza.
assembly n. = 1. adunare. 2. asamblare, montare. 3. agregat. ~ line = linie de asamblare.
to assemble v. = 1. a aduna, a convoca. 2. a asambla, a monta.
inventory n. = inventar
low-quality adj. = de calitate inferioar.
high-quality adj. = de calitate superioar.
goods n. = bunuri.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to turn back = I. 1. a face s se ntoarc, a ntoarce napoi. 2. a izgoni, a alunga, a da
afar. 3. a rsfrnge, a ndoi, a-i sufleca. II. a se ntoarce din drum.
to turn down = 1. a reduce intensitatea luminii/sunetului. 2. a refuza/respinge o ofert/
propunere/pe cineva.
to turn in = a preda (pe mna poliiei).
to turn into = a (se) transforma, a (se) preschimba n.
to turn off = a opri (apa etc.), a stinge (lumina etc.).
to turn on = 1. a deschide, a da drumul la (apa etc.). 2. a aprinde (lumina, radioul etc.).
to turn over = 1. a ntoarce (o pagin), a rsfoi. 2. a rumega (n minte), a medita/a
chibzui asupra, a ntoarce pe toate prile 3. a ntoarce/rsturna (brazda).
to turn up = a se ivi, a-i face apariia.

108

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension:
1. What does industrial managemnet apply to?
2. How did people manufacture articles brfore the Industrial Revolution?
3. What is Frederick Winslow Taylor famous for?
4. What was the result of Taylors studies?
5. Why is the flow of materials through the plant supervised?
6. Why are charts used?
7. What improvements were made at the insistence of labour unions after 1910?
8. How did Swedish automobile companies improve productivity in the 1960s?
9. What right were Japanese workers given?
II. Use the following phrasal verbs in sentences of your own: turn back, turn down,
turn in, turn into, turn off, turn on, turn out, turn over, turn up.
III. Give 12 compound-adjectives having the same structure as different-coloured
and based on the adjectives open, short, soft (using each of them 4 times) and the
nouns eye, foot, hair, hand, head, heart, mind, mouth, sight, temper, wind, wit.
IV. Group the words in list A, preceded and followed by as, with the words in list
B, so as to form well-known similes, which have actually become clichs:
B.
A
1. air
1. blue
2. a bee
2. busy
3. grass
3. firm
4. the hills
4. green
5. honey
5. large
6. life
6. light
7. a rock
7. old
8. the sky
8. sweet
9. snow
9. swift
10. white
10. though
V. Translate into English:
Problematica conducerii i supravegherii automate a proceselor tehnologice de
fabricaie a uleiurilor aditivate este de actualitate, n contextul n care majoritatea
acestor procese necesit cunoaterea n timp real a parametrilor de funcionare, n
vederea supravegherii, controlului i monitorizrii acestora.
Conducerea asistat de calculator a proceselor de fabricaie "dupa reet" contribuie
la creterea calitii produsului final, la creterea productivitii muncii, reducerea
consumurilor specifice de materiale i energie, precum i la diminuarea pn la
eliminare a riscului privind poluarea mediului.
Echiparea instalaiilor tehnologice de aditivare cu aparatur de automatizare
reprezint o necesitate n acest domeniu, prin folosirea cu maxim eficient a sistemelor
numerice pentru reglarea automat i optimizarea regimului de funcionare.
(Adapted from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-indust-man.html)

109

2.3.5. QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Quality management is a method for ensuring that all the activities necessary to
design, develop and implement a product or service are effective and efficient with
respect to the system and its performance.
Quality Improvement
W. Edwards Deming is best known for his management philosophy establishing
quality, productivity, and competitive position. He has formulated 14 points of attention
for managers, among which:
break down barriers between departments;
management should learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership;
improve constantly;
institute a programme of education and self-improvement.
The following diagram is the Shewhart cycle (PDCA) for quality improvement,
made popular by Deming.

The philosophy is to keep improving the quality of an organization. It is defined

by four keys:
Plan: Design or revise business process components to improve results
Do: Implement the plan and measure its performance
Check: Assess the measurements and report the results to decision makers
Act: Decide on changes needed to improve the process
Quality Standards
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Quality
Management System (QMS) standards in 1987. These were the ISO 9000:1987 series
of standards comprising ISO 9001:1987, ISO 9002:1987 and ISO 9003:1987; which
were applicable in different types of industries, based on the type of activity: designing,
production or service delivery. The standards have been regularly reviewed every few
years by the International Organization for Standardization. The version of these
standards was revised in 1994 and was called the ISO 9000:1994 series; comprising of
the ISO 9001:1994, 9002:1994 and 9003:1994 versions. The last revision was in the
year 2000 and the series was called ISO 9000:2000 series. However the ISO 9002 and
9003 standards were integrated and one single certifiable standard was created under
ISO 9001:2000. Since December 2003, ISO 9002 and 9003 standards are not valid, and
the organizations previously holding these standards need to do a transition from the old
to the new standards. The ISO 9004:2000 document gives guidelines for performance
improvement over and above the basic standard (i.e. ISO 9001:2000).

110

The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant to certify
the processes and the system of an organization and not the product or service itself.
ISO 9000 standards do not certify the quality of the product or service.
Recently the International Organization released a new standard, ISO 22000,
meant for the food industry. This standard covers the values and principles of ISO 9000
and the HACCP standards. It gives one single integrated standard for the food industry
and is expected to become more popular in the coming years in such industry.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a systematic
preventative approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological
hazards as a means of prevention rather than finished product inspection. HACCP is
used in the food industry to identify potential food safety hazards, so that key actions,
known as Critical Control Points (CCP's) can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of
the hazards being realised. The system is used at all stages of food production and
preparation processes.
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_management)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
quality management = managementul calitii.
to design v. = a crea, a concepe.
to implement v. = a implementa.
with respect to = n ceea ce privete.
to break down v. = 1. a sfrma, a distruge. 2. a drma, a dobor.
to improve v. = a mbunti.
self-improvement n. = auto-perfecionare.
keep + vb-ing = a continua s.
to measure v. = a msura.
to check v. = a verifica.
to assess v. = a evalua.
standard n. = standard. quality ~s = standarde de calitate.
series, series n. = serie.
comprising adj. = cuprinztor.
delivery n. = furnizare, distibuire, livrare.
to review n. = a revizui.
guideline n. = reper.
to certify v. = a certifica.
to cover v. = a acoperi.
preventative adj. = preventiv (syn. preventive)
approach n. = abordare.
safety n. = siguran.
to address v. = a se adresa.
hazard n. = risc, primezdie, pericol.
means, means n. = mijloc.
prevention n. = prevenire.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to break even = to make neither a profit nor a loss from a venture.
to give somebody a break = to stop nagging or criticizing somebody, or start treating
somebody fairly (informal).

111

if it ain't broke, don't fix it = do not try to improve something that is satisfactory as it
is (informal).
to make a clean break = to end a relationship or association completely and
permanently
Break or brake? Do not confuse the spelling of break and brake, which sound similar.
Both words can be used as nouns or verbs, but break has a wider range of meaning and
is the more frequent of the two, generally referring to separation, destruction, violation,
or interruption, as in to break a window, to break the rules, a break for refreshments.
Brake means "a device used to slow or stop a vehicle" or "apply a brake" and is
sometimes

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension
1. What is quality management?
2. What is W. Edwards Deming best known for?
3. How many points of attention for managers did W. Edwards Deming formulate?
Enumerate four of them.
4. What are the four key elements of the Shewhart cycle?
5. By whom and when were the Quality Management System standards created?
6. What is HACCP and where is it used?
II. Use in sentences of your own the following phrasal verbs: break asunder, break
away, break down, break into, break out, break up.
III. Insert (the) little, a little, (the) few, a few in the following sentences:
I would like to tell you ... (1) things about my trip to Great Britain. Before I left for
London, I thought there was ... (2) 1 didn't know about the English way of life. Now that I
am back, I realize that even ... (3) 1 knew was hardly correct. I had saved ... (4)
money, thinking I might buy ... (5) books and postcards, but once in London I found out
it was too ... (6) to pay for everything. I had to be very careful. For breakfast, I had only
... (7) biscuits and ... (8) milk every morning. I visited the museums to which
admission is free, spending a lot of time at Tate Gallery, because I knew ... (9) of Turner's
art, and they have a whole section devoted to him. Luckily, I did not have to pay for
hotel accommodation, as I have ... (10) friends in London and they put me up for the
duration of my stay. I walked a lot, saw all the sights, but there are ... (11) things you can
do if you have so ... (12) money. On top of all, I had to save ... (13) for the return trip.
IV. Explain the meaning of the following plurals: colours, compasses, glasses,
minutes, pains, spectacles, spirits.
V. Put one of these words in each of the gaps below:
that
to
with
at
of
on
for
in
by
1. I am relieved ...... see that they are pleased ...... their accommodation. It seems
entirely compatible ....... their wishes.
2. I am almost embarrassed ....... admit that I feel extremely ashamed ...... my
fellow-countrymen on occasions such as this, particularly when they seem
utterly devoid ...... any manners at all.

112

3. I'm afraid speak to her about this because I'm frightened ...... upsetting her.
4. It is probable ...... he will prove to be the most likely person ...... the job and the
one most likely ...... do it properly.
5. I a m a w a r e ...... y o u r deficiencies and the areas you are lacking practice
...... just as I am aware you ...... share these weaknesses with many others.
6. I know he's very sure ....... himself and is intent ....... proving he can pass, but we
are not convinced his success can be taken for granted.
7. I was interested ...... read that many fans had expressed amazement ...... the
result. Isn't it amazing ....... so many people take an interest ...... such obscure
sports?
8. I know I should be ashamed ....... admit that I am saddened ....... young Paula's
being written out of my favourite soap. It's a pretty awful thing ........ have to
admit, but I really am upset ...... she's leaving.
VI. Translate into English:
Standardul ISO 9001:2000 este un standard generic. Obiectivul acestuia este de a
stabili cerine internaionale pentru sistemul de management al calitii n orice domeniu
(productorii, servicii, creaie). Managementul calitii reprezint ceea ce practic
organizaiile pentru a asigura produse i servicii n conformitate cu cerintele clientilor
sai. Un certificat ISO 9001:2000 dovedeste ca un anume sistem de management al
calitii ntrunete toate cerinele acestui standard internaional.
(http://www.dqsromania.ro/produse/iso9001.html)

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II.2.4. TEXTS FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2.4.1. MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour of physical
bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effect of the
bodies on their environment. The discipline has its roots in ancient Greece where
Aristotle studied the way bodies behaved when they were thrown through the air (e.g. a
stone). However it was Galileo, Kepler and especially Newton who lay the foundation
for much of the so called Newtonian mechanics we know today. A person working in
the discipline is known as a mechanician. Mechanics is the original discipline of
physics, dealing with the macroscopic world that humans perceive. It is therefore a
huge body of knowledge about the natural world. Mechanics encompasses the
movement of all matter in the universe under the four fundamental interactions (or
forces): gravity, the strong and weak interactions, and the electromagnetic interaction.
Mechanics also constitutes a central part of technology, the application of
physical knowledge for humanly defined purposes. In this connection, the discipline is
often known as engineering or applied mechanics. In this sense, mechanics is used to
design and analyze the behavior of structures, mechanisms, and machines. Important
aspects of the fields of mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, civil
engineering, structural engineering, materials engineering, biomedical engineering and
biomechanics were spawned from the study of mechanics.The major division of the
mechanics discipline separates classical mechanics from quantum mechanics.
Historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a
comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics is older than written history, while
quantum mechanics didn't appear until 1900. Both are commonly held to constitute the
most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has
especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences. Essential in
this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role
played by experiment in generating and testing them.
Quantum mechanics is, formally at least, of the widest scope, and can be seen as
encompassing classical mechanics, as a sub-discipline which applies under certain
restricted circumstances. According to the correspondence principle, there is no
contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific
situations. While it is true that historically quantum mechanics has been seen as having
superseded classical mechanics, this is only true on the hypothetical or foundational
level. For practical problems, classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are
unmanageably difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful and well used.
Analogous to the quantum vs. classical reformation, Einstein's general and
special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of mechanics beyond the
mechanics of Newton and Galileo, and made small corrections to them. Relativistic
corrections were also needed for quantum mechanics, although relativity is categorized
as a classical theory.There are no contradictions or conflicts between the two, so long as
the specific circumstances are carefully kept in mind. Just as one could, in the loosest
possible sense, characterize classical mechanics as dealing with "large" bodies (such as
engine parts), and quantum mechanics with "small" ones (such as particles), it could be
said that relativistic mechanics deals with "fast" bodies, and non-relativistic mechanics

114

with "slow" ones. However, "fast" and "slow" are subjective concepts, depending on the
state of motion of the observer. This means that all mechanics, whether classical or
quantum, potentially needs to be described relativistically. On the other hand, as an
observer, one may frequently arrange the situation in such a way that this is not really
required.
Thus the often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects,
including particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids,
parts of fluids (gases and liquids), etc. Other distinctions between the various subdisciplines of mechanics, concern the nature of the bodies being described. Particles are
bodies with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical points in classical
mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the
particle, adding just a few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid. These subjects
have both classical and quantum divisions of study. For instance: The motion of a
spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation), is described by the relativistic
theory of classical mechanics. While analogous motions of an atomic nucleus are
described by quantum mechanics.
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics)
A. VOCABULARY
WORDS AND PHRASES
mechanics n. = pl 1. ca sg. fiz. mecanic. 2. i ca sg. aspect mecanic (al unei operaii
etc.).
displacement n. = 1. deplasare, strmutare, transfer. 2. nlocuire.
to perceive v. = 1. a percepe (cu mintea), a nelege, a pricepe, a-i da seama de/c, a
observa, a recunoate. 2. a percepe (cu simurile), a zri, a vedea, a observa.
to encompass v. = 1. a ncojura, a nchide, a ncercui. 2. a cuprinde, a conine. 3. (d.
griji etc) a nu da pace (cuiva), a npdi, a asalta, a chinui. 4. a cauza, a
determina.
to hold, held, held v. = 1. a ine (n mn). 2. a stpni, a avea drepturi/autoritate asupra
cu gen. 3. a deine, a poseda 4. a ocupa, a stpni. 5. a (se) socoti, a (se)
considera.
relentless adj. = 1. nenduplecat, nendurtor, necrutor, implacabil. 2. neabtut,
asiduu; fr preget, neprecupeit.
scope n. = I. 1. fig. orizont, sfer, intindere, gam, an undertaking of wide ~ o
iniiativ sau o intreprindere de mare amploare/de anvengur, a mind of wide ~
o minte/un spirit cu vederi largi, un om cu orizonturi/vederi largi, it is beyond
my ~ m depete, nu este de competena mea, within the ~ of n
limitele/cadrul cu gen, in sfera, de domeniul cu gen. 2. libertate, posibiliti, to
give free ~ to ones imagination a da fru liber imaginaiei, he has full/free ~
are deplin libertate de aciune. 3. tehn. cmp, diapazon 4. nav. lungime de lan
filat la ap, 5. nv int, scop. II. opt. 1. aparat optic. 2. periscop.
to pertain to v. = 1. a aparine de sau cu dat., a avea de-a face/legtur cu. 2. a fi
caracteristic/propriu cu dat. 3. a sta/ a edea bine cuiva. 4. a se referi la, a privi
cu ac.
to supersede v. = 1. (by) a nlocui (prin, cu). 2. a nltura, a da la o parte. 3. a elimina, a
ndeprta (un funcionar etc).
body n. = I. 1. corp, trup. to keep ~ and soul together a-i ine zilele, a tri de azi pe
mine. 2. corp nensufleit, cadavru. 3. persoan, individ, om. 4. nfiare
fizic, fizic. 5. corp, parte principal. 6. bis. naos, nav 7. bot. tulpin (de pom).

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8. auto caroserie. 9. av. fuzelaj. 10. grup, corp, mil unitate. 11. pol. etc. organ,
organizaie. 12. mas, mulime, majoritate. 13. alambic, retort. 14. astr. corp
ceresc, astru. 16. sistem, totalitate. II. a ntruchipa, a da trup cu dat.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
to deal, dealt, dealt v. = I. 1. a mpri, a distribui, a face (crile). 2. a da, administra,
to ~ smb a blow a lovi pe cineva, to do/make a ~ with smb a face o afacere cu
cineva.
deal n. = 1. mod de a trata, comportare, conduit, servit, datul crilor. 2. pol sistem de
msuri (guvernamentale).
field n. = I. 1. cmp, ogor, pune 2. teren (deschis). flying ~ aerodrom, aeroport. 3.
min zcmnt, cmp, teren, regiune, bazin. 4. fig. sfer, domeniu, in the ~ of
literature n domeniul literaturii. 5. fig. cmp (de vedere, magnetic etc). 6.
cmp de lupt/btaie sau lupt, btlie, to conquer the ~ i fig. a nvinge, a fi
victorios, to enter the ~ i fig. a intra n lupt, a ncepe lupta, to hold the ~ a-i
menine poziiile, to keep the ~ a continua lupta, to take the ~ a se duce la
rzboi, to lose the ~ a fi nvins, a pierde btlia. 7. fond (al unei picturi). 8.
sport participanii la o competiie sau cei mai valoroi participani la o
competiie. 9. el. cib. grup, unitate de informatie. 10 el. excitaie II sport. 1. a
prinde i a arunca napoi (mingea, la baseball). 2. a prezenta pe teren (juctorii
de fotbal etc), ~ artillery artilerie de cmp, ~ ash bot. scoru, ~ basil bot.
busuioc, ~ day mil. exerciii tactice pe teren, ieire n teren, manevre. 2. zi
consacrat vntorii, excursiilor etc. 3. fig. zi plin de evenimente, ~ duty mil.
serviciu activ, ~ engine tractor; ~ night seara/noapte memorabil/de pomin.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What are classical and quantum mechanics?
2. Which are some of the most important names related to mechanics and physics?
3. What are the differences between classical mechanics and quantum mechanics?
4. What type of mechanics is known to better solve practical problems?
5. What does mechanics encompass?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands for one word:
1. a pune bazele l____ the f_________
2. aspecte importante ale domeniilor i________ a______ o_ the f________
3. ambele sunt considerate ca b______ a__ h______ to
4. au extins orizontul mecanicii e______ the s______ of m________
III. Tick the statements true or false:
1. Mechanics is the branch of chemistry concerned with the behaviour of physical
bodies.
2. The discipline of mechanics is often known as engineering or applied
mechanics.
3. Historically, quantum mechanics came first, while classical mechanics is a
comparatively recent invention.

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4. For practical problems, quantum mechanics is able to solve problems which are
unmanageably difficult in classical mechanics and hence remains useful and
well used.
5. All mechanics, whether classical or quantum, potentially needs to be described
relativistically.
6. Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure.
7. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the
particle.
IV. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with TOOLS:
axe, brush, corkscrew, file, hammer, drill, ladder, mallet, pincers, paintbrush, plane,
scissors, screwdriver, shears, saw, spades, sieve, spanner, tin opener, tape measure,
trowel, device
1. Mother poured the soup through a to remove all the lumps.
2. The carpenter uses a to make a smooth surface.
3. We drive a nail into wood with the help of a
4. A is a kind of strong tool for holding an object firmly.
5. Screws can be turned with a
6. A is a small wooden hammer.
7. A is a steel tool with a rough surface for smoothing or rubbing away wood or
metal.
8. When I opened the door, John was standing on a painting the ceiling.
9. A is a blade with sharp teeth along one edge, used for cutting wood or other
materials.
10. One can cut down trees or chop logs with the help of an
11. We pull corks out of bottles by using a
12. I needed a to open this tin.
13. You put paint onto something using a
14. Nuts can be loosened or tightened with a
15. The hairdresser took a pair of and cut the girls hair.
16. Cement or plaster can be spread onto walls with a
17. Garden hedges are cut with the
18. Tailors use to measure the cloth or the size of your body.
19. A is a tool used for making holes.
20. I saw some children carrying their buckets and to the beach.
V. Translate into English:
1. Cercetrile fundamentale sunt, n general, cercetri teoretice dirijate ctre
progresul tiinei fr luarea n considerare a posibilitilor de aplicare practic ntr-un
viitor previzibil. n domeniul fizicii, de exemplu, cercetarea fundamental poate fi
cercetarea relativitii sau cercetarea structurii materiei. n aceast categorie pot fi
incluse i cercetrile fundamental-orientate, caracterizate prin faptul c sunt dirijate de
ctre domenii n care compania, marea ntreprindere, ntrevede un interes comercial
real. Se poate vorbi despre cercetare fundamental-orientat n domenii ca: deformaiile
corpurilor plastice, studiul deformaiilor plastice ale corpurilor solide, studiul
acceleraiilor de ordin superior, noi surse de energie, previziunea micrilor seismice,
motoare cu ardere intern fr piston, etc.

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2. Cercetrile aplicative sunt cercetri dirijate ctre obinerea de noi cunotine care
au aplicabilitate imediat n exploatarea comercial a produselor i proceselor
tehnologice, n scopul realizrii unor produse cu caliti superioare, mai competitive, a
unor procese tehnologice perfecionate i mai economice. Ca domenii de cercetare
aplicativ se pot exemplifica: mrirea capacitii portante a angrenajelor sau a
rulmenilor, n condiiile aceluiai volum de material, obinerea unor aditivi pentru
uleiuri n vederea micorrii uzurii, obinerea uleiurilor sintetice cu proprieti
superioare din punct de vedere al peliculei de lubrifiant, obinerea unor materiale
plastice care s nlocuiasc materialele metalice neferoase deficitare, studiul proceselor
tehnologice n vederea creterii performanelor produselor, extinderea sau restrngerea
liniilor tehnologice, etc.

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2.4.2. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY RATIOS

In determining the velocity ratio of a particular machine, each machine should
be treated on its own merits. In some cases it may be advisable to imagine the effort to
move one meter, and follow the events through the machine to determine the
corresponding movement of the load. In other cases it may be advisable to let one
particular spindle rotate by one revolution, and then consider what happens to the load
and the effort. We will consider some standard types of machines and determine their
velocity ratios.
Pulley blocks
Although many science laboratories contain interesting arrangements of pulley
blocks which provide useful exercises in determining velocity ratios, industrial
applications are mainly confined to pulley arrangements consisting of two separate sets
of pulleys mounted in pulley blocks. They are connected by a continuous rope, to one
end of which an effort is applied. The other end of the rope, after passing around pulleys
alternately in the two blocks, is attached to the body of one pulley block. In operation,
the top pulley block is attached to a fixed point, such as a beam, while the load is
suspended from the bottom pulley block. Let us presume that in one particular
assembly the bottom block has four pulleys and that the end of the rope is finally
attached to the bottom block. Colloquially it would be said then nine ropes descend to
the bottom block. (If the end of the rope were fixed to the top block, eight ropes would
descend to the bottom block).
If the effort moves a distance of x, the total length of rope between the blocks shortens
by this distance x, and this shortening is shared by the ropes which descend to the
bottom block. In the case where nine ropes descended to the bottom block, the blocks
would approach each other by x/9 and hence the load would be lifted by x/9.
In general terms, then, the velocity ratio of a lifting arrangement of this particular type
is given simply by the number of ropes which descend to the bottom block. If there are
n pulleys on the bottom block, the rope also being fastened tot the bottom block, the
velocity ratio is 2n+1. If there are n pulleys on the bottom block but the rope is fixed to
the top block, the velocity ratio is 2n.
Corrosion
Corrosion is the removal of particles of metals and alloys by chemical action.
The actual reactions are extremely complex. Most metals are oxidized by the
atmosphere, the rapidity of this type of corrosion depending upon the prevailing
conditions.
If four separated pieces of iron are left for a time in dry air, moist air, tap water
and air-free water respectively, it will be observed that both air and water are necessary
for the corrosion of iron by rusting. The final deposit in the rusting of iron is a
particular iron oxide chemically combined with water, but there is reasonable ground for
suggesting that during the process of oxidizing iron to the hydrated oxide of iron known
as rust, iron compounds called ferrous hydroxide and ferric carbonate are formed.
Corrosion is generally considered to be an electrolytic process in which small
electric cells are formed on the surface of metal. Such an electric cell needs an
electrolyte such as acidified water. Hence if the surrounding air contains sulphur
compounds, these will react with moisture to form acidic solutions, producing

119

electrolytes which accelerate corrosion. Consequently, corrosion of metals in industrial

areas is more rapid than in rural areas.
(Page, M. G., Science for Mechanical Technicians, Book 1, pp. 157-8)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
velocity n. = viteza de deplasare (a unui obiect, etc) ntr-o anumit direcie.
ratio n. = 1. mat. raport, proporie, relaie, corelaie, in direct ~ direct proporional. 2.
tehn. raport de transmisie. 3. filos. raiune, motriv, cauz.
spindle = n. 1. text. fus, arbore, osie, ax, tij. 2. bot. lujer, vrej. 3. constr. balustru.
to spindle v. = 1. a se ntinde, a se lungi, a crete n lungime. 2. bot. a crete drept i
subire.
revolution n. = 1. pol. revoluie, rscoal, rzmeri. 2. tehn. rotaie, revoluie, turaie,
rotire. 3. astr. (micare de) revoluie. 4. micare giratorie.
pulley n. = tehn. roat de transmisie, scripete, troliu.
beam n. = 1. grind, bar, travers. 2. (bra de) balan. 3. agr. grindei (de plug). 4. raz,
mnunchi de raze. 5. fig. nimb, aureol. 6. nav. lime (a navei). 7. nav. travers
de punte, travers mobil. 8. nav. travers.
arrangement n. = 1. aranjare, potrivire, rnduire, punere n ordine. 2. clasificare. 3.
ordine, rnduial. 4. aranjament, mod de a aranja, aeza, distribui etc. 5.
aranjament, nelegere, nvoial, accord. 6. pl. aranjamente, msuri, pregtiri,
amenajri. 7. muz. aranjament. 8. lit. adaptare, prelucrare. 9. tehn. reglare,
poziie.
corrosion n. = 1. tehn., geol. coroziune, corodare. 2. tehn. ruginire. 3. tehn. gripare.
alloy n. = 1. met., poligr. aliaj. 2. prob (a unui metal preios). 3. fig. amestec, adaos
(nedorit), pleasure without ~ plcere neumbrit de nimic
to alloy v. = 1. met. a alia. 2. fig. a strica, a umbri (fericirea etc.).
deposit n. = 1. geol. zcamnt, deposit, sediment, strat. 2. ch. sediment, precipitat. 3. ec.
deposit, depunere, bani depui la banc. 4. deposit, strat.
to deposit v. = 1. ch. a depune, a precipita. 2. geol. a sedimenta. 3. ec. a depune, a
depozita. 4. a pune, a aeza, a depune (ou, icre etc). 5. a depune (ml etc.).
moisture n. = umezeal, umiditate.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
block n. = 1. butuc, butean. 2. bloc de piatr, lespede. 3. bloc; (n S.U.A.) corp de case.
4. fig (om) prost, cap sec. 5. bloc, grmad, in the ~ n bloc. 6. pol. bloc,
grupare. 7. met. bloc de oel, blum. 8. tehn. sabot. 9. tehn. scripete. 10. min.
bloc, pilier. 11. poligr. clieu. 12. calapod, calot. 13. butuc, eafod. 14. carnet
de notie. 15. med. blocare, ~house mil cazemat, fort, cas de brne, barac.
to block v. = 1. a bloca, a opri, a mpiedica, a pune piedici n calea cu gen. 2. tel. a
bloca. 3. sport a stopa, a bloca, ~ in a schia, a creiona, ~ out a schia (un plan),
a retua, ~ up a umple (cu crmid).
blockade n. = 1. mil. blocad, to raise the ~ a ridica blocada. 2. baricad.
blockage n. = blocare, infundare.
blockish adj. = prostnac, netot.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What is one of the standard types of machines mentioned in the text?

120

2.
3.
4.
5.

What is this machine used for?

What is velocity ratio?
How would you define corrosion?
What are the factors that influence corrosion?

II. Tick the statements true or false

1. In determining the velocity ratio of a particular machine, each machine should
not be treated on its own merits.
2. Industrial applications are mainly confined to pulley arrangements consisting of
two separate sets of pulleys.
3. The velocity ratio of a lifting arrangement of this particular type is given simply
by the number of ropes which mount to the top block.
4. If there are n pulleys on the bottom block but the rope is fixed to the top block,
the velocity ratio is 4n.
5. Corrosion is the removal of particles of metals and alloys by physical action.
6. Neither air nor water are necessary for the corrosion of iron by rusting.
7. Corrosion of metals in rural areas is more rapid than in industrial areas.
III. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with THE CAR:
accelerator, battery, bonnet, boot, bumper, chassis, choke, clutch, cylinder, dashboard,
distributor, engine, exhaust-pipe, headlight, hubcup, horn, ignition, number plate,
petrol gauge, radiator, silencer, safety belt, spark plug, seat, speedometer, tyres,
windscreen, windscreen wiper, wing, steering wheel, brake
1. A is a sign on the front and the back of a car that shows its registration
number.
2. Lets lift the and have a look at the engine.
3. He switched on the cars and the engine started running.
4. When you press the with your foot, the car goes faster.
5. The carries the gas or smoke out ofr the engine of a car.
6. One makes a car turn left or right by turning the
7. A is the framework that a vehicle is built on.
8. It is dangerous to drive with a dirty ; you cant see the road well.
9. The in a car is a device that sends electric current to the spark plugs in the
engine.
10. The is a piece of equipment fitted to a car to reduce its noise.
11. Remove the and loosen the nuts with a spanner.
12. The is the panel facing the drivers seat where most of the switches are.
13. The cars read 80 miles per hour.
14. The dropped swiftly toward zero showing that we had run out of fuel.
15. His new car has a five- engine.
16. If there is no water in the , your engine will overheat immediately.
17. The in the engine of a car is a device that reduces the amount of air going into
the engine and makes it easier to start.
18. A is a bar at the front and the back of a car that provides extra protection if
the car collides with anything.
19. The driver blew his when a child ran in front of his car.
20. The car wont start because the needs recharging.

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21. A in the engine is a device which produces the electrical spark that ignites the
fuel.
22. Open the and put my suitcase in, please!
23. As it was getting dark, I switched on the to light up the road ahead.
24. I stepped hard on the and the car stopped.
25. A is a movable arm of metal with a rubber edge that clears rain from a
windscreen.
26. I couldnt get my started so I left the car there.
27. The is the mechanism that allows the power from the engine to be
disconnected from the wheels when you change gear.
28. I would have been killed if I had not been wearing a
29. The of this car dont have enough air in them.
30. The front of the cars was damaged in the accident.
IV. Translate into English:
Fiabilitatea unui sistem (fie acesta un simplu element, un mecanism, un ansamblu
mecanic, o main, un circuit electric, electronic sau hidraulic, un sistem format din
asemenea circuite, etc) este probabilitatea ca acesta s funcioneze (s ndeplineasc
corect funciunea) o anumit perioad de timp n anumite condiii de funcionare i de
mediu (impuse prin tem).
Pn acum cteva decenii, la baza proiectrii mainilor a stat criteriul obinerii unei
durabiliti ct mai ridicate, noiunea de fiabilitate fiind inclus n noiunea de calitate.
Se observau totui deteriorri ntmpltoare, mai ales la elementele aflate n micare, la
circuite, etc., datorate unor cauze imprevizibile. Nu se putea cuprinde n calcule
previziunea acestor deteriorri. Nu se puteau identifica mijloace pentru a le evita.
Evoluia tiinei i tehnicii, pe de o parte, implicaiile economice, pe de alt parte, au
fcut ca obinerea unei durabiliti ct mai ridicate s nu mai constituie un unic criteriu
n proiectare.
Echipamentele moderne sunt mult mai complexe, mult mai frecvent pot aprea
deteriorri ntmpltoare ale elementelor componente. Cu ct complexitatea sistemelor
moderne este mai mare, cu att posibilitatea apariiei deteriorrilor ntmpltoare este
mai mare. Unele sisteme sunt destinate s funcioneze o perioad scurt de timp (n
care, ns, nu trebuie s apar deteriorri). Uzura moral, de exemplu, poate s impun
limitarea durabilitii.
Elemente sau sisteme aparent identice din punct de vedere ale materialului, formei i
tehnologiei, puse n exploatare n aceleai condiii de solicitare i de mediu, prezint
durabiliti diferite. Mai mult, repartiia durabilitii elementelor aparent identice este
aleatorie.

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2.4.3. AEROPLANE CRASHES

1. Four people died yesterday when their aircraft bound for Pamon crashed and
burst into flames soon after take-off. The plane ploughed into a field and broke apart.
As fuel poured out, the wreck caught fire and burned. The son of the pilot, who had
watched the plane taxi across the field, take off and crash after a nose-dive, ran across
to the plane but it was already ablaze. He attempted to rescue the passengers but had to
be dragged away from the scene for his own safety. He said he could hear the people in
the plane screaming, but they burned to death before the fire-fighters arrived. Civil
aviation experts examined the wreckage the next day and blamed the pilots handling of
the aircraft for the disaster.
2. An airbus crashed fifty yards short of the runway at Bradley Airport
yesterday and exploded on impact. It had suffered engine failure and the pilot had sent
a mayday call requesting an emergency landing. But, within seconds of being cleared
to land, the plane had burst into flames and had plummeted to the ground. The
wreckage suggested that the fire was the fiercest over the wings, where emergency
exists are located. Most of the victims were found still strapped in their seats. There
were no survivors among the 123 on board including 10 crew members. The bodies
were so badly burnt and mutilated they had to be identified from dental records.
Rescue teams sealed off the site and began examining the mangled wreckage,
trying to piece together what had gone wrong. Eyewitnesses reported hearing a
faltering engine noise and seeing a pall of black smoke behind the craft. The inquiry
revealed that it was to be the planes last flight before an engine overhaul. Surprisingly,
there was no black box flight recorder on the aircraft but radio transmissions indicated
that the accident was probably caused by a technical error. Though messages of
sympathy were sent to the bereaved by airline authorities, it is likely that they will be
sued for damages by the victims families.
(Otto, B, Otto, M., Limba englez pentru jurnaliti, pp. 27, 126, 250, vol. I)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to plough v. = a (se)prbui.
taxi v. = a merge pe sol (nainte de decolare sau dup aterizare.
nose-dive n. = a se prbui n picaj, n bot (av.).
ablaze adj. = n flcri.
drag v. = a smulge.
wreckage n.= rmie, resturi.
runway n. = pist (decolare, aterizare).
impact n. = impact.
mayday call n. = n cod internaional: semnal de ajutor.
plummet v. = a pica n zig-zag.
mutilate v. = a mutila.
mangled adj. = distrus, zdrobit.
falter v. = a pierde din putere, a avea sincope.
pall n. = nor gros, negru.
overhaul n. = revizie general.
bereaved adj. = ndurerat, ndoliat.

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II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

to bereave of, bereft of v. = 1. a lipsi/a deposeda/a priva/ a vduvi de. 2. a rpi cu ac.
bereavement n. = pierdere grea, rpire, synonyms: affliction, deprivation, destitution,
loss, death.
fierce adj. = 1. feroce, aprig, hain, hapsn, nestpnit, slbatic, cumplit; vehement. 2.
fioros, ru. 3. (d. cldur, vnt) insuportabil, grozav, extraordinary. 4. active,
energic.
fiercely adv. = feroce, cu slbticie, violent, cu violen, grozav, insuportabil.
fierceness n. = ferocitate, nverunare, violen, impetuozitate.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What are the basic differences between the two accidents described in the
report?
2. Could the people in the first accident have been saved?
3. What suggests that the pilot of the jet was aware of the danger?
4. What methods are used to establish the cause of the accident?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands for one word:
1. a se aprinde i a arde n flcri c______ f_________ and b________ i_____
f_______
2. pornit, n drum spre b__________ f__________
3. a ncerca s salveze a___________ to r_________
4. a nvinui pentru dezastru b_______ f_________ the d_________
5. a suferi avarii ale motorului s_________ e__________ f___________
6. a identifica dup fiele dentare i_________ f_____ d_____ r________
7. a izola locul s_________ o_________ the s___________
8. a trimite condoleane celor ndurerai/ndoliai s_______ m__________ of
s__________ to the b__________
III. Tick the statements true or false:
1. The plane first burst into flames, then crashed.
2. The plane ploughed into a field on the outskirts of Palmon.
3. The son of the pilot was sitting in a taxi when the accident happened.
4. Because of the heat, he was unable to help the people inside the wreck.
5. All the occupants of the plane died because of the impact of the crash.
6. The inquiry concluded that the accident happened because of a human error.
7. The pilot of the airbus was unaware of the danger.
8. The airbus burned very quickly.
9. 123 people died in the accident.
10. Some of the bodies could not be identified immediately.
11. The airbus was to be removed permanently from service following that flight.
12. The airline may be held responsible for negligence.
IV. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with TRAVELLING BY AIR:

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aileron, airport, Check-in-counter, cockpit, control tower, copilot, Departure Lounge,

flight, gate, glider, hangar, parachute, pilot, runway, stewardess, undercarriage,
Security Check, Passport Control, Duty-free Shops, ticket
1. How long is the to London?
2. The and crew were all killed in the air crash.
3. All the aeroplanes have retractable
4. In severe winters, food is sometimes dropped by to isolated villages.
5. When you go through your hand luggage is checked.
6. That tall building in the airport, from which people direct the movement of
aircraft on the ground and in the air, is the
7. In airports you can buy goods at a cheaper price at the
8. A is a large building where aircraft are kept.
9. The assists the chief pilot to fly the plane.
10. The is the main part of the aeroplane.
11. When you hear the announcement for your flight you should proceed to the to
board the plane.
12. The is that small area of a plane looking after passengers and serving meals to
them.
13. A is a woman who works on a plane looking after passengers and serving
meals to them.
14. The plane sped up the and soon took off.
15. An is a flap on the back edge of the wing of an aeroplane that can be raised or
lowered in order to control the movement of the plane.
16. Passengers wait for their flight to be announced in the
17. You receive a boarding pass at the
18. A is an aircraft that does not have an engine but flies by floating on air
currents.
19. We show our passports for before we go through Security check.
20. An is a place, usually with a lot of buildings and facilities where aircraft land
and take off.
V. Topics for discussion
1. Put yourself in the position of a passenger on a plane which is about to crash.
The captain and the stewardess have already reviewed the emergency procedure
and n0ow you have twenty seconds before the plane crashes. Can you guess how
you would react and what you would be thinking about? Statistically, when
taking into account the number of flights taking place every day, plane crashes,
plane crashes are rare. Yet, thousands of people have gone through the ordeal
which you are trying to imagine.
2. Would you ever fly again if you had survived a plane crash?
3. Why are plane crashes so well-remembered? Why do they provoke general
sympathy and official days of mourning?
VI. Translate into English:
Un avion care zbura spre Palmon s-a prbuit i a izbucnit n flcri imediat dup
decolare. Civa martori au vzut cum avionul a decolat, s-a nlat n aer, dup care s-a
prbuit deodat la pmnt, fiind cuprins de flcri. nainte ca pompierii s ajung la
locul accidentului, pasagerii au ars n avionul naufragiat. Cu o lun n urm, pe acelai

125

aeroport s-a prbuit un turboreactor. Cauza accidentului a fost o avarie de motor.

Pilotul a solicitat o aterizare de urgen datorit avariei. nainte ca avionul s reueasc
s aterizeze, s-a prbuit la pmnt. Incendiul nu a permis ca aciunea de salvare s fie
eficient. Nimeni nu a supravieuit dintre cei o suta doi oameni mbarcai. Acest zbor
trebuia s fie ultimul, nainte de revizia general a motorului. La bord nu s-a nregistrat
nimic pe cutia neagra. Pn acum nu s-au comunicat cauzele accidentului.

126

2.4.4. TRAIN CRASHES

At least twenty-four people died and more than eighty-five were seriously
injured after two passenger trains collided this morning near Shockville. The driver of
the express train, the 7,25 from Gloomford, passed a red signal and smashed into a
packed stationary commuter train. The derailed coaches fell into the path of an empty
goods train which was just pulling out of the station. It was revealed that the commuter
train was running 3 minutes late, but signal failure was ruled out. It seems that the
driver of the express train made the fatal error, maybe due to some distraction. When the
train crossed from the fast slow track and entered the station, it was too late to brake
effectively.
Emergency procedures were immediately put into operation. Scores of rescuers
worked throughout the day to clear the wreckage and extract victims. A 3000-ton crane
was moved into position to begin lifting the derailed coaches. Firemen used cutting gear
to reach the injured and the dead who were pinned under the wreckage. Thermal-image
cameras had to be used to find survivors in the unrecognizable metal tangle. Paramedics
and doctors set up saline drips, distributed powerful painkillers and reassured those in
agony while waiting for the stretcher-bearers to carry away the wounded.
The Transport Secretary ordered an inquiry into the cause of the accident and
called for an improvement in fail-safe systems designed to make such accidents
impossible. He praised the swift reaction of the emergency services and the people who
came to tend to the injured. Many came forward to donate their blood when supplies
ran low. Others offered their cars to ferry the less seriously injured victims to nearby
hospitals. An emergency telephone line has been made available for relatives. It is
hoped that, by tomorrow morning, services will be restored. Meanwhile, all rail traffic
is being rerouted.
(Otto, B, Otto, M., Limba englez pentru jurnaliti, pp. 33, 128, 251, vol. I)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to collide v. = a face o coliziune.
stationary adj. = staionat.
to derail v. = a deraia.
failure n. = ntrziere.
track n. = ine de cale ferat.
to brake v. = a frna.
coach n. = vagon de cale ferat.
to pin v. = a fi intuit, a nu putea s te miti.
to praise v. = a luda.
to tend v. = a avea grij.
to run low v. = a duce lips.
to reroute v. = a trimite pe o alt rut.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
rail n. = 1. in, to get off/to run off/to leave the ~s a. ferov. a deraia, a sri de pe linie
b. fig. a deraia, a o lua razna/alturea cu drumul. 2. cale ferat, drum de fier,
transport feroviar. by ~ pe cale ferat, cu trenul. 3. fin. aciuni ale

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societilor/companiilor feroviare. 4. drug; bar; travers, grind. 5. cuier (pt

plrii). 6. balustrad, mn curent, parapet, to lean over the ~s a se apleca
peste parapet/balustrad. 7. pl. grilaj, gard (de ostree), mprejmuire, zbrele,
gratii.
rail v. = 1. a transporta pe calea ferat, a expedia/a trimite cu trenul/pe calea ferat. 2. a
mprejmui, a ngrdi, a nconjura cu un gard. 3. a mprejmui cu o balustrad, ~
against/at 1. a ocr, a blestema. 2. a critica, a ine de ru, a blama, ~ car ferov.
automotor, ~ chair ferov. scaun pentru in, cuzinet al inei, alunector,
double-railed ferov. cu linie dubl, ~ guard ferov. grtar de protecie (n faa
locomotivei), ~ head ferov cap de linie, punct terminus, mil. staie de
descrcare, ~ off a separa/despri printr-un gard/printr-o mprejmuire.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What kind of trains were involved in the collision?
2. What did the rescue operation involve?
3. What was the publics response to the accident?
4. What is the purpose of setting up the emergency telephone service?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands for one word:
1. a suferi grave leziuni corporale to be s______ i__________
2. tren aglomerat din suburbii (de navetiti) p_________ c________ t_______
3. a porni din staie p_______ o______ o_______ the s__________
4. a avea o ntrziere de trei minute r___________ three minutes l______
5. a exclude r_________ o__________
6. a svri o greeal fatal m__________ a f______ e_________
7. a administra medicamente puternice mpotriva durerii d________ p_________
p_______-k__________
8. a ordona desfurarea unei anchete o_______ an i___________
9. a dona snge d_________ b___________
10. a asigura folosirea unei linii telefonice m________ a t_________ l______
a_______
11. a reface transportul feroviar r________ r_______ s_________
III. Tick the statements true or false:
1. The express train should have stopped for the light.
2. The commuter train should have stopped for the light.
3. Only two trains were involved in the collision.
4. The accident wouldnt have happened if the signal had been green.
5. The slow track leads to the platforms.
6. The rescue teams were too shocked by the scale of the disaster to act effectively.
7. What caused the biggest problem was locating and reaching the survivors.
8. Medical help was improvised on the spot.
9. Existing fail-safe systems are effective in preventing train accidents.
10. The Transport Secretary was impressed by the dedication of the rescue teams
and bystanders.
11. The accident temporarily disrupted railway services.

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IV. Topics for discussion

1. Of all the means of public transport, trains seem relatively safe. Yet, train
crashes do happen often with very high death toll. Do railway accidents differ in
any way from the other accidents? Do they pose any special difficulties for
rescue teams?
2. What are members of the public who witness such accidents supposed to do? In
what way can they be helpful?
3. Discuss the usefulness of emergency phone information lines that are set up
when trains or planes crash. What would you say if you had to inform a caller
that the relative he is inquiring about lost his life in the accident?
V. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with TRAVELLING BY TRAIN:
buffers, buffet, carriage, engine, freight car, guard, gauges, junction, left luggage office,
luggage rack, level crossing, porter, sleeper, station, signalman, siding, terminus, ticket,
timetable, waiting room
1. The shows the times when the trains are supposed to arrive or depart.
2. A is a short railway track, off the main track, where trains stand when they
are not being used.
3. are metal discs on springs at the front or at the back of a railway train to
prevent the train from crashing.
4. This is a busy railway where lines from all over the country meet.
5. The old lady could finally find a to carry her suitcase from the train.
6. On the rail system of most countries, have been standardized.
7. I put my suitcase on the and then I took my seat.
8. A is a train with beds for sleeping through the night.
9. Our train was pulled by a new
10. The blew his whistle and waved his flag.
11. The is the station at the end of a railway line.
12. The train only costs $50.
13. Well be sitting in the second form the front of the train.
14. A s job is to control railway signals.
15. A is the place where a railway line is crossed by a road.
16. Lets get a coffee at the ; we still have one hour till he arrives.
17. We left our suitcase at the
18. People can sit and wait in the until it is time for their train.
19. Goods are transported in
20. A is the building by a railway line where the trains stop to pick up passengers
or goods.
VI. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with BIKE/MOTORBIKE:
bell, chain, crossbar, dynamo, forks, handle-bars, hub, mudguard, pannier, pedals,
pump, reflector, saddle, sprocket, spokes, valve
1. Bicycle lights are powered by a
2. are bars that connect the outer ring of a bicycle wheel to the centre of it.
3. The is a shield over the wheel to keep mud from splashing upwards.

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4. The on a bicycle or motorbike are two pieces of metal to which the front
wheel is attached.
5. A is a wheel with one or more rows of teeth that fit into the holes in a chain.
6. The is the central part of a wheel to which the axle is joined.
7. The cyclist was thrown over the when the bike crashed.
8. A bicycle makes the wheels turn.
9. A is the horizontal metal bar that goes between the handlebars and the saddle
on a mans bicycle.
10. We can force air into a tyre under pressure, by using a
11. The cyclist rang his when he passed by.
12. The is the seat on a bicycle or motorbike.
13. A is a device on the tyre that allows air to pass in one direction only.
14. A is a small piece of specially patterned glass or plastic which is fitted to the
back of a bicycle so that it can be seen, at night, by the drivers of vehicles with
headlights.
15. You push the with your feet in order to make the bicycle move.
VII. Translate into English:
Astzi diminea s-a produs o coliziune ntre dou trenuri de persoane. Expresul din
Gloomford a trecut pe culoarea roie i s-a ciocnit cu un tren local aflat n staie.
Vagoanele deraiate s-au rsturnat pe linia vecin, chiar spre un tren marfar, care tocmai
pleca. S-a exclus ideea ca semnalizarea defectuoas s fi fost cauza accidentului.
Ministerul Transporturilor a solicitat investigaii. Se impune necesitatea mbuntirii
sistemelor de siguran. n accident au pierit peste douzeci de persoane i aproape o
sut au fost rnite. S-a pus la dispoziie celor interesai un numr de telefon la care se
pot obine informaii despre soarta victimelor. De mine diminea trenurile vor circula
dup orar.

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2.4.5. SEA COLLISIONS

1. Eighty people are feared drowned in a ferry disaster which took place in the
early hours of the morning. The Rose of the Seas bound for Galamos, sank in shallow
coastal waters after striking a reef in dense fog 3 miles off Gueno, Anturias major port.
The impact of the collision cut electricity plunging the ship into darkness as water
quickly began to fill the craft. As the ship began to keel over, the captain gave the order
to abandon the vessel but it went down too quickly for many to get to the deck and
lifeboats. Teams of divers are working around the clock searching the sunken ferry and
retrieving bodies. Rescuers mounted an air-sea search involving lifeboats and
helicopters. Those passengers who are still unaccounted for are believed to be still
trapped inside the submerged vessel.
2. A shipping tragedy, in which one hundred and eight people are believed o
have perished, happened when a ferry cut across the path of a tanker. As the tanker
rammed it, the ferry was sliced in two and sank within seconds. Only a handful of the
panic-striken passengers are known to have survived, because most of them were
trapped below decks. The rescue teams are trying to identify the drowned. The families
of the victims are numbed with shock and the world is deeply saddened by the tragedy.
3. A ferry is reported to have capsized soon after leaving the harbour of
Icenberg in what could be the worst tragedy since the Titanic. Experts still cannot figure
out how the disaster happened, but there are speculations that unsecured cargo shifted,
causing the vessel to list sharply. Water rushed in through the doors and the ferry went
down with a heavy loss of life. The crew appeared ill-prepared to handle such an
emergency and safety devices seem to have been faulty. Rescue efforts were hampered
by adverse weather conditions and low temperatures. Scores of dead passengers were
pulled from the water because without proper clothing, the chances of survival in cold
water are few. The officials are putting the figure at three hundred and fifty drowned.
(Otto, B., Otto, M., Limba englez pentru jurnaliti, pp. 31, 134, 253, vol. I)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
shallow adj. = puin adnc.
dense adj. = dens.
to plunge v. = aici: a lsa fr.
to keel over v. = a se scufunda.
sunken adj. = scufundat.
to retrieve v. = a recupera.
to mount v. = a organiza.
to perish v. = a muri.
path n. = drum, cale.
to ram v. = a lovi n plin.
numb adj. = nmrmurit, paralizat.
to capsize v. = a se scufunda.
to list v. = a se nclina pe o parte.
to hamper v. = a mpiedica.

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II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

work n. = 1. munc, lucru, activitate, treab, all in the days ~ potrivit ateptrilor, to
make short ~ of smb a termina repede cu cineva, a expedia repede pe cineva,
mighty ~s minuni. 2. pl mechanism, the ~s of a watch mecanismele unui ceas,
~bench tehn mas de tmplrie, mas de lucru/montaj.
to work v. = 1. a munci, a lucra. 2. tehn a funciona. 3. med a avea effect. 4. a fermenta
(d. drojdie). 5. a tricota, a broda, a coase. 6. a produce, a determina, a cauza. 7.
a modela 8. fig a influena, a convinge, ~ in 1. a introduce a insera (abil ntr-un
text), a strecura. 2. (d. cuvinte, idei) a se strecura, a fi inserat (ntr-un text).
workability n. = 1. aplicabilitate. 2. utilitate, folos. 3. tehn capacitate de a fi prelucrat,
uzinabilitate.
workable adj. = 1. (d. o mainrie) care funcioneaz sau poate fi pus n micare. 2. (d.
un plan) aplicabil, realizabil, realist. 3. tehn prelucrabil.
workaday adj. = cenuiu, prosaic, de fiecare zi, obinuit.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What were the causes of the accidents described above?
2. What caused the heavy loss of life in each one of them?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands for one word:
1. impact al coliziunii i_________ of the c__________
2. a da ordinal de prsire a vasului g_________ an o_________ to
a____________ the s__________
3. a lucra zi i noapte w_______ a__________ the c_________
4. tiat pe jumtate s__________ i____ t________
5. a se scufunda n cteva secunde s_________ w________ s__________
6. pasageri cuprinsi de panica p_________-s________ p_________
7. se aflau sub puntea superioar - t_________ b________ d_________
8. ncrctur nefixat bine u_________ c___________
9. mari pierderi n oameni h_________ l_________ of l_________
10. echipaj slab pregtit i__________-p________ c_________
11. instalaii (echipamente) cu defecte f__________ d____________
12. condiii meteo nefavorabile a_________ w_______ c_________
13. ansa de a supravieui c___________ of s___________
III. Tick the statements true or false
1. The ferry was on its way from Galamos to Gueno.
2. The wreck is lying at a depth of three miles.
3. There was no electricity because water has flooded the ship.
4. So many people died because the captain delayed giving the order to abandon
the ship.
5. The rescue operation is being carried out only during the day.
6. It is likely that eighty bodies will be found inside the wreck.
7. The tanker went down alongside the ferry.
8. The ferry sank too quickly for the passengers to get to the decks.
9. The ferry sank as a result of a collision.

132

10. It is believed that the accident happened because of the crews negligence.
11. Many people died of hypothermia.
IV. Topics for discussion
1. Is sea travel any safer nowadays than in the old days when people crossed the
oceans on sailing ships?
2. What factors may increase the risk of passengers drowning in case of a collision
or fire?
3. Is taking a cruise on a sea liner as romantic as is widely believed?
4. In case of a collision at sea there are certain rules that are supposed to be
followed concerning evacuation. Do you know what they are?
V. Complete the sentences below with one of the appropriate words or phrases
connected with SHIPPING:
anchor, boat, bow, breakwaters, bridge, cabin, captain, capsize, crew, cruise, deck,
dock, funnel, gangway, harbour, lifebelt, lifeboats, lighthouse, mast, mate, oars, poop,
propeller, periscopes, radar, rudders, sailor, ship, sonar, submarine, steamships,
warehouse, wreck, yacht
1. A is a movable bridge by means of which people can get on or off a boat.
2. The are waiting for instructions from the Captain.
3. The depth of the sea or position of an underwater object can be determined with
the help of
4. Bob took me down the river in his old
5. We threw a to the man who had fallen into the sea.
6. A is a large building where large quantities of goods are stored until they are
exported to other countries or distributed to shops to be sold.
7. The sailor climbed the
8. A is a sailing boat used for pleasure.
9. The with its flashing light, guides ships or warns them of danger.
10. The is the ships officer who is one rank below the captain.
11. Do you know when replaced sailing ships?
12. When the spins round, it causes the ship to move forward or backward.
13. The smoke was pouring from the
14. I made my way to the upper to admire the seascape.
15. The is a vertical piece of wood or metal at the back of a boat which is used to
steer the boat.
16. A sank last week and all the passengers and crew were drowned.
17. I pulled on the to make the boat go faster.
18. are carried by ships to save people in case the ship sinks.
19. The divers found the of an old ship on the sea-bed.
20. Ships use to avoid colliding with each other in fog.
21. They cast the to hold the ship on position.
22. Weve booked a first-class on this ship.
23. All the ships stayed in the during the storm.
24. A can travel under the surface of the sea.
25. A is s ea voyage for pleasure.
26. Some ships when struck by huge waves.
27. My brother is a in the Romanian navy.

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28. A is a small round window on the side of a ship.

29. are used in submarines in order to see above the surface of the water.
30. The of a ship is the raised part from which the ship is steered and where the
captain stands.
31. are very large walls of stone that extend from the shore into the sea, built in
order to protect a harbour.
32. A is a place in a port where ships are loaded, unloaded or repaired.
33. The is the front part of a ship which cuts through the water when the ship is
moving forward.
34. Any ship is commanded by its
35. The is the raised part at the back end of an old sailing ship.
V. Translate into English:
1. Astzi, la primele ore ale dimineii, s-a scufundat feribotul Rose of the Seas.
Feribotul s-a ciocnit de un recif de corali la douzeci de mile de Gueno. S-a rsturnat
complet i, dei cpitanul a ordonat prsirea vasului, multe persoane nu au ajuns la
brcile de salvare. Scafandrii investigheaz feribotul scufundat pentru a descoperi
corpurile pasagerilor. Salvatorii acioneaz din brci de salvare i elicoptere.
2. Un alt feribot, pe care, probabil, au pierit o sut opt persoane, s-a izbit de un
petrolier. S-au salvat doar civa pasageri, restul au pierit blocai sub punte.
3. Feribotul s-a scufundat la scurt timp dup prsirea portului din Icenberg. Se
presupune c ncrctura neasigurat s-a micat i a produs nclinarea navei. Echipajul
feribotului nu era pregtit pentru o avarie de acest gen. Materialul de salvare s-a dovedit
ineficient. Condiiile atmosferice nefavorabile au ngreunat aciunea de salvare.

134

II.2.5. TEXTS FOR CHEMICAL, BIOCHEMICAL AND FOOD

ENGINEERING
2.5.1. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
In his study of the properties of oxygen, Lavoisier noticed that when certain
elements were burnt in oxygen, the resulting oxide forms an acid with water - e.g.
sulphur, and phosphorus. Hence Lavoisier concluded (1777) that "oxygen is an essential
element common to all acids, and the presence of oxygen constitutes or produces their
acidity.
With increasing knowledge, it was found that Lavoisier's theory led to confusion and
error, and it was gradually abandoned by chemists. In 1815, Humphrey Davy suggested the
possibility that hydrogen, not oxygen, gives the acid characters to the acids; but he did not
rush to the other extreme and say that all hydrogen rounds are necessarily acids. In a crude
sort of way, it can be said that acids usually have a sour taste, are usually corrosive, redden
the blue colour of vegetable substance (e.g. litmus), and contain hydrogen, part or all of
which can be replaced when the acid is treated with a metal, metallic oxide, hydroxide, or
carbonate.
In modern Chemistry, the word "salt" is a descriptive term applied to a distinct
family of substances and not to any particular individual. In the kitchen, "salt" is
colloquially applied to one specific individual, sodium chloride. A salt is produced by
replacing all or part of the hydrogen of an acid by a metal or basic radical.
A base is substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water. The
bases include the oxides and the hydroxides of the metals, and certain groups of
elements equivalent to a metal. The term was originally intended to express the idea that
the metal or metal oxide was the more important constituent, the foundation or base of
a salt. This idea was dropped when it was recognized that the acidic constituent of a salt
is just as important as the basic constituent.
(adapted Dobrovici, Viorica & Ioan Bostaca: English in Medicine, pp.77-78)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
acid n. = acid; adj. = 1.(fig.) acru. 2.(fig.) aspru. 3.(fig.) caustic. 4.(tehn.) cu caracter
acid. 5. sarcastic.
acidity n. = 1. aciditate (calitatea de a fi un acid). 2. acrime.
base n. = 1.baz. 2.fundament. 3.fundaie. 4.postament. 5.asiu. 6.suport. 7.temei.
basic radical n. = radical basic.
basicity n. = basiditate (calitatea de a fi o baz).
carbonate (a salt of carbonic acid) n. = carbonat.
hydroxide n. = hidroxid (compus al oxidului cu apa).
litmus paper n. = hrtie turnesol.
metal oxide n. = oxid de metal.
salinity n. = salinitate.
sodium chloride n. = clorur de sodiu.
sulphuric acid n. = acid sulfuric.

135

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What did Lavoisier notice when certain elements were burnt in oxygen?
2. What was Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acids?
3. Why was this theory of acids abandoned?
4. What was Davy's opinion about acids?
5. What are the properties of the acids?
6. What is a salt? Give an example.
7. What is a base? Give an example of a base.
II. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs and translate them into
Romanian: to result, to produce, to know, to show, to conclude, to detect, to suggest,
to treat, to apply, to react, to intend, to recognize.
III. Give the principal forms of the following verbs: to notice, to burn, to result, to
constitute, to find, to lead, to displace, to produce, to say, to give.
IV. Give antonyms to the following words: common, increasing, similar, possibility,
necessarily, distinct, specific.
V. Read the following sentences and make questions:
1. Acids, salts and bases are three great classes of chemical compounds.
2. The hydrogen determines the characteristic properties of the compounds.
3. Salts are compounds when metals replace the hydrogen in acids.
4. The salts are the largest class of compounds in nature.
5. Sodium chloride is an indispensable article of animal food.
VI. Translate into English the following sentences:
La sfritul veacului al XVIII-lea s-a schimbat mprirea elementelor chimice n
dou grupe: metale i metaloizi. Drept criteriu de baza pentru stabilirea grupei de care
aparine un element sau altul servete caracterul chimic al produselor care s-au obinut
de pe urma oxidrii elementelor respective. Denumirea bazelor se formeaz adugnduse, de regul,cuvntul hidroxid (conine n molecula grupul hidroxil OH). Denumirile
acizilor deriv din denumirile acelor elemente din care provin. Denumirile srurilor
deriv din denumirile acizilor i ale metalelor din care ele se formeaz. Greutatea
atomic a unui element reprezint o valoare intrinsec a elementului respectiv. O
proprietate esenial a metalelor este aceea de a forma oxizi bazici. nroirea hrtiei
albastre de turnesol este inerent n cazul prezenei unui acid.

136

2.5.2. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

The conversion of an element into its oxide by direct combination with oxygen
is the simplest case of oxidation. For example, when calcium is heated in air it is
oxidized to calcium oxide. Similarly, any process which will convert an element into its
oxide is an oxidation. An analogous process may involve the combination of a
compound already containing some oxygen with still more oxygen, as for example
when barium oxide is heated in air to a suitable temperature and thereby converted into
barium dioxide. Oxidation, in the simplest case, is thus a process which adds oxygen to
an element or compound.
The reverse of this process, that is, the removal of oxygen from a compound
containing it, is known as reduction. Thus, for example, when copper oxide is
converted into copper by passing hydrogen over the heated oxide, the copper oxide is
said to be reduced to copper. This is the original idea underlying the terms oxidation and
reduction, and is the simplest use.
It soon became evident, however, that the process of removing hydrogen from a
compound containing that element involves something closely akin to oxidation as
indicated above, and similarly, the addition of hydrogen closely resembles reduction as
previously understood. The same reagents will often bring about both addition of
oxygen and removal of hydrogen, or vice versa, and the changes brought about in the
state of combination of an element are similar. Hence, the idea of oxidation and
reduction was extended to cover these cases.
As chemistry developed, it was realized that some processes which do not
directly involve hydrogen and oxygen at all are in principle so closely related to
oxidation and reduction, as understood when referred simply to changes in the oxygen
and hydrogen content of a compound, that the idea has been still further extended. For
example, ferrous oxide, FeO, is a base which gives rise to a series of salts called the
ferrous salts. Ferrous oxide can be oxidized, for example, by the oxygen of the air, to
ferric oxide, Fe2O3. Ferric oxide in its turn is a base which with acids forms ferric salts.
Ferrous and ferric salts thus stand in the same relationship to each other as ferrous and
ferric oxides. Now a solution of a soluble ferrous salt, on exposure to air, will slowly
turn to the ferric salt - clearly oxidation has occurred. For example, ferrous chloride is
converted partly into ferric chloride and partly into ferric hydroxide.
But ferrous chloride can be converted very simply into ferric chloride by the
action of chlorine which must be reckoned to be an oxidation since it is agreed that the
conversion of ferrous chloride into ferric chloride is an oxidation. But no oxygen has
taken part in the process. Hence the term oxidation must be extended to cover this
process. Conversely, reduction must also be similarly extended. Similar reasoning to the
above indicates that the conversion of mercuric chloride, HgCl2, is a process of
reduction.
(adapted from Dobrovici, Viorica & Ioan Bostaca: English in Medicine, pp.82-3)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
addition n. = 1.adaos, adugare, adugire. 2.(chim) adiie. 3.adiionare. 4. (matem.)
adunare. 5. completare. 6. (tehn.) corp strin.

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barium oxide n .= oxid de barium.

conversion n.= 1.(tehn.) conversie. 2. conversiune, schimbarea categoriei gramaticale.
3.(rel.) conversiune. 4. transformare. 5. preschimbare. 6. schimb.
copper oxide n. = oxid de cupru.
ferric salts n. = sruri ferice. ferric oxide = oxid feric. ferric chloride = clorura ferica.
ferric hydroxide = hidroxid feric.
ferrous salts n. = sruri feroase. ferrous oxide = oxid feros. ferrous chloride =
clorura feroas.
mercuric chloride n. = clorura mercuric. mercurous chloride = clorura mercuroas.
oxidation n. = oxidare.
reagent n. = reactiv.
reduction n.= 1.dezoxidare. 2.reducere.
the removal of oxygen n. = scoaterea oxigenului.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Chemistry = the science dealing with the intimate constitution of substances, the
elements and their mutual reactions, and the phenomena resulting from the
formation and decomposition of compounds.
Inorganic Chemistry = the chemistry of compounds not containing carbon.
Organic Chemistry = the chemistry of substances containing combustible carbon
compounds.
chemical compound = a substance formed by chemical union of two or more elements
or ingredients in definite proportion by weight.
reagent = something added to a complex solution to determine, by the chemical action
if" any resulting, the presence or absence of a certain substance.

Synonyms
suitable - suitable for the desired purpose; "Is this a suitable dress for the office?".
appropriate - meant or adapted for an occasion or use; "a tractor suitable (or fit) for
heavy duty"; "not an appropriate (or fit) time for flippancy"; suitable for a
particular person or place or condition etc; "a funeral conducted the appropriate
solemnity"; "it seems that an apology is appropriate".
fit, fit for, fit to meeting adequate standards for a purpose; "a fit subject for
discussion"; "it is fit and proper that you be there"; "water fit to drink"; "fit for
duty"; "do as you see fit to".
desirable, worthy worthy of being chosen especially as a spouse; "the parents found
the girl suitable for their son".
eligible qualified for or allowed or worthy of being chosen; "eligible to run for
office"; "eligible for retirement benefits"; "an eligible bachelor".

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is oxidation? What is the simplest case of oxidation?
2. What happens when barrium oxide is heated in air?
3. How was the idea of oxidation and reduction extended?
4. What was realized as Chemistry developed?
5. Does hydrogene intervene in this conversion?
6. Are oxidation and reduction reciprocal processes?
7. What is the extended definition of oxidation and reduction?

138

II. Translate into Romanian paying attention to the words: suitable, fit, appropriate.
1. That man is not fit for the position. 2. This is not a suitable word for the Romanian
"cldur" is "heat". 4. We must decide on a fit time and place for the meeting. 5. Is he fit
to travel yet? 6. This book is not appraopriate for children. 7. Don't forget to take
suitable clothes for cold weather. 8. He didnt think fit to do what I suggested. 9. He has
been ill and is not fit for a trip. 10. Do you think that I did a suitable translation?
III. Give adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives: direct, simple, similar,
clear, close, previous, slow.
IV. Translate into English:
Toate procesele chimice anorganice pot fi mprite n dou grupe: a) reacii care au
loc fr schimbarea valenei elementelor ce reacioneaz i b) schimbarea valenei.
Reaciile din al doilea tip se numesc reacii de oxidare reducere. Denumirea ne arat
c prin oxidare se nelegea initial numai alipirea oxigenului, iar prin reducere,
dezlipirea sa. Sensul cuvintelor oxidare i reducere poate fi totusi generalizat dac
se ine seama de faptul c oxigenul atrage ntotdeauna electronul din elementul care se
unete cu el.

139

2.5.3. CATALYSIS

A chemical reaction depends upon the physical conditions (i.e., temperature

and pressure) under which it takes place, and also upon the concentration of the
reacting, substances. It is also affected by the presence of small quantities of foreign
substances; that is to say, of substances which do not appear in the equation for the
reaction, and which can be recovered unchanged chemically after the reaction is over.
Such substances are called catalysts or catalytic agents and the general
phenomenon of the alteration of the speed of reaction by the presence of catalytic agents
is termed catalysis. A catalyst may thus be defined as a substance which, when present
in comparatively small amount, influences the speed of a chemical reaction without
itself undergoing any permanent change in quantity or chemical composition. Catalysis
is generally taken to include the retardation of a reaction, as well as its acceleration,
though the more familiar and more practically important cases of catalysis concern the
increase in speed.
The usually accepted criteria of catalysis are:
The catalyst must remain unchanged in amount and in chemical composition at
the end of the reaction;
Only a small amount of catalyst is necessary to produce a measurable effect;
The catalyst cannot start a reaction, but only alters the speed of the reaction; it
does not alter the final state of equilibrum in a reversible reaction;
In a reversible reaction, the catalyst alters the speed of the forward and back
reactions to the same extent.
The phenomena of catalysis are usually considered under two main headings:
homogenous catalysis and heterogenous catalysis.
1. Cases of homogenous catalysis are those in which the catalyst is not separated
from the reacting mixture by a surface. Thus, the commonest examples of this type are
those of the catalysis of reactions in solution where the catalysts are also soluble. A
typical example is the acceleration of the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate by the presence of
a small quantity of a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid. The addition of the acid
causes a very large increase in the rate of hydrolysis. As an example of homogenous
catalysis in the vapour phase, mention may be made of the fact that carbon monoxide
and oxygen will not combine unless a trace of water vapour is present.
2. In heterogenous catalysis, the catalyst is separated from the reacting mixture
by boundary surfaces. Important examples are the manufacture of sulphur trioxide
from sulphur dioxide and oxygen in the presence of platinum; and the production of
ammonia by the combination of nitrogen and hydrogen in presence of ferric oxide and
traces of molybdenum.
(adapted Dobrovici, Viorica & Ioan Bostaca: English in Medicine, pp.86-7)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
alteration of the speed n. = modificarea vitezei.
ammonia n. = amoniac.
boundary surfaces n. = suprafee de separare.

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carbon monoxide n. = oxid de carbon.

catalysis equation for the reaction n. = ecuaia reaciei.
catalytic agent n. = agent catalizator.
ethyl acetate n. = acetat de etil.
heterogenous catalysis = cataliza heterogen. homogenous catalysis = cataliza
omogen.
main headings n. = grupe principale.
measurable effect n. = un efect apreciabil.
molybdenum n. = molibden.
reacting mixture n. = amestec reactant. reacting substances = substane reactante.
reaction n. = 1.reacie. 2. (tehn.) for de reaciune. 3. mod de a reaciona. 4. rspuns. 5.
(psihol.) oc. 6. (fiz) compresiune. 7. (fiz.) recul. reversible ~ = reacie
reversibil.
sulphur dioxide = bioxid de sulf. sulphur trioxide = trioxid de sulf.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
catalysis n. (pl. catalyses) = the action of a catalyst, especially an increase in the rate of
a chemical reaction.
equation (chemical) n. = a sentence in chemical language, a sequence of - symbols and
signs expressing a chemical action.
chemical reaction = interactions in which atoms exchange or share electrons, forming
new chemicals.
chemical composition = The unit cell of any substance will contain one or and integral
multiple of chemical formula units. Mineral formulas are based on the
relationship to unit cell volume and the positions of atoms within the unit cell.
Synonyms
the retardation of a reaction
retardation, delay are synonyms. General meaning: the extent to which something is
delayed or held back.
retardation implies any agent that retards or delays or hinder (are sensul de
ntrziere,despre micare sau progres); lack of normal development of
intellectual capacities.
The retardation was due to the snow. The retardation in development of the
children may have many causes.
delay is the act of delaying; inactivity resulting in something being put off until a later
time (ntrziere, trgnare).
After a delay of two hours they arrived at the office. The delay of the train is
because of the heavy snowfall.
without delay = fr ntrziere, imediat
without further delay = fr s mai ntrzii

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension:
1. What does a chemical reaction depend upon?
2. Are there any substances which do not appear in the equation for the reaction?
3. How are these substances called?
4. What is catalysis?
5. How may we define a catalyst?
6. Is there a large amount of catalyst necessary?
7. What are the usually accepted criteria of catalysis?

141

8. Are there many types of catalysis?

9. What is homogenous catalysis? Give an example.
10. What is heterogenous catalysis? Give an example.
II. Fill in the blanks choosing the words among the following synonyms: change,
alteration, modification:
1. There is much ... in this town; it is not the same as it was fifteen years ago when I was
a student. 2. I noticed the ... of his tone. 3. I have noticed a great ... in him lately. 4. Did
you notice the ... in her voice? 5. The ... you made to your coat did not change its style.
6. A ... in the weather is announced. 7. My opinions have undergone a .... 8. We
breakfast at 8 o'clock for a ... .
III. Give antonyms to the following words:
concentration, presence, small quantities, appear, after the reaction, unchanged,
usually, main, soluble, strong.
IV. Translate into English:
Metodele tehnice servind la fabricarea celui mai important produs al industriei
chimice - acidul sulfuric sunt bazate pe procesele catalitice. Dei primele observaiuni
referitoare la influena substanelor ,,strine" n desfurarea proceselor chimice au fost
fcute nc din secolul al XVIII-lea, dezvoltarea rapid a studiului catalizei ncepe abia
n secolul nostru. Toata gama proceselor catalitice poate fi redus la doua cazuri
generale: cataliza omogena i eterogen. Primul se caracterizeaza prin faptul c att
substanele din reacie, ct i catalizatorul aparin uneia i aceleiai faze, n cazul al
doilea ns aparin unor faze diferite.

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2.5.4. AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS

The name of protein is taken from the Greek proteinos which means first. This
name is well-chosen. Of all chemical compounds, proteins must almost certainly be
ranked first, or they are the substance of life. Proteins make up a large part of the animal
body, they hold it together, and they run it. They are found in all living cells. They are
the principal material of skin, muscle, tendons, nerves, and blood; of enzymes,
antibodies, and many hormones.
Chemically, proteins are high polymers. They are polyamides, and the
monomers from which they are derived are the amino carboxylic acids. A single
protein molecule contains hundreds or even thousands of amino acid units; these units
can be of twenty-six or more different kinds. The number of different combinations, that
is, the number of different protein molecules that are possible, is almost infinite. It is
likely that tens of thousands of different proteins are required to make up and run an
animal body; and this set of proteins not identical with the set required by an animal of a
different kind.
We shall look first at the chemistry of the amino acids, and then briefly at the
proteins they make up. Our chief purpose will be to see the ways in which the structures
of se enormously complicated molecules are being worked out, and how, in the last
analysis, all this work rests on the basic principles of organic structural theory: on the
concepts of bond angle and bond length, group size and shape, hydrogen bonding,
resonance, acidity and basicity, optical activity, configuration and conformation.
Twenty-six acids have been found in proteins. Certain of these are the essential
amino acids, which must be fed to young animals if proper growth is to take place: these
particular amino acids evidently cannot be synthesized by the animal, the other
materials in its diet.
All are alpha-amino carboxylic acids; in two cases (proline and hydroxyproline) the
amino-group forms part of a pyrrolidine ring. This common feature gives the amino
acids a common set of chemical properties, one of which is the ability to form the long
amide chains that make up proteins.
In other respects, the structure of these compounds varies rather widely. In
addition to I carboxyl group and the amino- group alpha to it, some amino acids contain
a second carboxyl group (e.g., aspartic acid or glutamic acid), or a potential carboxyl
group in the form of a carboxamide (e.g., asparagine); these are called acidic amino
acids. Some a second basic group, which may be an amino group (e.g., lysine) or the
imidazole ring (histidine); these are called basic amino acids. Some of the amino acids
contain benzene or heterocyclic ring systems, phenolic or alcoholic hydroxil groups,
halogen or sulphur atoms. Each of these ring systems or functional groups its own
typical set of reactions.
Proteins are divided into two broad classes: fibrous proteins, which are
insoluble in water, and globular proteins, which are soluble in water or aqueous
solutions of acids, bases, or sails. The difference in solubility between the two classes is
a result of a difference in molecular shape, which is indicated in a rough way by their
names.
Fibrous proteins serve as the chief structural materials of animal tissues, a
function to which their insolubility and fibre-forming tendency suit them. They make

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up: keratin, in skin, hair, nails, wool, horn, and feathers; collagen, in tendons; myosin,
in muscle; fibroin, in silk.
Globular proteins serve a variety of functions related to the maintenance and
regulation of the life process, functions that require mobility and hence solubility. They
make up: all enzymes; many hormones, as, for example, insulin (from the pancreas);
antibodies, responsible for allergies and for defence against foreign organisms; albumin
in eggs; hemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues; fibrinogen,
which is converted into the insoluble, fibrous protein fibrin, and thus causes the clotting
of blood.
Within the two broad classes, proteins are subdivided on the basis of physical
properties, especially solubility: for example, albumins (soluble in water, coagulated by
heat), globulins (insoluble in water, soluble in dilute salt solutions), etc.
Irreversible precipitation of proteins, called denaturation, is caused by heat,
strong; ids or bases, or various other agents. Coagulation of egg white by heat, for
example, is denaturation of the protein egg albumin. The extreme ease with which
many proteins are denatured makes their study difficult. Denaturation causes a
fundamental change in a protein, in particular destroying any physiological activity.
Only one other class of compounds, the nucleic acids, shows the phenomenon of
denaturation. Although closely related to the proteins, polypeptides do not undergo
denaturation, presumably because their molecules are smaller and less complex.
(adapted Dobrovici, Viorica & Bostaca, Ioan: English in Medicine, pp.115-6)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
denaturation n. = 1. denaturare.
living cells n. = celule vii.
high polymers n. = polimeri inali.
alpha-amino carboxylic acids n. = alfa-aminoacizi carboxilici.
pyrrolidine ring n. = nucleu pirolidinic.
carboxamide n. = carboxamida.
imidazole ring n. = nucleu imidazolic.
heterocyclic ring systems n. = nuclee heterociclice.
the clotting of blood n. = coagularea sngelui.
egg white n. = albu de ou.
protein egg albumin n. = proteina albuminei oului.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
enzyme n. = an organic substance of colloid structure, secreted by the body cells, which
acts as a ferment, inducing chemical changes in other substances by catalysis,
itself remaining apparently unchanged in the process.
antibody n. = any substance in the blood-serum or other fluids of the body which exerts
a specific restrictive or destructive action on bacteria or other noxa, or
neutralizes their toxin; antitoxins, precipitins, agglutinins etc. are antibodies.
hormone n. = a chemical substance, formed in one organ or part of the body and
carried in the blood to another organ or part which it stimulates to functional
activity or secretion.
keratin n. = a scleroprotein or albuminoid present largely in cuticular structures; it
contains a relatively large amount of sulphur. It is insoluble in the gastric juice

144

and it is for this reason sometimes used for coating pills which are intended to
be dissolved only in the intestine.
collagen n. = an albuminoid present in connective tissue, bone (ossein and cartilage);
on boiling with water it is converted into gelatin.
fibroin n. = a white insoluble protein substance forming the main portion of cobweb
and silk, albumin n. = a simple protein widely distributed throughout the
tissues and fluids of plants and animals; varieties of albumin are found in blood,
milk and muscle.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What are proteins from the chemical point of view?
2. What does a single protein molecule contain?
3. How many proteins are required to make up and run an animal body?
4. How many amino acids have been found in proteins?
5. What are the essential amino acids? What kind of acids are they?
6. What are the chemical properties of the amino acids?
7. What do some of the amino acids contain?
II. Fill in the blanks choosing the words among the following synonyms: perform,
execute, accomplish.
1. When she promised a thing she was scrupulous in ... it. 2. The head of
department... the will of the president. 3. They ... three plays within a week. 4. A cold
prevented him from ... his work. 5. We could not ... the plan. 6. Though difficult, the
part was... exactly. 7. When one promises a thing, one must... it. 8. We ...the orders
willingly. 9. Because of his efforts things are ... 10. What part did he ... in this play? 11.
He ... this piece of furniture in one month. 12. What operation is he ... ?
III. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs and translate them into
Romanian: to divide, to be, to indicate, to tend, to fold, to approach, to determine, to
maintain, to require, to transport, to convert, to subdivide, to coagulate, to denaturate,
to destroy.
IV. Translate into English:
n cursul digestiei, proteinele sunt hidrolizate pn la aminoacizi. Organismul
animal folosete numai aminoacizi, nu i proteine sau peptide, pentru construirea
propriilor sale proteine i pentru alte sinteze sau degradri. Prin experiene de
alimentaie cu amestecuri de aminoacizi, s-a constatat c unii aminoacizi sunt
indispensabili creterii animalelor tinere i funcionrii normale a organismului adult.
Aceti aminoacizi numii eseniali nu sunt deci sintetizai de organismul animal, ci sunt
luai de acesta din hran. Ali aminoacizi pot lipsi din hran fr nici un inconvenient.

145

2.5.5. FOOD FATS

Diets
a. No-carbohydrate diet
Premise: High-carbohydrate diets, no fat, lead to weight gain. By replacing
sugar, pasta, potatoes and bread with meat, vegetables and dairy products, youll lose
weight.
Verdict: Initial weight-loss is likely to be due to losing water rather than fat. Its
difficult t eat more meta without eating more fat, which is linked to hart disease and
cancer. You might be thinner, but your arteries wont be happy.
b. Hay diet
Premise: Its not what you eat, its what you eat it with. Carbohydrates cant be
digested in acid conditions, so shouldnt be eaten with protein. Mixing acid and
alkaline is strictly forbidden, so fruit should never be allowed anywhere near a main
meal.
Verdict: A mixture of foods is necessary for a healthy metabolism vitamin C,
for example, helps the absorption of iron. Extremely fashionable but with debatable
scientific basis.
c. F-plan diet
Premise: This is the original high-carbohydrate, low-fat plan, advocating lots of
fruit and fibre. The 80s favourite has been translated into sixteen languages, and claims
to be best-selling diet ever.
Verdict: Commonsense disguised as new scientific breakthrough.
d. Grapefruit diet
Premise: More energy is spent digesting grapefruit and other fruit like celery
than is contained in the food itself. The more you eat, logically, the thinner you get.
Verdict: Digesting food does burn the calories, but in such tiny proportions,
you would have to eat a vast amount to notice any difference.
e. Cabbage soup diet
Premise: By eating nothing but soup made from cabbage and a few other
vegetables you can lose up to six kilos a week.
Verdict: Most of the weight loss is due to water loss, not fat, and the weight
returns when you move back on the solids. Unfortunate side effects have been reported.
f. System S diet
Premise: The way to get thin is to eat sugar-coated cereals, biscuits, chocolate
and sugary soft drinks not the villains they are made out to be. Its a myth that
sweets make you fat and rot your teeth, so tuck into another bar of chocolate.
Verdict: Just as a dentist!
(Sue Kay, Vaughan Jones, Inside Out, Upper Intermediate, p. 38)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
carbohydrate n. = hidrat de carbon.
diet n. = 1.hran, alimentaie. 2.diet, regim alimentar (to be on diet = a fi la diet). 3.a
ine, a pune la regim. 4.a ine regim. 5.diet, adunare parlamentar. 6.congres,
conferin.

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weight n. = 1.greutate. 2.sarcin, ncrctur. 3.greutate folosit la cntrit. 4.(fig.)

greutate, povar. 5.importan, valoare, influen.
weight v. = 1.a ngreuia, a aduga o greutate la. 2.(fig.) a mpovra, a coplei. to put on
/gain ~ = a se ngra. to lose ~ = a slbi. he is a man of weight = e un om cu
greutate. to carry ~ = a fi influent.
dairy n. = 1.lptrie. 2.magazin de produse lactate. 3.vaci cu lapte (ale unei ferme). 4.
(i dairy farm) ferm pentru creterea vacilor cu lapte.
dairy products = produse lactate.
metabolism n. = metabolism (reaciile chimice care au loc n organism).
fibre n. = 1.fibr. 2.filament. 3. (fig) fire, natur.
calory (-ies) n. = calorii.
fat(s) n. = 1. grsime, untur. 2.unsoare; adj = gras. to get/grow ~ = a se ngra. to
live on the ~ of the land = a huzuri. to cut up ~ = a lsa o motenire serioas.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. When can you say that a person is healthy?
2. How can physical exercise improve mental and social health?
3. Can we speak about food education?
4. Can teachers help students with having a healthy life as related to food and
physical exercise? Would you suggest any measures for that?
II. Read the list of food and drink below and tell your fellows what you like and
what you dont; bring arguments each time:
apples; bacon; bananas; beans; beef; beer; biscuits; bread; cakes; carrots; cauliflower;
cheese; chicken; chocolate; coffee; cucumbers; eggs; fish; garlic; grapes; jam; juice;
ice cream; lettuce; melon; milk; mushrooms; onion; oranges; pasta; peaches; pears;
peas; plums; pork; potatoes; radishes; sausages; tea; tomatoes; water melon.
III. Complete each sentence with a word formed from the word in capitals.
1. I wouldnt want to be a because Id have to be away from home
so much. SAIL
2. He ......as he came up to the corner, but he was going too fast and went
straight over the handlebars. BRAKES
3. That soup was very ... Could I have some more? TASTE
4. Katy went on a course last year to learn how to make curries. COOK
5. Dan has .his shoes already and is complaining that theyre too tight. GROW
6. Our holiday was quite ..because we took a tent instead of staying in a
hotel and we hired bikes instead of a car. EXPENSE
7. A lot of telephone boxes have been ..recently so you can never find one
that works. VANDAL
8. Sarahs uncle is a ..and hes in prison for burglary and the moment.
CRIME
9. John Irving is my favourite ..and Ive just finished his latest book.
NOVEL

147

10. The cruise ship that we were on was fantastic there were
different..every evening, including a jazz singer and an amazing
magician. ENTERTAIN
IV. Female adolescents are particularly interested in having a slim, attractive
appearance. For this, they resort to all kinds of diets to lose weight, which are not
always good for their health in general. Describe a miracle diet youve taken up,
heard of, etc. which you consider to be harmless for your health. Point out the
advantages and the disadvantages of your own diet.
V. Write an essay of about 300 words on the following topic: An ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure.
VI. You are dining out with your girl/ boyfriend. Make up a list of what you should
do and what you shouldnt do while dining out.

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2.5.6. CAN HONEY HEAL?

Peter Molan, a doctor from New Zealand, is a specialist in stomach disorders.
He offers his patients a simple, but effective alternative to taking medicine: honey. Dr.
Molan claims that the active component in honey is an antibacterial agent called
UMF. There is some doubt in the medical world as to whether UMF can destroy
bacteria completely, although research clearly shows that people with stomachs
experience some relief soon after taking honey.
Is this yet another case of science simply giving credibility to what we have
always known? After all, it is common knowledge how soothing hot water laced with
honey and lemon can be for sore-throat sufferers. In accepting the beneficial effects of
honey, however, a few reservations should be borne in mind. Firstly, the popular belief
that honey is healthier than sugar isnt entirely well-founded. Like all foods, honey can
be healthy if eaten in moderation, but may also have some downsides. Honey contains
the same number of calories as other types of sugar, and it can cause blood-sugar levels
to rise quickly. Secondly, eating too much honey on an empty stomach can cause
discomfort. That is why its best to line the stomach with some fibre first, for example
by following a main meal with a desert that incorporates honey. Thirdly, under no
circumstance should a babys dummy be dipped in honey before the baby sucks it, as
this is just as likely to cause tooth decay as any other sugary treat.
(Nick Kenny, Peter Sunderland, CAE Practice Tests, p. 20)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
medicine n. = 1.medicin; terapie, medicament, leac, doctorie, remediu. 2.medicament,
leac; 3.magie, vrjitorie, farmece. vb. (nv) = 4.a ngriji. 5.a vindeca.
to take medicine v. = 1.a administra medicamente. 2.(fam.) a nghii hapul.
component n. = 1. component(). 2.termen. 3.reper.
antibacterial adj. = bactericid.
research n. = 1. cercetare (research work = cercetare tiinific). 2. investigaie, studiu.
3.(geol., hidr.) cercetare, explorare (geologic etc.). 4. vb. a cerceta, a studia, a
explora.
soothing adj. = calmant, relaxant.
beneficial adj. = benefic, folositor.
to bear (bore, borne/born) vb. = 1.a purta, a duce, a cra, a transporta. 2.a avea, a purta
(o marc, un semn). 3.a prezenta, a purta. 4.a aduce, a procura (un ajutor, un
sprijin). 5. a nutri, a purta (sentimente). 6. a suporta, a ndura, a suferi. 7.a rodi,
a da rod. 8.a aduce dobnd. 9.a da natere, a aduce pe lume.
healthy adj. = 1.sntos. 2.dttor de sntate; tonic. 3.moral.
downside n. = 1.inconvenient, neajuns. 2.dezavantaj. 3. cusur, defect.
discomfort n. = 1.nelinite, ngrijorare, tulburare.2.lips de confort. 3.incomoditate.
vb. 4.a incomoda, a stingheri. 5.a neliniti, a ngrijora.
line vb. = (aici) a umple, a cptui.
dummy n. = (aici) suzet.
decay n. = 1.decdere, declin, prbuire, ruin. 2.ruinare, slbire (a sntii). 3.
descompunere, putrefacie. 4.(despre dini) = carie dentar. vb. = 5.a decdea, a
se ruina. 6.a face sa decad. 7.a strica, a distruge. 8.a face s putrezeasc.
treat n. = (aici) buntate, dulciuri.

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II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Phrases / idioms with the verb TO BEAR
to bear a child = a da natere unui copil.
to bear fruit = a da roade.
to bear a message = a duce un mesaj
to bear a hand = a da o mn de ajutor.
to bear a resemblance/likeness = a fi asemntor cu.
to bear witness = a aduce mrturie.
to bear the weight of = a suporta povara.
to bear the expenses = a suporta cheltuielile.
to bear a grudge against somebody = a purta pic cuiva.
to bear in mind = a purta n minte, a ine seama de.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What are the recognized positive effects of eating honey?
2. When is it considered bad for the organism?
3. When is especially recommended to eat honey?
4. Do you know how it is made?
II. Do the quiz below. Then compare your answers with a partner.
(tip: first of all look up for the meaning and content of the terms in italics; make a list
with the explanations)
1. What is the aerobic system?
a. an exercise video, record or tape;
b. oxygen and carbon dioxide;
c. the heart, lungs and blood circulation;
2. The happy hormones that are released during exercise are called
a. endorphins
b. morphine
c. dolphins
3. A balanced diet should include:
a. calories, fibres and sugar;
b. carbohydrates, protein and fat;
c. cereals, caffeine and glucose
4. Which of the following activities are best for keeping supple?
a. yoga, gymnastics and karate;
b. rowing, horse-riding and jogging;
c. walking, water-skiing and wind-surfing;
5. To keep healthy you should exercise for at least
a. one hour very day;
b. twenty minutes three times a week;
c. one hour three times a week.
6. You build up stamina by:
a. drinking strong coffee;
b. eating fruit;
c. exercising regularly.

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7. If you drink too much coffee:

a. You feel more energetic for some time;
b. your heart gets diseased;
c. you will die sooner.
8. A hangover is:
a. an object you hang;
b. a secret cure;
c. a severe headache.
9. Sunbathing is:
a. very good for ones bones;
b. carcinogenic;
c. the best way to look better.
10. An apple a day:
a. causes stomach aches;
b. is good for your skin;
c. keeps the doctor away?
(adapted form Sue Kay, Vaughan Jones, Inside Out, Upper Intermediate, p. 35)
III. Complete the sentences below with one of the words or phrases connected with
eating: appetizer; bacon; bread; cheese; chips; course; cream; dessert; diet; dish;
dough; eats; eggs; feast; hamburger; helping; honey; icecream; loaf; mayonnaise;
meat; menu; mustard; noodles; peppers; pickles; picnic; pork; provisions; salad; salt;
sandwich; snack; soup; steak; sugar; tea; vinegar; wolfed; yoghurt
1. Does Alice take anyin her tea?
2. We generally start our meals with an.
3. Would you like some.and butter?
4. My sister went on a..to lose weight.
5. They have cakes and icecream for..
6. What kind ofdid Margaret have at the party?
7. Fish and.is a typical British meal.
8. The English usually have a large meal in the evening and only aat lunch
time.
9. We mix some oil and .as a dressing for the salad.
10. Your chicken soup with..tastes delicious.
11. How does he want his.: rare, medium, or well done?
12. Ais a flat, round cake of minced meat, fried or grilled and then eaten in a
bread roll.
13. Would Jack rather have boiled, fried or scrambled?
14. My sister likes chicken..very much.
15. The main course of the meal consists of green..stuffed with rice and
minced meat.
16. In summer children eat a lot of
17. We often make a.with lettuce and tomatoes.
18. Our neighbours eat a lot of vegetables, but no
19. Would she likeand eggs for breakfast?
20. Tom went to the bakers for a..of bread.
21. Will you have.with us this afternoon?
22. Aunt Betty served us an interesting..containing fish and garlic.

151

23. My grandparents get their weeklyat the village shop.

24. The beggardown what the woman gave him and hurried out.
25. The Queen invited us all to ain her palace.
26. Our food is in the..basket.
27. When I got home, mother gave me a large..of pudding.
28. He sat down in the caf, picked up the.and read it through.
29. Muslims never eat.
30. For dessert we have strawberries and.
31. is milk that has turned thick and slightly acid.
32. Mother kneaded the..for a long time before she baked it.
33. .is a thick sauce made of egg yolk, oil and lemon used on salads.
34. Do you want some..or salad?
35. Im going to grate some.to sprinkle over the pasta.
36. is a yellow or brown paste which tastes hot and spicy, eaten with
meat.
37. Aconsists of two pieces of bread, usually spread with butter, and
with some other cold food between them.
38. Now that we have had soup, whats the next..?
39. is a sweet, thick fluid made by bees from the nectar of flowers.
40. Pass me the..please! I want to add some to my soup.
IV. Take out all the words referring to types of food, activities related to eating or
verbs denoting processes when cooking.

152

2.5.7. ARE YOU LOOKING AFTER YOURSELF?

In the hectic world of today, people are always searching for more ways of
keeping fit and healthy. Susan Jones has been looking into some of the ways of looking
good and feeling good.
Running is an excellent exercise. Before you start running, you should warm up
first, using slow movements that make all your muscles work. But be careful! If you
stretch when your muscles are cold, you might do yourself an injury. Always wear
comfortable clothing and make sure your trainers are in good shape. If you wear shoes
that give good support to your whole foot, you will put less pressure on your knees. You
should start exercising slowly, at a pace you can keep up for about 15 20 minutes. Try
to exercise on soft ground as this will protect your knees and hips from too much stress.
Its ok if you go to bed late occasionally but if you regularly cut down on your
sleep, it will soon start to have a bad effect on your skin. If you get a good nights rest,
it will do your appearance a world of good. It is not called beauty sleep for nothing!
Lack of sleep can cause acne or dry skin. Make sure you get a good nights sleep by
going to bed and getting up at regular times: dont burn the candle at both ends.
During the day, keep active: if you dont get enough exercise during the day, you may
end up sleepless all night.
Did you know that standing, sitting and walking badly can make you look
heavier than you really are? If we watched the way we sat and stood, it would improve
our appearance a great deal. Stand in front of the mirror with your feet part and your
legs straight. Pull in your tummy, check that your ears, shoulders, hips, knees and
ankles are in line with each other. You should be looking and feeling better already!
Most of us live in large polluted cities. If we got more fresh air we would look
healthier and more attractive. A brisk walk is one of the best things you can do for your
circulation and appearance. Walking slowly is useful but a quick pace gets more oxygen
into your lungs. So dont just go for a pleasant stroll, try and find an area that doesnt
have much pollution and get moving!
Many young people feel guilty about eating too much chocolate, and some even
say they are addicted to it, though there is no evidence to support this. Chocolate does
contain a lot of fat, however, and therefore any addicts out there would do better to eat
less. Nevertheless, if your diet is balanced, you neednt feel guilty: eating chocolate in
moderation is fine but dont eat it instead of a proper meal!
(adapted form Luke Podromou, Rising Star, A Pre-First Certificate Course, pp. 50-1)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
hectic adj. = 1. agitat. 2.ocupat.
to keep fit vb. = a te menine n form.
to warm up vb. = a te nclzi; a face nclzirea nainte de un exerciiu fizic.
to stretch vb. = 1. a ntinde, a lungi, a netezi, a trage, a extinde. 2.a strnge, a ncorda.
injury n. = 1.ru, nedreptate, prejudiciu. 2.ran, leziune. 3.pagub, stricciune, avarie.
to be in good shape vb. = a fi ntr-o form fizic bun.
to keep something up vb. = (aici) a rezista; a se menine.
to cut down on vb. = a reduce; a diminua a renuna la.
to burn the candle at both ends = a te culca trziu i a te trezi devreme.

153

to keep active vb. = a fi activ.

to improve vb. = 1. a mbunti; a ameliora. 2. a perfeciona, a desvri. 3. a profita
de, a trage folos din, a folosi. 4. a se mbunti, a se perfeciona. 5. a face
progrese; a merge mai departe. 6. a progresa, a se dezvolta, a nainta. 7. a crete.
tummy n. = abdomen; stomac.
polluted adj. = poluat.
stroll n. = plimbare (scurt).
to stroll v.= 1.a colinda, a cutreiera. 2.a hoinri.
evidence n. = 1.dovad. 2. claritate. 3. (jur.) mrturie, depoziie.
addict n. = dependent de un drog.
addiction n. = 1.nclinaie. 2.patim, nrav, dependen.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases and idiomatic expressions with WARM
warm coat = o hain clduroas. warm welcome = primire clduroas. warm temper
= fire iute. warm heart = suflet generos.
to be warm = a-i fi cald.
to make things warm for somebody = a da cuiva de furc.
to warm oneself at the fire = a se nclzi la foc.
to warm up to one's subject = a te entuziasma pe msur ce vorbeti.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A F below for each part 1 5 of
the article. There is an extra heading that you dont need to use.
A. Get a good nights rest
B. Find time to relax
C. Sit up straight!
D. Spend more time in the open air
E. Dont overdo it
F. Go for a run
2. What types of exercises does the text refer to?
3. What do you do to keep fit?
4. Why is a good night sleep essential for our health?
5. What are the bad effects of a sleepless night?
6. What are the effects of pollution for our health? What about its effects upon the
natural world?
7. What types of addiction do you know and what are your suggestions for those
who are addicted?
II. Look up for phrases containing the word keep and form sentences with them.
III. One of the paragraphs speaks about unbalanced diets. Think of the food a
balanced diet should contain. Describe it by separately listing the food for
breakfast, lunch, dinner, desserts, etc.
IV. Look up for different phrases/ expressions containing the verb to burn.

154

V. Match the following words with their meanings below: meal; cuisine; course;
cook; cooker; dish saucer; waiter.
1. Food which is eaten at about the same time every day.
2. The separate stages in which a meal is served.
3. Food prepared in a particular way, often typical of a particular area.
4. A person who makes food.
5. A certain style of cooking.
6. A shallow dish, typically having a circular indentation in the centre, on which a
cup is placed.
7. The machine used when we cook.
8. A man whose job is to serve customers at their tables in a restaurant.
VI. Correct the following sentences:
1. Switch the cook off and take the foods out.
2. I eat chips and eggs with my salads.
3. Boil the spaghettis for then minutes in a large saucepan.
4. My mother cooks excellent cuisines.
5. Stuffed cabbage is a traditional food in my country.
6. Breakfast usually consists of three dishes: an appetizer, a main course and a
dessert.
7. She is considered the best cooker in Italian meals.
8. When the parents are away we must prepare our own dishes.
9. I told the chef I had never eaten such a delicious receipt!
VII. Put the missing prepositions into the gaps in this text:
The best meal I ever had.in my life was..a restaurant..the old
quartera town..France. The meal began.a plate.seafood:
shrimps, prawns and freshly-cooked shellfish. We ordered a dry white wine to
gothis course. Then we had a whole lobsterthe two of us, which was
absolutelyof this world. Im not accustomed.eating such rich food but it
didnt seem to disagree.me at all. This particular restaurant was famousits
venison thats the meat you getdeer and so we couldnt leave.trying their
venison stew. Im no expert.cookery but I know what I like and.doubt that
was the most delicious stew Ive ever tasted . .this time we were nearly bursting.
The only thing we felt...now was coffee and a light dessert. Then we calledthe
bill and decided to split it..us. The manager very kindly offered us a
drink..the house before we left. After that we staggered back..our hotel and
fellbed. We spent the next day suffering.the after-effects but really we had
no regretseating such a marvelous, memorable and extravagant meal.
VIII. Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space:
School sports day
Our school sports were held last week, and the (1)...Bafternoon was a disaster.
For a start, very (2).people bothered to turn (3), and there is nothing
(4) than trying to win a race with only three or four people cheering you on. It rained
(5) afternoon, from the moment the first starting pistol (6)fired, until the last medal
had (7) presented. I was in the high jump, (8).meant running up to do my best jump
and then landing (9).a pool of cold muddy water. It was raining (10)..hard that we

155

couldnt see the runners in the 5,000 metres, and it (11).out that they had all stopped
(12).the other side of the field to shelter under a tree. My other event was the javelin,
but (13).time I tried to throw, the javelin kept slipping from my hand. In (14).case,
I couldnt see where I was throwing, and when I (15).finally manage to launch my
javelin into the air, it disappeared in the direction of the railway line, and was never
seen (16)..
1. A all
B whole
C total
D final
2. A little
B small
C few
D rare
3. A up
B about
C round
D over
4. A like
B better
C left
D worse
5. A by
B the
C entire
D all
6. A had
B was
C has
D been
7. A to
B had
C been
D itself
8. A which
B and
C so
D nevertheless
9. A on
B at
C in
D to
10. A so
B as
C and
D very
11. A worked
B found
C looked
D turned
12. A under
B on
C through
D about
13. A first
B in
C every
Da
14. A this
B the
C whatever
D any
15. A did
B had
C should
D have
16. A there
B again
C to
D back
IX. Think of your favourite recipe; then describe the cooking instructions to the
class, trying to convince them it is the most delicious kind of food in the world.

156

2.5.8. THE HUMBLE SPUD

Potatoes have been a staple food of the Old World for so long that its easy to
forget that they originated in the New World. The first ones came to England from
Chile in 1586 and the new vegetable soon became popular and in parts of Europe
replaced bread as the staple (therefore the main or important element of something,
especially of a diet) food of the poor. The original potatoes were misshapen and full of
large, deep eyes unlike modern varieties which have been bred to be disease-free,
smooth-skinned and free from deep eyes. Potatoes tend to be either floury or waxy in
texture, the former being good for boiling whilst the latter are best for frying or eating
cold. You cant do better than to grow your own, which is easier than you may think
you can even grow them in large flower pots in your balcony! If you buy potatoes in a
greengrocers, however, make sure you look for them with plenty of damp soil on them
because thyere likely to be fresher than the ones that have been around long enough to
have been washed, graded and bagged in polythene! Flavour and nutrition are better
retained if the potatoes are cleaned and then boiled in their skins, rather than peeled
before boiling. New potatoes taste great, steamed and unpeeled with butter and salt.
Here are some easy recipes for six people (or four hungry ones!):
1. Grilled potatoes
Boil or steam 1 kilo medium sized potatoes in their skins, drain and peel them
while still warm. Cut each potato lengthways and brush with melted butter. Then put
under a hot grill until golden brown. Serve with salt and freshly ground black pepper.
2. Potato salad
1 kilo medium sized waxy potatoes
2 tablespoons chopped chives, onion or parsley
mayonnaise or yoghurt dressing
Boil the potatoes in their skins and then peel and slice while still warm. Add the
chives, onion or parsley to the dressing and coat the potato slices evenly. Leave to cool
in the refrigerator before serving.
3. Potatoes with sesame seeds
1 kilo potatoes
6 tablespoons vegetable oil
2 tablespoons sesame seeds
about teaspoon cayenne pepper or chilli powder
1 teaspoon salt
juice of half a lemon
Boil or steam the potatoes in their skins, drain and peel. Cut into 2cm cubes and
allow to cool. Heat the oil in a frying pan and when hot, throw in the sesame seeds.
When they start to pop, add the potatoes and fry for some 5 minutes, stirring all the
time. Then add the cayenne pepper, salt and lemon juice and continue frying till crisp
and brown.
(adapted from Jones, Leo, Progress Towards First Certificate, p. 94)

A. VOCABULARY

157

I. WORDS AND PHRASES

staple n. = 1. alimente de baz, de larg consum. 2. producie principal (a unei regiuni,
a unei ri). 3. (fig.) fond. 4.( text.) fir, fibr (fine staple wool = ln fin). 5.
materie prim, materie brut. 6. calitate (a unui produs).
to forget, forgot, forgotten v. = 1.a uita. 2.a fi uituc, a nu ine minte. to ~ oneself v. =
1.a uita de sine, a se comporta nepotrivit. 2.a nu se gndi la interesele sale.
vegetables n. = 1. legume. 2. zarzavat.
misshapen adj. = (aici) cu o form neregulat.
eye n. = 1.ochi. 2. (aici) tubercul (a round, dark spot on a potato from which a new
shoot can grow). 3. la (la un nur, la o frnghie). 4. ureche (la ac).
to eye v. = 1.a se uita la. 2.a scruta cu privirea.
disease n. = boal.
floury adj. = finos (pentru a descrie cartofii albi).
waxy adj. = ceros (pentru a descrie cartofii roz).
damp adj. = 1.umed. 2. jilav.
polythene n. = polietilen.
nutrition n. = 1.hrnire, nutriie, alimentaie. 2. aliment.
peel v. = 1.a cura de coaj (cartofi, portocale, etc.). 2. a rade coaja (la lmi, etc.).
recipe n. = reet (prescripie de amestecare).
receipt n. = chitan, recipis.
to steam v. = (aici) a gti/fierbe legume (n aburi).
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases / idioms with the verb TO GROW
to grow old = a mbtrni.
to grow smaller = a se micora.
to grow to manhood = a ajunge la vrsta brbiei.
to grow smth upon someone = a se impune. this habit grew upon him = acest obicei a
pus stpnire pe el.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. Where and when were the first potatoes discovered?
2. From where were they brought to England?
3. How were the first potatoes as compared to the modern ones?
4. Which are the best potatoes for eating cold?
5. What sort of potatoes are we advised to buy?
6. How do cooks make this staple food more interesting?
7. What other vegetables can be considered staple food?
II. Finish the second sentence so that the meaning stays the same:
1. Nobody I know likes warm milk.
I dont know .
2. Nothing is worse than cold chips.
There isnt..
3. Practically no one came to the restaurant yesterday.
Hardly..
4. All the recipes in this cookbook are difficult to follow.

158

5.
6.
7.
8.

None of
I havent eaten pork since last Christmas.
I last
She doesnt drink as much as she used to before.
She no longer..
I dont often eat out because it is expensive.
I hardly
Ive got no time to cook something difficult right now.
I havent..

III. Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space:

Getting fit
I walked home the other day instead of taking the bus. Its only two kilometres but it
really wore me (0)..C... Theres only one conclusion Im going to have to cut
(1).on eating so many cakes and pastries and take (2)some kind of exercise. I need
to get fit. Actually, Ive been thinking it (3)for some time. Every few months I make a
decision to join my local fitness club, but then I think of a good excuse to put it (4). I
want to go and join, but then I come home really tired after work and I just dont feel
(5)to it. To be honest, though, the real problem is chocolate. I love it. I know its
fattening but I just cant do (6)it. I dont think Ill ever be able to give it (7), so I
guess Ill just have to put (8)with being unfit!
0 A back
B through
C out
D off
1 A over
B across
C up
D down
2 A up
B over
C out
D after
3 A out
B over
C up
D out
4 A out
B by
C down
D off
5 A up
B off
C over
D out
6 A away
B over
C across
D without
7 A in
B out
C up
D off
8 A out
B up
C on
D off
IV. Write about the main good things about the different kinds of meat that people
eat and about the positive effects of vegetables for our health.
V. Take out all the verbs referring to the actual stages in the cooking of potatoes.
Now imagine you are cooking a chicken soup; describe the whole process minutely.

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2.5.9. EATING OUT SOME RULES FOR DINERS

If you dont very often at out in a restaurant, you may need some advice. Several
rules for people eating out are given in the latest issue of the Good Food Guide. Some
of the rules seem to favour restaurant staff more than they are likely to help diners! For
example the Guide tells its readers to be sure to phone up and cancel any booking they
make which they cant keep. The restaurant may otherwise be holding a table and
turning away customers at its busiest time. Apparently this is a legal requirement,
though how could anyone trace a Mr. Smith or a Ms. Jones who didnt turn up with a
party of six is anyones guess. The Guide also advises you to ring up if youre going to
be delayed by more than a quarter of an hour; if you dont, your table may be given to
someone else, and its only polite, according to the Guide.
Another rule they give is to let the restaurant know in advance if a member of
your party has any special needs. So if youre eating with a small child, a very old
person, a disabled one, a vegetarian or a Muslim let the staff know at least a day ahead
so that you can all be sure of having the right food and a good time.
Before you go inside the restaurant, make sure you spend some time reading the
menu outside quite carefully. Try to notice what the prices include and what they dont
include. In particular look for any mention of cover charges, service charges and VAT.
You might be in for a nasty shock when the bill comes if you havent budgeted
for these extras and not all the menus youre shown at table mention these items. Once
inside and seated comfortably at a table that suits you look at the menu carefully and
insist that youre allowed enough time to decide at leisure what to order. Theres
nothing worse than being rushed into making a choice youll regret later. By the way,
dont be afraid to order two different dishes and to swap with a companion half-way
through.
Another rule is to ask the staff many questions: how is this dish cooked? What
goes with what? Whats that tasty looking dish the people at the next table are having?
Can I talk to the chef? and so on. At the same time, the people at the next table deserve
consideration, too. If you want to smoke you should ask them if they mind. Good food
does not go with cigar smoke, you know
While you are eating, someone will probably ask you Everything all right? and
probably expect the answer Fine, lovely! but experienced diners treat this as a serious
enquiry and are prepared to offer compliments, criticisms, or both, honestly.
Finally, at the end of the meal, when youve been given the bill and are ready to
pay you should thank the staff. Giving the waiter a big tip is no substitute for a warm
thank you and a smile if youve been served professionally and cheerfully you should
reward the waiter with both gratitude and money! And if the food was poor, dont
blame the waiter, he is not a cook, too. In this case ask to see the manager and tell him
you didnt really enjoyed the meal and make sure you explain why.
By following these rules and guidelines, says the Guide, you can help yourself
and others to enjoy better food. But if you were very pleased, tell your friends to go to
the same place. If you have a disastrous one, dont tell them, it may be just a single
mistake. However, a good restaurant deserves to do good business whereas a bad one
perhaps shouldnt be in business at all.
(adapted from Leo Jones, Progress Towards First Certificate, p. 93)

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A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
advice n.= 1. (nenumrabil) sfat; a piece of ~ = un sfat bun. 2. aviz, consultaie (a
doctorului, a juristului): you should take legal ~ = ar trebui s consuli un
jurist. 3. (pl.) (advices) ntiinare, aviz; according to our latest ~s = potrivit cu
cele mai recente informaii. 4. (man.) letter of ~ = scrisoare de aviz.
favour n. = favoare, bunvoin, serviciu.
diner n. = 1. (aici) persoan care ia masa. 2. vagon restaurant.
booking n. = 1. rezervare. 2. nregistrare. 3. reinere. 4. cumprare. 5. solicitare;
comand telefonic.
requirement n. = 1. cerere, solicitare. 2. cerin, exigen; to meet all the requirements
= a face fa tuturor cerinelor.
delay n. = ntrziere, amnare; without ~ = fr ntrziere, imediat.
disabled adj. = 1. (despre persoane) invalid, incapabil de munc. 2. (despre maini,
aparate) scos din uz, stricat.
vegetarian n. = vegetarian (persoan care nu mnnc produse din carne).
menu n. = 1. meniu la un restaurant. 2. (tehn.) list de opiuni oferit utilizatorului de
un program de calcul.
VAT n. = (value added tax) tax pe valoare adugat.
nasty adj. = 1. indecent, obscene. 2. scrbos, dezgusttor; a ~ taste = un gust neplcut;
~ weather = vreme urt. 3. ru(voitor); neprietenos.
order n. = (aici) comand (la un restaurant).
dish n. = 1. farfurie. 2. (pl) vesel; to wash the ~es = a spla vasele. 3. mncare, fel de
mncare; side ~ = garnitur; standing ~ = fel de mncare care se servete zilnic.
tasty adj. = 1. gustos. 2. ic, elegant.
chef n. = buctar ef.
consideration n. = 1. considerare; to take into ~ = a ine seama de. 2. reflectare,
analiz, studiere. 3. recompense, despgubire. 4. consideraie, respect, stim.
bill n. = not de plat; to foot the ~ = a suporta cheltuielile.
tip n. = 1. (aici) baci. 2. vrf, capt, extremitate: to have it on the ~ of one's tongue =
a-i sta pe limb. 3. sfat, pont, informaie confidenial (la curse, burs, etc.).
poor adj. = 1. (aici) de calitate slab. 2. srac, nevoia.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
A. Phrases/ idioms with the word STAFF
staff n. = personal.
editorial staff n.= personal al unei edituri.
diplomatic staff n. = personal diplomatic.
medical staff n.= personal sanitary.
staff of a school n. = corpul didactic al unei coli.
to be on the staff of = a funciona la.
B. Phrases with the word CHARGE
charge n. = pre; cheltuial.
at ones own charge = pe propria cheltuial.
the one (officer) in charge = cel de serviciu/ ofierul de serviciu.
to be in charge of = a se ngriji de, a rspunde de, a conduce.
to give somebody in charge = a da pe cineva pe mna poliiei.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What are the basic rules described in the article?
2. Would you follow the rules and pieces of advice suggested in the article? Are
there any you disapprove of? Could you think of others that are more important?
3. What seems to be most important when you dine out (atmosphere, waiters,
music, the arrangement of the room, the food itself)?
II. The words below are synonymous with the noun food. And yet, there are
differences in meaning and usage between them. Discuss them for each term.
nourishment, sustenance, nutriment, subsistence, fare, bread, daily bread; cooking,
baking, cuisine; foodstuffs, edibles, refreshments, meals, provisions, rations, stores,
supplies; solids; vivers; eats, eatables, nosh, grub, chow, nibbles; (British informal)
scoff, tuck; (N. Am. informal) chuck; (archaic) victuals, vittles, viands, commons, meat.
III. Form another word from the word in capitals to complete each sentence
referring to food:
1. The waiter told us about the dish but we didnt understand his EXPLAIN
2. This sauce is much too runny. Dont you think it needs ?
THICK
3. She gave us enormous portions thats typical of her
GENEROUS
4. Are you sure this meat has been cooked enough? It sees very
DO
5. This product contains no artificial preservatives or
FLAVOUR
6. Before using this knife to chop the onions, see if it needs to be SHARP
7. We had roast lamb with coffee-flavoured sauce: an unusual
COMBINE
8. Have you ever tried adding honey to natural yogurt toit?
SWEET
9. The tea was so weak it seemed like hot water. It was almost
TASTE
10. Be careful! If you eat too fast, you may get an
DIGEST
IV. You are a food inspector. Make up a list with some basic requirements or rules
you would impose on all restaurants (regarding the atmosphere, the hygiene, the
personnels training, the cooking and serving conditions but also the morals and
the attitude of the staff).
V. Give an account of a conflict or misunderstanding you had with a waiter, cook,
or another person in a restaurant.
VI. Imagine a conversation with a Spanish waiter. You have never been to Spain
before, the menu is in Spanish and French and you only speak English. Try to
manage in such a situation. Write between 15 20 lines.
VII. Write an advertisement for you favorite club/ disco/ restaurant/ pub/ fast food
starting from the example below:
The Ritz
Piccadilly. Daily 12.30 2pm, 6.30 11pm, Sun until midnight. Michael Quinn,
head chef, offers a three-course surprise luncheon, different cooking, oyster wrapped in
pancakes with truffle sauce and champagne sorbet, champagne, all sort of wine.
Delights for eye & stomach! Sound of live jazz. Much recommended.

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2.5.10. FOOD POISONING

Food served and sold in delis, supermarkets and take-away bars can cause
serious food poisoning, according to health experts. Ready-to-eat food, such as seafood
dishes, pre-packed salads or porkpies may, be contaminated with salmonella bacteria.
It may also have bee on display to long, or at an unsafe temperature, making it
unsuitable for consumption.
A newly proposed Code of Practice will make it an offence to render food
injurious to health, enforcing the provisions of food safety legislation. It is, for
example, recommended that temperature readings be taken at four-hourly intervals, and
that strict hygiene rules should be applied to storage and display of dishes. Also,
precautions must be taken to minimize the risk of customers touching products or
coughing over them.
Todays warning has been issued following a dramatic increase in food
poisoning. Most outbreaks are caused by Salmonella enteritidis commonly associated
with the consumption of chicken eggs or egg products due to shell contamination.
Almost every day newspapers report that cooked meats and poultry dishes are being
withdrawn from sale. The alarming rise in the number of infections is the price the
consumer pays for the development of factory poultry farming and cheap meat
feedstuffs.
(adapted from Barbara & Marcin Otto, Here is the News. English for Journalists, vol. I,
p. 182)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
delis n. = restaurante gen fast-food.
take-away bars n. = baruri cu autoservire.
food poisoning n. = infecie alimentar.
contaminated adj. = contaminat, infectat.
bacteria n. = bacterii.
consumption n. = 1. consumare. 2. consumaie.
offence n. = 1. atac, agresiune; weapons/arms of ~ = arme de atac. 2. ofens, jignire; to
take ~ = a se simi jignit. 3. (jur.) crim, act ilegal.
injurious adj. = 1. pgubitor, duntor. 2. jignitor, injurios.
provisions n. = prevederi (ale unui document, ale unei legi).
hygiene rules n. = reguli de igien.
to cough v. = 1. a tui; to ~ down = a reduce (pe cineva) la tcere, tuind; to ~ out/up =
a spune ceva tuind; a expectora.
outbreak n. = 1. izbucnire, erupie. 2. (aici) nceput de epidemie. 3. revolt. 4.
explozie (de bucurie). 5. pornire violent.
to withdraw, withdrew, withdrawn v. = 1. a trage (napoi); to ~ the curtain = a trage
perdeaua. 2. a lua, a retrage; to ~ a privilege = a retrage un privilegiu. 3. a
retracta (o ofert, o afirmaie, etc.). 5. a se retrage, a pleca.
poultry n. = psri de curte.

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II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

bacteria n. = a member of a large group of unicellular micro-organisms which have cell
walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some which can
cause disease.
feedstuffs n. = a food provided for cattle and other livestock.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What sort of food is served in delis?
2. What products do you consider to be injurious to health? Do you ever/ often/
never eat food form snack bars?
3. What does the Code of Practice refer to?
4. What is forbidden for consumers when they are near food?
5. What types of bacteria can cause food poisoning?
6. How is food poisoning generally treated?
II. Put one suitable word in each space:
Diet and health
It is said that people from Mediterranean countries, (0)..on..average, live longer
(1)people from the north of Europe. (2)a large extent this must be due (3)their
better diet. Southern Europeans eat healthy foods (4)as fish and vegetables, and they
also eat far (5)fatty foods like cakes and hamburgers. The people from southern Italy,
(6)life expectancy is the longest (7)all, have traditionally consumed very little
meat. (8)the past this habit might (9)been caused (10)poverty, but (11)today
people from this region eat a lot of fish. There is one surprising thing, (12). In
(13)of their healthy lifestyle, people from southern Europe smoke a lot. In fact,
(14)many young people have started smoking (15)the governments are quite
worried and are taking measures to reduce the number of smokers in (16)countries.
III. Fill in the blanks using appropriate words and forms form the list given below:
particular(ly) extreme(ly) fertile significant(ly) virtual(ly) primary/ primarily
principal(ly) grateful(ly) valuable busy/ busily ripe entire(ly)
1. Im not satisfied with the new milking machine.
2. As a result of the bad winter and the floods, the situation in agriculture
isserious.
3. Thegrain crops in China are rice and millet.
4. Wheat is grownfor human consumption.
5. Farmers are veryat harvest time.
6. If the weather doesnt break, the corn will bein about a fortnights time.
7. The area around the Wash, which consists of black earth and silt, is very
8. The farm manager thanked the land-improvement expert for hisadvice.
9. He was veryfor her advice.
10. Farm workers work long hours,the cowmen.
11. In Britain horses have...disappeared as draught animals.
12. Grain yields have increasedin the post-war period.

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IV. Make up a list containing the producers obligations and the consumers
obligations regarding food displayed in shops.
V. Look for some of the chemical additives used in processing food in the food
industry. Grade them according to their degree of risk for the consumers health.
VI. Many people nowadays start a vegetarian style of life. What does it include and
what are the advantages and drawbacks of a vegetarian living? Discuss some
products in turn (e.g. milk, meat, cheese, eggs, soy, vegetables, etc.).
VII. Some of the major problems of female adolescents are anorexia (also anorexia
nervosa, an emotional disorder characterized by an obsessive desire to lose weight by
refusing to eat, and a distorted perception of one's own body New Oxford Dictionary
of English) and bulimia (an emotional disorder involving distortion of body image and
an obsessive desire to lose weight, in which bouts of extreme overeating are followed by
depression and self-induced vomiting, purging, or fasting id.). They are caused by the
youths desire to be socially accepted by the other teenagers, to have a more appealing
body, etc. How could you convince such a person to give up these self-caused
diseases?
VIII. Translate the following text into English:
S-a nfiinat o nou organizaie care include persoane supraponderale; scopul
principal al acestui tip de organizaie este combaterea pe ci proprii a discriminrii
oamenilor grai i introducerea n vigoare a drepturilor oamenilor corpoleni.
Obezitatea este o infirmitate. Persoanelor supraponderale le este greu s triasc ntr-o
societate care pune mare pre pe meninerea unei siluete zvelte. Aceti oameni trebuie s
lupte cu stereotipul potrivit cruia oamenii grai sunt lenei, proti i lipsii de voin.
Din fraged copilrie cei grai sunt expui ocrilor i icanelor din partea celor de o
vrst cu ei. Adeseori discriminarea duce i la respingerea acestora n cazul interviului
pentru o slujb mai bun.
Scopul fundamental al organizaiei este de a le reda celor grai sentimentul propriei
demniti, respectul de sine, capacitatea de a-i aprecia valoarea, ncrederea n viitor i
eliminarea oricror complexe care le ntunec existena.

165

II.2.6. TEXTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2.6.1. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering
principles to improve the environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide
healthful water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to
remediate polluted sites. Negative environmental effects can be decreased and
controlled through public education, conservation, regulations, and the application of
good engineering practices.
Development of Environmental Engineering
Ever since people first recognized that their health and well-being were related
to the quality of their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to attempt
to improve the quality of their environment. The Romans constructed aqueducts to
prevent drought and to create a clean, healthful water supply for the metropolis of
Rome. In the 15th century, Bavaria created laws restricting the development and
degradation of alpine country that constituted the region's water supply.
Modern environmental engineering began in London in the mid-19th century
when it was realized that proper sewerage could reduce the incidence of waterborne
diseases such as cholera. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage
treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of
death to rarities.
In many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits
for those societies had longer-term impacts which reduced other environmental
qualities. One example is the widespread application of DDT to control agricultural
pests in the years following World War II. While the agricultural benefits were
outstanding and crop yields increased dramatically, thus reducing world hunger
substantially, and malaria was controlled better than it ever had been, numerous species
were brought to the verge of extinction due to the impact of the DDT on their
reproductive cycles. The story of DDT as vividly told in Rachel Carson's "Silent
Spring" is considered to be the birth of the modern environmental movement and the
development of the modern field of "environmental engineering.
Conservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm
the environment have been developed by various societies for millennia. Notable
examples are the laws decreeing the construction of sewers in London and Paris in the
19th century and the creation of the U.S. national park system in the early 20th century.
Briefly speaking, the main task of environmental engineering is to protect (from
further degradation), preserve (the present condition), and enhance (the environment).
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
environmental engineering = ingineria mediului.
environment n. = mediu.
healthful adj. = sntos, benefic.

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to pollute v. = a polua.
pollution n. = poluare.
to decrease v. = a scdea, a diminua.
to recognize v. = a recunoate.
related to = legat de, referitor la.
to improve v. = a mbunti.
aqueduct n. = apeduct.
to prevent v. = a mpiedica.
drought n. = secet.
metropolis n. = metropol.
sewerage n. = canalizare.
waterborne adj. = 1. transmis prin ap. 2. transportat de ap.
to achieve v. = a obine, a dobndi.
benefit n. = beneficiu.
widespread adj. = rspndit.
DDT = (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) DTT.
pest n. = duntor.
outstanding adj. = remarcabil.
extinction n. = dispariie.
due to prep. = datorit.
millennium, milennia n. = mileniu .
to decree v. = a decreta.
sewer n. = canal .
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Healthy or healthful?
It is sometimes argued that healthy should be used only to describe a living being in good
health, and that healthful is the word for such things as habits or foods promoting good
health. There is nothing wrong with observing this distinction, but there is also nothing
wrong with using healthy as a synonym for healthful, as reputable writers have been doing
for centuries
Borne or born?
Borne is the past participle of the verb to bear, bore, born/borne.
The following points should be borne in mind.
His account is simply not borne out by the facts.
In meanings relating to birth, borne is used when the mother is the subject of the verb, or
when the verb is passive followed by the preposition by:
Maria had already borne six children.
The twins were borne by an Italian mother.
When the subject is the child, born, an old past participle of bear, is the form used:
He was not born in a hospital.
Born is also the adjective used in a combination, to indicate condition, location, or status of
birth:
newly born pups and a southern-born poet.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension:
1. What is environmental engineering?
2. How can negative environmental effects be decreased?
3. When and where did modern environmental engineering begin?
4. What was the impact of the DDT on the reproductive cycles of some species?
5. Whats the main task of environmental engineering?

167

II. Complete the sentences with nouns corresponding to the verbs written in capital
letters at the end:
1. My marriage is a ..., wholly without ... . (TO MOCK, TO FEEL)
2. I have no objective ... that you ordered my sister's murder, but I know you are
responsible. (TO PROVE)
3. Wolf, prowling night-time Tokyo with the ... of his namesake, was struck by
how alien this type of architecture was. (TO STEAL)
4. Not a ... of air stirred in the branches of the maple-trees in the garden.
5. She spun away from him and, almost in the same ..., hurled herself through the
doorway. (TO MOVE)
6. I'm sure we have made the right ... (TO CHOOSE)
7. All the ... from the Americas are delayed because of a thunderstorm over the
Atlantic. (TO FLY)
8. The speaker suddenly found himself at a ... for words. (TO LOSE)
III. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate noun:
a ... (1) of workers; a ... (7) of puppies;
a ... (2) of outlaws; a ... (8) of fish;
a ... (3) of swine;
a ... (9) of hounds;
a ... (4) of lions;
a ... (10) of deer;
a ... (5) of stars;
a ... (11) of grapes;
a ... (6) of events;
a ... (12) of beads;

a ... (13) of killer-bees;

a ... (14) of bombers;
a ... (15) of sticks;
a ... (16) of trustees;
a ... (17) of mountains;
a ... (18) of experts.

IV. Fill in the blanks using only one word for each space and then translate the
text:
Russian Energy Giant Shrugs ... (1) Reforms
The view of the 67 group of leading industrial ... (2) is that Russia is at a
"critical juncture" in its economic transition process. That is putting it ... (3). The
reform process, ... (4) only a year ... (5) looked to be still largely on track, has
stalled to such an ... (6) that ... (7) Russian analysts can see an early ... (8) to the
economic stagnation which is gripping the country.
The problem is that ... (9) the "big picture" reforms are in place, success now
depends ... (10) pushing them to the heart of the economy. In particular, this ... (11)
restructuring the country's industrial ... (12) and ... (13) up the power of the former ...
(14) monopolies.
This is not an easy task. After ... (15), when you are ... (16) to being a state
... (17) a state, surrendering power does not ... (18) naturally, as Russia's
energy companies are showing. Take "Gazprom". Improving efficiency within it
is clearly in everybody's ... (19). But "Gazprom" remains ... (20) to change. (The
European)
V. Translate into English:
tiina mediului nconjurtor se ocup cu schimbrile chimice, fizice i biologice
care au loc n mediul nconjurtor prin contaminarea sau modificarea naturii
fizice i biologice a aerului, apei, solului, produselor alimentare i deeurilor.
Analiza acestora precizeaz msura n care aceste transformri au fost provocate de
oameni, cum i n ce condiii, aplicarea tiinei i tehnologiei poate controla i ameliora
calitatea mediului nconjurtor. (http://lori.academicdirect.org/books/work_list.php?user)

168

2.6.2. THE SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Pollutants may be chemical, biological, thermal, radioactive, or even
mechanical. Environmental engineering emphasizes several areas: process engineering,
environmental chemistry, water and wastewater treatment (sanitary engineering),
waste reduction/management, and pollution prevention/cleanup. Environmental
engineering is a synthesis of various disciplines, incorporating elements from the
following: civil engineering, chemical engineering, public health, mechanical
engineering, chemistry, biology, geology, ecology.
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering
principles to the environment. Some consider environmental engineering to include the
development of sustainable processes. There are several divisions of the field of
environmental engineering.
Environmental impact assessment and mitigation
It is a decision making tool. In this division, engineers and scientists assess the
impacts of a proposed project on environmental conditions. They apply scientific and
engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts to water
quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic impacts,
social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If
impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such
impacts.
Water supply and treatment
Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and
agricultural use. They evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the
available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the
seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to
store, treat, and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality
objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable water supply, water is treated to
minimize risk of infectious disease transmittal, risk of non-infectious illness, and create
a palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide
adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic
use, fire suppression, and irrigation.
Wastewater conveyance and treatment
Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to
the land through outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such
waste into water and convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and
scientists develop collection and treatment systems to carry this waste material away
from where people live and produce the waste and discharge it into the environment. In
developed countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and
detoxification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake, or ocean system.
Developing nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems so that
they can improve water quality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of waterborne infectious disease.
Air quality management
Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of
manufacturing and combustion processes to reduce air emissions to acceptable levels.
Scrubbers, precipitators, after-burners, and other devices are utilized to remove

169

particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and reactive organic gases from
vapors prior to allowing their emission to the atmosphere. This field is beginning to
overlap with energy efficiency and the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes. Scientists develop dispersion
models to evaluate the concentration of a pollutant at a receptor source or the impact on
overall air quality and smog production from vehicle and flue gas stack emissions.
(adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
scope n. = raz de aciune.
pollutant n. = poluant.
to emphasize n. = a scoate n eviden.
waste n. = resturi, rebuturi, deeuri.
treatment = 1. tratament; 2. tratare. wastewater ~ = tratarea apei reziduale.
synthesis, syntheses n. = sintez.
sustainable adj. = ecologic.
assessment n. = evaluare.
to assess n. = a evalua.
potable adj. = potabil.
watershed n. = cumpna apelor.
available adj. = dispononibil.
to store v. = a depozita.
palatable adj. = plcut la gust, gustos, delicios.
flavor n. = savoare, arom.
to discharge v. = 1. a descrca; 2. a vrsa; 3. a emite, a emana.
collection system = sistem de colectare.
detoxification n. = detoxifiere.
to strive, strove, striven to v. = a se strdui.
combustion n. = ardere.
scrubber n. = scruber, epurator de gaze.
prior to = nainte de.
to overlap v. = a (se) suprapune.
overall adj. = total, global, general.
smog n. = cea cu fum.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
system n. = 1. sistem. 2. the ~ = organismul. 3. reea (hidrologic, electric, rutier). 4.
metod, sistem de organizare. 5. regim, ornduire, sistem.
social ~ = sistem social. democratic ~ = sistem democratic. metric ~ = sistem metric.
nervous ~ = sistem nervos. electric ~ = sistem/reea electric(). educational ~ =
sistem educaional. solar ~ = sistemul solar. operating ~ = sistem de operare.
tracking ~ = sistem de urmrire. ~ operator = operator de sistem. ~ software =
software de sistem.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and Comprehension:
1. What types of pollutants are mentioned in the text?

170

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Why do environmental engineers evaluate?

What do engineers do if impacts are expected?
Why is water treated in the case of potable water supply?
What are developing nations striving to obtain?
How can air quality be preserved?

II. Complete the sentences with abstract nouns derived from the words in capital
letters at the end:
1. Ion Creanga became famous through the publication of his book Memories of
My ...
(BOY)
2.Our interests are incompatible, so I don't really think we can form a
... (PARTNER)
3. The Preraphaelite ... was a trend that laid emphasis on the aesthetic component of
every work of art. (BROTHER)
4. God, in His ..., created very diversified life forms on Earth. (WISE)
5. In this country, .... has been done away with completely.
(ILLITERATE).
6. Life at the tropics is unbearable because of the high degree of .... (HUMID)
7. The soldiers were court-martialled and found guilty of .... (TO DESERT)
8. I wouldn't have imagined he would go to such ... to get what he wants. (LONG)
9. If I let you down, it was out of mere ... (COWARD)
10. Such ....on the battlefield had never been displayed by anyone. (BRAVE)
11. The ... of the river prevented the villagers from building a bridge across it.
(WIDE)
III. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate partitive:
a ... (1) of money;
a ... (14) of thunder;
a ... (2) of beer;
a ... (15) of bacon;
a ... (3) of water;
a ... (16) of rice;
a ... (4) of advice;
a ... (17) of luggage;
a ... (5) of information;
a ... (18) of corn;
a ... (6) of bread;
a ... (19) of hay;
a ... (7) of grass;
a ... (20) of machinegun fire;
a ... (8) of sand;
a ... (21) of spaghetti;
a ... (9) of salt;
a ... (22) of wind;
a ... (10) of sugar;
a ... (23) of dust;
a ... (11) of soap;
a ... (24) of ammunition;
a ... (12) of laughter;
a ... (25) of armour.
IV. Fill each of the following blanks with only one suitable word:
Mans existence on earth depends ........ (1) all the other living matter ........ (2) him
and a large part of this belongs .......... (3) the plant kingdom. ....... (4) the
extraordinary variety of living organisms that make ........
(5) the world of
plants, animal life could not ........ (6) and our planet ........
(7) be a barren and
lifeless world of deserts. Some plants are of ....... (8) use than others. High on the
list of plants upon ....... (9) our lives depend are the food crops. The grass family is
probably the ........ (10) important of these, ........ (11) it supplies the world .......
(12) its wheat, rice, oats, barely and sugar cane. ....... (13) a certain amount of

171

processing, these are all ...... (14) more or ....... (15) as they are grown. Other
grasses provide the basic foodstuff for cattle and sheep. Then there are root crops
........ (16) as potatoes and carrots, as ....... (17) as the great
....... (18) of fruits.
Some plants give us beverages ....... (19) tea and ....... (20).
V. Translate into English:
Studiul proceselor de ardere a combustibililor ca poluani ai aerului sunt o
preocupare foarte important. Automobilul a adugat o nou categorie de particule
poluante.
Dezvoltarea metodelor analitice de separare, identificare i determinare a
furnizat informaii preioase privind prezena n aer a unor particule poluante ca: var,
calcar i praf de ciment de la operaiile de ardere n cuptoare, cocs i hidrocarburi
policiclice aromatice provenite din cocsificare, oxizi de fier de la topirea
minereurilor i fluoruri de la procesele metalurgice.
(http://lori.academicdirect.org/books/work_list.php?user=lori&id=111)

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2.6.3. MICROMETEOROLOGY
Although living organisms have been found in the atmosphere up to very great
heights, life is abundant only in a very shallow layer at the surface. We spend our lives
at the bottom of the great ocean of air which envelops the earth and this is broadly true
of all air-breathing creatures and plants. The detailed study of the lowest layer of the
atmosphere, usually referred to as micrometeorology, is therefore of considerable
economic importance. In addition, it presents problems of great scientific interest,
differing considerably from those which occupy the attention of synopticians and
climatologists, and it is in micrometeorology, if anywhere, that the mathematician really
comes into his own.
Meteorological observations are made, for the most part, for synoptic
meteorology and climatology, and for this reason, care is taken to ensure that they are
representative of air masses over large areas. Thus the site is chosen to be, as far as
possible, on flat land free from obstructions (air-fields are particularly favoured) and
temperature and humidity are usually measured at about 4 feet above the ground. If the
thermometer is placed very near the ground, difficulties arise because at this level the
temperature of the air is not only liable to large fluctuations, especially in hot weather,
but also depends very much on whether the ground in the immediate vicinity is bare or
covered with vegetation. These features, which are purely local, are not found to such a
marked degree at 4 feet and above, where the temperature is much more representative
of the air mass as a whole.
The climate into which a plant first emerges, which is also the normal habitat of
small creatures, differs in many ways from that recorded at 4 feet. The climate of
Lilliput is much more severe than that at the breathing level of a human, and even in
temperate climates it is possible, in a single day, for the air within a fraction of an inch
above the ground to pass from frost to almost tropical heat. But quite apart from these
features, there is need to study the behaviour of the air near the surface in detail because
of numerous matters of interest, such as the dispersal of smoke and of atmospheric
pollution generally, on which meteorologists are often asked to advise. There is very
little of weather forecasting in such studies. Instead, the micrometeorologist applies the
normal methods of mathematical and experimental physics, and he is encouraged to do
so because it is possible to measure the properties of the atmosphere at these levels with
laboratory accuracy. He is, however, still limited by its inability to control the processes
or to isolate different effects, as the laboratory worker can. He must observe events as
they come, and not as he would like to arrange them, and he is never able entirely to
separate an effect from others present at the same time.
(Hall, W., Kanes, M., Science Magazines, p. 12)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to envelop v. = 1. a nveli, a nfura. 2. fig a nvlui, a cuprinde. 3. mil a nvlui, a
ncercui, a mpresura.
layer n. = 1. strat, nveli. 2. constr pat (al drumului). 3. albie, matc (de ru). 4. banc,
strat de aluviuni. 5. tehn banc, batiu, pat. 6. geol zcmnt. 7. bot mldi,
vlstar. 8. pasre (gin) outoare.

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to layer v. = 1. a aeza n straturi. 2. a aeza n stive, a stivui.

obstruction n. = 1. mpiedicare, blocare (a drumului etc), astupare (a trecerii etc). 2.
obstrucie, mpiedicare, oprire. 3. med constipaie. 4. piedic, barier, obstacol
(pomi czui n drum etc.).
to arise, arose, arisen v. = 1. (d. o problem etc.) a se ridica, a se ivi, a aprea, (d. vnt)
a se strni. 2. rar a se nla, a se ridica. 3. nv sau poetic a se scula (n picioare),
a se ridica. 4. (d. soare etc.) poetic a se nla, a rsari. 5. poetic a se scula din
mori, a nvia. 6. poetic a se ridica, a se scula (cu arma n mn etc.), a se
burzului.
liable liable for adj. = rspunztor pentru/de, ~ to adj. cu inf = 1. obligat s. 2. care
poate s, (care este) pasibil s, adj cu prep pasibil de, expus la, predispus la.
bare adj. = 1. gol, despuiat, neacoperit, cu capul descoperit. 2. gol, pustiu, deert. 3. el
neizolat. 4. desfrunzit, gol. 5. sterp, neroditor. 6. (of) srac (n), lipsit (de). 7.
gol, srac, sec, simplu. 8. ros, tocit, jerpelit. 9. simplu, numai, a ~ possibility
doar o posibilitate (nimic mai mult).
to bare v. = 1. a dezgoli, a despuia, a dezbrca. 2. fig a dezvlui, a da n vileag/la
iveal.
to emerge v. = a se ivi, a aprea, a iei la iveal/lumin.
dispersal n. = dispersare, mprtiere, mprire, distribuire.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
flat adj.= 1. plat, ntins, neted, lat, the tyre is ~ cauciucul s-a dezumflat/are pan, ~
hand mn/palm ntins. 2. searbd, plictisitor, neinteresant, insipid. 3. fr
vlag/via, lipsit de energie. 4. ec care stagneaz, slab. 6. (d. buturi) sttut,
rsuflat. 7. (d. o glum) fr sare. 8. exact, precis, direct, categoric, hotrt, ~
denial refuz categoric, ~ nonsense curat prostie.
flat adv. = 1. lat, ntins, to fall ~ a cdea lat. 2. exact, precis, chiar, in ten minutes ~
exact n zece minute. 3. fin fr dobnd. 4. muz cu un semiton mai jos.
flat n. = 1. suprafa ntins, lat, the ~ of the hand latul palmei, on the ~ a. pe drum
drept, b. pict n dou dimensiuni, 2. es, cmpie, 3. trm jos/cobort, 4. balt,
inut mltinos, 5. tehn faet, 6. barc cu fundul lat, 7. muz bemol, 8. ferov
vagon platform 9. pantof fr toc, 10. nerod, ggu,

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. How could you define micrometeorology?
2. Why do you think is micrometeorology important?
3. Where should the thermometer be placed so that the meteorological observations
can be properly made?
4. What are the factors that influence the temperature of the air?
5. What are the methods normally applied by the micrometeorologist?
II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one of the following words:
breathe, climate, environment, extinct, poisonous, pollution, radioactive, recycling,
resources, survival
1. Mammoths became thousands of years ago.
2. Britain has a temperate
3. This country is rich in natural
4. She was unable to because of the smoke.

174

5. Not all mushrooms are edible; some of them are

6. They have a very poor chance of
7. If you things that have already been used, such bottles or sheets of paper, you
process them so that they can be used again.
8. A child can easily adjust to changes in its
9. We were shocked by the on the beach.
10. I have just been told that there are serious problems with nuclear waste
disposal.
III. How much do you know about biodiversity? Say if the following statements are
true or false:
1. The total number of species is not known.
2. More than half of the worlds species live in tropical forests.
3. About ten million species have been identified by scientists.
4. The Earth has many more species than it needs.
5. Most species are of no direct benefit to humans.
6. Some habitats have more species than others.
7. Biodiversity includes geneticx diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
diversity.
8. Biological diversity is more threatened now than at any time in the past 65
milion years.
9. The loss of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other habitats contributes to the
loss of biodiversity.
10. Many species become extinct without ever being identified.
11. Large plants, birds, and mammals make up about half of the worlds species.
12. Coral reefs are as rich in biodiversity as tropical forests.
13. Many islands are home to species found nowhere else.
14. Fewer than 100 species currently provide most of the worlds food supply.
15. Famers need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new plants that resist
insect pests and diseases.
16. Creating parks and zoos is the best way to preserve biodiversity.
17. The biological resources of developing countries are a potential source of
income.
18. Two major causes of biodiversity loss are population growth and the increasing
consumption of natural resources.
19. Once a species becomes endangered, it is doomed to extinction.
IV. Topics for discussion
What are the consequences of:
1. air pollution;
2. water pollution;
3. soil pollution;
4. radioactive pollution;
5. using sprays;
6. nuclear waste dumping;
7. acid rain.

175

2.6.4. EARTHQUAKE (1)

At least 5,000 people are estimated to have died and thousands of others to have
been injured in a destructive earthquake which devastated large areas of Ishmad. This
small mountainous country is prone to seismic disturbances as it lies on a
seismological fault. This tragedy proved particularly calamitous and the still
incomplete statistics speak of unprecedented damage. The high magnitude quake
measured 7.7 on the Richter scale and was the strongest this area has experienced in
more than a century. It followed a fortnight of tremors and its epicentre was some 150
miles southwest of Zento, the Ishmadic capital. Three small villages, close to the
epicentre, are said to have been completely wiped out. The quake also triggered
devastating landslides which destroyed a power station, depriving one-third of the
country of electricity. No aftershocks were reported.
At two in the morning, two strong quakes, thirty minutes apart, rocked the
capital, catching the inhabitants in their sleep and leaving homes badly damaged. Those
who did not immediately leave the affected area paid for it with their lives. Hundreds of
bodies lie buried under the ruins and the death toll mounts to as rescue workers dig into
the mounds of debris to find those entombed.
With half the city reduced to rubble, most of its surviving inhabitants have been
left homeless. Hardest hit were the badly-constructed high-rise apartment blocks, built
of precast concrete slabs, which have sprung up in recent years. They were the first to
collapse on their occupants and they are now being blamed for the high death toll as
there are few which withstood the tremors. Many schools and hospitals disintegrated as
the earth heaved. Other buildings were gutted by fire from ruptured gas pipes and a
pall of smoke still hangs over the town. All the structurally-damaged buildings will
have to be razed. It is now predicted that, even after years of reconstructive work, Zento
will never look the same again.
(Otto, B, Otto, M.: Limba englez pentru jurnaliti, pp. 19, 112, 148, vol. I)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
(seismic) disturbance n. = micare seismic.
calamitous adj. = dezastruos.
magnitude n. = magnitudine.
tremor n. = und seismic, cutremur.
to wipe out v. = a rade de pe faa pmntului.
to trigger v. = a declana, a da natere.
to deprive of v. = a priva (de ceva).
mounds of debris n. = mormane de drmturi.
to entomb v. = a ngropa.
rubble n. = sfrmturi, moloz.
to spring up (sprang, sprung) v. =a rsri (a se nla) din pmnt.
to heave v. = a disloca / a (se) cutremura.
to rupture v. = a rupe, a seciona.
pall of smoke n. = nor negru, compact, de fum.
to raze v. = a rade, a demola.

176

II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

look n. = 1. privire, uittur, cuttur. 2. pl nfiare, aspect, figur, to judge by ~s a
judeca dup aparene.
to look v. = 1. a se uita, a privi la. 2. a prea, a arta, a avea aerul.nfiarea. 3. (d. o
cas) a fi orientat spre, a da nspre, a fi cu faa la, ~ about a privi, a se uita de
jur mprejur, a se uita n jurul (cu gen), fig a vedea situaia care s-a creat n jurul
(cu gen), ~ about for a cuta/a urmri cu privirea, a fi n cutarea (unui post), ~
after a avea grij de, to ~ oneself a-i purta singur de grij, ~ ahead i fig a
privi nainte, ~ at a se uita/a privi (la televizor), a lua n considerare (ceva), a
examina, a cerceta, a lua (ca exemplu negativ pe cineva), ~ down a privi n jos,
a-i pleca privirea, ~ down upon/on a privi (pe cineva) ca inferior, a socoti
inferior, a dispreui, ~ in a intra, a trece pe la cineva, a privi (drept n fa pe
cineva), ~ into a se uita/privi nuntrul, fig a cerceta, a examina, a studia, fig a
rsfoi (o carte), a se uita prin, ~ on a avea vedere nspre, a privi, a fi spectator.

B. EXRCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What information do you get about the country of Ishmad in this report?
2. Did the quake come as a complete surprise?
3. Why cant the precise number of dead be given at this point?
4. What architectural mistake was made in Zento, the capital of the country?
5. Why did fire accompany the destruction?
6. What is the towns future?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands out for one
word:
1. a devasta ara d____________ the c______________
2. a fi expus cutremurelor be p_________ t________ q__________
3. a gsi pe cineva n timpul somnuliu c__________ somebody i_____ his
s_______
4. a se afla sub drmturi l_______ b__________ u_________ the
r___________
5. numrul morilor crete mereu d________ t________ m______________
6. a-I lsa pe locuitori fr acoperi deasupra capului l______ the i________
h______
7. a suporta undele seismice w______ the t_________
8. mistuit de foc g________ b___ f_______
III. Tick the statements: true or false
1. We know exactly what the number of casualties is.
2. It is not the first or the last earthquake in Ishmad.
a. on the Richter scale is not regarded as particularly strong.
3. There had been no previous indication that a quake might be coming.
4. The quake is indirectly responsible for the lack of energy in some parts of the
country.
5. Thirty quakes were felt in the space of two hours.
6. Most of the victims were killed by collapsing buildings.

177

7. Those who survived still have a place to live.

8. Buildings built of concrete were strong enough not to collapse.
9. Fires were started by gas explosions.
10. Structurally damaged buildings will be reconstructed.
11. The report tells us that the capital of the country will be moved from Zento after
reconstructive work.
IV. These are some of the most severe problems the earth is facing. Match the
problems with their effects as well as with the solution to them. You can use the
same words more than once.
Problems
air pollution, water pollution, animals and plants in danger, global warming, energy
shortage, destruction of ozone layer, human and industrial waste, changes in the local
climate, acid rain, spreading deserts, nuclear accidents, deforestation.
Causes
Overuse of natural resources, uncontrolled fishing and hunting, poisonous chemicals
released into the air by cars and factories, chemicals from aerosol sprays and fridges,
pesticides as well as dangerous chemicals from factories that are poured into the rivers,
seas, oceans.
Solutions
Nuclear plants should be supplied with high technology equipment and more strictly
controlled, we should use bicycles instead of cars, we should not leave TV or the
electric lights on when we do not use them, people should use litterbins, we should plant
more trees, governments should encourage those industries that use cleaner methods of
production, we should save as much paper as possible, factories that pollute the soil or
water should be severely fined, harsher punishments for illegal fishing or hunting,
factories should be equipped with filters for their funnels, cars should use unleaded
petrol, people should be educated about the importance of recycling, Ecology should be
a compulsory subject at school, governments should sponsor research into pollution
prevention, public awareness about the protection of the environment should be raised.
V. Translate into English:
n timpul cutremurului de ieri, mari suprafee ale Ishmadului au fost complet
distruse. Seismul, cu o putere de 7,7 pe scara Richter, a fost cel mai puternic seism
nregistrat pe acest teritoriu n ultimul secol. Catastrofa a fost precedat de o serie de
ocuri resimite n decursul ultimelor dou sptmni. Potrivit relatrilor, trei sate au
fost mturate de pe suprafaa pmntului. Cutremurul a provocat deplasri de teren i
inundaii. Din caza ruperii liniei de nalt tensiune, o treime din ar a rmas fr curent
electric. Jumtate din capitala Ishmad zace sub drmturi. Trupele de salvare ncearc
s se strecoare printre grmezile de ruine n cutarea oamenilor aflai sub drmturi.
Cel mai mult au suferit blocurile nalte. Puine cldiri au rezistat undelor de oc. Multe
dintre ele s-au prbuit peste locuitori i au cauzat numeroase victime. Multe cldiri au
fost mistuite de foc.

178

2.6.5. EARTHQUAKE (2)

A powerful earthquake devastated Palmon, in southern Anturia, in the early
hours of yesterday morning. Buildings rocked and fell apart as the tremor struck the
area. The city centre was completely obliterated while residential districts suffered
similar levels of damage, as well as massive casualties. According to reports from the
scene, entire buildings disappeared into fissures. The death toll is, as yet, unclear but it
will run into tens of thousands. Temporary shelter in tents is being offered to the
homeless who seek refuge in improvised camps outside the city, but most are stumbling
down rubble-strewn streets, dazed and frightened, waiting for the bodies of their
relatives to be recovered.
Search-and-rescue teams, aided by dogs, are looking for survivors, but the dogs
get very distressed climbing through the rubble, which is heavy with the smell of
disaster. The teams have also brought with them special equipment to help search for
and pinpoint the thousands trapped in the ruins. They have sophisticated thermalimaging infra-red cameras, which can detect the heat generated by a survivors body.
Sound devices are not being used because the noise at the scene of the emergency
renders them useless. Relief efforts are being hampered by sub-zero temperatures,
which diminish the chances of survival for those still alive and buried. Most of those
found are dead.
Previous earthquakes have taught that the first 24 hours are critical. If adequate
measures are not taken immediately, the body count increases dramatically. The injured
who are pulled out from under the rubble, must often have gangrenous limbs amputated
immediately. This is the only way to save them from the fatal toxic shock which sets in
when a limb is crushed. Official media reports said that the quake levelled all hospitals,
and thousands of grievously injured are being treated in field conditions. As supplies of
blood ran low, an appeal was issued for international aid. Worldwide disaster funds
were set up to assist tragedy-stricken Palmon.
(Otto, B, Otto, M., Limba englez pentru jurnaliti, pp. 20, 114, 249, vol. I)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to obliterate v. = a distruge, a terge de pe faa pmntului.
casualties n. = victime.
fissure n. = fisur, talie.
to stumble down v. = a se mpletici.
to strew, (strewed, strewn) v. =a mprtia, a risipi.
to recover v. = a gsi, a descoperi.
distressed adj. = nelinitit, nervos.
to pinpoint v. = a localiza.
sophisticated adj. = sofisticat.
to render useless v. = a face (a deveni) nefolositor.
to hamper v. = a ngreuna.
limbs n. = membre ale trunchiului, brae, picioare.
grievously adj. = grav (rnit).
to run low v. = a duce lips.

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II. LEXICAL COMMENATRY

level n. = 1. tehn nivel (cu bul de aer), boloboc. 2. geod cot, nivelmetru. 3. constr
dreptar, nivelator. 4. i fig nivel, treapt, nlime (a unui munte), to find ones
(own) ~ a-i gsi oameni pe msura sa. 5. cmpie, es, on the ~ cinstit,
adevrat. 6. min orizont, galerie de etaj. 7. mil linie de ochire.
level adj. = 1. plan, drept, orizontal, neted, ~ with the ground la acelai nivel cu
pmntul. 2. uniform, regulat, monoton. 3. (d. character) echilibrat, linitit,
calm, netulburat, ~-headed echilibrat, judicious, cu scaun la cap, clar, ~ gauge
tehn indicator de nivel, ~ crossing pasaj de nivel.
to level v. = 1. a nivela, a aduce la acelai nivel. 2. fig a egaliza, a uniformiza, a egaliza,
~ at a ndrepta (arma) spre, a ochi, ~ away i fig a nivela, a desfiina, a aboli
(privilegii), ~ down a cobor nivelul.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. Which parts of the town have suffered most damage?
2. Why arent some of the survivors staying in the shelters provided?
3. What methods are used to look for survivors?
4. What factors are making the search difficult?
5. Why are the first 24 hours vital in a rescue operation?
6. What was the international response to the tragedy?
II. Phrases to learn. Complete the following phrases. Each line stands out for one
word.
1. a se transforma ntr-un morman de moloz f_____ a__________
2. a nregistra pagube i pierderi multiple s_____ d__________ and
c__________
3. a oferi adpost temporar celor fr cas o_________ s________ t___ the
h______
4. a gsi trupurile r____________ the b__________
5. a detecta cldura emanat de corp d________ h_________ g_______
b__________ a b__________
6. a ngreuna aciunea de salvare h___________ r____________ e_________
7. a diminua ansele de supravieuire d________ the c_______ of s__________
8. a aplica msuri adecvate t____ a m_________
9. a lansa apel pentru ajutor i______ an a_______ for a_________
III. Tick the statements true or false:
1. More people died in the city centre than in the residential areas.
2. The number of victims is estimated at between 1,000 and 10,000 people.
3. Temporary shelter has been improvised outside the town.
4. Many people do not want to leave the affected area.
5. Those who have stayed are waiting for the recovery of their possessions.
6. Dogs are not very effective in these circumstances.
7. The cameras described in the report can locate those who are still alive in the
ruins.
8. There is too much noise for sound devices to be effective.

180

9. Low temperatures make rescue work slow.

10. Rescue teams are facing an entirely new situation.
11. Survivors have little chance of saving their injured limbs.
12. The injured are being treated in hospital buildings.
IV. Topics for discussion
1. Why do people feel so helpless when confronted with an earthquake?
2. Discuss the difficulties which have to be overcome when working at the sites of
disasters such as those described in the texts?
3. Consider the emotions felt by both rescue workers and relatives of a person who,
still alive, is trapped in the rubble, especially if they know that the teams will be
unable to reach him in time.
4. Discuss the following statement: Earthquakes are a manifestation of God s
wrath.
V. Translate into English:
Zeci de mii de oameni au murit ieri n timpul cutremurului din Palmona. Cldirile sau nclinat i s-au prbuit. Centru oraului a fost complet distrus. Pentru cei rmai fr
acoperi deasupra capului s-au pregtit adposturi n tabere dincolo de ora. Muli
oameni ateapt scoaterea de sub drmturi a trupurilor celor apropiai. Grupele de
salvare, ajutate de cini, i caut pe supravieuitori. Pentru a depista mia rapid oamenii
de sub drmturi, grupele de salvare se folosesc de dispozitive speciale. Aciunea de
salvare este ngreunat de ger. Spitalele s-au drmat, astfel nct rniilor li se acord
ajutor n condiii de campanie. Se termin rezervele de snge. S-a lansat un apel pentru
ajutor internaional.

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II.2.7. TEXTS FOR INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING
2.7.1. THE ERA OF COMMUNICATION
In less than 20 years, the phenomenal progress in information technologies and
telecommunications has immersed us in an all-communicating world. Computers,
telephones, televisions, domestic appliances and cars are packed full of electronics for
the exchange of data and information and providing intelligent services designed for
maximum efficiency and user comfort. Work, business, administration, health, culture
education.the e prefix has been appended to just about every area of human
activity. The information and knowledge society is changing our lifestyles and even our
psychological and social behaviour.
Nevertheless, it remains difficult to predict where this spectacular progress in
electronics and data processing is going to take us next. A little over a century ago, the
Western Union saw no future for such an unreliable invention as the telephone. Just 25
years ago, the head of Digital Equipment saw no valid reason to want to own a personal
computer. In the late 1980s, few prospective studies predicted the imminent arrival of
such a revolutionary and all-pervasive device as the Internet would prove to be by the
mid 1990s.
On the other hand, the bright future awaiting high-definition satellite TV has
failed to materialize. More recently, the premature enthusiasm for the wireless Internet
shows that even when the developments do come, the path is not always smooth. In a
sector, which cultivates the immaterial, there is sometimes a cruel gap between the
potential promised by technological progress, the valuation of the innovation and the
making of new products and applications.
However, one law has proved pertinent: that of the visionary Gordon Moore,
drawn up in 1965, who prophesied that the performance of electronic components
(memory and processors) would double every 18-24 months, at a fixed cost. Between
1970 and 2002, for example, the number of transistors per cm2 on an electronic chip
increased from 2,300 to 24 million, with transistors measuring 0.1 square. Although
the race of miniaturization and power is certainly not over yet, the experts do believe
that, within the next 15 years, the increase in microprocessor density is likely to come
up against a physical limit: the size of atoms. We will then enter the true age of
nanoelectronics.
The increased capacity to progress and store information is of course at the
heart of the digital revolution. It is thanks to this coupled with the Internet as a data
transfer support that data, sounds, pictures and text can be converted into the same
binary language. This homogeneity opens the door to a convergence of previously
isolated applications, such as the telephone, radio, publishing, television and computing.
The creation of transmitting infrastructures, offering increased capacities for sending
these considerable information packages is currently the crucial development which will
enable us to benefit to the full from this new potential.
(adapted from Cristina Miu, English for IT, pp. 1645)

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A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to immerse v. = 1. a (s)cufunda, a afunda. 2. (fig) immersed in debt = nglodat n
datorii.
appliance n. = 1. aplicare. 2. dispozitiv, aparat. 3. (pl.) aparate electrocasnice.
to provide v. = 1. a prevedea, a nzestra. 2. a aproviziona; he provides us with
vegetables = ne aprovizioneaz cu zarzavaturi. 3. a procura (pentru cineva). 4.
to ~ for = a veghea asupra/ a lua msuri n vederea; to ~ against = a lua msuri
mpotriva. 5. a prevedea c; a stipula c.
to append v. = a anexa (la).
progress n. = 1. progres; to make ~ = a face progrese. 2. dezvoltare, evoluie. 3. curs,
desfurare; v.= 1. a progresa, a nainta. 2. a se dezvolta
prospective adj. = de viitor, n perspectiv.
wireless adj. = fr fir.
smooth adj. = 1. (despre suprafee) neted, fr asperiti. 2. mtsos, moale; smooth
skin = piele moale. 3. linitit, calm; lin; the sea is smooth as a lake = marea e
linitit ca un lac.
chip n. = 1. (el.) pastil, substrat al unui circuit integrat; achie de siliciu
microelectronic. 2. (inf.) deeu rezultat din perforarea unei benzi de hrtie.
store n. = 1. (autom.) memorie. 2. (man.) rezerv, stoc, provizii. 3. (tehn.) rezervor,
deposit.
information n. = 1. (only sing.) informaie. 2. veste, anun; in order to render a plural
meaning we use items of information.
potential adj. = 1. puternic, eficace. 2. posibil; potential danger = pericol posibil; n. =
potenial.

II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Phrases / idioms with the word HEAD
from head to foot = din cap pn n picioare.
to win by a head = a ntrece cu un cap.
to beat somebody's head off = a bate mr pe cineva.
to keep one's head above water = a se menine la suprafa.
to make head = a inainta, a progresa.
to be off one's head = a fi icnit.
to talk somebody's head off = a zpci pe cineva cu vorbria.
to lose one's head = a-i pierde capul.
the head of a car = capota unei maini.
under the same head = sub acelai titlu, n aceeai categorie.
to gather head = 1. a prinde for. 2. a lua proporii.
to come to a head = a deveni critic.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What does an all-communicating world involve?
2. What major means of communication are mentioned in the text? Can you think
of others? Describe each of them (the ones in the text and the ones you thought
of) by referring to their: history, usage, users, medium of data transmission:
visual/ auditory/ both, functions, etc.

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3. The text (the end of paragraph 1) suggests that the modern strive for information
and knowledge is changing our lives on the whole. Think of some positive and
negative effects of such a contemporary phenomena.
4. What are the devices that contribute to the digital revolution?
5. What does nanotechnology mean and in what ways will computing benefit
form the development of nanotechnology?
6. The text develops three main key-words related to the modern technology:
miniaturization, power and convergence. What do they refer to?
II. The computer and other means of artificial intelligence are mainly appreciated
for their capacity of processing, storing and transferring information and of
making it more accessible. What other operations are specific to these
applications?
III. What does the age of miniaturization mean for you? Think of the major types
of computers (mainframe, microcomputer/ personal computer, supercomputer, server
and modern gadgets. PDA, laptop, workstation, palmtop, portable computer, clipboard
computer, pen computer, lapsize computer).
IV. Use the various meanings of the word head in sentences of your own.
V. Translate using the different meanings of store:
1. Bagajul ei de cunotine impresioneaz pe toi cei care o ntlnesc.
2. n ateptarea unei ierni friguroase, ei i-au fcut un stoc mare de provizii.
3. Ei nu vor pune niciodat pre pe lauda lui deoarece se tie c nu-i respect
niciodat promisiunile.
4. Viitorul i rezerv numai bucurii pentru c muncete din greu pentru ndeplinirea
viselor sale.
5. Stocul de informaii nu va fi divulgat nimnui.
VI. Translate the following sentences into Romanian paying attention to the noun
information:
1. A dori s aflu nite informaii legate de folosirea acestui dispozitiv.
2. Vetile primite de la tine m-au descurajat.
3. Biroul de informaii ne-a furnizat toate datele necesare.
4. Se pare c suntem ntr-o er n care predomin informaia digital.
5. Specializarea pe care ne-am ales-o ca studeni este Tehnologia informaiei.
VII. To make their Internet writing seem more informal, people use abbreviations
and emoticons. Explain the following:
Abbreviations: B4; BTW; FAQs; L8R; OTOH; FYI; IMHO; LOL; ASAP; CU;
WYSIWYG;
Emoticons:
;)
:-))
:-O
:-/
VIII. Read the following text about current tendencies in Internet use and then
answer the questions below:
The internet is entering the mainstream of contemporary society, as more and more
people are going to be users soon, and access is growing, which means we can expect to

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see large changes for communities and society as a whole. It is interesting to note that
the Internet is increasingly becoming a democratic factor, displaying the power to
dissolve differences among categories of the population. Once people have access to the
Internet, there are more similarities than differences in terms of how much they use it
and the activities they use it for. Once people have access, blacks look like whites, the
college-educated look like the non-college-educated, and age groups tend to be more
homogenous than we might have thought, except for those above age 65.
It is becoming clear that a large majority of those who use the Internet more than
five hours a week deduct those hours from their TV time. This trend is likely to have a
major impact on the economics of the media industry and, as recent developments
suggest, may lead to further integration of media and information delivery technologies.
Internet users indicate that they are spending less time reading newspapers. It may
very well be that they are reading news on the Web, so they dont read hard copy any
more.
In the near future, people may be able to view a TV programme on the same screen
where they are working on the Internet simultaneously. It is too early to tell if people
will do this sort of multitasking as part of their daily routine, but even if they do, their
attention will be fragmented, because Internet use demands more concentration.
(adapted from Chilrescu, Mihaela & Paidos, Constantin: Practical Course of
English, pp. 1589)
1. What are the social and psychological effects of net addiction?
2. The text claims that the Internet has become a factor which fights against all
types of discrimination and breaks all spatial barriers. Could you think of some
personal examples?
3. Comment on the following statement: All your friends now have an @ in their
names. Does this make you feel less individualized?
4. What exact operations do you perform on the Internet? What about your family?
5. Does virtual reality inspire you as a substitute for actual reality?
6. How frequently do you chat with your friends or with some strangers on the
Internet?
7. Now write an essay of about 350 words on the topic: For and against using the
Internet.

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2.7.2. MICROCHIPS: A LOOK TO THE FUTURE

Massive and unreliable, the first computers of thirty years ago are as dead as
the dinosaurs. Today, computers which are 30,000 times smaller and 10,000 times
cheaper can beat them hollow. High-speed, low-cost computing power has begun to
convert science fiction into reality.
What will the world of the future be like: here are some ideas to consider:
1. A divided society? The coming of the micro will benefit many people: others
may be left behind. People at risk are those who cant or dont want to use new
technology, or even those who cant understand it. Something can be done for both
groups public viewdata terminals can give free access to information, and new
machines (including computers) can be made easy to use, provided time, money and
care is spent in programming them.
2. Variety or uniformity? Will we be surrounded by an enormous variety of
products? Or will the result of micros be cheap uniformity? Either of these is possible.
The main factor is the cost of writing programmes. If the cost remains high, products
will have to be made in large quantities in order to spread the cost. To get variety,
programming costs need to come down. There are signs that this may happen: some
manufacturers are now using relatively unsophisticated chips, which can be cheaply
programmed for simple functions.
3. Goodbye humans? If people work at home and do their banking and shopping
at home, the result could be an inward-looking and immobile society, as families
retreat into a private world of video games and computer holograms. On the other
hand, people seem to need human contact, and to enjoy the social aspects of office life
and escaping from their homes.
4. Beyond the human brain. A simple electronic calculator goes far beyond the
human brain in speed and accuracy but only in a very closely defined field. In the
future, computers will surpass humans in more and more ways. Its predicted by some
people (and hotly disputed by others) that the intellectual capabilities of the human brain
will be overtaken in the early years of the next century. When this happens, we will no
longer be the most intelligent entities on this planet. No one knows how we could cope
with this wounding loss of status.
Conclusions: The microchip revolution is based on size and cost. Microchips
give us cheap computing power in a tiny space. As the costs of microchips continue to
fall, it becomes economically worthwhile to use them in more and more ways.
We have to accept the microchip, or face the alternative of opting out of the free
world market. Accepting the microchip brings benefits and problems. The benefits
include greater efficiency in finding and using information; the possibility of higher
living standards through increased productivity; greater control over pollution and the
use of natural resources; help for the sick and the disabled; and a whole range of smart
machines to inform, entertain and serve us.
We can guard against some of the problems. We can, for example, be alive to
the danger of the misuse of information held on computer files. There is the problem of
alienation: people who cannot find a place in the technological age of the future. To
guard against this problem, we need education and training schemes, and machines
which are easy to use. Finally, theres the problem of people whose skills are made

186

redundant by machines. Again, theres a need for education and retraining. The wealth
needed to pay for schemes like these is more likely to appear if we use the microchip.
(adapted from Jones, Leo: Progress towards First Certificate, pp. 1401)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
massive adj. = 1. masiv; solid. 2. greu, mare, voluminous.
unreliable adj. = nedem de ncredere.
cheap adj. (cheap cheaper the cheapest) = 1. ieftin; dirt ~ = ieftin ca braga; ~ and
nasty = ieftin i prost. 2. (fam.) to feel ~ = a se simi prost. 3. fr valoare,
nensemnat.
to begin, began, begun v. = a ncepe; to ~ with = n primul rnd, pentru nceput.
free adj. = 1. liber, degajat, independent.
machine n. = 1. main (-unealt). 2. mecanism. 3. dispozitiv.
programming n. = 1. programare. 2. activitate de elaborare a unui produs program.
to come down v. = (aici) a reduce, a descrete.
function n. = 1. funcie, operaie. 2. aplicaie.
retreat n. = 1. retragere. 2. stingere.
accuracy n. = 1. acurate, exactitate. 2. precizie, justee.
overtake, overtook, overtaken v. = 1. a surprinde, a lua pe neateptate; overtaken by
the rain = surprins de ploaie. 2. a ajunge din urm; a depi.
to cope v. = (with) a ine piept, a face fa.
worthwhile adj. = 1. de valoare. 2. folositor, benefic.
to opt out v. = (aici) a iei, a fi exclus.
whole adj. = 1. ntreg, ntreag, totalitate. 2. intact, teafr.
misuse n. = 1. abuz, ntrebuinare abuziv; ~ of authority = abuz de putere; ~ of
words = ntrebuinare abuziv a cuvintelor. 2. maltratare; vb. = a ntrebuina
greit.
redundant adj. = 1. suplimentar. 2. redundant. 3. excedentar.

II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Phrases/ idioms with the word FREE
to set free = a pune n libertate.
to get/break free = a scpa, a se elibera.
to give somebody a free hand = a da mn liber cuiva.
to speak with free tongue = a fi slobod la gur.
free of = n afara.
duty free articles = articole scutite de taxe vamale.
free admission = intrare gratuit.
free time = timp liber.
to be free with one's money = a fi mn spart.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What did the first computers look like and what could they perform?
2. What is a microchip?
3. What are the advantages and the drawbacks of microchip use?

187

4. What categories of people are unlikely to find a place in the technological world
of the future?
5. Do you think that growing use of computers could lead to the collapse of what
society means? According to the text, all products are likely to become very
similar to each other unless
a. microchips are used;
b. production costs fall;
c. programming costs fall;
d. the public demands vary.
6. Can computers replace or exceed the capacities of human brains?
II. Would you agree to an entirely virtual type of education? Describe the way in
which you perceive the future of education in Romania and in other countries.
III. Define the following terms: CD-drive, monitor, silicon chip, desktop, keyboard,
display, interface, software and hardware, bit, minicomputer, PDA, PC, pen computer,
digital vs. analog computer, mouse, touch-screen, printer, joystick, light pen, paint
programme, speakers, floppy discs.
IV. Read the following sentences and decide which answer A, B, C or D best fits
each space:
1. Having a computer allows you to have all kinds of information at your
A. arm
B. fingerprints
C. fingers
D. hand
2. She is a specialist in the of Information Technology.
A. job
B. subject
C. topic
D. field
3. The Internet allows users to download free
A. sites
B. hardware
C. viruses
D. software
4. Video can only be done if you have a camera with your computer.
A. conversations
B. conferencing
C. discussions
D. meetings
5. The bigger the memory on your hard disk, the moreyou can store.
A. details
B. money
C. data
D. transactions
6. Most hard discs today have acapacity of 200 megabytes.
A. storing
B. memory
C. huge
D. storage
7. When you connect to the Internet it is said that you are .
A. on-line
B. on
C. in-line
D. integrated
8. A computer should be seen as a we use to help us do our work.
A. disc
B. mechanism
C. tool
D. source
V. Write a short history of computers focusing on the developments in computer
technology since the first type of computer. (350 400 words)
VI. Choose the word on the right to complete each sentence.
Model: Look! Its not working because the plug isnt in theJ a) battery
1. My shirt got very creased in the suitcase. I need an b) bulb
2. If the shelf is coming off the wall, try to tighten the
c) glue
3. Hang your coat over there on that
d) hook
4. When a lamp suddenly goes out, we need to change the
e) iron
5. If you need to climb onto the roof, use a
f) ladder

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6. If you get lost in the forest, use your.

7. This key doesnt work. They must have changed the ..
8. To stop the alarm working, the burglars cut the
9. In case of punctures, cars always carry a spare
10. I need to have a shave, but I havent got a.
11. My mobile phone isnt working. I need to recharge the
12. The envelope wont stick down properly. I need some

g) lock
h) razor
i) screw
j) socket
k) compass
l) tyre
m) wire

VII. Fill in the blanks with to do or to make:

1. He doesnt his work thoroughly and has very little progress.
2. Everybody fun of me but I will . no harm.
3. I wrong. Ill have to apologize and it up to her somehow.
4. Your behaviour .you honour.
5. The earthquake has great damage to the city.
6. She has . a mess of her life.
7. This medicine is excellent, it wonders.
8. . up your mind and what is right one in your lifetime.
9. . whatever you want. It no difference to me.
10. I cant ... for the exit, I feel so tired!
VIII. Complete the following email by writing one word in each gap. The first
letter(s) have been given each time to help you:
Dear Ms Newman
Thank you for sending your current catalogue and price l last week. We are
interested in p 5,000 u of product ref TG67 and 2,000 of product ref K800.
However, there are one or two things we would like to clarify before going ahead with a
firm o.. .
1. Do you give any d on an order of this s ?
2. Would you be pr to let us have the goods on cr ? Our normal t of payment
are 60 days after d . and we can supply a bank g
3. We can find no mention of delivery times in your do We need these items by
the end of October at the la
If we can ran agreement on these matters, we are sure that we can do more bu
with you in the future. We are a w -k. company that has been in the market f.
over twenty years.
We look f to hearing from you soon.
Paul Grice
IX. Translate the following text into English:
Calculatoarele personale au devenit n ultima vreme att de populare, nct i vine
greu s-i mai imaginezi activitatea n coli, acas sau la birou fr ele. Totui, ca
oricare descoperire nou, calculatorul are defectele sale. Cei care lucreaz zilnic la
calculator intr n contact cu efectele neplcute ale acestuia, cum ar fi durerile de cap,
depresii, slbirea vederii sau un sentiment de nelinite. Pe termen lung, utilizarea
excesiv a computerului poate cauza disfuncii ale vederii, ale sistemului nervos sau ale
coloanei.
Exist unele condiii care, dac sunt ndeplinite, permit evitarea unor astfel de
neplceri. Ecranul i tastatura are trebui s fie mobile, pentru a le fixa poziia n funcie

189

de nevoile celui care le folosete. Ecranul ar trebui s fie plasat sub linia privirii. Pentru
a nu obosi ochii excesiv, se recomand ntreruperi frecvente din lucru i utilizarea unor
ecrane protectoare. De asemenea, privirea nu trebuie ndreptat spre lumina soarelui; din
contr, trebuie s stm cu spatele la lumina puternic de afar. Poziia corpului trebuie
s fie dreapt pentru a nu duce la modificarea coloanei.
n concluzie, computerul, atunci cnd este folosit cum trebuie, este un instrument de
lucru foarte util.

190

2.7.3. COMPUTER VIRUSES

All over the world today, many computers are waking up crippled, with the
words Frodo lives illuminating their screens. The latest computer virus designed by
invisible computer saboteurs has been triggered. Frodo is called a stealthy virus
because it is very effective at hiding and lying dormant until activated. It is just one out
of several thousand distinctive viruses worldwide which, like disease, are spread
through exchange of infected computer discs. The most dangerous ones, with sinister
names like Dark Avenger or Datacrime are said to be on dramatic increase.
Electronic viruses are not always hostile. Some do not erase information; they
only irritate users by writing nonsense or playing tunes when activated. Trojan Horse,
so-dubbed because it infiltrates in disguise, may, for example, conceal erotic pictures in
business files or other very serious documents. But computers can also be attacked by
worms which move information around. By multiplying, they eventually render the
system ineffective by filling up all available disc space.
The deadly Michelangelo virus is to strike this year on Friday, March 6th.
Computer users were warned today and the virus bears the name of the Italian artist
because it was triggered by the birth date of the famous man. Upon switching the
computer on, the virus suddenly bursts into life, repeatedly replicates itself and wipes
out the existing software by overwriting hard discs. The remedy for computer users,
who are bracing themselves for the attack, is to run anti-virus software to detect and
destroy the menace in time, or to bypass the virus trigger date by moving a computers
clock a day forward to March 7th.
The deletion of data can cause considerable disruption and financial loss to a
company which owns affected systems and many firms are believed to be carrying the
virus. Since the virus installs itself from infected floppy discs, unlicensed, pirated
software should never be run on company computers. Only by standing within the law
as far as copyright is concerned, can one avoid the often irreversible damage to
computer data. Companies are also advised to have a constantly updated backup
system to replace damaged file.
(adapted from Barbara & Marcin Otto, Here is the News. English for Journalists, vol. II,
p. 184)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
crippled adj. = 1. (aici) deteriorat, deformat. 2. schilod, infirm.
virus n. = 1. agent infecios, virus, infecie. 2. (d. computere) computer ~ = un cod
capabil s se reproduc, adesea deteriornd informaii.
to trigger v. = 1. a declana. n. = piedic, opritoare.
stealthy adj. = tainic, ascuns.
dormant adj. = 1. adormit. 2. (d. un vulcan) inactive. 3. (d. animale) n hibernare.
hostile adj. = ostil, refractar; neprietenos.
to dub v. = 1. (aici) a porecli. 2. a consacra. 3. a unge, a investi (un cavaler).
worm n. = 1. (aici) (comp.) program care poate duna unor fiiere ale calculatorului.
2. vierme; earth ~ = rm; glow ~ = licurici; silk ~ = vierme de mtase; (fam.)
book- ~ = oarece de bibliotec.

191

to burst, burst, burst v. = 1. a izbucni. a plezni, a crpa. 2. (d. furtuni) a izbucni. 3. (d.
nori) a se rupe. 4. (d. muguri) a crpa, a se desface. 5. a da buzna, a ni.
to replicate v. = a se reproduce, a se autocopia.
pirated adj. = nelegal, piratat.
to update v. = a moderniza, a mbunti.
file n. = 1. (aici) fiier. 2. dosar. 3. teanc de hrtii pstrate la dosar; v.= a clasa, a
clasifica, a ndosaria (hrtii, acte, scrisori).
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrasal verbs and idiomatic expressions with BURST
to burst in = a nvli nuntru, a da buzna nuntru
to burst into = a se repezi, a da buzna n; a izbucni
to burst into laughter = a izbucni n rs
to burst into flames = a izbucni n flcri
to burst into tears = a izbucni n lacrimi
to burst out = a izbucni
to burst out crying = a izbucni n plans
to burst with envy = a muri de invidie; a face s izbucneasc, s explodeze, s
plezneasc.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is a computer virus? What is a worm?
2. What examples of viruses are given in the text?
3. Are all viruses dangerous?
4. What other viruses do you know?
5. What can viruses cause to computers in the following cases: individual users,
companies, the government, the national military computer system?
6. Is the designing of viruses a crime punishable by law? What kind of punishment
can you think of for the perpetrators of electronic viruses?
7. What other methods of protection would you recommend to large firms and to
individual computer users?
8. Do you use pirated software? Bring arguments for your answer.
II. A rather large modern phenomenon in the computer world is hacking. What
are generally their reasons? Can you give some examples of famous Romanian
hackers? Do you know anything of the legislation regarding such an offence?
III. Comment upon the following quotation:
There are many methods for predicting the future. For example, you can read
horoscopes, tea leaves, tarot cards or crystal balls. Collectively, these methods are
known as nutty methods. Or you can put well-researched facts into sophisticated
computer models, more commonly referred to as a complete waste of time. (Scott
Adams, creator of the Dilbert cartoon, from Mark Powell, In Company, Intermediate, p.
55, Macmillan, Oxford, 2002)
IV. Explain the following computer terms: copy; bit; browse; acronym; archive; chat
forum; chip; cookie; corrupted file; cursor; download; emoticon; folder; geek; hacker;

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hard copy; hardware; log off; partition; processor; quit; screen; scroll; set up;
software; upgrade; vaporware; wizard; worksheet; zap.
V. Translate the following text into English:
Sprgtorii de reele computerizate vor fi urmrii n justiie i vor fi aspru pedepsii
pentru ptrunderea ilegal n sistemele de computere odat cu intrarea n vigoare a unei
legislaii mai clare. Legea referitoare la spargerea calculatoarelor este cea mai recent
ncercare de eradicare a plgii manipulrilor ilegale care implic perturbarea i sabotajul
operaiilor pe computer. Folosind modem-uri i reele de telefonie hackerii utilizeaz
informaii secrete acumulate n memoria computerelor dup ce au ghicit sau au obinut
n mod ilegal parolele sau codurile speciale care blocheaz accesul neautorizat la sistem.
n momentul cnd spargerea reuete, toate datele devin valabile pentru utilizatori
neautorizai. Intruii caut prin documente i, dac doresc, pot provoca prbuirea total
a sistemului. intele de pn acum ale efraciilor electronice au inclus spitale unde sreuit s se creeze haos printre dosarele pacienilor.
Muli sprgtori sunt rspunztori de crearea i implantarea de virui care provoac
distrugeri prin imobilizarea sistemelor, prin tergerea memoriei computerelor n cteva
secunde i chiar prin distrugerea hard discurilor. Avnd n vederea noua legislaie,
fptaii unor asemenea delicte vor fi aspru pedepsii.
Hackerii, care sunt adesea indivizi foarte nzestrai, dei neadaptai din punct de
vedere social, au timp berechet la dispoziie pentru a dovedi c nici un sistem
computerizat nu este protejat n mod absolut. O nebunie de ultim or include ncercri
de antaj asupra bncilor, sprgtorii cernd bani pentru a dezvlui cum au reuit s
sparg sisteme presupuse a fi foarte sigure. Hackerii afirm c de fapt este vorba doar de
securitate i c doresc s ajute bncile s-i perfecioneze sistemele de securizare
mpotriva unor agresiuni mai duntoare.
VI. One reason why computer words are so user-friendly is that many are
metaphors, that is they make a comparison between two things. Could you explain
the following metaphors: mouse, menu, virus, memory, browsing, web traffic, bug,
recycle bin?
VII. Job application
a. Put the parts below into the correct order to make a complete email for someone
applying for a job. The structure could help you for your own applications in the
future:
1. the summer programme where I worked last year. I am available for interview in
Naples any weekend afternoon, and you can email.
2. as a Word document. You will notice that I have supervised children on a range
of sports and cultural activities as well as dealing.
3. Dear Sir / Madam / With reference to your advertisement on the JobFinders.com
website, I am interested in applying.
4. as I enjoy working with young people. I have a lot of energy and enthusiasm and
am also responsible and reliable. I have attached my CV.
5. First Certificate grade A. I would be grateful if you would consider my
application. You will see.
6. the travel industry. During the last few summer holidays I have.

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7. for the post of tour leader for Italian school students. I am 26 years old and am
currently studying.
8. me or telephone me on the number below. I look forward to hearing from you
soon. Yours faithfully.
9. in the job of tour leader, taking students to London. I feel that I would be wellsuited for this job.
10. to do something more varied and challenging, and for this reason I am
interested.
11. with transport arrangements and tickets. You will also notice that my English is
good and I have
12. from my attached CV that two people can be contacted as references, one is a
university professor and the other is from
13. worked as a youth leader in Italy, and I enjoyed the work very much. Next
summer I would like.
b. Underline any useful expressions and information you need when applying for
a job. Highlight the structures you would use following the structure:
Greeting (formal)
Reason for writing
Your background and experience
The job itself
Referring to your CV
Final comments
Close

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2.7.4. MESSAGING
We have been trained throughout our business careers to suppress our
individual voice and to sound like a professional that is, to sound like everyone else.
If you need to hear how the professional voice sounds, dig out a memo you wrote four
years ago and compare it with how youd write an e-mail about it now. A professional
memo obeys rules such as one page is best, no jokes, spell-check it carefully and send it
to as few people as possible.
Now we write e-mails. Theyre short, theyre funny, they sound like us, and we
cc the CEO whenever we feel like it. E-mail is a more immediate medium than paper.
My expectation of the response time to many messages I send is today, not tomorrow or
a week from now. This urgency means Im more likely to write quickly and
conversationally when I respond to a message. If I do not want to give a detailed, long
answer, I just make it short
A lot of the spontaneity in e-mail messages comes from writers breaking through
their natural caution and reserve, rushing the writing process, giving themselves
permission to be blunt, honest and sincere in response to a query.
Thats why most of us dont want to use a word processor to write our emails.
We want to be free of the expectation that weve spell-checked it or even re-read it
before firing it off. We certainly dont want to waste our time messing about with fonts
and margins.
(adapted from Mark Powell, In Company, Intermediate, p. 78)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
to suppress vb.= 1. a-i stpni (mnia, etc.). 2. a reprima (o revolt, etc.). 3. suprima
(un ziar, etc.). 4. a nbui (un scandal, etc.). 5. a cobor (vocea, tonul, etc.).
to dig out vb. = a scoate la suprafa, a cuta ; to dig for information =a face cercetri,
investigaii.
memo n. = 1. (short from memorandum) not, memoriu, memorandum; to make a ~
of it = a nota (ceva). 2. (com.) borderou. 3. ~ book = carnet, agenda.
to spell-check vb. = a verifica ortografia.
cc n. = (abreviere de la carbon copy) indicaie c materiaul a fost trimis i la o alt
persoan.
CEO n. = (abreviere de la chief executive officer) director, manager general.
caution n. = 1. precauie, pruden. 2. avertisment.
query n. = 1. ntrebare (pus cu scopul de a ncurca pe cineva). 2. semn de ntrebare.
to fire-off vb. = a trimite.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
e-mail n. = messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or
more recipients via a network.
memo n. = (informal) a written message, especially in business.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What does the term communication refer to?

195

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

How do people communicate?

What are the situations when we need to send messages?
What were the traditional means of communication?
What are the ways modern people use to communicate except for e-mailing?
What are the benefits of e-mailing? What about its drawbacks?

II. Here are some of the synonyms of the noun message. Explain each term in
turn so as to find differences between them:
communication; piece of information, news, word, note, memorandum, memo, e-mail,
letter, line, missive, report, bulletin, communiqu, dispatch, intelligence, notification,
statement, announcement.
III. Read the following statistics and discuss the questions with a partner:
At the end of the 20th century, 90% of the worlds telecommunications were phone
calls. According to Newsweek magazine, that figure will soon drop to less than 10% as
we all switch to e-mail and other forms of digitally transmitted data.
a. Are you getting more e-mail than phone calls these days?
b. Do you think the shift towards e-mail is a good thing?
Online retailer Amazon.com currently stocks 213 books on netiquette or how to
write your e-mail. You can even buy a course on cyber-grammar and manners in
electronic communication!
a. Is this al really necessary?
b. Is e-mail really that difficult?
Communication experts repeatedly tell us that 60% of communication is how you
look, 30% how you sound and only 10% what you actually say.
If this is true, does it mean that phone calls are only 40% and e-mails only 10%
effective?
IV. Besides e-mailing, what other forms of communication do you know? Classify
them according to the frequency of usage, history, evolution, number of users,
availability, spatial spreading, etc.
V. What does spam mean for you? What are the different types of spam? How
much spam do you receive and where does it usually occur? Is it a big problem for
you?
VI. You work in the marketing department of a fast-food chain. You and your
partner are working on a project to promote a new line of pizzas which people can
order by phone or over the Internet. You are considering various methods of
promotion. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these ideas:
Cold calling to selected phone numbers;
Flyers delivered by hand to peoples homes;
Direct mailing by post;
Spamming to e-mail addresses on a database you have obtained;
Radio and TV commercials.
VII. Write three e-mails as follows:

196

To a friend you havent seen for a very long time; subject: none, just missing the
person;
To the CEO: subject: Nokia report;
To a colleague at work; subject: asking for help on a project.

VIII. Complete the text below about spam using the words given: headache; work;
adopt; receive; carried; unlikely; guess; spend; wage; harmless; colleagues; hoax;
dealing; set
Looking back over the e-mails I have received in the last coupe of weeks, I can see
there is at least one message a day from someone I dont know, offering some service or
product I am (1) to want. In some cases I can (2) where they got my e-mail address
fro, but in others I have no idea. For me, this unsolicited junk e-mail is not a problem; I
can just erase it from my computer. However, in a recent survey,
(3)out for the company Novell Inc. in the UK, 75% of those who were questioned
claimed to receive as many as five junk e-mails a day, and 15% calculated that they
(4)at least an hour a day dealing with spam.
Apart from spam which tries to sell products or services, there is also the problem of
(5)virus warnings, chain letters (where terrible things will happen to you if you dont
pass on the message to fifteen other people) and jokes from friends and (6).Although
sometimes the content involved can be offensive and contain racist or sexist language,
most of it is relatively (7).On the other hand, in terms of wasting employees time,
its a real (8)...for many businesses.
There are various strategies you can (9)with spam. The easiest remedy is just to
delete any messages which come from an unknown sender or look suspicious. To deal
with nuisance mail which comes from a regular source, one solution is to (10)up you
e-mail programme to ignore mail from that particular address. More legitimate
spammers often give you the option to unsubscribe so you dont (11)any more of
their messages, although in my experience this often doesnt seem to make any
difference. Even so, while you are (12)with spam you are not doing the work you
were hired to do. If the data analyzed in the survey is correct, 1.4% of the national
(13)...force is unproductive for this reason at any time during a working day. With a
national UK (14)...bill of 367bn a year, this means that for UK businesses spam
represents an annual cost of around 5bn.
IX. The following sentences taken for e-mails contain mistakes. Correct the
mistake in each sentence:
1. I am write with regard to your recent email.
2. Please send me your comments until Friday at the latest.
3. I will be grateful if you could send me more information.
4. Please find attach my report, as promised in Fridays meeting.
5. I hope we can to meet up soon.
6. I look forward to receiving this information so soon as possible.
7. Im sorry I havent written for ages, but I been really busy.
8. It will be more better for me if we meet on Tuesday rather than Monday.
9. Can we meet at 8 Feb at 14.30 instead?
10. Sorry, I dont can help you on this matter.
11. If you require any more informations, please do not hesitate to contact me.
12. Im afraid but we havent received your payment yet.

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2.7.5. SAMPLED-DATA SYSTEMS

A sampled-data system is a control system in which information is transmitted
only at discrete time called sampling time, rather than continuously as in conventional
systems. Generally speaking, the signal is different from zero only at the sampling time
and equal to it for the remainder of the period.
Intuitively one would expect this sampling process to contribute phase-lag to
the top and tend to make the sampled-data system less stable than an equivalent
continuous system. In general, sampled-data systems are nonlinear; however, if certain
matters such as quantizing distortion are ignored, they may be considered as linear or
time-varying-parameter systems. Probably the most direct application of sampled-data
theory is to control systems that have telemetery links somewhere within the loop.
Another application occurs whenever a digital computer is included in a control system.
Examples of control systems which often include a digital computer as one element are
digital machine-tool controls and inertial navigation systems for aircraft and space
vehicles.
It is convenient under certain circumstances to analyse linear and nonlinear
continuous systems by sampling methods. This is especially true when a digital
computer is being used to carry out the calculations. Attempts have been made to apply
conventional Fourier analysis and frequency-response and subject to error. One of the
more successful approaches to the problem has been analysis in the frequency domain
by a special integral transform, called the z transform.
A sampler is a mathematical fiction and corresponds to a physical sampler. It is
assumed that the sampler closes and opens at a constant repetition rate and remains
closed for zero time, or at most a negligible time compared with any of the response
times of the system. At time T and all multiples of T the output is a pulse, and at all
other instances is zero.
Since as the sampling time approaches zero, the area of the physical pulse goes
to zero, the impulse imparted to an element is zero, and the output is zero. It is thus
absolutely necessary that the sampler be followed by a special device called a hold
circuit or clamper whose function is to hold or remember the value of the impulse at
the sampling instant for a finite portion of the sampling interval T. It is advantageous,
therefore, to hold the value for the complete sampling interval. This is called a zeroorder hold. Thus, rather than a train of finite-height zero-length pulses (of zero area),
we obtain a stepped function. The concept of the hold circuit can be extended beyond
the zero-order hold or clamp. The next logical step to holding the sample value
constant throughout the sampling interval is to cause it to be a linear extrapolation of
the last two samples. Such a device is called a first-order hold.
(Blndu, Mihaela , Limba englez. Automatic i calculatoare, p. 249)

A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
first order hold n. = dispozitiv de extrapolare de ordinul 1.
hold circuit/clamper n. = element de reinere/extrapolator.
modified z transform n. = transformata z modificat/ntrziat.
quantizing n. = cuantificare.

198

signal n. = 1. semnal. 2. semnalizator. 3. indicator. 4. ochi de ppu. 5. aparat optic. 6.

semnal, semn. 7. transmisiuni.
sampled-data system n. = 1.sisteme eantionate/cu eantionare. 2. sisteme n
impulsuri. 3. sisteme discrete.
impulse n. = 1. impuls. 2. mpingere, micare nainte. 3. imbold, ndemn. 4. caracter
impulsiv, impulsivitate, repezeal.
pulse n.= 1. puls. 2. puls (al vieii), pulsaie, vitalitate, ritm. 3. impuls, ndemn. 4. stare
de spirit, dispoziie, sentiment. 5. ritm.
sampling time n. = moment de eantionare.
step n. = 1. pas. 2. urm. 3. (fig) demers, msur. 4. treapt, pas (de scar). 5. grad.
to step v. = 1. a face (un pas). 2. a pi, a merge la pas, a clca
step down transformer n. = transformator cobortor/ redactor
step up transformer n. = transformator ridictor/ survoltor
stepped function n. = funcie n trepte.
telemetery link n. = circuit/linie de telemsur/telemecanic.
inertial adj. = 1. de/referitor la inerie, inert. 2. automat, fcut n virtutea ineriei.
analyse v. = 1. a analiza, a cerceta, a examina minuios, a studia, a diseca. 2. a analiza
sintactic, a face analiza sintactic.
to impart vb. = a mprti, a da.
zero order hold n. = element de reinere extrapolator de ordin zero.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases / idioms with the verb TO STEP
to step v. = a pi, a merge la pas
to step forward = a pi nainte.
to step across = a traversa.
to step in = 1. a intra. 2. (fig) a intervene.
to step aside = 1. a se da la o parte. 2. a face digresiuni.
to step into = a intra n.
to step out = 1. a iei. 2. a lungi pasul. 3. a se emancipa.
to step it = a dansa (un dans).
step on it = grbete-te.
to step on the gas = a apsa pe accelerator.
to step up = a spori, a mri producia.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension
1. What are sampled data systems?
2. Which are the most direct applications of sampled-data theory?
3. What is a sampler?
4. What is the function of a hold circuit?
5. Which is the next logical step to holding the sample value constant throughout
the sampling interval?
II. Fill in every, each as required:
1. customer makes payment over the counter, or at the cash desk if this
cash system is employed.
2. She does her shopping her week.
3. I see her Friday afternoon.

199

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

person knows how to buy in a self-service shop.

They were a lot of bottles and jars on side of the shop-assistant.
of these housewives got a kit for presentation at the cash desk.
of them gets a string basket on entering the shop.
of you must visit the new supermarket.

III. Fill in the blanks with either or, neither nor:

1. This wall is blue green.
2. I have time money to go on that trip.
3. Our teacher should be for against our idea.
4. Her kids were smart handy.
5. Lucy Jane likes to climb the mountain.
6. She has luck the opportunity to find a better job.
7. I shall have the main course the desert.
8. He eats fish meat, so what will he order?
9. Why stop at this pub, I am thirsty hungry.
IV. Write a phrase that corresponds to the given sentence according to the model:
Model: the magnet has two poles = a two-pole magnet
1. The circuit has three phases.
2. The circuit has two wires
3. The mechanism has four bars.
4. The instruction has five addresses.
5. The group has two digits
6. The fan has two blades.
7. The engine has six cylinders..
8. The lorry has four wheels
9. The network has two cables.
10. The switch has two poles.
V. Translate into English:
Este de dorit ca amplitudinea oscilaiilor din bucla de comand s aib oarecare
legtur cu funcionarea n bucl nchis care probabil va avea loc. Pentru a proiecta un
servomechanism bun este important ca proiectantul s aib cunotine detaliate despre
operaia care trebuie executat. Este esenial ca proprietile intrrii s fie bine nelese.
Dup ce construcia sistemului cu reacie este desvrit, este recomandabil ca acesta s
fie verificat experimental, dac este posibil. n transformarea mrimilor analogice n
form digital este adesea necesar ca mrimea analog de intrare msurat (sau
eantionat) s rmn constant n tot timpul perioadei de transformare. Este de dorit ca
semnalul de ieire s fie o funcie liniar a semnalului de intrare. Pentru ca inginerul
practician s ajung la o configuraie a sistemului de comand cu reacie care satisface
cel mai bine cerinele unei aplicaii anumite, este important s fie disponibil o tehnic
general de proiectare.

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2.7.6. THE STORED-PROGRAM CONCEPT

The concept of the stored-program/programme is probably the most significant
single feature of nearly all modern electronic digital systems. In principle, the concept is
quite simple but because of multitudinous variations and elaborations, some of which
have been quite sophisticated in recent years, the subject of the stored program is now
quite extensive.
First of all, the purpose of the program is to direct a digital system through a
sequence of operations. In some respects, the really distinguishing feature of modern
digital systems is that they do perform long sequences of operations rather than the
essentially one-at-a-time manually controlled operations of the earlier business
machines, desk calculators, and so on.
The key idea in designing a system that will perform a long sequence of
operations is that the information specifying the operations to be performed is
essentially digital information, in that it can be coded into sets of digits. The manner
in which the code is selected to represent the operations is a function of the system
design. In fact, the coding details and the system design details are so closely
interrelated that the two subjects are essentially the same.
All manner of coding arrangement and system design can be imagined, but
basically all modern systems rely on the fundamental concept that the system is divided
into two principal parts an arithmetic and control unit and an information storage
unit. As the name implies, the arithmetic and control unit does the actual work of
performing whatever operations are specified by the program and it also controls the
performance of all miscellaneous functions, notably the actuation of whatever devices
are used for supplying information to the system (input devices), or for accepting the
final results of the operations (output devices). A major purpose of the storage unit is to
store the results of intermediate operations, a requirement that is obvious to anyone who
has performed problems in arithmetic involving several steps to arrive at the final
answer.
The arithmetic and the control unit and the storage unit can be vaguely
associated with the combinational switching circuit and the multistage device,
respectively, in the theoretical model. A control unit may contain small parts, a counter
for example, that can often be represented by the theoretical model, but our concern
here is not in the design of individual parts.
A program is said to be stored when the coded digital information
representing that program is stored in a storage unit (usually the same unit) used for the
storage of intermediate results and other data involved in the computations or other
forms of data processing. Thus, a stored-program system in which the program is
stored in such a unit and not in some different medium such as punched cards, plug
wires, or switches.
In principle, a stored-program system need not be built with electronic
components, but with a view to a useful realization of the concept, a storage unit of
substantial capacity is needed. Usually, a few hundred words of storage capacity is
considered a bare minimum, although a few problems can be solved with less capacity.
Because adequate storage capacity at a reasonable cost is available only with electronic
components, substantially all stored-program systems ever built have been electronic.
(Banta, Andrei, Poreanu , Rodica, Limba englez pentru tiin i tehnic, p. 139)

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A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
stored program (programme British spelling) n. = program memorat.
sequence n. = 1. succesiune, (aici) ir, ordine, iniruire, secven, in ~ n succesiune. 2.
v. sequel. 3. cin. secven; episode. 4. suit
digital adj. = (aici) numeric, discret, cifric. 2. anat. etc. digital
control unit n. = unitate de comanda.
performance n. = 1. (aici) executare, ndeplinire (a ndatoririlor etc.) performan. 2.
performan, realizare. 3.spectacol, pies, concret, expoziie. 4. trucuri,
prestidigitaie. 5. joc, interpretare. 6. productivitate, randament. 7. pedeaps,
chin, munc grea. 8. fapt reprobabil/urt. 9. capacitate de zbor.
counter n. = 1. tejghea. 2. ghiseu. (aici) contor.
data processing n. = procesarea datelor.
computation n. = calcul, socoteala, evaluare, apreciere, estimare
plug wire n. = cablu cu fire.
bare minimum n. = minim absolut/limit minimal.
plug n. = 1. priz, fi, (aici) fi de conectare. 2. gur de incendiu. 3. bujie. 4. glon,
obuz.
punch-cards n. = cartele perforate.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY

Family of words
use n. = 1. folosire, utilizare. 2. profit, valoare. 3. scop, el, int. 4. datin, obicei,
practic (curent)
to use = 1.a folosi, a utilize, a ntrebuina. 2. a uza. 3. a consuma, a lua din. 4. a trata (pe
cineva), a se comporta/ a se purta cu/ fata de.
useful adj. =1. folositor, util. 2. bun, valoros. 3. capabil, de ndejde, util.
usefully adv. = n mod util/folositor, cu folos, n mod folositor.
usefulness n. = utilitate,character util/folositor/rodnic, rodnicie.
useless adj. = 1. inutil, nefolositor, zadarnic. 2. lipsit de valoare. 3. fr (nici un ) effect,
zadarnic, van
uselessly adv. = zadarnic, fr rost, n van.
uselessness n. = inutilitate, lips de valoare.
user n. = 1. consumator. 2. (aici) utilizator.
usable adj. = utilizabil, care poate fi utilizat / folosit, util, folositor.
usage n. = 1. folosire, utilizare, ntrebuinare. 2. uzaj, uz uzan. 3. obicei, datin.
misuse n. = 1. folosire/ntrebuinare greit. 2. a abuza de. 3. a maltrata, a brutaliza
to misuse vb. = a ntrebuina greit. a brutaliza, a abuza de.

B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. Do you spend a lot of time playing computer games?
2. Do you agree with children spending most of their spare time in front of a
computer monitor?
3. What are, in your opinion, the pros and cons of computer games?
4. What is a stored-program?
5. What is a control unit?

202

II. Fill in the blanks with items from the family of the word use:
1. Theythat apparatus and now it is out of order.
2. The . of chemistry have changed along centuries.
3. Students must learn of this device.
4. There are many computer nowadays.
5. This is a very tool for this experiment.
6. Vacuum tubes are no longer.
7. Scientific discoveries may be
8. The glass apparatus has broken because of rough
III. Write questions to the following statements:
1. We want to travel to England every 6. The chalet is about half a mile from
here.
year.
How
Where
7. This house is too expensive for us.
2. She likes my new dress.
Why
What
8. Brad Pitt plays in this film.
3. I dont feel quite well today.
Who
How
4. The Browns usually spend a lot of 9. More than twenty families live in this
house.
money on junk food.
How many
What
10. He resembles her father.
Who
Whom
5. It looks awful.
How
IV. Translate into English:
Conceptul de program memorat presupune existena n memoria unitii centrale a
succesiunii de comenzi ce urmeaz a fi executate nainte de a se ncepe ndeprtarea lor.
Pentru a ncepe executarea programului trebuie cunoscut adresa primei instruciuni din
program. Aceast adres depinde de locul amplasrii programului n memorie care este
stabilit n aa numita faz de ncrcare (loading faze) pe baza unei evidene a spaiului
neocupat nc. Programele pot fi de dou feluri: absolute i relocatabile (relocatable).
Un program absolut poate fi executat numai dac este ncrcat n memorie ntotdeauna
la aceeai adres. Un programn relocatabil poate fi ncrcat ncepnd de la orice adres a
memoriei. Programele cele mai utilizate sunt de obicei cele relocatabile.

203

2.7.7. TIME-SHARING
Time-sharing is a method of sharing a computer or allocating its resources
among several users. A general purpose digital computer is actually a collection of
subsystems with widely varying characters. Typically, the greater part of the total system
is idle while only one or two components are performing some operation. Man-machine
processing would be prohibitively expensive if the computer were to stand idle while
the man composed a message and transmitted it at 10to15 characters per second. Timesharing is a method of operating a computer which allows more than one program to be
in operation at one time, optimizes the allocation of computer systems resources to meet
the demands of all these programs, and guarantees each user that his program will be
serviced within some stated period of time.
No computer with a single processor actually operates more than one program in
its CPU at one time. That is, the computer interprets and executes only one demand at
one time, although there may be overlap between command execution in the main
processor and input or output operations. But what can be done is to switch rapidly back
and forth, from operating a small portion of one program to a portion of another, and to
do this so fast that human users do not realize that they are not receiving the full
attention of the computer. Getting the computer to do this switching is a complex
operation, one which is, itself, performed under the control of a complex computer
program usually called a time-sharing monitor. The programs that share the computer
under the monitors control are called users programs, since they are supplied by the
users of the time-sharing system.
Let us now look more closely at the computer and program characteristics that
make time-sharing possible. First, the components of a computer act at vastly different
speeds. The electric typewriter terminals operate usually, at a maximum of 15 characters
per second. To transmit the string John Smith requires 15 characters and a full second.
The characters are four-case shifts (two up-shifts and two down-shifts), a space, and
end-of-message symbol, and of course, the letters johnsmith. During this second, some
computers could have executed five million internal operations if left free to do so while
the console operator was typing. Once the character string is in the computer, it might
take a few microseconds to compare the message with another character string, as might
be done in an instructional system. Storing the message on a disk memory, though,
might require something of the order of tens of milliseconds.
Once an input or output operation is initiated most modern computers allow it to
proceed while the central processor returns to operation of a program. A second
characteristic of computers that makes time sharing possible is that different programs
will use different mixes of the available resources.
One program may be a heavy user of input and output components, performing
relatively little computation, but much data movement. Another may be a mathematical
program using few data but performing great many functions on the data.
(adapted from Blndu, Mihaela, Limba englez. Automatic i calculatoare, p. 259)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
down-shift = deplasare n jos.
four-case shift = deplasare cu 4 spaii.

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idle adj. = 1. inutil, nefolositor, (aici) neocupat. 2. fr temei, nelalocul lui. 3. stupid,
prostesc. 4. trndav, lene, indolent. 5. omer. 6. fcut n dorul lelii/ (aa) ca s
fie.
instructional system = sistem de instruire.
interrupts = ntreruperi.
overlapping operation = operaie de suprapunere n timp.
prohibitive = prohibitiv.
receipt n. = 1. (aici) primire. 2. chitan (de primire), adeverin de plat. 3. ncasri,
venituri. 4. remediu, reet, prescripie, oficiu de depunere a banilor.
string n. = 1. sfoar, coard, iret, cordon.2. strun. 3. irag, rand, (aici) secven, ir.
4. coloan. 5. fibr, filament. 6. vang. 7. profil, briu. 8. poveste de necrezut. 9.
condiie, clauz.
time n. =1. timp, vreme. 2. or, ceas.3. timp, rgaz. 4. moment. 5. vreme,
ocazie, prilej 6. (mai ales pl) epoc, vremuri. 7. dat, oar. 8. (muz) msur;
tempo, ritm. 9. (mat) ori.
to time v.= 1. a fixa ora (pentru). 2. a nimeri momentul (pentru o aciune). 3. a
potrivi (ceasul). 4. a pune la punct (un motor, etc.). 5. a calcula durata (unei
expuneri,
aciuni, etc.). 6. a ponta. 7. a cronometra
time-sharing monitor = monitor pentru timp partajat.
timing mechanism = mechanism de temporizare.
to allocate v. = a aloca, a destina, a distribui, a repartiza.
to proceed v = a merge mai departe, a continua, a nainta. 2. a vorbi mai departe. 3. a
proceda, a actiona.
turn-round time = timp de rspuns.
up-shift = deplasare n sus.
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases / idioms of the word TIME
in the day time = n timpul zilei.
to lose/waist time = a pierde vremea.
a long time ago = cu mult timp n urm.
to work against time = a munci fr a pierde o clip.
at times, from time to time = din cnd n cnd.
in no time = ct ai bate din palme.
out of time = n contratimp (despre un ceas) .
to keep good/bad time = a merge bine/ru.
to have a good time = a se distra, a se simi bine.
for the time being = pentru moment.
at one time = la un moment dat.
there is a time for everything = toate la vremea lor.
to bide one's time = a atepta prilejul.
wait till next time = ateapt pn data viitoare.
time and again, many a time = de multe ori, de nenumrate ori.
to beat time = a bate msura.
to keep time = a ine msura.
five times five is twenty-five = de cinci ori cinci fac douzeci i cinci.
once upon a time = a fost odat ca niciodat.
to time one's arrival = a-i alege momentul sosirii.
a well-timed remark = o remarc oportun.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. What is time-sharing?
2. Why is time-sharing a profitable technique?
3. How does a computer work in time-sharing?
4. Which is the first factor that makes time-sharing possible?
5. Which is the second?
6. Which is the usual approach to time-sharing?
II. Copy the following sentences choosing the correct adjective:
1. There is (little, few) water in the bucket.
2. There are (much, many) wooded hills in our country.
3. We have received (much, many) valuable information.
4. They made (little, few) mistakes in the test paper.
5. How (much, many) fruit trees are there in the orchard?
6. (much, many) airplanes passes over here.
7. There is (little, few) milk in the bottle.
III. Complete each space with a word or compound word formed from the
following words: install, maintain, adjust, electric, apply.
Installation of your new energy-efficient domestic gas boiler is free of charge, and
will be performed within S days of payment. Regular (2) ...... from a qualified engineer
is advised. The system comes with an (3) ....... cover, which can be kept fully extended
or half down. The cover must he completely removed for repairs to be carried out. As
with all (4) ....... equipment, please exercise great care if you are attempting to repair
the (5) ...... yourself.
IV. Translate into English:
1. Dac ar fi s explicm noiunea de partajare n timp, cred c ne-am descurca.
2. Dac cumva datele ar fi nregistrate manual, operaia aceasta ar lua mult mai
mult timp.
3. Dac ar fi s calculm i alte caracteristici ale calculatorului, ai nelege chiar i
mai bine de ce partajarea n timp este nu numai posibil, dar i necesar.
4. Dac s-ar ntmpla s aib nevoie de banda magnetic acum, spune-i s m sune.
5. Dac cumva s-ar ntmpla s nu furnizeze programele la timp, aceasta ar
nsemna o mare risip de timp i de bani.
6. Dac ar fi s nu folosim calculatorul mai des dect att, n-ar merita s-l
cumprm.

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2.7.8. ERROR DETECTION

Debugging or error detection is the technique of detecting, diagnosing and
correcting errors (also known as bugs) which may occur in programs or systems (both
hardware and software). The two main types of program errors that may occur are logic
errors and syntax errors. The former are the result of incorrect appreciation of the
problem, and the latter the result of incorrect coding of the program.
Errors are detected by observing that programs do not produce the results
expected from them, or by failure of a program written in a symbolic language to
compile correctly. Detecting errors by means of observing results involves testing
programs with samples of data which the program would expect to be presented with in
normal running. Test data of this sort is presented to the program either directly in the
form expected in normal running, or by means of simulated input conditions.
Programs written in a symbolic language require compilation, or translation into
the machine language understood by the processor. The process of compilation enables
syntax errors involving incorrect handling of the symbolic language to be detected.
Most compilers reject incorrectly used statements, and print some indication of the type
of error which are called diagnostics.
Once an error has been detected, either through incorrect results from test data
or simulated operating conditions, or through an unexpected halt, or through
compilation errors, the cause of the error must be diagnosed. Various methods of error
diagnosis may be used. A dry run may be performed on the program flowchart or
compilation listing. This involves the programmer in performing each step of the
program each step of the program as if he were the computer, checking and recording
the action of each instruction or flowchart step. Instead of performing the computers
actions himself, the programmer may use a trace or diagnostic routine which performs
the program on the computer in the normal way, but at the same time provides a printed
record of the action taken by each instruction.
Once the cause of an error has been detected, a correction must be applied to the
program. Programs may be corrected by several different methods. The incorrect
instruction may be altered if the program exists in machine code on an external medium
such as punched cards. If the program is written in a symbolic language, the source
code must be corrected and the program recompiled. Correcting source codes may be
done directly by removing incorrect statements and substituting correct ones if the
program is on a suitable medium such as punched cards, or correction may be applied
by using source code maintenance routine. Another technique for correcting programs
is to apply a patch. This consists in deleting the incorrect instruction and substituting a
branch to a section of coding correcting the error.
(adapted from Blndu, Mihaela, Limba englez. Automatic i calculatoare, p. 253)
A. VOCABULARY
I. WORDS AND PHRASES
aids n. = mijloace auxiliare
bug n. = (aici) eroare, defect, deficien. 2. ploni. 3. insect, gndac, crbu. 4.
microb, bacterie. 5. microfon secret.
compilation list n. = list de compilare.
compiler n. = compilator.

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compilation listing = list de compilare

debugging n. = punerea la punct a programului, detectarea erorilor.
dry run n. = parcurgerea programului (de programator).
prints n. = tiprituri
source code = cod surs
flaw n. = 1. defect. 2. crptur, fisur, ruptur. 3. punct slab. 4. viciu.
input n. = admisie, intrare, absorie. 2. energie / putere consumat. 3. alimentare,
furnizare. 4. putere de alimentare.
halt n. = oprire, a se opri din mers, a nceta s se mite. 2. a se opri, a poposi, a se face
un popas.
to handle v. = 1. a mnui, a manevra, a manipula, a face s funcioneze. 2. a conduce, a
dirifa, a comanda. 3. a purta, a trata. 4. a discuta, a rezolva. 5. a face nego
cu/de, a se ocupa de.
maintanance routine n. = program de ntreinere.
up to date = actual, modern, la zi
to confine v.. = I.1. a limita, a restrnge (subiectul etc.). 2. a nchide, a aresta, apriva de
libertate, a ine nchis . II. n. 1. limit, hotar, grani. 2. nchisoare.
trace/diagnostic routine n. = program de diagnoz.
to delete v. = a anula, a terge, a elimina.
patch, es n. = petec, bucat ( de pnz). 2. plasture. 3. bandaj. 4. pat. 5. bucat rmas,
rest, rmi. 6. interval scurt (de timp). 7. spaiu verde. 8. ntritur. 9. zon,
raion, circumspecie (a unui poliist)
to amend v. = 1. a mbunti, a pune la punct, a perfeciona, (aici) a corecta. 2. a
amenda (un text, un proiect de lege).
II. LEXICAL COMMENTARY
Phrases / idioms with the word HAND
done by hand = fcut de mn.
hands off! = jos minile!
hands up! = sus minile!
hand in hand = mn n mn.
from hand to hand = din mn n mn.
at hand = la ndemn.
in hand = 1. n mn, 2. n discuie.
off hand = pe neateptate. on hand = n mn.
out of hand = dintr-o dat, fr ezitare.
with a heavy hand = cu duritate, cu asprime.
hand in hand = n deplin acord cu.
hand-to-hand fight = lupt corp la corp.
to live from hand to mouth = a tri de azi pe mine.
with a high hand = 1. cu ndrzneal. 2. cu arogan.
to fall into the hands of = a cdea n minile cuiva.
to take into one's hands = a lua n minile sale.
under hand = pe sub mn, n ascuns.
to bear a hand = a da o mn de ajutor.
my hand is out = mi-am pierdut ndemnarea.
factory hand = muncitor n uzin.
he had the news at first hand = a primit tirea la prima mn;
on the right hand = pe mna dreapt; n partea dreapt
on the one hand ... on the other hand = pe de o parte ... pe de alt parte.
a very clear hand = un scris foarte clar.
under his hand and seal = semnat de propria sa mn i sigilat.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Reading and comprehension:
1. Define the term debugging.
2. Which are the types of error that may occur and what are they due to?
3. Explain how errors are detected.
4. Which methods are used for error diagnosis?
5. How can programs be corrected?
6. Is debugging confined to programs?
II. Ask questions to the underlined parts of the following sentences:
This man is singing pop music.
Im going out with my girlfriend tonight.
Shes wearing the new fur coat tonight.
That woman is at you.
They are talking about film stars.
Hes going to the office by tube today.
Tom is drinking the sixth glass of wine this evening.
Im looking for my shoes.
Nobody is watching that soap-opera now.
She is feeling fine now.
III. Underline the most appropriate word in each sentence.
1. The hair-drier is fitted with a three point cable/plug/socket.
2. Don't touch that wire! It's live/lively/living.
3. This small vacuum cleaner is motivate/powered/run by batteries.
4. The set wouldn't work because there was a faulty connection/joint/link.
5. I can't use my drill here. The lead/plug/wire isn't long enough.
6. Turn off the mains first in case you get a/an impact/jolt/shock.
7. Oh dear the lights have gone off! The cable/fuse/safety must have gone.
8. Can you lend me that cassette? I want to record/transcribe/write it.
9. The appliance is powered by a small electric engine/machine/motor.
10. Jim has just started work, as an electrical/electricity/electrician y1electrician engineer.
11. The electrician twisted the wires together using a pair of hammers/chisels/pliers.
12. I buy coffee beans and put them in a grinder/mixer/blender.
13. The good thing about this knife is that the blade/point/edge can be replaced
14. I can't undo this nut. I need a larger bolt/screwdriver/spanner.
IV. Translate into English:
Punerea la punct a programului nseamn gsirea, diagnosticarea i corectarea
erorilor. Principalele dou tipuri de erori de programe sunt erori logice i erori
sintactice. Erorile sintactice sunt detectate de ctre compilator care indic i
instruciunea din codul surs care a produs aceast eroare. Acest tip de erori se
corecteaz foarte uor. Erorile logice se pot detecta numai n timpul execuiei
programului (at running time). Odat ce eroarea a fost detectat, cauza ei trebuie s fie
aflat i apoi se corecteaz. Se pot aplica corecii programului n timpul execuiei,
modificnd programul, dup ce a fost ncrcat n memorie. Programe speciale de punere
la punct (debuggers) simplific mult corectarea erorilor.

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PART III
GRAMMAR
(THEORY AND PRACTICE)

III.1. THE VERB

III. 1.1. THE INDICATIVE MOOD
1.1.1. THE PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE
A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the form coincides with the short infinitive, except the 3rd person
singular, which adds an -s]:
I/ you/ we/ they learn
he/ she learns
b. Negative [the auxiliary to do + not + the short infinitive of the main verb]:
I/you/we/they do not (dont) learn
he/ she does not (doesnt) learn
c. Interrogative [the auxiliary to do + subject + the short infinitive of the main verb]:
Do I learn? Do you learn? Does he/she learn?
II. USES
Present Simple is used to express:
a. General timeless statements (eternal truths):
Every solution breeds new problems.
Despair gives courage to a coward.
Man is mortal.
b. Definitions:
What is a nymph? Nymphs often accompany various gods and goddesses
c. Proverbs and sayings:
Still waters run deep.
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
d. Geographical or mathematical statements:
Bacu lies on the Bistria.
The earth moves round the earth.
e. habits/repeated actions with a given frequency, during an interval.
The adverbs of frequency include the following:
always, often, usually, frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, regularly,
sometimes, from time to time, every day/ week/ month/ year, twice a day/ week/ month/
year , rarely, seldom, hardly ever, ever, never, as a rule, whenever.
He always smokes a cigarette after breakfast.
My mother seldom drives our car.
f. a particular event that refers to a particular moment of time.
I place this flower into the hat and look, a rabbit pops out.
g. instantaneous actions:
- Step-by-step instructions and demonstrations (recipes or magicians):

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To get to the station you go straight on to the traffic lights, then you turn left
First I take a bowl and break two eggs into it; next I fry the eggs
- Sport commentaries:
The player hits and the ball goes straight into the audience.
- Performatives imply the fact that the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an
action Austin (1975: 5).
I do (take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife). [uttered by the bridegroom
during a marriage ceremony]
I name this ship Lady. [uttered by the captain when smashing the bottle against
the stem]
- Stage directions involve the theatrical quality of the instantaneous present in stage
rhetoric:
George enters the room and draws the curtain.
- Special exclamatory sentences (with initial adverbials: here, there, up, down, etc.):
Here comes the winner!
There goes our train!
h. with future reference, the action fixed in advance is supposed to happen in the future:
- officially planned actions (timetables, statements about the calendar) that refer to
events regarded as immutable:
The train for London leaves at six.
School starts in September.
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
- planned activities where the idea of certainty is implied:
We leave London at 11:00 next Monday and arrive in Paris at 14:00.
She returns tomorrow morning.
-subordinate clauses of time and condition:
My son will look after his little sister while I am away.
If your cousin comes here tomorrow, well go to the cinema.
i. in story-telling with a past reference
Clarissa Dalloway goes out to buy flowers for a party she is to have at her
house. She prepares for her party when she is interrupted by Peter Walsh
(V.Woolf)
- in newspaper headlines in order to draw the attention of the reader:
Plane crashes in Paris. [Avionul s-a prbuit n Paris./ Avion prbuit n Paris.]
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Ice melts in the sun. = Gheaa se topete la soare.
We drink coffee every morning. = Bem cafea n fiecare diminea.
b. perfect compus (historic present verbs of linguistic communication):
I hear she lost her baby. = Am aflat/ am auzit c i-a pierdut copilaul.
c. viitor sau prezent (adverbial clauses of time and condition):
I will pick up the cherries if he asks me. = Voi culege cireele dac m va ruga/
m roag.
Ill phone you when I get home. = i voi da telefon cnd voi ajunge/ ajung
acas.

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1.1.2. THE PRESENT TENSE PROGRESSIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The progressive aspect shows a situation that is in progress. From this brief definition
we infer that the meaning of the progressive reveals the following concepts:
- temporariness: Shes singing. [a temporary activity that has a limited duration]
- incompletion: Shes drinking a glass of milk. [the temporary activity is not
complete. A proper result accomplishment would be that the glass is empty,
but the progressive shows exactly this lack of completion.]
I. FORM
a. Affirmative (the present tense of the auxiliary verb to be + the present participle
V+ing) [see Appendix II for the spelling of the present participle]:
I am learning you/ we/ they are learning he/ she is learning
b. Negative
I am not learning you are not learning he/ she is not learning
c. Interrogative
Am I learning? Are you learning? Is he/she learning?
II USES
The Present Tense Progressive is used:
a. to express an action happening at the moment of speaking (the action spanning from
past to future is incomplete at the moment of speaking and is still taking place). It
indicates that the duration of the action is limited. The idea of immediate present is
often emphasized by just and now:
The children are sleeping now.
The pupil is just writing the exercise.
b. to create a contrast between a temporary action and an action usually performed
(habitual present) and to show that the repetition takes place over a limited period.
My mother usually cooks lunch, but today Im cooking. [the habit is temporary,
while cooks shows a permanent habit.]
John is a polite young boy, but today he is being rude. [states used in the Simple
Present Tense signify a permanent trait. When the verbs that designate states are
used in the progressive they are interpreted as a form of behavior/ activity].
c. to express a meaning of annoyance, irritation, sarcasm associated with a habit. In this
case the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as: always, continually,
constantly:
You are always borrowing money from me.
Those children are constantly making noise.
d. to express a definite action planned for the near future. It anticipates the action thus
having a future time reference. It is the most usual way of expressing ones immediate
plans:
What are you doing tomorrow?
Im meeting my friend.

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e. for an action intended to be polite as it shows lack of commitment:

Im hoping youll give the book to John. (Im hoping is preferred to I hope as
the latter leaves little room for polite refusal)
f. to express an action in a subordinate clause of time or condition:
The child will play in the garden while his mother is cooking dinner.
I will not disturb her if she is learning.
g. with activities/ processes (to get or to grow) to express a transition from one state to
another taking place over a period:
Its getting dark.
Hes growing older and older.
h. with achievements, the semelfactive ones, which describe momentary events. When
used in the progressive, they imply duration:
The player is kicking the ball.
He is nodding approval.
III. Ways of translating the Present Tense Progressive into Romanian
a. indicativ prezent
They are not doing their homework now, they are watching TV. = Ei nu-i fac
temele acum, se uit la TV.

He is continually finding fault with me. = Permanent arunc vina pe mine. (the
emotional use linked to the progressive is rendered into Romanian by an
emphasis on the adverb rather than on the verb)
b.viitor/ prezent
What are you doing tomorrow? = Ce vei face/ faci mine?

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B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Present or Present Progressive Tense:
1. My friend (come) to see us next month.
2. Apricots (ripe) in early summer.
3. I (walk) to school every day, but today as I am late I (go) by bus.
4. I (see) what you mean! You cant join us today as you (feel) ill. (See) the doctor
this afternoon?
5. How he (feel) now? You (think) of going to see him at the hospital?
6. She always (complain) about something.
7. We constantly (see) you outside the cinema.
8. I (love) the roses you sent me, and they (smell) wonderful.
9. I (doubt) if they (understand) what you (talk) about.
10. He (work) very hard at the moment and (deserve) to succeed.
II. Choose the correct form of the verb:
1. How many cups of coffee every day?
a) you drink; b) you do drink; c) do you drink
2. Even if Phil is a serious person, he comedy.
a) doesnt like; b) is liking; c) likes
3. I can keep an eye on your children till your husband back.
a) will get; b) is getting; c) gets
4. Can you tell me how often your dentist?
a) you visit; b) do you visit; c) are you visiting
5. I the answers to the test we are going to take tomorrow, trust me.
a) know; b) do know; c) dont know
6. true that Julia speaks four languages fluently?
a) It is; b) Does it; c) Is it
7. It is well known that rice in Britain, but in China.
a) grows; b) is growing; c) doesnt grow
8. We live in Manchester and I dont understand why my daughter to London so
often.
a) is going; b) goes; c) does not go
9. He to be a little stupid, isnt he?
a) appears; b) is appearing; c) does appear
10. Look at these pictures! Why buy one for your father?
a) dont we; b) we do; c) arent we
III. Rephrase the following sentences so as the meaning stays the same:
1. Im annoyed because you lose your pocket money every time I give it to you.
You are always
2. There is a smell of roses in this room.This room
3. My younger brother keeps on bothering me. My younger brother
4. Whats your opinion about the new book published by the University? What
do?
5. Bread costs 10 000 lei in Romania. How much ?
6. I like watching football matches and so does my girlfriend. Both of us
7. In case of accident call the police. If

215

8. Sunrise is at 5:30 tomorrow morning. The sun

9. Diana and her grandmother are exactly alike. Diana
10. The number of people who own expensive cars is increasing. More and more
people
IV. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Does his brother knows that you are going to leave the town without paying the
debt?
2. He is always going to work at 7 oclock in the morning.
3. Here is coming your husband!
4. He usually plays tennis after breakfast, but today he plays football.
5. You cook lunch right now and then you rest.
6. I cant answer the phone. I write a letter to Mary.
7. They are saying the earth is going round the sun.
8. Are you liking coffee or tea?
9. Christmas is coming in December.
10. Can you give me your pen? Or do you use it?
V. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs:
1. I ... the water for coffee in a special pot. (to boil)
2. Dont shout that loud! I ... you very well. (to hear)
3. Dont interrupt them! They ... to a scientific broadcast. (to listen)
4. Come and make the coffee! The water ... (to boil)
5. Wait a minute, will you? I ... them off. (to see)
6. A man ... with his nose. (to smell)
7. I ... these lovely flowers. (to smell)
8. Usually she ... a very quiet child but now she ... naughty. (to be)
9. She ... all right. (to feel)
10. She ... the silk to see how soft it is. (to feel)
VI. Fill in the blanks with the following verbs, using Present Tense Simple or
Progressive: to start, to look, to write, to live, to deal, not to seem, to stay, to rent, to
move, to do, to rain, to answer, to come, to get, to suppose, to begin.
Dear Sally,
I . just to let you know that Ive arrived and that everything is fine.
At the moment I . at a hotel in Athens and I . quite a lot of sightseeing. Next
week I . to the island of Crete which is where most of the people in the company
. . I . a villa there for the summer, which should be nice.
The weathers not particularly good as a matter of fact, it . at the moment.
Still, it . better slowly, and Im sure itll be fine when you . in the summer. I .
forward to it already.
The job . to be too demanding. Most of the time I . with bookings and .
inquiries. But I . itll be different when the tourist season . next month. Even
now the restaurants . to get busier.
See you soon,
Love,
Jenny

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VII. Ask questions about the underlined parts of the following sentences:
1. I have my English lessons at school.
2. You feel thirsty on a hot day.
3. I brush my teeth three times a day.
4. We read only critical books.
5. You come to school on foot, dont you? Yes, but I occasionally take the half
past seven tram.
6. We sit on this bench two hours every Sunday.
7. We clean our car before leaving for a picnic.
8. You are a reliable person, for all I know.
9. You watch all the matches on TV.
10. I am free this afternoon because I dont have to work on holidays.
VIII. Translate the recipe and comment upon the uses of the verbs:
Southern Grilled Barbecued Ribs
INGREDIENTS:
4 pounds baby back pork ribs; 2/3 cup water; 1/3 cup vinegar; 1 cup ketchup; 1 cup
water; 1/3 cup Worcestershire sauce; 1/4 cup prepared mustard; 4 tablespoons butter;
1/2 cup packed brown sugar; 1 teaspoon hot pepper sauce; 1/8 teaspoon salt
DIRECTIONS:
1. Preheat oven to 175 degrees C. Place ribs in two roasting pans. Pour water and
vinegar into a bowl, and stir. Pour diluted vinegar over ribs and cover with foil. Bake in
the preheated oven for 45 minutes. Baste the ribs with their juices halfway through
cooking.
2. In a medium saucepan, mix together ketchup, water, vinegar, Worcestershire sauce,
mustard, butter, brown sugar, hot pepper sauce, and salt; bring to a boil. Reduce heat to
low, cover, and simmer barbeque sauce for 1 hour.
3. Preheat grill for medium heat.
4. Lightly oil preheated grill. Transfer ribs from the oven to the grill, discarding
cooking liquid. Grill over medium heat for 15 minutes, turning ribs once. Baste ribs
generously with barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes. Turn ribs, baste again with
barbeque sauce, and grill 8 minutes.
IX. Translate into English:
1. Tatl meu rareori se uit la televizor duminica.
2. ntotdeauna mi arde pantalonul cnd l calc!
3. Ce faci zilele acestea? Vruiesc buctria.
4. n vreme ce musafirii vorbesc despre vreme, noi, copiii, le turnm ceai n
pantofi.
5. Se simte mult mai bine acum.
6. Mergi la petrecere duminic?
7. Totul este bine cnd se termin cu bine, nu-i aa?
8. Noi nu mergem aproape niciodat la oper din pcate.
9. Maina mi face figuri astzi. Nu pot s-o pornesc. Mai bine lum autobuzul.
10. De ce deschizi ua cuptorului de attea ori? Las prjitura s se coac!

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1.1.3. THE PAST TENSE SIMPLE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [-ed for regular verbs; the 2nd form in the dictionary for irregular verbs]
(see Appendix I for the pronunciation of ed and spelling rules of regular verbs)
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They walked/ saw/ ran
b. Negative [auxiliary did + not + the short infinitive of the main verb]
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They did not walk (didnt walk)
I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They did not go (didnt go)
c. Interrogative [auxiliary did + subject + the short infinitive of the main verb]
Did I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They walk?
Did I/ You/ He/ She/ We/ You/ They go?
II. USES
The Past Tense Simple is used:
a. to show an event at past reference:
Immediate situation (domestic sitations where the adverb of time could be
implied)
He woke up (at seven in the morning), got out of bed, washed, shaved, dressed,
went downstairs, had breakfast, put his coat on, hurried to the bus stop and
caught a bus to the station.
Larger situation (in historical or bibliographical statements about specific
persons, locations, or objects. They involve general knowledge about the situations
described.)
Vincent van Gogh was born in Holland. He did not become a painter until the
age of 27, after which he produced over 1,500 oil-paintings and drawings before
committing suicide. [it is a matter of cultural knowledge that Vincent van Gogh
is a historical personage (a famous Dutch post-impressionst painter) who was
born, worked and finally died.]
Actions are completed at a definite point in the past (when the time is given):
Yesterday; last night/week/month/year; a few hours/minutes/years ago; a long time ago;
in 1995; on October 24th, 1955; at the turn of the century; in 34 BC; during the war;
once; once upon a time; the other day
They arrived yesterday.
We bought this car five years ago.
He left the army in 1945 and settled down in Australia.
b. it shows an action often done in the past (habit), thus referring to a certain sequence,
with adverbs that express frequency, such as: everyday, frequently, often, etc.
It can be paraphrased by means of used to, which implies that an event/ state
definitely took place in the past and it will not happen in the present or future, unlike the
paraphrase with would.
We had water melon everyday.
He spent all his childhood in London. = He used to spend all his childhood in
London. [the implicature is that he is no longer a child].

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He would spend all his childhood in Lodon. [the implicature is that he was still a
child at the moment of speaking, so a possible future interpretation]
c. it is related to the speakers attitude rather than to time, being most often associated
with politeness. It occurs in everyday conversation and the Simple Past Tense has
present time reference.
It is used with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder It is considered to be
more polite than the present tense.
The same polite use can be rendered by past modal forms with present or future
reference (Could you help me for a moment? Would you come this way, please?)
Did you want to see me now?
I wondered if you could help me.
III. Ways of translating the Past Tense Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ perfect simplu
He rang the bell and opened the door. = A sunat la sonerie i a deschis ua/
Sun la sonerie i deschise ua.
b. imperfect (with habitual past, attitudinal past or if the verb is lexically durative)
He often went fishing when he was a child. = Mergea adesea la pescuit cnd era
copil.
I thought we might go and see a movie. = M gndeam poate mergem s vedem
un film.
She stood there motionless. = Sttea acolo nemicat.
c. mai mult ca perfectul/ perfect simplu (to show sequence for past perfect value)
She knocked, entered and slammed the door. = Btuse/ btu, intr i apoi trnti
ua.
d. indicativ prezent
Irene told me that she wrote a poem. = Irene mi-a spus c scrie o poezie.

1.1.4. THE PAST TENSE PROGRESSIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + Present Participle (V+ing)]
He was walking in the park when he met her.
b. Negative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + not + Present Participle (V+ing)]
He was not walking when he met her.
c. Interrogative [Past Tense of the auxiliary to be + subject + Present Participle
(V+ing)]
Was he walking in the park when he met her?
II. USES
The Present Progressive Tense has the following uses:

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a. The progressive form of a verb can function as a time background when the speaker
feels that the actions are framed (Poutsma, 1926) thus making the simple forms more
precise:
I was buying a shirt when I first met my wife [the meeting was completed within
the framework of shirt-buying]
It is used with adverbial structures such as: this time last week/ month/ year or with
adverbial clauses of time
This time last week I was flying to Paris.
When I saw him he was running away.
b. it shows duration of an event
It happened while I was living in the countryside last year.
c. it shows annoyance, criticism of a habit
My husband was forever getting into trouble.
d. it has a polite use with verbs such as hope, think, want, wonder it makes a request
sound more polite but less definite
I was wondering if you'd like to come out with me one evening.
e. it marks a gradual progress without any temporal marker
The car was getting worse. One of the headlights was gradually falling off, and
the engine was making more and more funny noises.
f. it has a future reference in the past
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. [It is a case of Indirect Speech in
direct object clauses. The progressive changes the meaning of the physical
perception verb to see into to visit. The paraphrase could be He thought he
would see her in the evening.]
III. Ways of translating into Romanian
a. imperfect
I was sleeping when he came in.= Dormeam cnd el a intrat.
b. viitor (in direct object clauses)
He thought he was seeing her in the evening. = Credea c o va vizita desear.
c. prezent (in direct object clauses)
She told me she was writing a novel then. = Mi-a spus c scrie un roman acum.
Appendix I
A. Pronunciation of -ed
- it is pronounced /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/): /b/, /g/, /m/, //,
/l/, /v/, /z/ etc.
- it is pronounced /t/ after unvoiced consonants (except /t/): /p/, /f/, /k/, /s/ etc.
- it is pronounced /id/ after /d/ and /t/
B. Spelling rules of regular verbs (Past Tense affirmative)
most verbs add -ed

220

to visit visited
to help helped
to gain gained
verbs ending in -e add just -d
to dance danced
to hope hoped
one-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant (except c, w, x) preceded by a single
vowel, double the consonant when adding -ed:
to hop hopped
to pat patted
verbs of more than one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
vowel double the consonant when adding ed only if the final syllable is stressed.
Compare: to prefer preferred
and
to visit visited
to omit omitted
to listen listened
Exceptions: a. to kidnap kidnapped
to handicap handicapped
b. in British English l is doubled after a short vowel even if the vowel
is not stressed: to travel - travelled
verbs ending in -y preceded by a vowel add -ed with no other change:
to play played
to stay stayed
verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into -i when adding -ed:
to try tried
to study studied
verbs ending in c have ck before -ed:
to picnic picnicked

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into the Past Tense Simple:
1. When (you/ meet) the company accountant?
2. The company (not/ disclose) how much it expects to gain from the two deals.
3. You (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
4. The discussion (take place) in a famous villa.
5. The smell of the roses (creep) into the room.
6. They (wind) up the evening with a song.
7. One day an idea (strike) Mary.
8. Our blood almost (freeze) in our veins.
9. He (stick) to his opinion.
10. This (teach) him a bitter lesson.
II. Continue the following sentences using the Past Tense Progressive:
1. My neighbour burnt his hand while he ...
2. The TV was on but nobody ...
3. Her parents helped with child care while she ...

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4. We saw an accident while we ...

5. For a ruin it was in good condition, as though the place ...
6. When the rain began they ...
7. She was reading while her brother ...
8. The doorbell rang while I ...
9. Dave fell asleep while he ...
10. Somebody followed her while she ...
III. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Progressive:
1. He (stand) a long time in the darkest corner of the room.
2. When the doorbell (ring) she (sleep).
3. The young man (jump) on to the bus while it (run).
4. When the train (arrive) many travelers (wait) on the platform.
5. I (have) a bath when the phone (ring).
6. As he (cross) the street he (step) on a banana skin and (fall) down.
7. I (walk) in the park quietly when a dog (attack) me.
8. If I (win) a big prize in a lottery Id give up my job.
9. While I (swim) someone (steal) my clothes.
10. While I (water) the flowers it (begin) to rain.
IV. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Progressive:
Last night I (have) a very strange dream. When the dream (begin), I (sit) all alone in
a restaurant. Suddenly I (notice) that the other people (look) at me. Some of them
(point) at me. I (not understand) why. Just then the waiter (come) over to me. He
(smile), too, just like everyone else. He (ask) me if I (enjoy) my meal. I (tell) him
that it (be) very good. I (want) to ask him why he (smile) and why the other people
(look) at me, but something (stop) me. Then the waiter (ask) me if I (forget)
anything. At first I (not understand) his question, but then I (look) down at myself.
Suddenly I (realize) that I (not have) my trousers on! That was why everybody
(laugh) at me.
V. Correct the mistakes:
1. If I am not busy I would help you.
2. I was falling in love with anyone.
3. Last summer they were spending their holiday in Switzerland.
4. It was taking me a few seconds to realize I looked foolish.
5. I watched TV while my sister read the magazine.
6. What did you do when he was coming home?
7. We visited the States this time last year.
8. He read the script while she talked to the Production Director.
9. When the reasons behind the decision were explained it was all becoming clear.
10. Last week they were placing an advertisement in the local paper for a secretary.
VI. Rephrase the following sentences so as the meaning stays the same. Use
Present or Perfect Participle:
1. He bought the book, but then he realized he didnt need it.
After ...
2. I left the house but first I checked that I had my key.

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Before ...
3. The police were approaching the house when they saw the burglars running
away.
While ...
4. He tried to repair his car but first he checked his tools.
Before ...
5. She cleaned the house, but then she fell asleep.
After ...
6. John was parking the car when he noticed the flat tyre.
While ...
7. She was skiing in Sinaia and met her friend Mary.
While ...
8. I took a pil land then I felt much better.
After ...
9. He bought a new car but first he checked all the prices.
Before ...
10. I went out for the evening but first I went to the hairdressers.
Before ...
VII. Translate into English:
1. Cnd am intrat n muzeu am vzut multe tablouri impresionante.
2. Din pcate, cnd eu am sosit Ana tocmai pleca, aa c nu am vorbit dect foarte
puin.
3. ntotdeauna purta o serviet cnd mergea la birou.
4. n timp ce musafirii se distrau hoii au intrat n cas i le-au furat hainele de
blan.
5. Era foarte extravagant, ntotdeauna i cumpra haine noi.
6. Preai foarte ocupat cnd te-am ntlnit asear. Ce fceai?
7. Bunica ncremeni o clip, pe urm l strnse n brae cu ochii scldai n lacrimi,
fr s poat rosti un cuvnt.
8. Eu aveam toat ncrederea n puterea mea, ca un om care pleac la drum tiut
periculos pentru c se simte n stare s se apere, n-avem prea mult grij.
9. Cum tot cearaful i perna erau prea calde, cum toate crile pe care am vrut s le
citesc, mi se preau uscate, am cobort ctre ora cinci n grdin.
10. Deschise ua ncetior, trecu prin sufragerie, unde nu era nimeni, i se strecur
printre o mulime de lume necunoscut, care nici nu-l lu n seam.

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1.1.5. THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the present tense of the auxiliary to have + the Past Participle of the
main verb]: she/he/it has already worked; I/you/we/they have taken a test.
b. Negative: she/he/it has not/ hasnt eaten; I/you/we/they have not/havent eaten
c. Interrogative: Has he/she/it eaten?; Have I/you/we/they eaten?
II. USES
The Present Perfect Simple is used:
a. for an action which is just completed but the resulting state is still present. Just and
already are the most common adverbs of time used to express a recently completed
action:
Theyve just solved the problems. [They solved the problem a few minutes
ago.]
Only just expresses surprise or impatience:
My pen has run out again. But you've only just filled it.
b. for an uncompleted action that one is expecting. It is used with adverbs of time such
as yet and still. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the result
of the respective action.
The murderer hasnt confessed his crime yet. [The result that is expected
implies the murderers confession.]
He has been courting Ann for seven years now, but he has not still asked her to
marry him.
c. an action begun in the past but still continuing to the present moment, but only with
non-continuous verbs. The Continuative Present Perfect can show:
- a state leading up to the present:
This hut has been deserted for three days/ a long time/ for ages.
- Since denotes from some definite point/ period in the past till now.
Cynthia has not visited us since yesterday /Tuesday /1998 / her son left for
Canada.
- For denotes a length of time till now. When it is used with the simple past tense, for
expresses a completed period of time:
I have known him for two years. [I still know him.]
I talked with him for two years. [but I don't talk with him any longer.]
d. Adverbs of indefinite time or expressing frequency (never, ever, often, seldom,
always) are used for general experiences, while adverbs of time such as today, this
morning/ week/ month/ year, suggest a limited experience. This use of the Present
Perfect shows indefinite event(s) in a period leading up to the present moment. The
Past Tense is also used but it shows that the action has no connection with the
present.
My mother has washed three shirts today. [The action of washing the three

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shirts is completed, but not the action of washing shirts because the day is not
over, so the Present Perfect denotes an incomplete period of time. The emphasis
is on achievement.]
My mother washed three shirts today. [washed = the Past Tense Simple. The
action of washing the three shirts is completed, and so it is the action of washing
for today because the day is almost over.]
My mother has been washing my brothers shirts today. [has been washing =
the Present Perfect Progressive. The emphasis is on duration.]
e. in adverbial clauses of condition:
John will go home if his wife has cooked dinner.
f. in adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action, prior to the one
represented by a future tense in the main clause:
We will paint the fence after we have had lunch.
We will ring you as soon as/ after he has come back from work
g. in newspapers and broadcasts - to introduce an action which will then be described in
the simple past tense:
Abi Titmussi has admitted she is smitten with hunky Lee Sharpe. The curvy
blonde revealed she has fallen head over heels for the ex-Manchester United
Star. (Online Star 21 Jun 2005)
III. Ways of translating
a. indicativ prezent:
Weve been here since the beginning of the show. = Suntem aici de la nceputul
spectacolului.
The Romanian indicativ prezent is the translation both for the Present Tense Simple/
Progressive and the Present Perfect Simple and Progressive. Compare the following
sentences:
We drink beer every evening.= Bem bere n fiecare sear.
We are drinking beer now. = Bem bere acum.
We have been drinking beer for ten minutes. = Bem bere de zece minute.
b. perfect compus:
They havent seen me since 1983. = Ei nu m-au vzut din1983.

1.1.6. THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the present tense of the auxiliary to have + the Past Participle of the
auxiliary be+ the Present Participle of the main verb]: She/he/it has been working;
I/you/we/they have been working
b. Negative: she/he/it has not/hasn't been working; I/you/we/they have not/ havent
been working
c. Interrogative: has she/he/it been working? Have I/you/we/they been working?

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II. USES
The Present Perfect Progressive is used:
a. to show duration from the past until now. It can be used with habits (recurrent
events):
She has been teaching this class since Christmas.
Ever since I was a child, I have been living in the same house. [they are still
living in London]
- non-durative activities (processes) used in the progressive get an iterative
interpretation, whereas used in the Simple Present Perfect describe rather one single
instantaneous situation:
Someone has knocked at the door. [the activity of knocking stopped]
Someone has been knocking at the door. [the activity of knocking is still going
on]
It can be used with:
- Since and for - to express more temporary actions and situations, but for more
permanent actions the simple forms are preferred:
She has been living in my flat for the last month. - My parents have lived in
Bacu all their lives.
He lived in London for two years. [lived - the Past Tense Simple. He doesnt
live in London anymore.]
- Observe the use of the progressive aspect with how long and of the simple aspect with
how many:
How long have you been waiting for her?
How many hours have you waited for her?
- the adverbs of time recently and lately. The Present Perfect Progressive can be used
without a duration such as for ten minutes, and since morning. Without these precise
durations, this tense offers a more general meaning of lately in order to enhance this
meaning.
She has been lying about her whereabouts lately.
Recently, we have been feeling rather tired with his haughtiness.
b. to suggest that one can see, smell, hear, or feel the results of an action that has
recently stopped.
You have been fighting again. [I can tell from your black eye.]
She has been crying. [Look, her eyes are red.]
c. to show that the action is not completed.
Who has been eating my dinner? [Some of my dinner is left.]
Who has eaten my dinner? [All my dinner is gone.]
d. to convey feelings of irritation.
I have been demanding an explanation for hours but nobody has yet dared to
speak up.

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III. Ways of translating

a. indicativ prezent
They have been widening the road for one week. = Lrgesc strada.
They have been eating since five oclock. = Mnnc de la ora 5.
b. perfect compus
Who has been eating my cake? = Cine mi-a mncat din prjitur?
Perfectul compus + adverbs to render the speaker's emotions:
He's been drinking wine again! = Bineneles c iar a but vin! [That is why
hes tired/ drunk.]

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the conversations using the present perfect simple or the past simple
of the verb in brackets.
1. I know Mr Robinson. Really? How long (you/ know) him? Oh, for quite a
long time now. When (you/ first/ meet) him? I (meet) him at Christies eight
years ago.
2. (Its 10 oclock in the morning) (you/ see) Mrs Carter this morning? Yes, I
(see) her when I (arrive) in the office, but she (go) out soon afterwards.
3. (you / ever/ visit) Switzerland? Yes, I (visit) it twice. I (visit) it two years
ago, and once when I (be) a child.
4. (Its the middle of the afternoon) Im really hungry. I (not/ have) any breakfast
this morning and I (not/ have) time to go out for anything to eat this afternoon.
II. Give an alternative for the following sentences:
1. It's years since we went to a movie.
2. It's over a month since I went to their place.
3. It's a long time since we had diner at the Decebal.
4. It's over a fortnight since he went to the barber's.
5. She went shopping twice last week.
6. They went to the park once last week.
7. Elizabeth II became queen in 1952.
8. The window got broken last week.
9. She began wearing glasses a month ago.
10. They began eating Chinese food several years ago.
III. Complete the following sentences with for or since.
1. It's a long time . you last quarrelled with anybody!
2. .. the past ten days , she's had nightmares every night.
3. . they came, ten days ago, I've been feeling rather depressed.
4. They don't think much of him as a policeman: he hasn't caught a burglar
at least seven years.
5. It seems like years . you cooked a really delicious meal.
6. you brought me that dog my cat hasn't turned up yet.
7. We haven't seen a good film . at least two months, in fact not we went to
see The Titanic together.
8. Petrol has become more and more expensive . the end of last year.

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9. I am sitting for my portrait the last six months but the artist hasn't finished it
yet.
10. You must wake him. He's been sleeping soundly ten hours!
IV. Use the present perfect simple or progressive for the verbs in brackets:
1. She (cough) a lot lately. She ought to give up smoking.
2. You (hear) the news? Cynthia and Paul are engaged!
3. That's not new. I (know) it for ages!
4. They (walk) ten miles.
5. They (walk) for three hours.
6. You (walk). That's why you are tired.
7. She (sleep) on every bed in this house and she doesn't like any of them.
8. Why you (be) so long in the garage?
9. The tyres were flat. I ( pump) them up.
10. It (rain) for two hours and the ground is too wet to play on, so the
match (be) postponed.
V. Choose the correct variant:
1. How long .. you. your own house? A) did you paint B) do you paint C)
have you been painting D) are you painting.
2. He .. his fiance four times this week. Its Sunday evening and he gave up
calling her. A) has called B) has been calling C) called D) is calling.
3. Since his wife died, he .. .. A) has been grief-struck B) is grief-stricken C)
has been grief-stricken D) was grief-stricken.
4. The hen .. just an egg on the straw of the stable. A) laid B) has lain C) lay D)
has laid.
5. He .. his leg last week and since then he . in bed. A) has breaked B) has
broken C) broke D) breaked / A) lay B) has lain C) has been laying D) has been
lying.
6. ..... he ever . how to play chess? A) does he ever knows B) has he ever known
C) did you ever know D) does he ever know.
7. It was a terrible earthquake a few minutes ago. The tree in front of our house ..
down with a sudden crash. A) fell B) has fallen C) has falen D) felled
8. Its three weeks since I last spoke with my brother, so I .. in touch with my
brother for three weeks. A) was B) dont be C) havent been D) have been .
9. Its the first time in our family when a woman .. twins. A) bears B) has born
C) has borne D) bore.
10. After the clock .. eight, the police will start searching the thieves. A) will
strike B) has been striking C) strikes D) has struck.
VI. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How old is your sister? Shes 20. She (read) Shakespeare as a child?
2. You (read) ever Shakespeare in the original?
3. He (lie) under that nut-tree for ages. He must have fallen asleep.
4. He told me that his elder brother (dig) a hole for three hours in order to find the
treasure.

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5. Im quite upset. He always (ask) for my advice, but up to now he never (follow)
it.
6. She will be glad after her marriage (take) place.
7. We (get) a phone call 15 minutes ago and a man (yell) that there (be) a bomb in
our building. The police (search) for it since then but no bomb (find) yet.
8. He always (love) by women. He may be 50, but he still (have) a way of
attracting the opposite sex.
9. The table (lay) 20 minutes ago. I (not know) what you (wait) for. Why you (not
help) yourselves?, my mom asked.
10. How long you (put up with) this chatterbox? Since I (get) married.
VII. Translate into Romanian and identify the verbs underlined:
1. To the uninitiated, making a speech carries with it a certain glamour. After
having heard (you have heard) an expert, you may think, Thats as easy as
falling off a log.(The Sunday Post)
2. But for three years, a panel of drug experts working for the US Food and Drug
Administration has been analyzing the ingredients of these patent medicines to
see if they really live up to their advertising. (Newsweek)
3. Since the legendary Prometheus first stole the fire of heaven, virtually all energy
consumed by man has been fathered by the sun. (National Geographic)
4. Already the suns energy is being put to limited use in homes and buildings
around the world. (National Geographic)
5. The blame for this situation has been laid at the door of the current status and
mood of society. (National Geographic)
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. 'De cnd se ntlnesc?' - 'Nu tiu nimic. ntreab-o pe Maria'.
2. i dau ntlniri pe holurile universitii de cnd sunt n anul I.
3. 'De cnd nu se mai neleg?' 'De vreun an, cred, se tot ceart mereu.'
4. N-am but cafea azi diminea i m doare teribil capul.
5. A muncit, srcua, toat ziua: a adunat beioare, pene i frunze s-i fac un
cuib unde s cloceasc oule.
6. Ce fata harnic eti! Ai terminat toat treaba aa c te odihneti acum, pe cnd
eu, ct mai am de lucru!
7. Niciodat n-am mai ntlnit un om aa de generos ca el!
8. Acest castel era nu de mult o ruin, dar de cnd se amenajeaz parcul parc arat
altfel.
9. Ce drum plin de gropi!' - 'Pi, n-a mai fost reparat de vreo doi ani.'
10. Nu mi-ai adresat nici un cuvnt de cnd am pit pragul acestei case.

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1.1.7. THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + Past Participle of the verb]
I had forgotten/ Id forgotten
b. Negative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + not + Past Participle of the verb]
I had not / I hadnt forgotten
c. Interrogative [the Past Tense of the auxiliary have + subject + Past Participle of the
verb]
Had I / hadnt I forgotten?
II. USES
a. Events, states or habits anterior to a time of orientation in the past:
Even if she looked like an English girl, she had been a true-born French. [state
meaning]
I had broken my glasses, so I couldnt read. [event meaning, having a
resultative use]
Mr. Pitt shouldnt have sacked John, he had worked a lot for this company.
[habitual meaning in the past]
- Cause-effect use the situation related to the point of reference relevant for the
Past Perfect can be interpreted as the cause for the action expressed through a Past
Tense (target verb). This use can be found in narrative texts.
I felt pretty upset because of the horrible things Mary had said to me. [the effect of
me being upset was caused by what Mary had said.]
When the events are presented in the order in which they happened, a Simple Past
Tense is preferred for the target verb as well as for the verb showing the point of
reference:
Mary said some rather horrible things to me and I felt pretty upset.
b. to express a past hope, expectation, intention or desire that was not realised. It is used
with verbs such as to hope, to expect, to intend, to mean (= to intend)or to want
We had hoped that you would be able to get that contract.
I had meant / intended to call on our bankers, but I was prevented from doing
so.
She had thought of paying us a visit but the bad weather made her change her
plans.
c. to express a past action that becomes the background for another action in the past,
thus showing a sequence of events. We can use it with the following conjunctions:
when, before, after, until, once, now that, and as soon as that introduce adverbial
clauses of time.
I reached the company after Mr. Woods had heard the news.
I didnt reach the company until after Mr. Woods had heard the news.
Mr. Woods (had) heard the news before I reached the company.

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 In adverbial clauses of time in order to express a future action that takes place before
another action expressed by a Future-in-the-Past:
She told me1/ she would pay me a visit2/ after I had come back from the city3/.
In adverbial clauses of time introduced by restrictive adverbs such as hardly/ barely/
scarcely/ no sooner, the past action is shown to be finished a little time before
another past action. Each adverb triggers inversion in the subordinate clause and it
has a correlative in the main clause.
No sooner had the curtain fallen than they rose to go.
Hardly / scarcely had I entered the door when the telephone rang.
d. The Past Perfect is common in reported/ indirect speech to express a Present Perfect
or a Past Tense from Direct Speech.
I have already read the report. (DS) - She told me that she had already read
the report.(IS)
They left the Stock Exchange a few months ago'. (DS) - I was told that they had
left the Stock Exchange a few months before / earlier / previously. (IS)
III. Ways of translating the Past Perfect Simple into Romanian
a. perfect compus/ mai-mult-ca-perfect:
I knew Romeo but I hadn't seen him since my marriage. = l cunoteam pe
Romeo dar nu l-am vzut/ nu-l vzusem de cnd m-am cstorit.
b. perfect simplu:
He started the car after he had checked the engine. = oferul porni maina
dup ce verific motorul.
c. viitor:
He said he would give her a gold brooch after they had got married. = A spus
c-i va da o broa de aur dup ce se vor cstori.

1.1.8. THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. FORM
a. Affirmative [the past tense of to have + been past participle - + present participle of
the verb]: I had been/ Id had been waiting for Ann since two oclock.
b. Negative: I had not been/ I hadnt been waiting for you.
c. Interrogative: Had he been/ hadnt he been waiting for us?
II. USES
The Past Perfect Progressive is used:
a. to show an activity or event, which had been in progress up to a past moment (in
other words, we can say that something had been happening for a period of time before
something else happened).
Mr. Woods had been working for 30 years when he finally retired in 1995. [a
habit in the past = recurrent event]
Ken gave up smoking two years ago. He had been smoking for 17 years.

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 To underline the continuity of a past action up to a past moment or just before it. It
does not express a frequently repeated situation (habit meaning) in the past, as the two
sentences above::
I had been waiting for her for half an hour when she finally arrived.
They had been working since eleven oclock.
b. to show that the effect of the action is still apparent.
She told me that her son had been fighting. [the result is his blue eye].
c. to convey the speakers emotions of irritation .
I had been trying for hours to get our customer in Baghdad on the
phone. [besides the meaning of an action that seems to have been
happening for a long time, we might sense a tone of irritation]
d. in Indirect Speech, in order to express a Past Tense Progressive or a Present Perfect
Progressive from Direct Speech:
I was reading a novel at six oclock yesterday, Ann told to her friend. (D.S)Ann explained to her friend that that she had been reading a novel at six
oclock. (I.S)
We have been taking English classes for two years, they explained to their
teacher. (D.S)- The children explained to their teacher that they had been taking
English courses for two years. (I.S)
Have you been crying? (D.S) - She was asked whether she had been crying.
(I.S)
III. Ways of translating into Romanian
a. mai-mult-ca-perfect/ perfect compus/ perfect simplu (in narrative texts):
Mr. Woods had been working for 30 years when he finally retired in 1995. =
Domnul Woods lucrase/ a lucrat/ lucr timp de 30 de ani cnd n cele din urm
s-a pensionat/ se pension n 1995.
b. imperfect:
I had been driving for twenty minutes when I ran out of petrol. = Conduceam de
douzeci de minute cnd am rmas fr benzin.
c. perfect compus (for the emotional use):
I had been trying for hours to get our customer in Baghdad on the phone. = Ore
ntregi am ncercat s-l prind la telefon pe clientul nostru n Baghdad. [This
emotional use is rendered in Romanian by placing the adverb of time at the
beginning of the sentence.]
d. prezent:
She said she had been waiting for her friend for half an hour. = A spus c o
ateapt pe prietena ei de o jumtate de or.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Starting from the information given, complete each sentence with a suitable verb
in the Past Perfect Simple or Progressive.
1. Maggie worked in the garden all afternoon. Then she took a hot bath.
Maggie took a hot bath because .. in the garden all afternoon.
2. Mary came top in the final examination. Her father bought her a car as a reward.
Marys father bought her a car because she . top in the final exam.
3. Henry came home from work early. He cooked lunch. His family were very
impressed.
Henrys family were very impressed to discover that he . lunch when he
came home from work early.
4. I lost my watch. We had looked for it for hours. I was very pleased when my
son found it.
I was very pleased when my son found my watch because we . for it for hours.
5. Ann worked very hard all morning. Her boss gave her an extra half hour for
lunch. She boasted about it.
Ann boasted that her boss . her an extra half hour for lunch because she
. very hard all morning.
6. Patrick went to the disco. He came home very late. His mother was worried and
she told him off when he got in.
Patricks mother told him off when he came home late because she . about
him all evening.
II. Put the verbs in brackets into a suitable past tense (Past Tense or Past Perfect):
1. We (try) to find new services which (be) sophisticated and (have) added value.
2. When (you/meet) the company accountant?
3. When (you/be) in this house last?
4. I (look) everywhere for ideas since I failed to hand in that project.
5. Yesterday, at the party he (feel) out of place in your suit and tie.
6. He (always / look) so young, but he (seem) to have aged in the last weeks.
7. Mary (discover) an addiction to housework which she (never/feel) before.
8. They (have) no money because they (spend) everything on duty free whisky.
9. I (realise) someone (use) my camera because there were finger marks on the
lens.
10. They (say) heavy industry (pollute) our rivers with noxious chemicals for ages.
III. Read the situations and write sentences ending with BEFORE. Use the verb
given in brackets.
1. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous. It was his first flight.
(fly) He
2. A woman walked into the room. She was a complete stranger to me.
(see) I ..
3. Simon played tennis yesterday. He wasnt very good at it because it was his first
game.
(play) He
4. Last year we went to Denmark. It was our first time there.
(be) We

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5. They concluded a contract two weeks ago. It was their first contract.
(sign) They ..........
IV. Fill in the blank spaces using the verbs in the brackets and paying attention to
the sequence of events in order to get meaningful events.
1. We arrived at work in the morning and found that somebody . the
office during the night. So we .. (to break into, to call)
2. I tried to phone Mr. Richards this morning but . no answer. He . . (to be, to
go out)
3. I met Jim a few days ago. He . just .. He .. (to come back, to look)
4. Yesterday Kevin .. He . very surprised. He . many times but
they .. (to get, to be, to write, to reply)
5. I arrived at the company for an interview at 12.30 as I .. the assistant
marketing manager the previous month. To my surprise I .. my husband in
there who .. (to apply, to find, to wait)
V. Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence:
1. We.Netherlands last summer.
a) have visited/ - b) had visited/ the
c) visited/ - d) visited/ the
2. After eight years Ithat all the time I..to my girl friend
her sistermy letters.
a) discovered/ was writing/ had read
b) had discovered/ had written/ had been
reading c) discovered/ had been writing/ had been reading d) had discovered/
had been writing/ had been reading
3. By the time we got home, Marys aunt.already. .
a) left
b) has left
c) will have left
d) had left
4. The police officers.for the thieves for two days when they found
them near the village.
a) was looking
b) has been looking c) had been looking d)are looking
5. Look, he has cuts on his legs. He ........ a lot during the football match.
a) had fallen over b) has been falling over
c) has fallen over
d) fell over
6. He ..... never a princess in the flesh, but he hopes that he will have the chance
one day.
a) saw
b) was seeing
c) hasnt seen
d) has seen
7. Its over a year since anyone ...... William.
a) has spoken withb) spoke with
c) had spoken
d) has been speaking with
8. Last year when I was in France, I ....... a French princess in the flesh.
a) have seen
b) was seeing c) saw d) had seen
VI. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown:
1. Id like to say sorry I missed your wedding, Joan said.
John apologised..
2. I met Mary as soon as I left home.
I had no sooner
3. I caught flu as soon as I had recovered from measles.
I had hardly
4. The train had left before we got to the station.
By the time

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7. The man sitting next to me on the plane was very nervous because it was his first
flight.
He
5. They got on the train and immediately it left.
Hardly..
6. Alice had no sooner sung a song than she began another.
No sooner..
7. I realised my mistake after Id handed in the test.
I didnt realise my mistake until..
8. I havent played football for two weeks:
Its two weeks
VII. Correct the following mistakes:
1. The train left before I arrived.
2. Almost all the guests left by the time we had arrived.
3. Scarcely Sandra had come in than she started work.
4. I just got into bed when somebody knock at the door.
5. The car changed its direction when it hit the tree.
6. The grass was wet because it had raining all day yesterday.
7. Why did you left when he call on you?
8. How long they go out together when they finally get married?
9. The telephone rang for almost a minute when I got into the room. I was
wondering why nobody hadnt answered it.
10. The minute he entered, a horrible idea had stricken me.
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Intrunirea tocmai incepuse cand am intrat.
2. In ianuarie am obtinut rezultate mai bune decat se asteptase oricine.
3. Familia Miller a locuit in casa aceea treizeci de ani, pana cand a distrus-o un
cutremur.
4. Baiatul arata ca asi cum nu s-ar fi spalat niciodata pe maini.
5. Proiectantul facuse patru schite inainte de a se apuca de proiect.
6. Nu-i de mirare ca nu am recunoscut-o ieri pe Judith. Isi vopsise parul.
7. Din pacate, vasul s-a scufundat inainte ca elicopterul sa ajunga la locul
dezastrului.
8. Mi-era asa de foame, ca am mancat florile pana sa vina chelnerul.
9. De cat timp se cunosteau cand Tina s-a casatorit cu Robert?
10. Am verificat preturile mai multor companii occidentale inainte de a incepe sa
importam aceste video-recordere din Singapore.

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1.1.9. THE FUTURE AND FUTURITY

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In Modern English futurity is closely interrelated with modality. That is why
there is no future tense proper in English, in the sense of a specific form the verb takes
to signal futurity. Instead, futurity, intermingle with modality or aspect, is rendered by
means of modal auxiliaries/ semi-auxiliaries and other linguistic patterns that contain
future meaning.
She will arrive tomorrow.
Besides the different tenses expressing futurity (discussed in the other chapters),
there are certain adverbials that place an event/ state on the axis of future:
- explicitly future time adverbials: tomorrow, next/ week/ month/ year, in a day/
week/ month/ year
- unanchored adverbials (in May, on Monday, in spring) whose future
interpretation depends on the context.
I. FORMS AND PATTERNS USED TO TALK ABOUT A FUTURE EVENT
a. Future Simple [Will/ shall + Infinitive]
They will confess their crime.
b. Future Progressive/ Continuous [Will/ shall +Progressive infinitive = be + Ving]
This time next month we will be visiting the Louvre museum.
c. Future Perfect [Will/ shall + have + past participle of the verb]
They will have brought up the furniture by then.
d. Future Perfect Progressive / Continuous [Will/ shall + have been + the present
participle of the verb]
He will have been driving the same truck for two years in September.
e. Be going to + Infinitive
f. Present Progressive/ Continuous
g. Simple Present
h. Be to + the infinitive of the verb
i. Be about to + the infinitive of the verb
j. Be on the point / verge of + gerund
k. Be due to + the infinitive of the verb
II. USES
The above forms and patterns are used to express the following concepts and types of
future events:
a. Predictions:
FUTURE SIMPLE: Jane will still be in Paris in five months.
BE GOING TO + INFINITIVE: Look at Jane. Shes going to have a baby.
Look out! That brick is going to fall!
a temporary event going on at a future reference time (FUTURE
PROGRESSIVE): This time next year Ill be teaching English. [the prediction is the
following: this time next year, the activity of teaching English is in progress.]
a present event ( FUTURE SIMPLE):Someone is shouting. Itll be Marys
daughter.

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 an event the speaker expects to be completed by a particular future reference

time (FUTURE PERFECT): Theyll have filled in the application by the time you
arrive. [we generally use adverbs such as: by then, soon, within the next, hour/
week]
a future event which is probable/ improbable to happen (BE LIKELY/
UNLIKELY TO + INFINITIVE): Hes likely to run out of petrol.
b. Intentions and decisions
made during the speech event (WILL + INFINITIVE): Ive run out of money.
Dont worry. Ill lend you some.
that have already been decided on before the speech event; premeditated (BE
GOING TO + INFINITIVE): What are you going to do today? Im going to lie in
bed all day..
c. Arrangements
personal arrangement for the near future (PRESENT PROGRESSIVE):
Im seeing my dentist tomorrow.
an event arranged by external factors (SIMPLE PRESENT ):
Mary works in the marketing department next week. [the decision was taken by
the manager, who is an exterior authority]
a polite way of refusing an invitation or asking about someones arrangements
(FUTURE PROGRESSIVE):Your birthday? Im really sorry. But Ill be sitting
for the English exam on Saturday.
official arrangements, when the event cannot be changed (BE TO +
INFINITIVE):
All the students are to be present in the schoolyard at 5 p.m.
d. Timetabled events (the subject is not human, it refers to institutions or things whose
going-on is scheduled by an external authority.)
PRESENT SIMPLE
The plain takes off at 7 p.m. tomorrow.
BE DUE TO + INFINITIVE (timetable may change)
The show is due to start at 8 p.m. but the rain may delay it.
e. Formal commands and instructions (BE TO + INFINITIVE):
You are not to go to the library this week.
f. An event that is about to happen
BE ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE
Hurry up. Hes (just) about to get on the bus.
BE ON THE POINT OF / ON THE VERGE OF + V-ing
Dont disturb him now. Hes on the point of falling asleep.
She is on the verge of bursting into tears.
BE GOING TO + INFINITIVE
Look at that old lady! Shes going to fall!

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g. Willingness, refusal
subjects willingness to do something (WILL + INFINITVE)
Hell do anything for money.
determination, insistence (WILL + INFINITIVE)
I wll date him, whatever your sister says. (will is stressed)
refusal to do something (WONT / SHANT + INFINITIVE)
Believe me. He wont come.
h. Offers (WILL/SHALL/WONT + INFINITIVE)
Sit down. Ill do it for you.
Shall I do it for you?
Will you have another helping?
i. Promises (WILL + INFINITIVE)
Dont worry. My secretary will take care of you.
j. Requests
Will you give me a hand? [to be more polite use would you] (informal)
Give me a hand, will you? (insistent request)
k. Orders / Instructions (formal documents)
You will/shall keep an eye on the students till they finish their papers.
Each animal shall be confined in a container.
l. Routine, habitual future events
the speaker sees a future event as certain because it is part of a routine (FUTURE
PROGRESSIVE):
Well be having our monthly meeting on Thursday.
habits, characteristic behavior (WILL + INFINITIVE)
His elder sister will always be the first to leave the party.
Boys will be boys.
the speaker makes a statement of fact about a future event (WILL +
INFINITIVE)
The sun will rise at 6.00 tomorrow morning.
m. Future in the Past (FIP)
There are situations in which we have to express a future event from a viewpoint in
the past. In order to do that, we transfer the forms with future meaning in the past:
would + infinitive : in reported speech, involving a sequence of events
I hope youll water the whole garden. (future)
I hoped you would water the whole garden. (FIP)
would + progressive infinitive (future progressive): in reported speech,
involving a sequence of events
I think youll be selling furniture in two weeks time. (future)
I thought youd be selling furniture in two weeks time. (FIP)
would + have + past participle (future perfect in the past): in reported speech,
involving a sequence of events
They will have sold all the goods by Monday. (future)

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I was sure they would have sold the all the goods by Monday. (FIP)
III. Ways of translating future
a. prezent/ viitor (in main clauses)
The train for Paris leaves at 6. = Trenul pentru Paris pleac la 6.
I ll be helping him tomorrow. = Mine il ajut.
Im going to meet Tom. = l voi intlni/ Intenionez/ Am de gnd s-l intlnesc
pe Tom.
He is about to leave/ on the point of leaving. = E gata s plece/ E pe punctul de
a pleca
Dont bother. Ill drive you. = Te duc/ voi duce eu.
b. viitor/ viitor anterior (in main clauses)
Ill have finished by six pm. = Voi termina/ voi fi terminatpn la
c. viitor/ prezent (in direct object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition and time)
He said he would be back = A spus c se va ntoarce
He will accept the proposal if I tell him the truth. = Va acceptadac i voi spune/ i
spun
d. viitor anterior/ viitor (in adverbial clauses of time)
The children will playafter they have finished[se vor jucadup ce vor fi
terminat / vor termina]

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate tense:
1. How you (get) to the party tomorrow?
2. My friend (sit) for an exam on Monday.
3. He (sing) in Paris next week.
4. I (take) my parents to the ballet tomorrow.
5. They (play) some Beethoven next.
6. Its eight. Peter (call) for you at nine.
7. We (meet) him at the airport at five.
8. Hurry up! The train (leave) in a minute.
9. We (leave) as soon as it (cease) raining.
10. She told me she (see) the doctor at five p.m. the day after tomorrow.
II. Replace be going to by will / shall + be + V-ing (future progressive) and show the
differences in meaning (mention whether they are interchangeable):
1. Are you going to sleep in the armchair?
2. Are you going to take it with you?
3. Are you going to spend your money in a hotel?
4. Are you going to tell him the truth?
5. Are you going to make all the arrangements?
6. Are you going to discuss the matter with your mates?
7. Are you going to sing at the concert tonight?
8. Are you going to come by air?
9. Are you going to creep up the stairs?

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10. Are you going to take your medicine?

III. Put the verbs in brackets into the going to form and make a context for each
sentence:
1. When the gardener (water) the flowers?
Model: When is the gardener going to water the garden?
Context: He should have done it two days ago, when I told him to.
2. Ann (miss) her bus.
3. This airplane (crash)
4. The petrol tank (explode).
5. What your teacher (do) with that big dictionary?
6. It (snow). Look at the sky.
7. I (plant) an oak tree here.
8. You (tell) me the whole story?
9. I (give) you one of these pills.
10. How much you (give) me for this book?
IV. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense (present, present perfect,
future):
1. Ill wait for her in the restaurant till the clock (strike) four.
2. If you accept the bargain you (have) to pay for it.
3. When we (provide) all the facilities well speak about leaving the country.
4. If this terrible heat (not come) to an end well suffer from hunger next year.
5. This device is cheap and useful. I think I (buy) it.
6. What (you do) this weekend? I was thinking of visiting the international
exhibition of furniture.
7. All right. Ive put the spare part where you told me. Now what I (do) next?
8. What (offer) your daughter for her graduation?
9. In three days time I (fly) over the Atlantic ocean.
10. Theres someone at the door. That (be) Mr. Brown, the governor.
V. Choose the correct form of the verb:
1. Pour boiling water on the coffee grounds, wait till the grounds , then strain it
into a clean jug.
a) will settle b) settle
c) are settling
d) have settled
2. John said he would give me a ring as soon as he Paris.
a) reaches b) reached
c) will reach
d) will be reaching
3. He visits a new country every year. By the time he fifty he all the countries
in the world.
a) is
b) will have visited
c) will be
d) has visited
4. By the end of the year all our debts .
a) will have been paid off b) will be paid off
c) will be being paid off
d) are
paid off
5. It's no use phoning Irene at the office, she
a) will be leaving b) is leaving
c) will have left
d) will left
6. Couldn't they stay in your spare room at Easter? Yes, I it by then.
a) will have decorated
b) will be decorating
c) will decorate
d) am going to decorate

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7. Your hair is getting terribly long. Don't worry, I it cut on Wednesday.

a) will be getting b) will get
c) get
d) will have got
8. She can't come to the beach with us because she an exam on Sunday.
a) will be taking b) will take c) will have taken
d) takes
9. He will recognize her at once when he her.
a) will see
b) sees
c) will be seeing
d) is seeing
10. According to the latest forecast, the tunnel next year.
a) will be finished b) will have been finished
c) is finishing
d) finishes
VI. Rephrase each sentence so that it contains the word in capitals. Do not change
the word in any way:
1. What time is the train for Paris?
leave
Model: What time does the train for Paris leave?
2. What does your boy friend intend to do?
going
3. If he isnt ill youll find him playing tennis in the court.
unless
4. The members of the crew have planned to leave the ship tomorrow.
leave
5. The aircraft is on the point of landing.
about
6. His wife is pregnant again.
have
7. Im bound to work here till the end of my life.
wont
8. You can be sure that at the end of the school the car will be in front of the house.
have
9. His fate is to become a great singer.
be
10. The show will start in half an hour.
start
VII. Use the word or phrase given so that the meaning stays the same
Example: The result of our appeal against the parking fine should arrive in the
post tomorrow. (due) - The result of our appeal against the parking
fine is due tomorrow.
1. Do not disturb the chimpanzees during feeding time. (disturbed)
2. Turn that music down! Its so loud that itll definitely wake all the neighbors.
(bound)
3. Scientists in the human genome project feel that they are about to discover the
secret of life. (discovering)
4. Will you promise that you wont get drunk again tonight? (not to)
5. It is probable that the road-sweeping contract will be withdrawn from Dustbugs.
(likely to)
6. Everyone in the village lived in fear of the volcanic eruption, which was
imminent.
(impending)

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7. The designer believes that he will he be able to finish the specifications by

tomorrow
afternoon. (envisages)
8. I really dont think that the examiner will accept a handwritten script these days.
(unlikely to)
9. Please make your purchases and proceed to a check out. The store is going to
close in five minutes. (about)
10. If we want medical research to provide cures for all known diseases, it must be
adequately funded. (is)
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Il voi ajuta dup ce mi va spune cum s-au petrecut lucrurile.
2. Nu te culca nainte de a-i lua medicamentul.
3. Tu nu vezi? O s plou cu gleata.
4. Dac Irina va gsi cartea, o va cumpra.
5. Pn s ncepi tu nuvela, el va fi terminat romanul.
6. Nu credeam c la ora aceea tu vei mai cnta la pian.
7. Unde mncm n seara asta? La bunica?
8. Cu siguran o s ncerce s v fac s credei c e nevinovat.
9. Cnd vei ajunge tu student, eu voi fi terminat deja facultatea.
10. Ne amenin c o s ne dea pe toi afar pentru c susinea el c nu suntem buni
de nimic.

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1.1.10. MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. MODALS
There are nine central modals in English. (Other terms used for them are modal
verbs and modal auxiliaries and modal auxiliary verbs.) They are used to add
meaning to a main verb, for example to indicate how certain, possible, probable,
necessary, obligatory something is, or how frequently something happens, or whether a
course of action is recommended or allowed.
Can/ could; may/might;must; shall/should; will/would
Note: Need to, dare to, ought to are marginal modals. However, one semimodal which
is frequently used is have (got)to.
CAN
FORM
a. Affirmative: can
b. Negative:
cannot, cant (used only in spoken and informal written English)
c. Interrogative: can + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Can expresses permission
Can he stay a little longer?
They cant have lunch at 12.
b. Can expresses ability (can=be able to)
physical power/capacity: Can you lift this piece of furniture?
knowledge/skill: Can they solve this problem?
circumstances: Can Susan come to our meeting on Wednesday? ( it may be
paraphrased by be in position to: Is Susan free to do so? Is Susan in a position to
do so?
c. Can expresses negative deduction:
Jane cant be working so long.
Jane cant have much experience in teaching.
Jane cant have taken your money.
(in my opinion its impossible)
d. In questions, in conversation, can is used:
to make suggestions
to offer to do something or to make polite requests by either asking people to do
things or asking for things.
What can I do around here?
Hello Paul. What can we do for you?
COULD
FORM
a. Affirmative: could
b.Negative:
could not; couldnt (used only in spoken and informal written English)
c. Interrogative: could + subject + infinitive

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USES
a. Could expresses ability (be able to)
Tom could run ten miles when he was young. (=was able to)
b. Could expresses condition:
I could buy you a book. (if I want)
Couldnt he fiind a better job? (if he wanted)
c. Could have done expresses:
i. an action which is not performed:
He could have helped you (but he didnt)
ii. an action which in our opinion has not taken place
She couldnt have overslept (it my opinion it isnt possible)
They couldnt have waited for two hours. (Its out of the question)
The patterns could + bare infinitive and could + have + past participle are used to talk
about possibility in the past.
I remember how it could snow in the mountains even in summer.
I cant find my keys anywhere. You could have left them in your office.
d. In conversation, could is used to mark a present or future possibility. .
Wheres Peter? He could be in the study. (=Perhaps he is in the study)
Note: with could in this use the degree of possibility is less sure than with may
or might.
e. Couldnt as an extinction of can be used in not-so-polite requests.
Couldnt you (wouldnt it be possible for you to) give me your phone number?
Could not and couldnt are used with comparatives to emphasize that someone
or something has as much as is possible of a particular quality (possibility or
impossibility).
Mary couldnt be happier. (=Mary is very happy indeed)
The news couldnt have come at a better time.
MAY
FORM
a. Affirmative: may
b.Negative:
may not
c. Interrogative: may + subject + infinitive
USES
a. May expresses (a) asking for permission as well as in (b) granting permission.
Excuse me. May I have a look at your newspaper?
Could I make a suggestion? Of course, you may.
May also indicates that someone is allowed to do something or has the choice of
doing something, usually because of a rule or law. May not indicates that someone is
not allowed to do something (=prohibition). This second use is chiefly limited to quick
responses to may.
Any two persons may marry in Scotland provided that both persons are at least
16 years of age on the day of their marriage.
May I join your trip? No, you may not!
b. May expresses possibility in the present and in the future:
Dont phone at 9.30. I may be watching the documentary film on television.
Theres someone at the door. It may be Peter. (=Perhaps it is Peter)

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I havent decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Greece. (Perhaps

I will go to Greece)
c. May/might+have+Past Participle expresses posibility about a past action:
The events may or may not have been connected. (its possible that they were
connected)
The chaos may have contributed to the deaths of up to 20 people. (its possible
that it has contributed)
d. For offers and polite requests:
May we recommended a weekend on the Black Sea Coast?
Do sit down. And may we offer you something to drink?
May I come with you to the conference?
e. In formal spoken English, may is also used as a polite way of interrupting someone,
asking a question or introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
If I may interrupt for a moment, John said.
Anyway, may I just ask you one other thing?
f. May is used when the speaker is mentioning the reaction or attitude that he/she thinks
someone is likely to have to something he/she is about to say.
You know, Brian, whatever you may think, I work hard for a living.
MIGHT
FORM
a. Affirmative: might
b.Negative: might not; mightnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c. Interrogative might + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Might can be used to ask for permission in a less direct way. It is similar to could,
when used as a polite way of interrupting someone, asking a question, making a
suggestion, or introducing what the speaker is going to say next.
Might I make a suggestion?
Might I ask what youre doing here?
b. In conversation, might is used to talk about present or future possibility.
We arent sure what we are going to do next weekend. We might go in the
mountains. (=Perhaps we will go to the mountains.)
c. We can use might + have + past participle to talk about possibility in the past.
Betsy is late. She might have missed her train. (=Perhaps she missed / had
missed her train).
d.Might (not) + have + past participle is used to express uncertainty
I suppose I might have been rather critical.
They might not have received our message yet.
e. Might + have + past participle is used to express annoyance at someones failure to
do something (See similar pattern with could in this emphatical use of expressing the
speakers annoyance)
You might have told me before!
f. In conversation, might is used to make a suggestion or to give advice in a very polite
way.

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They might be wise to stop advertising on television.

It might be a good idea to tell your husband.
g. Might is used in idiomatic expressions such as I might add and I might say in order
to emphasize a statement that the speaker is making.
Relatives ring up constantly, not always for the best motives, I might add.
I didnt come as a great surprise to me, I might say.
MUST
FORM
a. Affirmative form:
b.Negative form:

must
must not, mustnt (used only in spoken and informal
written English)
c. Interrogative form: must + subject + infinitive

USES
a. Must/have to/have got to express obligation: (trebuie)
I must be there before 2.
I have to be there before 2.
Ive got to be there before 2. (British English)
Sometimes the context allows the use of either must or have to, depending on whether
the speaker feels that the obligation comes from herself-himself or from elsewhere.
Now I must/have (got) to get your clothes ready for packing.
I see youre got only three decent shirts; your must/ll have to buy some more
when you get there.
b. Must not expresses prohibition: (nu trebuie)
You must not come late to lectures
c. Must expresses deduction:
She must be rich (=Im sure she is rich)
The past form of this construction is:
She must have been rich when she was young. (=Im sure she was rich)
d. Must in conversation is used most of the time to mark logical necessity.
Anns mum must not care.
Your feet must feel wet now.
e. Must + bare infinitive refers to the speakers certainty about a present action.
Its not very warm and youre not wearing a coat. You must be cold. (=I am
sure that you are cold).
f. Must expresses the speakers intention to do something
I must be getting back.
g. Must is used to make suggestions or invitations very forcefully.
You must see the painting George has given me as a wedding present.
You must visit me. Come to dinner.
h. Must is used in remarks and comments where the speaker is expressing sympathy.
This must be a very difficult job for you.
You must be very worried by now.
i. Must is used in exclamations to express surprise or shock.
Go! Please go. You must be joking!
I really must be quite mad!

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You must have gone out of your mind!

SHALL
FORM
a. Affirmative: shall
b.Negative: shall not
c. Interrogative:shall + subject + infinitive?
USES
a. Shall can be used with all persons to emphasize something which the speaker feels is
certain to happen or wants to happen.
I shall definitely help him to finish his work. (conversation).
I shall try to show that our political practices accept integrity as a distinct virtue
(academic prose)
b. In conversation, shall is typically used as a volitional modal in questions acting as
offers or suggestions. (Note that shall is associated with I and we in questions.)
Shall we post this letter for you?
Shall we play tennis tomorrow?
WILL
FORM
a. Affirmative: will
b.Negative: will not, wont (only in spoken English and informal written
English)
c. Interrogative:will + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Will expresses prediction of events or states not involving personal agents.
In conversation, will is commonly used to mark logical prediction as well as personal
volition (and prediction of ones own future actions).
I will say no more on these matters, important though they are.
He will be devoting more time to writing, broadcasting and lecturing.
I wont be here early enough to show you before school.
b. Will marking assumption
It wont be that difficult to do.
c. Will is used in questions in order to make polite invitations or offers
Will you stay for dinner?
Wont you sit down?
d. Will is also used in questions in order to ask or tell someone to do something
(volition).
Will you drive me home?
Wipe the jam off my mouth, will you?
(Would can be used as a less definite, more polite form of will in this meaning; see
would in this use).
e. Will (related to the present) refers to activities or events that are repeated and which
we notice, such as peoples habits or characteristics of things
Kate is very kind. Shell always help people if she can.
Art thieves will often hide an important work for years after it has been stolen.

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In the Western Isles itll rain for days on end.

WOULD
FORM
a. Affirmative: would; d (in spoken and informal written english often abbreviated)
b.Negative: would not; wouldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c. Interrogative: would + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Would expresses prediction. of events or states not involving personal agents. The
meaning is past of hypothetical.
Cheap money would have the same effect by increasing private investment.
I would just read the book as well.
b. Would marking assumption
She would just feel better if she went out.
c.Would is used in questions in order to make polite invitations, offers or requests:
Would you like a drink?
Would you prefer to stay in or go out this evening?
d. Would not may expresses refusal in the past. It may also express refusal in inanimate
objects.
I knew Trevor wouldnt come with me.
The paint wouldnt stick to the wallpaper.
e. Would is used in sentences expressing certainty, where the sentence is a suppressed
conditional sentence.
Nobody would agree with that idea. (if we asked them)
SHOULD
FORM
a. Affirmative: should (note that should as a modal is never contracted to d, unlike
conditional should)
b.Negative: should not, shouldnt (used only in spoken and informal written
English)
c. Interrogative: should + subject + infinitive
USES
a. Should is related to expectation
(Where* should appears, ought to is also possible. Should and ought to are very similar
in meaning, but we often prefer ought to to talk about authority which comes from
outside the speaker e.g. from laws.)
This restaurant* should really be very expensive.
2. Should + have + past participle is used to refer to something which was supposed to
happen.
It should have rained. (but it didnt)
3. Should is used for duty and advisability.
People* should let one know before failing to keep an appointment. (duty)

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I think you* should check to see if our Austrian partners are coming
(advisability)
4. Should + have + past participle is used to express the non-fulfilment of a duty.
They* should have let us know that they werent coming.
5. In conversation, in questions should is used when the speaker is asking someone for
advice, permission, or information. (The speakers questions involve a degree of
uncertainty)
Should I or shouldnt I go to university?
What should I do?
Should we tell her about it?
6.. In writing, should can be used to express a strong obligation politely.
Guests should vacate their rooms by midday.
NEED
FORM
a. Affirmative: need
b.Negative: need not, neednt ;do/does/did not need to, dont/doesnt/didnt need to
c. Interrogative:need + subject + infinitive; do/does/did+ subject + need to+
infinitive
USES
a. neednt/dont need to express absence of obligation
You neednt do it now. (Its not necessary-according to the speaker)
You dont need to do it now. (Its not necessary-external circumstances do not
require the action to be performed)
Interrogative forms are the following:
Need I go there? No, you neednt. Yes, you must.
Does he need to go there? Yes, he does/No, he doesnt.
b. didnt need to expresses absence of obligation in the past:
I didnt need to wait (And so I didnt wait) N-a fost nevoie sa astept.
They didnt need to do anything (And so they didnt do anything) N-a fost nevoie
ca ei sa faca ceva.
c. neednt +have+ Past Participle expresses an unnecessary action which was
performed:
I neednt have waited. (but I did) Nu era nevoie sa astept.
He neednt have taken a taxi. (but he did) Nu era nevoie sa ia un taxi.
HAVE TO
FORM
a. Affirmative: has/have/had to
b.Negative: doesnt/dont/didnt have to
c. Interrogative: does/do/did + subject + have to+infinitive?
USES
a. Have to expresses the external obligation that has its origin in circumstance
(necessity) or in a person other than the speaker or writer.
I have to be home by 10 oclock. (My parents insist.)

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We have to drive on the left in Britain. (That is the law.)

Note: that have to is used to replace must where the modal does not have
corresponding forms.
b. We normally use have to, not have got to, for things that happen repeatedly,
especially when we use one word adverb of frequency (always, often).
I always have to work late on Tuesdays evenings.
Ive got to work late this evening.
c. Have to + bare infinitive refers to a past obligation. (Note: have got to is not used to
talk about the past, we normally use had to.)
We had to go to Germany.
d. Dont have to and wont have to are used to express absence of obligation in the
present and future.
I dont have to leave for another conference.
I hope the plane leaves on time and that I wont have to wait at the airport.
e. Didnt have to expresses the absence of obligation in the past when the speaker did
not do anything because it was not necessary. (Note: neednt have is used when the
speaker did do something although it was not necessary.)
They didnt have to pay tax.
The last time you went you took Hong Kong dollars with you. Yes, but I
neednt have; its easy to change money when you get there.
II. There are a number of fixed idiomatic phrases with functions similar to those of
modals.
be able to; be bound to; would rathe; be supposed;would do well to;had best;be
going to;be liable to; would just as soon;be sure to;had better;be meant to; would
sooner;be unable to;
HAD BETTER
FORM
a. Affirmative: had better; d better
b. Negative: had better not
c. Interrogative: had+S+better+inginitive?
USES
a. Had better + bare infinitive expresses a strong recommendation in a particular
situation.
Im going to an interview tomorrow. Id better iron my shirt.
Its going to be cold tonight. Wed better turn on the heating.
Note: that we always use had (not have) with better in this structure, but the meaning
is present or future, not past.
b. Had better often suggests a kind of threat or warning, and is stronger than should or
ought to.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Replace the words in italics with a construction using a modal verb related to
ability/ inability, permission/ prohibition or possibility/ impossibility.
1. I was able to speak German quite well as a child.
2. Did you hear that sharp noise? I think its possible that one of the book shelves
has broken in the study next door.
3. The company say theyre able to keep pricing competitive.
4. Its possible to fool all the people some of the time and some of the people all
the time, but its impossible to fool all the people all of the time. (Abraham
Lincoln in this, his famous saying, used you, not one).
5. Would you allow me to use your laptop computer for a moment? Its possible
that my computer has a bug in the software.
6. They were able to work together very efficiently.
7. Would you allow me to make one small suggestion? she said.
8. It was impossible for anyone to get in because no one knew the password.
9. The children are not allowed to watch violent TV programmes.
10. Later, at a news conference, Mr. Peel was able to convince the competition that
it would be possible for them to become partners in that huge long-term project.
II. Read the situations and make sentences from the words in brackets. Use may or
might.
a. Why didnt Tim answer the phone? Im sure he was in the house at the time.
1. (he/ be/ in the bath).
2. (he/ not/ hear/ the telephone).
b. I cant find Helen anywhere. I wonder where she is.
1. (she/ go/ shopping).
2. (she/ play/ tennis).
c. I cant find my umbrella. Have you seen it?
1. (it/ be/ in the car).
2. (you/ leave/ in the office).
d. Im looking for Bob. Do you know where he is?
1. (he/ watch/ TV/ in his room).
2. (she/go/ out ).
III. Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must
have and cant have.
1. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the
neighbours/ have/ a party)
.
2. Fiona did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/ what I said)

3. Ben passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/ very difficult).

3. They knew everything about our plans. (they / listen/ to our conversation).

4. When he woke up this morning, the light was on. (he/ forget/ to turn it off)

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5. The jacket you bought is very good quality.(it/ very expensive)

6. The phone rang but I didnt hear it. (I / asleep)

7. I havent seen the people next door for ages. (they/ go away)

8. Peter cant find his umbrella. (He/ leave/ it in the restaurant last night).

9. The lights were red but the car didnt stop. (the driver/ see/ the red light)

IV. Fill the gaps in the sentences with must (nt), neednt or should( nt).
1. Weve run out of paperclips. I get some in the morning.
2. You finish that report tonight if youre too tired. Midday tomorrow is the
deadline.
3. What are you doing here? you be at the meeting downtown?
4. He really have told his brother about this deal. It was supposed to be
absolutely confidential.
5. You clean the office because we havent been using it today, but could you
tidy the shelves in the storeroom, please?
6. You make so much noise. Well be asked to leave otherwise.
7. Im going to be in trouble. I have posted these yesterday afternoon and I
completely forgot.
8. You have typed this a handwritten note would have been quite adequate.
9. The meetings finished. We find out whats been decided any moment now.
10. The diet be maintained unchanged for about a year.
V. Complete these sentences using dont/ doesnt/ didnt have to + one of these
verbs:
arrive, be, climb, cook, get up, go, go, pay, shave, tell, wait, wear, work, work
1. Im not particularly busy. Ive got a few things to do but I them now.
2. Catherine isnt working tomorrow, so she early.
3. Weve got plenty of time. We yet.
4. A man was slightly injured in the accident but he to hospital.
5. The car park is free you to park your car there.
6. I went to the bank this morning. There was no queue, so I
7. Amy is extremely rich. She
8. Paul has got a beard, so he
9. You can tell me if you want but you me.
10. William a suit to work but he usually does.
11. Theres a lift in the building, so we the stairs.
12. Sue at work so early. She arrives early because she wants to.
13. You a good player to enjoy a game of tennis.
14. Karen on Sundays.
15. We arent spending our weekend at home, so we our meals.
VI. Complete the sentences using must or a form of have to. Sometimes two
answers are possible.

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1. I couldnt go to the party last night because I babysit for my sister.

2. You get a visa to visit the United States.
3. Jane will do her homework tomorrow.
4. Its getting very late. We go now.
5. I stay in bed yesterday because I wasnt very well.
6. Mr. Mason wear glasses since he was a child.
7. I dont like work at weekends.
8. The doctor gave me some medicine. I take it three times a day after meals.
9. (you/ work) home last night?
10. John hurry. Hes plenty of time.
VII. Put the verbs in brackets into a modal construction using will or would.
1. The Prime Minister is now 65 years old and in all probability this (be) the last
election that he is likely to contest.
2. The holiday (do) him the world of good.
3. Within ten weeks of the introduction, 34 million people (reach) by our
television commercials.
4. I (imagine) that you cant grow seeds actually in these big plastic bags.
5. If you (let) me pay for a taxi, then at least allow me to lend you something.
6. She (like) to ask questions, but he had moved on to another topic.
7. He kept trying to start the car and the battery got flatter and flatter, until it
(turn) the engine at all.
8. He has insisted that his organisation (negotiate) with the government.
9. It (cost) very much more for the four of us to come from Italy.
10. He expressed the hope that on Monday elementary school (reopen).
VIII. Complete the sentences with should (have) + the verb in brackets.
1. Margaret the exam. Shes been studying very hard. (pass)
2. You missed a great party last night. You (come)
3. We dont see you enough. You and see us more often. (come)
4. Im in a difficult position. What do you think I ? (do)
5. Im sorry that I didnt take your advice. I what you said. (do)
6. Im playing tennis with Jill tomorrow. She shes much better than me. (win)
7. We lost the match but we . We were the better team. (win)
8. Is John here yet? Not yet, but he here soon? (be)
9. I posted the letter three days ago, so it by now. (arrive)
10. I this morning but I was feeling a bit ill. (go)

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1.1.11. THE PASSIVE VOICE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Besides mood, aspect, and tense, a verb has another grammatical category,
namely the voice. The voice system in English makes possible for the action of a
sentence to be viewed in two ways:
Her mother ironed the blouse. [active voice]
The blouse was ironed (by her mother). [passive voice]
The active and passive sentences have the following representations:
ACTIVE VOICE
Her mother
ironed
the blouse.
Subject
Predicate
Direct Object
The blouse
Subject

PASSIVE VOICE
was ironed
Predicate

by her mother.
Object (by + agent)

I. FORM
The active subject becomes the passive agent; the verb to be in the appropriate
tense (that of the main verb); the main verb is in the Past Participle; the direct object
becomes the passive subject, preceded by by:
a. Affirmative:
John sold the book.
The book was sold by John.
b. Negative: subject + be (the appropriate tense) + not + the past participle
It isnt known who made the mistake.
c. Interrogative: be (the appropriate tense) + subject + the past participle
Was the problem solved yesterday?
Has a doctor been sent for?
II. Changes form Active to Passive:
Active
Passive
Present:
writes
is written
Present Progressive: is writing
is being written
Present Perfect:
has written
has been written
Past:
wrote
was written
Past Perfect:
had written
had been written
Future:
will write
will be written
Future in the past:
would write
would be written
Modal verbs:
must do
must be done
Modal + perfective: might have done
might have been done
The Infinitive
My sister loves to be admired by everybody.
She hoped her book to have been accepted by the publisher.
[perfect infinitive]
-ing forms
While being asked about his whereabouts, he felt a cold shiver
running along his spine. [present participle]

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Before having been asked about the robbery, he was taken by t

he police. [perfect participle]
I enjoy being taken out to dinner.
Do you mind her having been arrested? [perfect gerund]
III. Constraints
a. Verb constraints
1.
verbs of being and having to have ( = to own) to be, to belong, to lack, to
seem , to become, to hold, to resemble, to suit require only an active construction:
Tom has a new Jeep. - * A new Jeep is had by Tom.
This dress doesnt suit you. - * You are not suited by this dress.
2.
verbs of wanting and liking] are used in the active voice:
She wanted me to be there. - * I was wanted to be there.
I like that car. - * That car is liked.
3.
the verb to let has no passive form; we use a passive of to allow/ to permit/ to
give permission:
He let me leave early . - * I was let leave
> I was allowed /given permission to leave early.
4.
passive only: to be born, to be drowned (when no agent is implied); in
Nominative + Infinitive constructions.
She was born after the war. - * Her mother bore her after the war.
He was thought to be honest. - * People thought him to be honest
5.
Phrasal verbs to look into, to go into, to arrive at can be used in the passive
only when the subject is an abstract patient, not a concrete one.
This delicate matter had been looked into. * This bag had been
looked into. [matter = abstract subject, bag = concrete subject]
b. Agent constraints
The agent by-phrase is generally optional. The omission occurs:
- when the agent is irrelevant or unknown: My car has been stolen.
- when the agent is left out as redundant: He had a cup in his hands a few seconds
ago, and now the cup is broken.
- when the agent is so obvious that there is no need to mention it: The thief will be
arrested.
- in impersonal statements: Passengers are asked not to enter this area.
IV. Causative have
- The verbs to have and to get can occur in the following construction: have/ get
+ direct object + past participle = somebody does something for/ to you.
I will have you arrested!
- These constructions show semantically that the grammatical subject is not the
agent/ doer of the action, on the contrary there is another agent implied, one
that is not mentioned. The direct object is the sufferer:
She has her hair cut. [the auxiliary has is actually a causative verb, simple
present tense meaning: she will not perform the action of cutting her own hair,
but a hairdresser for example.]
V. Ways of rendering the English Passive into Romanian
a. Active voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb)

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People are getting frightened by earthquake. [Oamenilor le este fric de

cutremur. prezent.]
b. Passive voice into Romanian (+ the appropriate tense of the verb to be)
The letter was written by John. [Scrisoarea a fost scris de John. perfect
compus]
They will take good care of her. [Va fi bine ngrijit. viitor]
c. Reflexive voice into Romanian
A noise was heard. [S-a auzit un zgomot. perfect compus]
The children will be offered many toys. [Copiilor li se vor oferi multe jucrii.
viitor]
A decision was arrived at. [S-a ajuns la o decizie. perfect compus]
Fish eats with garlic. [Petele se mnnc cu mujdei. prezent]
The window broke. [Geamul s-a spart. perfect compus]
Ive had some photos taken this week. (causative have) [M-am fotografiat
sptmna aceasta. perfect compus]
This matter will be dealt with at once. [Ne vom ocupa imediat de aceast
problem. viitor.

B. EXERCISES
I. Turn into Passive Voice:
1. Father did not allow me to go to the party last night.
2. People strongly assume money brings happiness.
3. They are closing down a lot of factories nowadays.
4. Police had to break the meeting immediately.
5. No one talked about this at the meeting.
6. People don`t pay babysitters a lot of money.
7. The President denied access to the affected area.
8. Social workers were doing valuable work.
9. You should meet them at the airport tonight.
10. He has used this apparatus only once since that day.
II. Turn into Active Voice:
1. The murderer was arrested in less than two hours.
2. A speech to the nation was made by the Prime minister.
3. The building was being guarded by the police.
4. Both drivers will be taken to the hospital by the ambulance.
5. The watch has been repaired skilfully.
6. Someone will have to be found to take my place.
7. The goods had been sent to the required address.
8. The accident had been seen by a crowd of people.
9. My car was just being repaired by Tom when I arrived.
10. He is expected to be back at the end of the week.
III. Finish the sentences:
1. All the people know the President well. The President..
2. They are just lengthening the road. The road..
3. He admitted this on very few occasions. On very few occasions..

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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

She has proved that all his statements are lies. All his statements..
The man had never before made such a firm promise. Never..
I will never tell them the truth about the accident. They..
Everyone knows that gym exercises are good for health. Gym exercises..
They didn`t find out about the results until later. Not until later..
They were trying a new check-out system in the library. A new..
Someone should give him the required information. He.

IV. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals. Make sure the
sentences are passive.
1. They have found some very old coins in a churchyard.
DISCOVER
2. I am sorry, I dont know his name.
INTRODUCE
3. Police had not found out the identity of the victim.
IDENTIFY
4. The satellite will give us new pictures of the planet Mars. RECEIVE
5. At this time yesterday, the mechanic was repairing my bike. REPAIR
6. The building is thought to date from the 10th century.
IT
7. The author has included key answers at the end of the book .BEEN
8. Chinese people inhabit this beautiful island.
BY
9. They are looking into the files very carefully.
EXAMINE
10. As soon as he finishes his report, he will take me for a walk. FINISHED
V. Use tenses of the Passive Voice as required:
1. They (invite) to Bucharest this week. (Present Tense)
2. About 100 new flats(build) by the end of the year. (Future Tense)
3. The yesterday newspaper (buy) by many people. (Past Tense)
4. She now believes she (take in) by all his lies. (Past Simple)
5. I think he is the very person that can (ask) about it. (Infinitive)
6. The announcement (make) immediately after midnight. (Past Perfect)
7. A new meeting on this problem (arrange) by the Commonwealth Prime Minister.
(Present Continuous)
8. The new proposals (discuss) when he entered the meeting hall. (Past
Continuous)
9. Traffic rules must (obey). (Infinitive)
10. I cant believe she (recognize) by her uncle. (Present Perfect)
VI. Translate into English:
1. Toate acele case au fost distruse de recentul cutremur.
2. Mi s-a spus c s-au discutat multe aspecte interesante la conferina de ieri.
3. Se tie c telefonul a fost inventat de A. G. Bell n 1876.
4. i se va permite s vizitezi tot muzeul cu condiia s nu atingi exponatele.
5. Acest material este foarte bun, se calc uor.
6. Se insist foarte mult asupra nvrii asistate de calculator.
7. Dup toate datele primite, casa va fi demolat mine.
8. Se observ c tiina a evoluat foarte mult n ultimii ani.
9. Progresele tehnice sunt analizate cu atenie n toate centrele de tiin din lume.

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III. 1. 2. THE SUBJUNCTIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Subjunctive is a grammatical mood used in (in)dependent sentences in order
to refer to events which are not certain to happen which we hope will happen, or
imagine might happen, or want to happen. (Swan, 1990: 580)
I wish I were younger. (unfortunately I am not)
From a formal point of view, there are 2 types of Subjunctive:
a. the Synthetic Subjunctive
b. the Analytical Subjunctive.
a. THE SYNTHETIC SUBJUNCTIVE
I. FORM AND USES
- The Old Subjunctive (the Present Subjunctive) resembles the form of the Short
Infinitive of the verb for all tenses and persons and is used to express supposition,
purpose, fear, suggestion, request, wish, necessity etc.
It is important that he come/ be invited to the party.
From a semantic point of view, the Old Subjunctive can be classified into:
The Formulaic Subjunctive in the formal and old-fashioned style, it is used
in independent/ main clauses that contain certain idioms to express wishes, prayers or
protests (often involving supernatural powers).
God save the Queen!
Be that as it may, she will carry on with her plan!
The Mandative Subjunctive is used in subordinate 'Thatclauses' to express
desire, demand, requirement, obligation, necessity, suggest, command etc.
He made the suggestion that the thief come and explain everything.
- The Modern Subjunctive (the Past and Past Perfect Subjunctive) conveys the idea of
unreality, regret about a situation, improbability, and doubt. The Past Subjunctive is
used when the action referred to is simultaneous with or posterior to the reference time
(usually used for present and future time). The Past Perfect Subjunctive resembles the
form of the Indicative Mood, Past Perfect for all tenses and persons and it is used when
the action referred to is anterior to the reference time (used only for past time).
If I were you, I wouldnt wait for him any longer.
I wish I had known the truth about this matter.
II. Ways of translating the Synthetic Subjunctive
a. conjunctiv prezent:
God bless the King! (Dumnezeu s-l binecuvnteze pe rege!)
I wish he were us. (A vrea s fie aici.)
b. imperativ: Expenses be hanged! (D-le ncolo de cheltuieli!)
c. indicativ prezent:
Suffice it to say that he was caught stealing the pearls! (E de ajuns s spunem ca
a fost prins furnd perlele!)
d. conjunctiv perfect: He wishes he had been there. (Ar dori s fi fost aici.)
e. condiional optativ:
He looked at me as if he had seen a ghost. (S-a uitat la mine de parc ar fi vzut
o stafie.)

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b. THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE

I. FORM AND USES
- The Subjunctive Equivalents (or modal auxiliaries) are often used to replace the Old
Subjunctive in informal English.
His uncle urged that he should sit down and wait.
No matter how pretty she might be, she cant be your girl friend.
II. Ways of translating the Analytical Subjunctive
a. conjunctiv prezent:
It is necessary that your father should sign the application. (Este necesar ca tatl
tu s semneze formularul.)
b. conjunctiv perfect:
It is impossible (that) he should have failed the exam. (Este imposibil ca el s fi
picat examenul.)
c. condiional optativ:
However disgraceful it may be, you must give him a hand. (Orict de dezonorant
ar fi, trebuie s-l ajui.)
d. condiional optativ/ indicativ:
I wish you would call me earlier! (Tare a dori s m suni mai devreme!/ De
ce nu m suni mai devreme?)

B. EXERCISES
I. Build up sentences with the following words using the Subjunctive:
1. He recommended that (I, some money, to lend, to his friend).
2. She orders that (to see, the vet, at once, her dog ).
3. I suggest that (immediately, to return, all of you, in the classroom).
4. The Prime Minister demanded that (to house, from USA, the delegates, at the
best hotel).
5. They insist that (John, to resign, tomorrow).
6. He urged that (to work, the employees, more efficiently).
7. I propose that (in the morning, to be, at six, in my office, you).
8. Mary required that (the diploma, the schoolmaster, her, to give).
9. The doctor insisted that (to take, before meals, the pills, every day, he).
10. The mayor demands that (to keep, all the citizens, clean, the town).
II. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a present
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. Its a pity you leave so soon.
2. I regret he doesnt know how to start the engine.
3. Im sorry the delivery comes come so late.
4. Its a pity you get only poor marks at the exams.
5. I regret the girls dont pay attention to the explanations.
6. Its pity I cant fix the car.
7. Im sorry they are fighting every day.

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8. Its a pity you dont speak to each other.

9. I regret our teacher drinks so much coffee.
10. Its a pity you dont try to improve your pronunciation.
III. Rephrase the following sentences using 'wish' to express regret for a past
action (the meaning must stay the same):
1. I didnt meet her yesterday.
2. It was time for us to leave.
3. Mike failed all his exams.
4. He didnt bring the money for the dictionary.
5. We didnt study semantics last term.
6. They didnt know how to act under such circumstances.
7. She wasnt there at the right moment.
8. We didnt spend much time together.
9. They didnt have any children.
10. I didnt understand her real problems.
IV. Use the past tense and the past perfect forms of the Subjunctive after: as if /
though, suppose, even if/ though according to the meaning:
1. He looked as if he (see) a ghost.
2. He wouldnt solve the exercise even if he (try).
3. Suppose you (be) there, what would you have done?
4. The criminal behaved as though he (not know) anything about the murder.
5. He smiled friendly as if he (recognize) her.
6. I wouldnt sell my honesty even though he (give) thousands of dollars.
7. You treated those people as if you (not meet) them before.
8. You treated the girl as if you (not know) her.
9. Suppose you (have) a flat of your own, would you put me up?
10. I wouldnt invite him even if you (ask) me to.
V. Rephrase the following sentences using its impossible/ normal/ natural/
unbelievable with should according to the model:
Example: She cant be here at this hour. Its impossible (that) she should be here
She cant have been there at that hour. Its impossible (that) she should have
been there
1. This cant happen again.
2. Allan cant have lied to his parents.
3. You cant leave her alone after all she has done for you.
4. Your best friend cant abandon you in the middle of the battle.
5. They cant have eaten all the food.
6. He cant go abroad this week.
7. You cant have done such terrible mistakes.
8. Peter cant ask Mary to marry him.
9. That wind cant have destroyed the whole city.
10. You cant utter such heavy words.

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III.1.3. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definiton
The Conditional is the grammatical mood expressing suppositions, doubt or
different types of conditions real, (im)probable, (im)possible/ hypothetical .
The conditional mood can cover two types of structures:
dependent clauses made up of two parts: the main clause/ MC and the adverbial
clause of condition/ IfC:
I would leave if I had enough money.
independent clauses where the IfC is rather implied from the context. They can
be part of a dialogue or of free indirect speech/ thought:
I told you what had happened to Paul and how he reacted. What would you
have done? I would have fired those that had robbed the company.
II. Conditional Clauses
In English, there are three main types of Conditional Clauses.

TYPE CONDITION

I.

possible to
fulfill

MAIN CLAUSE

IF

IF/CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE

I will pass the exam

if

I study harder.

Voi trece examenul

daca

voi invata mai mult.

Future Form (will + Infinitive)

II.

in theory
possible to
fulfill

Present Form

I would pass the exam

if

I studied harder.

As trece examenul

daca

as invata mai mult.

Present Conditional (would + Inf.)

III.

impossible to
fulfill

Past Form

I would have passed the exam

if

I had studied harder.

As fi trecut examenul

daca

as fi invatat mai mult.

Perfect Conditional (would + have

Past Perfect Form (had
+ Past Participle)
+Past Participle)
III. Mixed conditionals
In addition to all the tense variations that we can use in first, second and third
conditionals, it is also possible to mix conditionals so that, for example, the if clause
uses a verb form used in the first conditional and the main clause uses a verb form
used in the third conditional. The context defines the meaning. The most common
mixed conditional is:

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Type III
if + past perfect
If I had worked harder at university,

Type II
would/could/might+ infinitive
I would have a degree now.

Here are some other examples of mixed conditionals :

Type 1
Type II
If you come to the party tomorrow,
I wouldn't bring Mike with you.
Type II
Type III
If she loved him,
she would have stayed with him.
IV. Conjunctions which can replace IF
Unless + affirmative verb (If + negative verb) places a negative condition
Unless you come at once, Ill take it with me. (If you dont)
Unless you had a lot of money, you couldnt buy it.(If you hadnt)
Unless he is happy to see me, I wont come to bother him. (If he is unhappy)
Providing / provided (that) used when there is a strong idea of limitation
(chiefly used with permission)
You can borrow her bike provided (that) you bring it back by 10 pm.
But for + a proper name/a noun/a pronoun = If it were not for/ if it hadnt been
for
My best friend has come to help me. But for him, I wouldnt get the diploma.
But for his trust, I wouldnt have succeeded.
Suppose/supposing = what if/ whathappen if?
Suppose he doesnt come on time? = What if he doesnt? = What will happen
if he?
Suppose I hadnt sent you the document? = What if I hadnt sent?= What
would have happened if I hadnt sent
In case usually refers to a future condition that may or may not arise:
In case I receive any news, Ill let you know.
If so and If not, used instead of complete clauses:
Is anybody feeling cold? If not, let's put the central heating off.
You may have some difficulty operating the machine at first. If so, do not
hesitate to telephone our service department.
On condition that = if
He will give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday too.
As long as = if
Cynthia is welcome to stay with us as long as she shares the rent.
V. Inversion
The sentence must begin with the IfC where an inversion of the subject with the
lexical verb or auxiliary verb is performed.
Were I (If I were) the rector of the University, I wouldn't approve of this. [in
written language, in literary style]
Had she known (If she had known) about it, she would have come home at
once. [in written or spoken language]
Should it be necessary (if it should be necessary), I will leave by the 10 pm

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train. [in written or spoken language, to express a polite suggestion]

VI. Ways of translating a Conditional structure
In English there is a dependency between the forms of the verbs in the two
clauses; they express the same kind of action, situated in the same period of time (past,
present or future), and yet, they have different forms (tenses), unlike the Romanian
language where we have the same forms in both the MC and IfC.
Type 1:
Viitor/prezent & viitor/prezent
I will leave if I have money. [Voi pleca/ Plec dac voi avea/ am bani]
prezent/ viitor + cumva & imperativ
If you should run into Paul, tell him he owes me an answer. [Dac cumva te
ntlneti cu Paul, spune-i c mi-e dator cu un rspuns.]
perfect compus & prezent/perfect compus/viitor
If I did that, I apologise. [Dac am fcut asta, mi cer scuze.]
If I said that, I was mistaken. [Dac am spus asta, am greit.]
If she made a mistake, she will try to correct it. [Dac a fcut o greeal, va
ncerca s o ndrepte.]
viitor/ prezent + conjunctiv prezent (verb lexical) & prezentul (unei verb care va
reda sensul modal al lui will: a vrea sau a refuza)
If he wont do it, well have to do it ourselves. [Dac refuz s fac asta, va
trebui s facem noi singuri.]
Type 2:
condiional optativ prezent
I would leave if I had money. [A pleca dac a avea bani.]
Type 3:
condiional optativ perfect
I would have left if I had had money. [A fi plecat dac a fi avut bani.]

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form:
1. If he (meet) her, he will invite her to the theatre.
2. If the weather (be) fine, well go for a ride.
3. You (disappoint) your students if you dont come to the last class.
4. Unless he (study) economy, he will become an accountant.
5. You can make your dreams come true, provided you (work) hard.
6. Unless you have an interpreter, you (can) to understand each other.
7. Suppose she (not admit) she has made the mistake. What will you do?
8. If you take these pills, you (feel) much better.
9. Theyll blame you, if the plan (not to work).
10. Trevor (not to make) his decision, if he doesnt talk to his lawyer.
11. If you had made a good work, he (congratulate) you.
12. They wouldnt have lost if they (take) the map with them.
13. If you ( not to threaten) her , she wouldnt have told the police.
14. He (hurt) him if he hadnt been a well educated man.
15. Peter would have walked if he (repair) his car.

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16. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
17. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
18. You (have) your hair cut if your father hadnt asked you to.
19. She wouldnt have been so relaxed if she (pass) the exam.
20. She (not to expect) so good results if she hadnt worked so much.
21. I wouldnt have made up my mind so quickly if it (be) for her.
22. You (have) your hair cut, if your father hadnt asked you to.
23. She wouldnt have been so relaxed, if she (pass) the exam.
24. You would have caught the train, if he hadnt kept you so much.
II. Choose the most appropriate conjunction (unless, suppose, supposing, provided)
and fill in the blank spaces:
1. I will accept your invitation you send a car to take me.
2. You can go fishing tomorrow it rains.
3. I will repeat the requirementyou dont understand.
4. They will come with us on the tripwe invite them.
5. He cant pass the exam he sits for it.
6. What would you dohe doesnt give you the key?
7. you admit you were wrong, she wont forgive you.
8. Mary were your manager. How would you behave?
9. Ill buy the furnitureI have enough money.
10. They will never finish their worksomebody help them.
III. Find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Had I know the truth, I wouldnt have asked that silly question.
2. Ill lend you the dictionary provided you brought it back on time.
3. Suppose you are the president. Would you declare war?
4. She will join you unless you dont tease her.
5. Were you a soldier, will you die for your country?
6. I wouldnt have turned down that idea, if I had known it was his.
7. All the runners would be exhausted if the race had taken place on such a hot day.
8. Were he honest to her if he hadnt trusted her?
9. Ill retire when I would reach the age of 55.
10. Would the project have been implemented supposing he put it forward?
IV. Rephrase the following sentences using the conjunction if:
1. I didnt go out yesterday because the weather was so bad.
2. Mary was shy with boys because her father didnt let her meet them.
3. She was attracted to Tom because he seemed so pleasant.
4. Tom wanted to marry her because she was rich.
5. Her father liked him because he thought Tom was a politician.
6. Mary believed his story because she had so little experience of men.
7. She married him because she thought he really loved her.
8. He treated her badly because he didnt love her.
9. She shot him because he was so terrible to her.
10. All this happened because her father was so foolish.
V. Complete the following sentences:
1. But for John, your sister
drowned.

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2. If you.. . ,then Id like it back, please.

3. Unless he. ..fail the exam.
4. Helen wouldnt agree with you, even
5. Thanks for your encouragement. I ..otherwise.
6. If it hadnt..for a walk.
7. Had your father heard...a new car.
8. I wont ever go shopping, provided
9. If you will.
the whole truth.
10. I wouldnt be a teacher, ifa long time ago.
VI. Match the clauses and write the mixed conditional sentences in your notebook.
A. If you had told me about this problem earlier,
B. If you were a more sensitive person,
C. If they don't contact you soon,
D. If he hadn't died so young,
E. If he didn't work so hard all the time,
F. If the train hadn't been delayed,
G. If he was feeling ill this morning,
H. If youre coming with us
I. If I really wanted to have children,
J. If you had worked harder last month,
A. he probably won't be at the meeting.
B. you could always ring them up.
C. his wife would never have left him.
D. you wouldn't have said that to her.
E. would have had them by now.
F. everything would be all right now.
G. would you hurry up and get ready?
H. you wouldn't be so busy this month.
I. we would be there by now.
J. I'm sure he'd be a famous musician by now.
Example:
If you had told me about this problem earlier, everything would be all right now.
VII. Rewrite the sentences replacing if with the most appropriate conjunction.
1. Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference if we pay
him a reasonable fee. (supposing that / unless / on condition that)
Example:
Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference on
condition that we pay him a reasonable fee.
2. I won't help him if he doesn't ask me properly. (provided / unless / as long as)
3. If I could get a job, life here would be perfect. (what if / even if / if only)
4. If you had a lot of money, do you think you would give up work? (Supposing
that / Providing that / As long as)
5. If the train arrives on time, they'll be here in a few minutes. (What if / Assuming
that / On condition that)
6. If he doesn't agree to my request, what will I do then? (Imagine / What if /

265

Provided that)
7. You can go out tonight if you get back by midnight. (as long as / assuming that /
supposing that)
8. If the helicopter hadn't been there to save her, what would have happened
then? (If only / Imagine / Unless)
9. If you'd offered to pay me a thousand pounds, I wouldn't have done it. (If
only / Provided that / Even if)
10. If Rosie gets this new promotion, we'll have enough money for a holiday abroad
this year. (Even if / Provided that / Supposing that)
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Poate s participe la Jocurile Olimpice numai dac se antreneaza intens.
2. Friptura ar fi bun dac ar fi cald.
3. Dac nu ar fi grdinile i parcurile, centrul oraului ar arta dezolant.
4. Petre ar fi avut necazuri la examene, dac nu l-ar fi ajutat colegul su.
5. Dac l-ai vedea cum arta nu l-ai mai recunoate.
6. N-a fi consimit niciodat s prsesc linia frontului, dac a fi tiut ce se va
intmpla.
7. n cazul n care voi uita , nu ezita s-mi aminteti de aceast problem.
8. Dac nu ai fi att de mincinos, n-ai fi acum in situaia regretabil ca nimeni s nu
aib ncredere in tine.
9. Ce-ar face directorul dac s-ar ntmpla s te gseasc fumnd in curtea colii?
10. Oamenii au ncredere n tine dac i tu ai ncredere n ei.
11. Vei avea nevoie de bani n cazul n care renuni la serviciu.
12. Imagineaz-i c i-ar fi vopsit baia n negru.
13. Dac n-ar fi fost Maria nu a fi primit cecul.
14. N-am s pot repara frigiderul dect dac vine mecanicul.
15. Dac cumva m caut Jack, spune-i c sunt la restaurant.
16. Dac v-ar face plcere s lucrai n biroul meu, comunicai-mi pn mine sear.
17. Dac vrei s ne nsoeti, vom mai lua un cort.
18. Dac ai binevoi s ateptai cteva clipe, l voi chema pe domnul director.
19. Nu ai fi acum aici, dac nu ai fi cheltuit toi banii pe cai.
20. Ai fi tiut rspunsul, dac ai citi mai mult.

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III. 1.4. SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A complex sentence contains a main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. We can distinguish the following types of subordinate clauses:
a. Direct Object Clause
b. Prepositional Object Clause
c. Subject Clause
d. Predicative Clause
e. Relative Clause
f. Adverbial Clause of Time/ Place/ Manner/ Comparison/ Reason/
g. Condition/Purpose/Result/Concession
a. Direct Object Clauses
There are several grammar rules related to the sequence of tenses in direct object
clauses the speaker has to follow.
1. There is no tense limitation in the direct object clause when the main verb is in the
Present Tense or Present Perfect Tense:
I know Paul has sent the book.
Susan knows that you led a rifle platoon during the Second World War.
We all know that the Prime Minister will appoint a civilian as defence minister.
2. When the main verb is in the Future Tense the speaker can use all tenses in direct
object clauses apart from the future tenses:
Trevor will let them know that they are safe.
3. When the main verb is in the past the verb in the direct object clause ought to be in
the past too.
Subordinate clause action versus main clause action

Anteriority
Simultaneity
Posteriority

Tense
clause
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect
Past
Perfect

in

main

Tense/Past

Tense in
subordinate clause
Past Perfect

Tense/Past

Past Tense

Tense/Past

Future-in-the-past

He told me he had spent his early life in Sri Lanka before moving to England.
Peter thought he was right.
Walter said himself he would be satisfied with whatever he could get.
Note: It does not apply in the following cases for statements which are still valid in the
moment of speaking now have the verb in the present tense although it is also correct
to change the verb into the past or with verbs such as know, realise, believe, think, hope,
regret etc.
He explained that the population of London is around 9 millions.
I realised he is a South- American.

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4. The subjunctive is used in direct object clauses after verbs like ask, demand, require,
order, urge, suggest, propose, arrange, recommend. Either subjunctive can be used.
Mr. Hill suggested that their candidate should be supported/be supported by
the Socialist too.
5. The use of the tenses in direct object clauses after the main verb wish
- wish + past tense (=past subjunctive) when the regret is related to the present reality
I wish(ed) John were/was here with us on this wonderful trip.
- wish + past perfect (=past perfect subjunctive) when the regret is related to the past
reality.
They wish(ed) she had joined their company two years ago.
- wish + would + bare infinitive to express a future action the speaker wants to happen
but which has less chances to fulfill.
Catherine wishes he would become a reliable person. (but she doesnt think he
will).
The above pattern is also used in polite requests
I wish you would be quiet.
- wish + present tense/future tense when wish means hope.
Helen wishes he will finish his work soon. (=Susan hopes he will finish his work
soon).
- the subjunctive (past or past perfect) is also used indirect object clauses after would
sooner/rather when the person who expresses the preference is not the subject of the
action to follow.
I would rather he talked less.
Id sooner Boris had improved his knowledge of English.
Note that the pattern wish + that-clause is translated in Romanian by the pattern
conditional + subjunctive.
I wish he worked harder.
= A dori ca el s munceasc mai mult
I wished he had worked harder.
= A fi dorit ca el s fi muncit mai mult.
and the same for the pattern subject1 + would rather/sooner + subject2 + subjunctive
(past or past perfect).
Id rather he went to Spain.
= A prefera ca el s plece n Spania.
Id rather he had visited the = A fi preferat ca el s fi vizitat Muzeul Prado
Prado Museum in Madrid.
din Madrid.
b. Prepositional Object Clause
The rules of the sequence of tenses applies in the prepositional direct object
clause too.
The two parties agreed upon it that it had been an unfortunate
misunderstanding. (anteriority)
that Mr. Brown was right.
(simultaneity)
that the competition would apologise.
(posteriority)
When the main verb is formed by one of the idiomatic expressions be sorry, be
surprised, be astonished, be amazed, be disappointed in a present tense the verb
in the prepositional object clause will be formed by the following patterns:
- present tense/should + bare infinitive to express simultaneous actions.

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Rupert is surprised that they spend/ should spend their holidays in the little
village. (= Rupert este surprins c ei i petrec concediul n acest micu sat)
-present perfect/past tense or should + perfect infinitive to express an anterior action.
Mr. Hill is glad that our German partner has accepted/should have accepted
the goods (= Domnul Hill este mulumit c partenerul german a acceptat
mrfurile.)

When the main verb is in the past the speaker has to apply the corresponding
sequence of tenses
a. Simultaneity :
past tense or should + infinitive
Our boss was disappointed we were/should be so late. (= eful nostru a fost
dezamgit c noi am venit aa de trziu)
b. Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
Daniel was sorry his father had sold/should have sold his car.
(=Lui Daniel i-a prut rau c tatl su i-a vndut maina)

c. Subject Clause
The speaker can use both the indicative mood or the subjunctive mood. The
indicative mood shows the subject clause action is seen as being fulfilled while the
subjunctive indicates an assumption.
It is strange that Tim arrived at the office so early. (=E ciudat c Tim a sosit la
birou att de devreme).
It is strange that Tim should arrive at the office so early. (=E ciudat ca Tim s
ajung la birou att de devreme.)
There is no tense limitation in the subject clause when the main verb is in the
present tense.
It is unlikely that Ralph has signed/will sign the contract (=Este puin probabil
c Ralph a semnat/va semna contractul)
When the main verb is in the past the verb in the subject clause ought to be in
the past too.
It was a surprise that they had delivered the goods on time (anteriority)
that Ann behaved like that (simultaneity)
that the Prime Minister would deliver a speech. (posteriority)

After idiomatic expressions like it is strange/ alarming/surprising/ annoying

gratifying/splendid (the main verb is in the Present Tense) the subject clause
verb will be used in the following patterns.
a. Simultaneity: present tense or should + infinitive
It is strange that they buy/should bought such expensive goods.
b. Anteriority: present perfect/past tense or should + perfect infinitive
It is gratifying that he waited/should have waited until the plane landed.

When the main verb is in the Past Tense the following patterns ought to be used.
a. Simultaneity: past tense or should + infinitive
It was surprising that they worked/should work until midnight.
Anteriority: past perfect or should + perfect infinitive
It was splendid that they had cooked/should have cooked dinner before our

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coming.
Note that the indicative mood relates to a fulfilled action while the subjunctive relates to
an assumption.

The analytical subjunctive pattern should + bare infinitive is used after

idiomatic expressions like it is/was advisable, desirable, essential, imperative,
important, inevitable , necessary, right, vital.
It is/was necessary that he should earn more money.
The analytical subjunctive pattern may/might + bare infinitive is used after
idiomatic expressions like it is possible, it is probable (see also The
Subjunctive and Modals and Semi-Modals)
It is possible that Jane may arrive tonight.

d. Predicative Clause
There is no tense limitation in the predicative clause when the main verb is in the
Present Tense.
The important fact is that he was sent abroad.
that Mr. Pitt has talked about it.
that the contract will be soon concluded.
When the main verb is in the past the verb in the predicative clause ought to be
in the past too.
The problem was that they had talked to him before.
that we were very busy.
that Sean would leave the next day.
e. Relative Clause
There is no tense limitation in the relative clause.
I showed John the dress Ill wear at our next party. (= I-am artat lui John
rochia pe care o voi purta la viitoarea noastr petrecere.)
My new watch, which I bought a month ago, is very good. (=Ceasul meu cel nou
pe care l-am cumparat acum o lun este foarte bun.)
f. Adverbial Clause of Time
When I have some days off, I go to the seaside. (=Cnd am cteva zile libere,
merg la mare).
While you are cooking dinner, Ill write a letter to Sean. (=n timp ce tu
pregteti cina, eu i voi scrie o scrisoare lui Sean.)
After the show is over, well have supper at the Lido. (=Dup spectacol vom cina
la Lido.)
Tom will join us as soon as he has finished his work (Tom ni se va altura dupa
ce-i va fi terminat ceea ce avea de fcut.)
When they left for University this morning, it was terribly cold. (=Cnd au plecat
la universitate n aceast diminea era ngrozitor de frig.)
They left the company as soon as they had finished their negotiations. (=Au
prsit firma de ndat ce s-au terminat negocierile.)
I would try to contact Mr. Blake before he left the town. (=A ncerca s-l
contactez pe domnul Blake nainte de a prsi oraul.)

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g. Adverbial Clause of Place

There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of place.
Would you please put those two dictionaries back where they belong. (=Ai vrea
s punei cele dou dicionare unde le este locul)
Wherever they went, they met nice people. (= Oriunde mergeau, ntlneau
oameni amabili)
h. Adverbial Clause of Manner
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of manner.
Audrey will do just as you told her.
i. Adverbial Clause of Comparison
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of comparison.
He was as busy as you had thought.
a man could be.
I am now.
you are going to be.
The Romanian pattern cu ct . cu att can be expressed as follows.
The harder he works, the better results he will get.
(pattern : future tense in the main clause + present tense in the adverbial clause of
comparison)
The more frequently they travelled abroad the more they enjoyed it.
(pattern: past tense in the main clause + past tense in the adverbial clause of
comparison).
The subjunctive can also be used in the adverbial clause of comparison
He behaves /behaved as if he were the company chairman. (but he isnt/wasnt)
They talk/talked as if they had known him. (but they havent/hadnt)
j. Adverbial Clause of Reason
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of reason.
I stayed in bed longer this morning because I hadnt been able to sleep all
night.
because today is Sunday.
k. Adverbial Clause of Result
There is no tense limitation in the adverbial clause of result.
He did his job so well
that they promised him a pay rise (=i fcea att de
bine serviciul nct i-au propus o mrire de salariu.
that theyll never forget him. (=i fcea att de bine
serviciul nct nu-l vor uita.
l. Adverbial Clause of Concession
Both present and past tenses in the indicative mood can be used.
Though he has never studied marketing
Although he is very young he is a successful businessman.
Even though he did not study marketing
The analytical subjunctive pattern may/might + infinitive can be used in the

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adverbial clause of concession too. (see The Analytical Subjunctive)

Whoever may/might phone, put him through. (= Oricine ar suna d-mi-l la
telefon)
Note that the above pattern is translated into Romanian by using the conditional.

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences, using a clause:
1. Almost as soon as I entered the company .
2. that they might come across our letter.
3. The old woman who confronted me in the street
4. She was nicer than
5. He said that many years ago
6. They spoke English much better than
7. We arranged to hire a coach that
8. , the more I liked him.
9. He declared that
10. They announced that
II. Select the correct word or expression in brackets in each of the following
sentences. Give the reason for your choice:
1. I learnt recently that Jupiter (is, was) the largest of the planets.
2. If I (had had, have had) more time, I would have done a better job of cleaning
the house.
3. After Einstein (had become, became) famous, his works were published by
many magazines.
4. It is a long time since I (read, have read, had read) a novel as absorbing as this
one.
5. Mr. Black asked me yesterday where I (have gone, went, had gone) the day
before.
6. She (has not bought, did not buy) her dress when she was in town last week.
7. He remained silent as soon as he (had heard, heard) that.
8. He walked so far that he (tired, had tired) himself.
9. His illnes showed him that all men (were, are) mortal.
10. I was glad to hear that her brother (was, is) industrious.
III. Supply the most logical form of the verb in the following:
I just (go) to bed after a very hard day when the phone rang. It (be) an eccentric
farmer. I never (meet) him before, although I often (hear) people talk about him. He
(seem) quite hysterical and he (talk) for a minute or so before I (understand)
anything. Even then all I (can) (make out) (be) that someone called Milly (have) a
very bad accident. I (have not) the slightest idea who she (be) but I obviously (have)
to go.
It (snow) heavily that day and I (not know) the way. I (drive) for at least an hour
when I finally (find) his place. He (stand) there, waiting for me. It (seem) Milly
already (die). She (mean) more to me than anyone even my own wife! he said. I
(can) (see) that he (cry). I (assume) a terrible tragedy (take place) with overtones of

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a possible scandal. I must (admit) I (be) even more shocked when he (tell) me he
(put) her in the barn. I (will not) (leave) her out in the cold! he said.
Milly clearly (be) a secret sweetheart of his. I (be) about to tell him he (cannot)
(expect) me to cover anything up when he (open) the barn door and (point) his torch
at a motionless shape on the straw.
She (be) such a good cow! I (will not) (let) anyone but a doctor touch her! he
said, and (burst) into tears again.
IV. Translate into English:
1. Te voi suna cnd voi porni de acas spre tine, ca s nu risc s fii plecat.
2. tiam c ai s vii la mine, dar m-am ntrebat de ce ai fcut un secret din asta.
3. I s-a spus n repetate rnduri c cinstea e cea mai bun dintre politici, dar nu a
vrut s cread, i am aflat c acum a pit-o.
4. De ndat ce a vzut-o, a rmas tcut, gndindu-se c este mult mai frumoas
dect i-o nchipuise vreodat.
5. A venit s m vad, dar nu eram acas, nefiind anunat din timp, iar la
ntoarcerea mea tocmai plecase s se ntlneasc cu un alt prieten de al lui, cu toate
c i-ar fi plcut s se sftuiasc cu mine, deoarece are mai mult ncredere n mine,
dect n el.
6. Ori de cte ori treceam prin faa colii m ntrebam ce or mai fi fcnd fotii mei
profesori i unde sunt oare colegii mei.
7. Ori de cte ori te ntlnesc, simt nevoia s-i spun ct de mult a dori s fim
prieteni.
8. l admir mai puin dect l-am admirat pe bunicul su care a fost un om adevrat.
9. N-a fost un secret pentru nimeni c reuita lui se datoreaz, n mare parte,
srguinei cu care a nvat n tot timpul care a trecut de la sosirea lui la facultate.
10. Am sosit aici doar de trei zile, dar m simt de parc a fi venit de mult.

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III.1.5. DIRECT AND INDIRECT/ REPORTED SPEECH

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
When we change a statement from the Direct Speech (DS) to the Indirect
Speech (IS) we change some of the words that the person said, without altering the
meaning of the persons remark or speech, and the quotation marks are not used.
He said (that) breakfast would be a cheerless affair for the Prime
Minister that morning.
I. Direct speech (DS)
The verbs of reporting and thinking are: to say; to tell, to remark, to
observe, to point out, to report, to announce; to ask, to demand, to inquire; to reply (to
say in response), to protest (to say with reservation); to warn (to say about undesirable
consequences); to insist (to say emphatically); to complain (to say irritably); to sob, to
beam, to snort, to twinkle and others according to the situation.
II. Indirect speech (IS)
The changing from DS into IS brings a number of constraints that affect:
- the speaker (changes concerning the persons of the pronouns);
- the time of the action (changes concerning the tenses of the verbs);
- the location of the action (changes concerning the adverbs of time and of
place);
- the structure of the sentences (changes concerning imperative,
interrogative or exclamatory sentences)
III.a. Morphological changes
III.a.1. Tense Backshift
- Tenses are moved into the past (backshift) after a past tense reporting verb:
Im leaving. She said she was leaving.
- When the reporting verb (say, tell, remark, etc.) is in the present, present
perfect or future, direct statements can be reported without any changes of tense.
Methane is often regarded as the second most important greenhouse gas
after carbon dioxide, he explains. [DS]
He explains than methane is often regarded as the second most
important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide. [IS]
TENSE in DIRECT SPEECH

TENSE
in
INDIRECT
SPEECH
PAST SIMPLE
Sue said that she wanted to
stop.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
John said that he was going
home.

PRESENT SIMPLE
I want to stop, said Sue.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
Im going home, said John.

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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

Sally has finished, announced Will.
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
We have been working very hard at the
office lately, said Robert.

PAST SIMPLE
The Second World War lasted nearly six
years, remarked Simon.
PAST PROGRESSIVE
I was still working at eight oclock
yesterday evening, confirmed Helen.

FUTURE SIMPLE
Ann will find a wide variety of choices
available in university cafeterias, said
Tom.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
Ill be using the car myself on the 27th,
she said.
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
Ill have finished my work by the end of
next week, he explained.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
Ill have been working non-stop for over
three weeks, said Mary.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

Will announced that Sally had
finished.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Robert said that they had
been working very hard at the
office lately.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Simon remarked that the
Second World War had lasted
nearly six years.
PAST
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE
Helen confirmed that she had
still been working at eight
oclock in the evening the day
before.
FUTURE IN THE PAST
Tom said that Ann would find
a wide variety of choices
available
in
university
cafeterias.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
IN THE PAST
She said that she would be
using the car herself on the
27th.
FUTURE PERFECT IN
THE PAST
He explained that he would
have finished his work by the
end of the following week.
FUTURE
PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE IN THE
PAST
Mary said that she would
have been working non-stop
for over three weeks.

Notes:
Verbs already in the past perfect, do not change.
Christine said, I had seen the film before. [DS]
Christine said that she had seen the film before. [IS]
After a past tense reporting verb, conditional sentences type 1 and zero
conditionals (= real situations) undergo backshift.

275

He said, Youll feel a lot better about yourself if you work on solutions to your
upsetting situations. [DS]
He said that they would feel a lot better about themselves if they worked on
solutions to their upsetting situations. [IS]
In reported hypothetical situations in the present (= conditional sentences type
2), if the event is clearly hypothetical and impossible, time changes are made.
If I had a map, I could find the way, he explained. [DS]
He explained that if he had had a map he could have found the way. [IS]
Hypothetical past conditional sentences type 3 do not change.
Peter said, If I had gone by bus to the office, I would have missed the
meeting. [DS]
Peter said that if he had gone by bus to the office he would have missed the
meeting. [IS]
If the reporting verb is in a past tense, modal auxiliaries change where there is a
past equivalent: can changes to could, will changes to would, shall changes to
should and may changes to might. Would, should, ought to, had better, might,
used to, could and must do not normally change. Must can be reported as either
had to or remain as must:
He said, I might not be back until next week. [DS]
He said that he might not be back until the following week. [IS]

Exceptions from tense backshift

Tense backshift is optional in the cases of the habitual uses of the simple present
tense. The population of London is around 9 million, he explained. [DS]
He explained that the population of London is around 9 million. [IS]
In spoken language the tense backshift does not apply when direct speech is
reported very soon afterwards.
Im too busy to come, she said. [DS]
She said shes too busy to come. [IS]
III.a.2. Morphological changes of pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
A. Pronouns and possessive adjectives normally change from first or second person to
third person except when the speaker is reporting his own words.
She said, Id like to join an aerobic class to improve my fitness. [DS]
She said that shed like to join an aerobic class to improve her fitness. [IS]
B. Changes of viewpoint: demonstrative pronouns/ adjectives
This used in time expressions usually becomes that.
He said, I know a wonderful restaurant where we can have lunch this week.
He said that he knew a wonderful restaurant where they could have lunch that
week.
C. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time and place
If we report words like here, now, today in a different place or at a different
time, they often change.
SPEAKERS WORDS
INDIRECT SPEECH
here
there
this
that/ the
now
then
today
that day

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tonight
tomorrow
the day after tomorrow
yesterday
the day before yesterday
next week/ year/ Monday/ August

that night
the next day/ the following day
in two days time
the day before/ the previous day
two days before
the following week/ year/ Monday/
August
the previous week/ year/ Monday/
August
a year/ week before/ the previous
year/ week

last week/ year/ Monday/ August

a year/ week ago

III.b. Syntactical changes

III.b.1. Interrogative sentences
Yes/ no questions are reported using if. The word order is the same as in
statements and we do not use a question mark.
Do you like hamburgers I asked her. [DS]
I asked her if she liked hamburgers. [IS]
Wh-questions are introduced by the wh-word (when, where, what, who, why,
etc.) which begins the questions in direct speech.
She said, Where do you come from? [DS]
She asked (me) where I came from. [IS]
III.b.2. Imperative sentences
We often report directives (orders, requests, warnings or pieces of advice) using
the structure verbs + (object) + to infinitive.
command
She said, Get out of my room!
She ordered me to get out of her room.
warning:
Ruth said, Stay away from me.
Ruth warned them to stay away from her.
request:
Ann said, Could you help me with my bags, Oscar?
Ann asked Oscar to help her with her bags.
advice:
Albert said, You should phone the police.
Albert advised them to call the police.
negative orders: Dont touch my glasses, said Steven to Grace.
Steven told Grace not to touch his glasses.

B. EXERCISES
I. Put the following statements into indirect speech:
1. The company believes that products will sell well in the run-up Christmas, he
explains.
2. Mr. Blake says, Its not a very good time to sell at the moment.
3. John warns, Throwing good money after bad may not be a good idea.

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4. Ann says, My Marketing Director is hoping he can sell the idea to clients.
5. Experts have been discussing how to improve the fight against crime, he said.
6. Residents are advised not to put their rubbish bags on the pavement outside
their houses, said Ann.
7. The marketplace was jammed with a noisy crowd of buyers and sellers.
8. Ive lived most of my adult life in London, said Mr. Rankin.
9. Shes leaving the day after tomorrow, said Ken.
10. All the lights went off, and mass hysteria broke out, said Walter.
II. Report these sentences:
1. Would you like to join us to dinner? said Paul.
2. Stay away from me, said Mike.
3. Lets wait here!, she said.
4. Damn that map!, he said.
5. Can I help you? he said.
6. Would you like to come to my party? said Collin.
7. Can you lend me some money? Ken asked me.
8. Switch off the TV, she told David.
9. Happy Birthday, she said to Mary.
10. I wont forget shopping, said Ann.
11. You should stop smoking, said Dr. Blake.
12. Dont smoke in here!, said my boss.
13. Are all of these organisations running as independent businesses? Do they have
very little contact?, asked Charles.
14. Will you carry my briefcase for me please, Richard? said James.
V. Use these verbs to report what the people said in as few words as possible.
assure, claim, congratulate, deny, disagree, insist, promise, regret, remind, reproach,
suggest, warn
1. No it wasnt me. I didnt borrow your bike.
2. Ill let you know as soon as they get here. OK?
3. Dont forget: youve got to hand in your work this evening.
4. Its a shame you couldnt make it to the party last night.
5. Well done! I always thought youd pass.
6. Dont worry, as long as you keep your head, youll manage all right.
7. You really must come and visit us next weekend!
8. I dont really think that what you said makes sense.
9. If you park on this double yellow line, youll get a ticket.
10. You shouldnt have behaved like that. You should be ashamed of yourself!
VII. What exactly would you say in these situations?
1. You have to convince the board that your proposals about merging are the best
policy for the future.
2. You want a foreign client to repeat his words because you were unable to pay
attention.
3. You are questioning the bank you work with for a surcharge.
4. You invoiced a client twice the sum he/she was due to pay; repair the situation.

278

5. You dont want to attend a meeting presided by your boss because you know
hes boring and inefficient.
VIII. Turn into Indirect Speech:
1. Why is he going to do this? Matt asked.
2. It is raining hard now. We cant leave Claire said.
3. You certainly studied it a week ago, you must remember this, the teacher said.
4. He has been working hard lately so you must let him rest a while she begged.
5. If you listen carefully, you will learn he warned the students.
6. Lets wait for Jane here, Mike suggested.
7. Well know the results in a week, they assured us.
8. They needed our help so we offered them help, they claimed.
9. I am going to London tomorrow; I must set things in order there, he decided.
10. Dont go away so early, she advised him.
IX. Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same:
1. Sue, can you remember to buy some bread?
Paul reminded
2. I dont really think itll snow tomorrow.
I doubt..
3. Im sorry I didnt phone you earlier.
Jill apologized
4. I really think you should see a doctor, Chris.
Will advised..
5. No, Im sorry, I wont work on Saturday. Definitely not!
Cathy refused..
6. Lets go out to the pub for lunch, shall we?
Wendy suggested..
7. Its not true! I have never been arrested.
Larry denied.
8. If you like, Ill help you do the decorating, Bob.
Ann offered..
9. Ill definitely take you to the park, children.
Tom promised the..
10. Yes, all right, Ill share the bill with you, Dave.
Brenda agreed.

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III.1.6. NONFINITE FORMS

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The six grammatical categories according to which a finite verb is inflected are:
person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood.
The nonfinite verbs may have some of the categories above mentioned: voice (I
would like not to be watched. infinitive, passive voice) or aspect (He is said to have
stolen the goods. perfect infinitive).
If there appear some morphological changes in the context where the ing-forms
occur, the Participle and the Gerund can act as a verbal adjective and as a verbal noun,
respectively.
I saw the dancing bear in the park. (Verbal Adjective)
The children were impressed by the dancing of the bear. (Verbal Noun)

1.6.1. THE INFINITIVE

I. FORM
a. Affirmative: to write, to see, to bring
I would like to write a letter to her to apologize for everything I did.
b. Negative: not to write, not to see, not to bring
I wanted him not to swear strangers.
II. USES
a. Verbal features
it may have aspect, voice or take direct objects:
It does him good to take long walks. (Present Infinitive, Simple Aspect present
reference)
I was glad to have finished it soon. (Perfect Infinitive, Perfective Aspect past
reference)
The shop is said to have been broken into. (Perfect Infinitive, Passive Voice)
The teacher told us to read a book about Shakespeare. (Direct Object)
III. Ways of translating the Infinitive into Romanian
a. infinitiv
To err is human, to forgive, divine. [A grei e uman, a ierta e divin.]
b. conjunctiv prezent/ perfect (diateza activ sau pasiv)
I want to see Hugh. [Vreau s-l vd pe Hugh.]
I didnt want to have said this. [N-am vrut s fi spus acest lucru.]
Do you expect the shop to be opened on Sunday? [Te atepi ca magazinul s fie
deschis duminic?]
c. modul indicativ (timpul prezent, trecut sau viitor) n propoziii subordonate
I was glad to have finished it soon. [M-am bucurat c am terminat mai
devreme.]
John is believed to have brought on all the trouble. [Se crede c John a cauzat
tot acest necaz.]

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1.6.2. THE PARTICIPLE

I. There are two participles in English:
- THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE (Im dancing)
- THE PAST PARTICIPLE (I have danced).
The difference between the two participles lies in the meaning they have:
whereas a Present Participle generally expresses an active meaning, the Past Participle
has a passive one.
I found the barn burning. ([the fire was burning active)
I found the barn burned. (the house was burned passive. The Past Participle is
the consequence of the event expressed by a Present Participle.)
II. FORM OF THE PRESENT/ PAST PARTICIPLE
a. Affirmative:
- the ing form of a verb (the Present Participle) - (I was) working/
loving
- the en form of a verb (the Past Participle) - (I have) worked/ loved
b. Negative: - not + the ing form of a verb (the Present Participle)
- not + the en form of a verb (the Past Participle)
Not knowing what to say, I kept my mouth shut.
She will not answer, if not asked.
III. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
a. . to form with the auxiliary to be the progressive aspect
I am reading a book. [Present Tense Progressive]
I have been reading a book for five hours. [Present Perfect Progressive]
b. Verbal features:
it may have aspect, voice or take a direct object:
Having finished his work, Peter went out for a walk. [Perfect Participle,
perfective aspect)
Being found guilty, he was taken to prison. [passive voice]
The girl is playing tennis.
it may have an indirect object:
Grandma is telling me a very funny story.
c. Adjective features
The Present Participle may also have the function of an adjective. The Present
Participle used as a noun modifier bears the name verbal adjective.
the verbal adjectives can be used predicatively or attributively:
The news is interesting. I heard the interesting news.
IV. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE
a. to form with the auxiliary to be the passive voice and with the auxiliary to have the
Perfect Tenses
A book was read. [Past Tense, Passive Voice]

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You could have told us everything. [have told = Perfect Infinitive]

I cant stand having been deceived. [Perfect Gerund, Passive Voice]
2. Verbal features
It may take direct objects or prepositional objects:
We have asked several questions.
3. Adjective features
The Past Participle can be used attributively or predicatively.
He had too many shattered dreams. His dreams are shattered.
V. Ways of translating The Present/ Past Participle into Romanian:
a. Gerunziu/ Propoziie subordonat ( + un mod predicativ: prezent, trecut sau viitor):
I saw John opening the gate. (L-am vzut pe John deschiznd poarta.)
All things considered, we will accept him. (Lund n considerare toate aspectele,
l vom accepta.)
b. Conjunctiv prezent
Ill have her typing two letters. (Am s o pun s bat la main dou
scrisori.)
c. Adjectiv
The news seemed very interesting. (tirile preau foarte interesante.)
d. Adjectiv/ participiu: my beloved child (copilul meu drag/ iubit)
e. Substantiv: a never-ending story (poveste fr sfrit)
f. Participiu: They were defeated by a more powerful army. (Ei au fost nvini de o
armat mai puternic.)

1.6.3 THE GERUND

An ing form can cover another nonfinite form of the verb, namely a Gerund. Even
if the Gerund resembles the Present Participle in form, it is totally different in syntax.
Laughing loudly is not nice when you have an official meeting. (the subject)
I. FORM OF THE GERUND
a. Affirmative: -ing form
Do you mind my smoking in here?
b. Negative: not + -ing form (Gerund); not + having + Past Participle of the verb
Do you mind me not coming with you? (Te deranjeaz dac nu vin cu tine?)
II. USES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GERUND
a. Verbal features
The Gerund may have aspect, voice, a direct, indirect or prepositional object:
Your going there is a little bit surprising. (simple aspect)
Your having gone there was a little bit surprising. (Perfect Gerund)
She resents being asked personal question. (passive voice)
I enjoy talking about my new job.

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b. Nominal features
There are some morphological and syntactical features that show that the Gerund
has nominal morphological features which make it change into a Verbal Noun.
- definite/ indefinite article:
The rebuilding of the city took more than we thought. (Verbal Noun)
Rebuilding the city took more than we thought. (rebuilding Gerund)
- plural number: We are exhausted with his comings and goings. (Verbal
Noun)
- genitive (the prepositional genitive):
The beautiful singing of the children was the climax of the party.
c. Pseudo-adjective features
Like the Present Participle, the Gerund can precede a noun, but whereas the
Present Participle can become a Verbal Adjective, the Gerund does not become an
adjective. Compare the following ing forms:
a dancing bear (dancing = Verbal Adjective a bear which is dancing)
a dancing-teacher (dancing = Gerund a teacher of dancing)
III. Ways of translating the Gerund into Romanian
1. gerunziu:
Fancy Tom dancing. (Imagineazi-l pe Tom dansnd/ c danseaz.)
2. conjunctiv:
He is fond of listening to music. (i place s asculte muzic.)
3. infinitiv:
He had the chance of telling the truth. (A avut ansa de a spune adevrul.)
4. modul indicativ (prezent, trecut sau viitor)
Do you mind me smoking in here? (Te deranjeaz dac fumez aici ?)
Do you mind me having smoked in here? (Te deranjeaz dac am fumat aici?)

B. EXERCISES
I. Identify the Infinitival and Participial constructions and specify the verbs that
trigger them:
1. The boy noticed the dog running.
2. We named John to be our President.
3. I want him to listen to me.
4. They are supposed to be coming round tonight.
5. They felt the house shaking.
6. The house was announced to have been broken into.
7. I swear not to do this again.
8. He is unlikely to come at the meeting.
9. He seemed to be annoyed by the noise.
10. They cant allow him to be laughed at.
II. Choose the correct form:
1. This meat ....... awful! I think it has gone bad.
a) is tasting
b) tastes

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2. They were .......their motorcars dangerously.

a) raising
b) racing
3. It was nice to see the kids ....... in the sun.
a) lying
b) laying
4. ....... typed the letters, the secretary put them into envelopes.
a) being
b) having
5. We regret ....... that we cannot accept your apologies.
a) to tell
b) telling
6. I remember ....... the door when I left the house.
a) to lock
b) locking
7. ....... furiously, I led the dog out of the room.
a) as it barked
b) barking
8. He was always ....... mistakes in his translations.
a) to make
b) making
9. Can you remember what you were doing .......?
a) usually at that time of the day b) that time of the day
10. .......being very tired, the swimmer finished the race
a) in spite of
b) despite
III. Use the Gerund or the Infinitive of the verbs in brackets:
1. (talk) about the first item on the agenda, the chairman went on (discuss) about
the unemployment problem.
2. You should (try) settle the dispute between them; Im sure youll find a solution.
3. Ill have the mechanic (check) the battery while hes here.
4. Its no good. The car is broken down and I cant make it (go).
5. (Judge) from recent events, people will stop (complain) about loss of jobs.
6. I hate (think) sometimes that he might find excuses for everything he does.
7. I didnt remember (post) the letter, so I still have it.
8. Ill never forget (walk) on the beach with her and (enjoy) the morning sunshine.
9. I invited her (come) out with me.
11. I tried (go) to bed immediately after lunch but I couldnt sleep.
IV. Finish the sentences using Gerund or Perfect Gerund:
1. The answer to the employment problems seems to lie in .......
2. I would never think of .......
3. He sees no harm in my .......
4. Why dont you stop ....... if you dont like .......?
5. He was so happy he succeeded in .......!
6. Who is responsible for .......?
7. He doesnt seem to me to be fond of .......
8. He said he was looking forward to .......
9. He said he wasnt used to ....... in public
10. I could notice how much he enjoyed .......
V. Finish the sentences so that the meaning stays the same:
1. It was very kind of you to help me with the housework.
2. I appreciate .....................
3. I saw that he closed the safe.

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4. I saw him .....................

5. I will talk with someone to paint my house.
6. I will have .....................
7. I suggest that they should paint the doors white.
8. I suggest .....................
9. The pipe is old and it leaks badly.
10. The pipe needs .....................
11. I am so anxious to hear about you.
12. I am looking forward .....................
13. He felt sorry he had been late for the concert.
14. He apologised .....................
15. I know how to solve this Maths problem; look here!
16. Thats the way .....................
17. The idea was to stay there and wait. I wasnt pleased with it.
18. The idea of .....................
19. He finished his work; he left the room without a word.
20. After .....................
VI. Rewrite each sentence using the words in capitals:
1. He is sorry he didnt answer her letter.
REGRET
2. There is a risk that she will miss the train if she doesnt take a taxi. RISKS
3. Working late is pointless, because you wont finish the composition till
tomorrow.
USE
4. I wont smoke anymore, I promise!
UP
5. You may go home; she wont come; dont wait for her.
WORTH
6. You are not permitted to park here.
PARKING
7. I really dont know if I turned off the gas when I left
REMEMBER
8. I finished my homework and then I went out for a walk.
HAVING
9. It is strange that you should call on us at this hour.
YOUR
10. Is it all right if I go with you as well?
MIND
VIII. Translate into English:
1. Ce-ai zice s mergem i s-l vizitm disear?
2. Fratele meu prefer s joace tenis dect s m nsoeasc n parc.
3. De ce nu ncerci s evii cltoria pe timpul nopii?
4. M-am obinuit s merg pe jos 3 km pe zi.
5. E foarte greu s-i mpiedici pe oameni s parcheze n acel loc.
6. Nu-mi amintesc s fi plouat mari toata ziua
7. Dar cum l poi face s nceteze de a copia la lucrri?
8. S ncercm s pornim aparatul prin apasarea pe butonul rou.
9. Acoperisul necesit reparaii urgente.
10. Foarte greu m-am obinuit cu ideea de a-l pierde.

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III.2. THE NOUN

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea.
Late last year our neighbours bought a villa.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
II. Classification of nouns
Grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the
proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable
noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun),
and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type:
it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or
collective.
II.1. Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are names of specific persons, places, or things and they are
always written with capital letters. The names of days of the week, months, historical
documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are
proper nouns.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Last year, I had a Baptist and a Buddhist as roommates.
II.2. Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general
sense.
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
II.3. Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that can be
perceived through the physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had
new shingles.
II.4. Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which can not be perceived
through the five physical senses.
Mary is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

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II.5. Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural
form, and it names anything (or anyone) that can be counted.
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
II.6. Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural
form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A
non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are
similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
II.7. Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You
could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a
whole, as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to
maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun,
and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
III. Number
English has two numbers: singular and plural. The singular number denotes that
one thing is spoken of; the plural denotes that more than one thing is spoken of.
III.1. In modern English -s or -es has come to be the "standard" ending of the plural
forms of nouns.
The majority of English count nouns are regular and predictable in the spelling
of the plural form. Add -s to the end of the singular form or -es to those singulars that
end in a sibilant sound (-s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh, -zz).
-s
-es
boy / boys
patch / patches;
bed / beds
box / boxes;
book / books
bus / buses
pen / pens
lunch / lunches
day / days
class / classes
III.2. However, if the singular ends with -y and the -y is not preceded by a vowel (or is
not a proper name), the -y changes to -i and the plural is then -es. Compare:
-y / -ies
-y / -ys
spy / spies
play / plays
baby / babies
bay / bays
city / cities
osprey / ospreys
sky / skies
boy / boys
III.3. Some nouns that end in -f/-fe change to -ves in the plural:
-f; -fe / -ves

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calf / calves
half / halves
leaf / leaves
life / lives
wife / wives
shelf/shelves
self/selves
knife / knives
However, there are some nouns ending in f, -fe that can have two plural forms (both -fs
and -ves): e.g. scarf scarfs / scarves; wharf wharfs / wharves.
III.4. Some nouns change the vowel sound in becoming plural:
sg. / pl.
Man / men
Woman / women
Foot / feet
Goose / geese
Tooth / teeth
Louse / lice
Mouse / mice
III.5. Some Old English plurals are still in use:
sg. / pl.
child / children
ox / oxen
III.6. Nouns ending in -o may take -s or es in the plural. Compare:
-o / -os
-o / -oes
auto / autos
echo / echoes
photo / photos
hero / heroes
piano / pianos
potato / potatoes
kilo / kilos
tomato / tomatoes
video / videos
veto / vetoes
However, some nouns ending in -o may take both -s and -es:
sg. - pl.
Motto mottos / mottoes
Buffalo buffalos / buffaloes
Tornado tornados / tornadoes
Zero zeros / zeroes
Cargo / cargos / cargoes
III.7. Some nouns do not change at all:
sg. / pl
cod* / cod*
deer / deer
fish* / fish*

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offspring / offspring
sheep / sheep
trout* / trout*
*Notice that these are names of fish. Many (but not all) fish have irregular plural forms. Salmon, pike,
halibut and tuna are further examples, but one shark becomes two sharks.

These include nouns that are traditionally plural, but are also used for singular forms:
sg. / pl
barracks / barracks
crossroads / crossroads
headquarters / headquarters
means / means
series / series
species / species
III.8. Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that some of these have adapted a regular
English plural form as well.
III.8.a. Nouns ending in a with plural ae:
singular
foreign plural
English plural in use
alga
algae
amoeba
amoebae
amoebas
antenna
antennae
antennas
formula
formulae
formulas
larva
larvae
vertebra
vertebrae
III.8.b. Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in technical use):
sg. / pl
corpus / corpora
genus / genera
III.8.c. Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:
singular
foreign plural
bacillus
bacilli
cactus
cacti
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
octopus
octopi
stimulus
stimuli
III.8.d. Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:
singular
foreign plural
addendum
addenda
bacterium
bacteria
curriculum
curricula
datum
data
medium
media
memorandum
memoranda

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English plural in use

cactuses
funguses
English plural in use
curriculums
mediums
memorandums

III.8.e. Nouns ending in -ex, -ix becoming plural -ices:

singular
foreign plural
English plural in use
appendix
appendices
appendixes
cervix
cervices
cervixes
index
indices
indexes
matrix
matrices
matrixes
vortex
vortices
III.8.f. Nouns ending in -is becoming -es in plural:
sg. / pl
analysis / analyses
axis / axes
basis / bases
crisis / crises
diagnosis / diagnoses
oasis / oases
III.8.g. Nouns ending in -on becoming -a:
sg. / pl
criterion / criteria
phenomenon / phenomena
III.8.h. The plural of compound nouns
Compound nouns may be divided into two classes:
Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word. These make
the plural in the last part.
courtyard, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not,
handful, maidservant, stepson.
Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or
phrase making a modifier. The chief member adds -s in the plural.
attorney at law, commander in chief, court-martial, father-in-law, knight-errant.
NOTE:Some words ending in -man are not compounds of the English word man, but add -s; such as
talisman, firman, Brahman, German, Norman, Mussulman, Ottoman.

Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as man singer, manservant,
woman servant, woman singer.

IV. Noun - Gender

Whereas in other languages gender follows the form, in English the gender
follows the meaning of the word,; that is, in English, gender depends on sex: if a thing
spoken of is of the male sex, the name of it is masculine; if of the female sex, the name
of it is feminine. Thus gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, or additions
to words.
English can have but two genders masculine and feminine. All nouns, then,
must be divided into two principal classes - gender nouns, those distinguishing the sex
of the object; and neuter nouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things
without life, and consequently without sex.

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Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals; neuter
nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects.
There are three ways to distinguish the genders:
By prefixing a gender word to another word.
By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word.
By using a different word for each gender.
IV.1. Gender shown by prefixes.
Usually the gender words he and she are prefixed to neuter words: he-goat / shegoat, cock sparrow / hen sparrow, he-bear / she-bear.
IV.2. Gender shown by suffixes.
By far the largest number of gender words are those marked by suffixes.
The ending -ess is added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine:
M. / F.
baron / baroness
count / countess
lion / lioness
host / hostess
priest / priestess
However, the masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine -ess is
added: e.g. abbot abbess; negro / negress ; murderer / murderess.
The feminine may also discard a vowel which appears in the masculine: e.g. actor /
actress; master / mistress.
IV.3. Gender shown by different words.
Sometimes, the feminine and the masculine are entirely different words
M. / F.
bachelor/maid
boy/girl
brother/sister
drake/duck
earl/countess
father/mother
gander/goose
husband/wife
king/queen

M. / F.
lord/lady
wizard/witch
nephew/niece
ram/ewe
sir/madam
son/daughter
uncle/aunt
bull/cow
boar/sow

V. Noun Suffixes
These are common endings for nouns. If you see these endings on a word, then you
know it must be a noun.
-dom: wisdom; kingdom;
-ity: capability, flexibility;
-ment: contentment, appointment;
-sion, -tion: celebration, expression;
-ness: toughness, kindness.

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-ance, -ence: assistance, existence;

-er, -or: fighter, actor;
-ist: violinist, pianist.

B. EXERCISES
I. There are two or more plural nouns in each sentence. Only one of them is an
irregular plural noun. Underline the irregular plural noun in each sentence and
write the singular form. The first sentence has been done for you.
1. Vincent helped the women choose their costumes. Woman
2. The hunters never noticed the two deer by the apple trees.
3. Are the geese chasing the other farm animals?
4. Do turtles have teeth?
5. The children told their parents about the matches.
6. You should place the knives and spoons to the left of the plates.
7. The children stood on boxes to see the parade.
8. We took pictures of the oxen as they pulled the wagons.
9. Sandy knew that many mice were living in the walls of the old houses.
10. Please keep your hands and feet inside the car.
11. All the kings horses and all the kings men ate scrambled eggs.
II. The underlined noun in each sentence is spelled in its singular form. Write the
correct plural form after the sentence. The first one is done for you.
1. There are too many box in our attic. Boxes
2. How many picture did you take on your trip?
3. Cheryl doesnt enjoy washing dish.
4. There are three church in our little community.
5. Our soccer team has had four wins and three loss.
III. In each sentence there is one singular noun that should be plural. Underline
that noun and write the correct form after the sentence. The first one is done for
you.
1. We put ten of our best crystal glass on the table. Glasses
2. All the student in that school wear uniforms.
3. Our watch dont show the same time.
4. Why are all school bus painted yellow?
5. Seven protester were arrested after the riot.
6. We saw some bright flash of light coming from the woods.
7. Why must I pay four different tax on the same income?
IV. There are two or more singular nouns in each sentence. One of those nouns
should be changed to its plural form to be correct. Underline the incorrect noun
and write its proper form after the sentence. The first three have been done for
you.
1. The old dog no longer fought over their food.
dogs
2. I read seven story to my son.
stories
3. Harold lost five of his new book.
books

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4. We never noticed the frog that were sitting on the salad.

5. The governor brought all his child to the ceremony.
6. Annabella was outraged when the nurse said she had eleven louse in her hair.
7. There were many flash of light in the sky.
8. Mrs. Dale insisted that her property tax were too high.
9. All my dream came true when you became my wife.
10. Alice, did you remove some shelf from this bookcase?
11. My calf were sore after the race.
12. None of the switch were turned off on that panel.
13. The painter left their ladder in the middle of the driveway.
14. I sent three reply to your e-mail address.
15. All the witch flew over our Halloween party.
16. Penny put many penny in Pattys purple pantry.
17. Apple were the favorite food at the school party.
18. We saw many scary mask on the last night of October.
19. Olivia falls asleep by counting sheep in her mind.
20. I dont believe that John was chased by a bunch of mummy.
V. Each sentence below is missing a noun. The singular form of the noun is printed
after the sentence. Write the correct form of the noun on the line. The first five
have been done for you.
1. How many presents are under the tree? present
2. My uncle's pranks are annoying. uncle
3. The members' votes were counted by hand. member
4. The teacher collected the children's papers. child
5. Does this mouse belong to you? mouse
6. You girls are not behaving like ______________! lady
7. I will grant you three ______________. wish
8. My ______________ car is falling apart. father
9. The ______________ are stacked against the door. box
10. The ______________ names are Big and Pig. puppy
11. Please take both your ______________ out of my pudding! foot
12. That ______________ belongs to my grandfather. cow
13. All of this ______________ characters had faults. story
14. Most ______________ colors will change during the fall. leaf
15. ______________ joke did not amuse the minister. Mary
16. The last four ______________ won the best prizes. customer
17. None of the ______________ showed the correct time. watch
18. The ______________ plan would surely get them into trouble. boy
VI. Give abstract nouns from these words:
1. to bear, to catch, to obtain, to strike, to destroy, to seize, to keep, to draw, to
crucify, to manage, to see, to pursue, to deny, to despise, to hide, to dally;
2. wry, proud, fluorescent, social, forlorn, busy, , mild, blue, absent, blue, moist,
delicate, keen, broad, lofty, gay, maladjusted, nimble, perverse, merry,
3. life, brother, coward, patron, traitor, rival, likely thief, mother, partner, pauper
(two forms), hard.

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VII. Give the plural of the following nouns:

a. genius, touch, snail, tuft, axe, porch, pebble, parsnip, bough, scarf, coop,
colliery, ecstasy, sheath, nettle, reef, calf, hoof, elf, belief, titmouse, cameo, solo,
species, grouse, mongoose, index, die, wit, pain, brace, compass, ground, minute,
custom, moth, elk, necklace, fiddle, fiasco, hank, hansom, parsley, parish, scoop, tick,
jaw, wrinkle, hyacinth, alley, clog.
b. Rondo, sphinx, miasma, chamois, larynx, persona, necropolis, casino, virtuoso,
bandit, cactus, zero, hippopotamus, fauna, flora, cherub.
VIII. Give the plural of the following words. Translate them into Romanian:
by-street, milktooth, fir-tree, pickpocket, eggshell, wage-freeze, picklock,
wisdom tooth, eyeglass, catchfly, glasseye, knowlittle, court-martial, commander-inchief, test-tube, garden-flower, housewife, stepson, sun-bath, wind-screen, breakdown,
eyelash, do-nothing, boyscout, poet laureate, good-for-nothing, attorney-general,
onlooker, oil-can, goldfish, daybreak, bitch-atter, bulls eye, beau ideal, caroing-knife,
she-sparrow, lieutenant-colonel, science-fiction diary, lawn-mower, mars quake, brushoff, dog-rose, coltsfoot.
IX. Choose the correct form of the noun, verb and determinative(s) and explain
your choice; or say where both are correct:
1. Statistics (is/are) used on a large scale in a countrys industry.
2. In a lot of (grottos/grottoes) all over the world, researchers have discovered
(frescos/frescoes) made by the primitive men.
3. Unfortunately, Pauls little brother is not good at (figure/figures).
4. He is a well-known hunter of (bison/bisons), but finds a great pleasure in
hunting (grouse/grouses) as well.
5. After a ten-day journey through the desert, they found a small (oasis/oases).
6. He planted three (score/scores) of bulbs.
7. The annals of Tacitus (is/are) among the best historical sources for the history of
the Roman times.
8. Mumps (is/are) very catching.
9. The committee (was/were) of the opinion that it/they should take further steps.
10. The vast (sand/sands) of the desert made him shiver with fear.
11. The (snow/snows) and (frost/frosts) of the Antarctic made him sway between
(hope/hopes) and (fear/fears).
X. Give the feminine of the following words:
marquis, ram, boar, friar, bullock, executor, wizard, ambassador, buckhedgehog, duck, bachelor, count, bee, fianc, cow, goose, witch, calf, fox, lion, bride,
ram, peacock, lad, swan, cock (rooster), sow, stag, mare, widow, protg, billy-goat,
marquis.

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III.3. THE ARTICLE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
English has two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a, an.) The use of
these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or
to a specific member of a group:
I. Indefinite Articles: a and an
A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a
group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general;
the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The
rule is:
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
some + plural noun: some girls
But note:
a uniform
a European an MP
an L.-plate
/ju:/
/ju:/
/em/
/el/
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the
initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken window
an unusual meeting
a European commision
I.1. USES
The indefinite article can be used before singular countable nouns; it cannot be used
before uncountable nouns:
I bought an armchair.
(but NOT: I bought a furniture.)
We use the indefinite article:
when we are referring to one thing, but it is not one in particular:
I'd like a peach.
when we refer to something for the first time. With the second reference, we
use the:
There's a man at the door. 1 think it's the man from the garage.
after to be and have got when we are describing someone or something,
including someone's job, nation or religion:
She's a headteacher. But: She's the headteacher of Park School.
Brian is an Irishman.
Julian is a practicing Buddhist.
He's got a lovely smile.
It's a nice day.
But: It's the nicest day we've had all week.
with a unit of measurement (weight, quantity, time):
12 a kilo, three times a day, once a week
In exclamations:
What a lovely day!

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II. The definite article: the

The definite article the signals that the noun is definite; that it refers to a particular
member of a group.
II.1. USES
The definite article can be used before singular and plural countable nouns and
before uncountable nouns. We use it when we want to refer to a specific thing or things.
This includes:
when the content of the sentence specifies which particular one(s) we are talking
about:
The people next door have invited as round for a drink.
I'll wear the dress I bought last week.
when something is referred to for a second time and therefore becomes specific:
They've got a boy and a girl. The girl is at university now.
when we refer to a particular place, person, animal or thing and the speaker and
listener know which one(s) is/are being referred to:
The window cleaner's here.
I think your keys are in the kitchen.
when there is only one:
the world, the sun, the weather, the American Civil War
before some collective nouns referring to a whole group of people, including
names of nationalities and political parties or groups:
the British, the Conservatives, the government, the public, the army
before some adjectives (used without a noun) to refer to the group in general:
the rich, the unemployed, the disabled
before parts of the day:
in the morning
before names of ships, newspapers and magazines and some names of musical
groups:
The Daily Mirror, The Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra
before superlatives and ordinals:
It's the best film I've seen.
That's the second time she's failed the exam.
before names of musical instruments when we talk about playing them:
Can you play the piano?
But: I've just bought a piano.
before names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, islands called The Isle of ...,
chains of mountains, deserts, regions and a few names of countries:
the Atlantic Ocean, the River Nile, the Himalayas, the Sahara, the
Southern Hemisphere, the north, the USA, the Netherlands, the Sudan, the
Ivory Coast, the Philippines, the Bahamas, the Isle of Wight
III. The zero article (no article)
Articles are not used before plural nouns and singular uncountable nouns which are used
in a general sense.
Books are very important to me.
Have you read the books I brought you last month? Water is the best thing to drink
when you're thirsty. Did you put the water in the fridge?

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III.1. OTHER USES OF THE ZERO ARTICLE:

with proper nouns:
James has gone to London.
I'm leaving on Saturday.
with meals:
Have you had breakfast yet?
But: That was a lovely breakfast.
with school, class, college, university, home, work, church, bed, hospital, prison,
town when we talk about going to these places or being in them for their normal
use:
Peters gone to bed.
She's been in hospital for three weeks.
But: There isn't a hospital in the town.
with by + item of transport:
Did you go by train?
with next/last + week, days of the week, etc:
next Wednesday, last night, next time

B. EXERCISES
I. Write a or an in the blank.
1. I saw an owl on your roof.
2. They built a real igloo in the park.
3. Erin is ...... honor student.
4. Is Maxwell really ...... horrible student?
5. The speech lasted for ...... hour.
6. Barbara bought ....... better basketball.
7. ...... bald eagle flew above the hill.
8. ..... honest reply would be appreciated.
9. Does ...... ancient city lie beneath the water?
10. How far can ...... gallon of gas go?
11. I think I saw ..... oriole perched on the branch.
12. Would ...... old-fashioned man wear a diamond earring?
13. Did I make ...... mistake by serving the chocolate covered worms?
14. Someone put ...... eel in the bathtub!
15. ..... humorous hippo hugged Helen.
16. We arrived after ...... long afternoon in the automobile.
17. ...... ugly camel answered our eager call.
18. I believe it was ...... accidental meeting.
19. I just picked ..... one ounce apple.
20. She taught ...... exciting lesson.
II. Complete the sentences with a or an, the or no article.
1. 'How much are the leeks?' 'They're 80 pence a pound.'
2. I went to ...... wonderful concert by ...... London Symphony Orchestra.

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3. ...... local school is soon to be closed.

4. I usually go to ...... work by ....... train.
5. Is ...... meat in ...... oven?
6. Is this ...... first time you've been to ...... Isle of Man?
7. He's ...... art teacher and she's ...... electrician.
8. A lot of people give ....... money to ....... charity at this time of year.
9. What....... beautiful face that child's got!
10. ....... British usually have ...... butter on their bread.
11. ...... life is very difficult for ....... unemployed these days.
12. ....... Leader of ....... Opposition is in danger of losing her seat at ...... next
election.
13. I like to have ....... cup of ...... tea when I wake up in ...... morning.
14. I saw ...... fox this morning. I think it must have been ...... same one that I saw last
week.
15. Can I have ...... apple?
16. Have you ever seen ...... Acropolis in ....... Athens?
17. ...... police have had a lot of support from ...... general public over this issue.
18. ...... shirts on ...... washing-line should be nearly dry now.
19. ...... people don't like him because of his selfish attitude.
20. I bought my sister ...... book and ...... bottle of ...... perfume for her birthday but I
don't think she liked ...... perfume.
III. Put in a(n) or some in front of the following words:
picture, money, newspaper, milk, rice, soap-suds, oil, water, cloud, axe, moth,
information, ewe, heiress.
IV. Put in a(n), the, some, or any, where necessary:
Tarcu is a small river that cuts across lane near my home. I like sitting
by Tarcau on fine afternoons. It was warm last Sunday so I went and sat on
river bank as usual. children were playing games on bank and there were
people rowing on the river. Suddenly one of children kicked ball very hard
and it went towards passing boat. People on bank called out to man in
boat but he did not hear them. ball struck him so hard that he nearly fell into ..
water. I turned to look at children, but there werent in sight.
V. Fill in the spaces where necessary- with the definite or indefinite article;
explain the use of the articles:
That night was third of September, one thousand six hundred and sixty-six, and
that wind famed Great Fire of London. It broke out at bakers shop near
London Bridge, on spot on which Monument now stands as
remembrance of those raging flames, it spread and spread, and burned, for three
days. nights were lighter than the days; in day-time there was immense cloud
of smoke and in night-time there was great tower of fire mounting up
into sky, which lighted whole country landscape for ten miles round.
showers of hot ashes rose into air and fell on distant places; flying
sparks carried conflagration to great distances; church steeples feel down
with tremendous crashes; houses crumbled into cinders by hundred and
thousand. summer had been intensively hot and dry, streets were very narrow,

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and houses mostly built of wood and plaster. Nothing could stop tremendous
fire but want of more houses to burn; nor did it stop until whole way from
Tower to Temple Bar was desert.
VI. Fill in the spaces with the definite article or indefinite article where necessary:
1. For exactly the same reason cries excited Phil, hammering on table with
both hands.
2. You really must stay to supper. Youll get very nice wine from Sicily,
far better than youll ever find here.
3. fat brown goose lay at one end of table and at other end, on bed of
creased paper strewn with springs of parsley, lay great ham, stripped of
its outer skin, and beside this was round of spiced beef.
4. Pour one pint of boiling milk over pound of bread cut in slices; as
soon as milk is absorbed and cool, beat bread smooth, adding as you beat half
pound of coffee raisins, three quarters of pound of currants, half
pound of final shred suet, quarter of pound powdered sugar, quarter of
teaspoonful each of salt, and glass of wine or brandy grated nutmeg,
and powdered ginger.
5. When he saw it he drew back and his cheeks flushed for moment with
pleasure. look of joy came into his eyes, as if he had recognized himself for
first time. He stood there motionless and in wonder, dimly conscious that
Hallaward was speaking to him, but not catching meaning of his words sense
of his own beauty came on him like revelation. He had never felt it before.
Basil Hallawards compliments had seemed to him to be merely charming
exaggerations of friendship.
VII. Supply articles where necessary:
Of all ... (1) countries of ... (2) former British Empire, it is ... (3) United Kingdom
that I would like to visit most, although I am certain that in ... (4) United States and
... (5) Canada one can find many ... (6) tourist attraction too. I sometimes dream
that, having landed at ... (7) Heathrow airport, I travel by ... (8) underground to
central London, to ... (9) Piccadilly Circus or ... (10) Marble Arch. I find
accommodation at ... (11) inexpensive hotel, not far from ... (12) Thames,
within ... (13) walking distance of ... (14) Buckingham Palace. ... (15) first day I
visit ... (16) National Gallery and ... (17) Tate Gallery and there are so many beautiful
things to see in ... (18) two museums that I have no time left for anything else. On my
second day I wander about ... (19) Bloomsbury, ... (20) intellectual centre of Britain's
capital city, see ... (21) Senate House, where ... (22) University of London has most of
its offices, then ... (23). British Museum and the old houses in ... (24) Russell
Square. Later, I walk around ... (25) Houses of Parliament and listen to ... (26) Big
Ben strike the hour. ... (27) Parliament, as everybody knows, is in ... (28)
Westminster and consists of ... (29) House of Lords and ... (30) House of Commons.
... (31) visitors can see ... (32) latter at work on some days of ... (33) week.
When my English vacation draws to ... (34) end, I decide to cross ... (35) English
Channel by ... (36) ferry-boat and from there to travel home across the Continent by
... (37) rail.

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VIII. Translate into English:

Dup micul dejun, copii au mers la coal i cam dup un sfert de or, eu am mers
la pia. Pentru c m-am ntors acas mai devreme i soul era nc la serviciu, m-am
hotrt s fac nite tarte pentru ceai. n scurt timp, eram ocupat cu amestecatul
untului i al finii; curnd, plmdeala lipicioas mi acoperi minile. Tocmai
atunci, sun telefonul. Nimic n-ar fi putut fi mai enervant. Am ridicat receptorul cu
dou degete lipicioase i am rmas surprins auzind vocea d-nei Brown. Mi-au
trebuit 10 minute s-o conving s m sune mai trziu. n cele din urm am pus
receptorul n furc. Dar ce incurctur! Aluat pe degete, pe telefon, pe clana uii.
Abia am ajuns n buctrie c soneria ri att de tare, nct ar fi trezit i morii. De
data aceasta era potaul care dorea s semnez pentru o recomandat.
IX. Translate into English:
mic cutie chinezeasc, un englez, un vnt destul de puternic, o climar, o viespe,
un nufr, o moar de vnt, un fermoar, un sfat, o curs de oareci, un omer, un an, o
temperatur uniforma, o regul universal, o regin fr pereche, o parvenit, o
curte, o creang de tuia, o clan galben, un om fals, o limb de ceas, un preedinte
onorific, o nmormntare onorabil.
X. Translate into English:
Plugarul, motenitorul, afacerea unilateral, ora, studentul inteligent, omul cu un
singur ochi, olandezii, ghiocelul alb, furnica, timpul tulbure, caisa, regiunea arid,
coaja oului, metoda eficient, acul de siguran, recordul nentrecut, familia unit,
galbenuul, vsla, stilul oficial, cuptorul.

300

III.4. THE ADJECTIVE

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
If we wish to speak of or to describe objects and people, we cannot use only
nouns. We need another category of words in order to describe the characteristics (size,
position, colour, smell, etc.) of an object or the physical or moral qualities of a person.
In other words, in order to add to the meaning of nouns or to limit their application, we
need to use adjectives.
the heavy bag
an innocent child
the yellow rose
a famous writer
a chilly morning
a beautiful woman
a flexible puppet
a merciless dictator
I. Definition
An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression,
to describe, identify or quantify it.
II. Position
Adjectives usually precede the nouns which they modify*,
It was no doubt a gorgeous landscape
Two beautiful young French students entered the room.
but they can also be used after certain verbs:
Peter was furious.
*Pay attention to exceptions such as: knight errant, court martial, secretary general, the people present.

III. Simple and Compound Adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into a series of classes and subclasses according to
the various criteria taken into consideration.
Descriptive adjectives, the largest class of adjectives, may be divided into
simple and compound adjectives when form is the criterion taken into consideration.
Simple adjectives cannot be decomposed into smaller or simpler parts:
safe, happy, deep, dirty, long, correct, amazing, beautiful, terrible, etc.
Compound adjectives are adjectives made of two or more identifiable words:
a life-giving energy, ice-cold water, a blue-eyed woman, a long-legged bird,
homemade bread, a good-looking man, a short-sleeved coat, the next-door
neighbour, etc.
IV. Suffixes
Adjectives can be identified using a number of formal criteria. Some adjectives can be
identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:
capable, flexible, pleasurable, portable, readable, remarkable
-able/-ible
financial, functional, internal, logical, manual
-al
beautiful, careful, grateful, harmful, useful
-ful
attractive, extensive, intensive, persuasive, selective
-ive
anarchic, cubic, economic, heroic, poetic
-ic
childish, bluish, dwarfish, foolish, whitish
-ish

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-less
-ly
-ous
-y
-ing*
-ed*

breathless, careless, merciless, restless, speechless, useless

friendly, kindly. manly, monthly
courageous, dangerous, disastrous, fabulous, virtuous
chilly, dirty, sandy, stony, sunny
amazing, cunning, moving, neighbouring, surprising
broken, confused, experienced, paved, latticed

*-ing and -ed may be added to verbs in order to make up participial adjectives.

However, a large number of very common adjectives cannot be identified in this

way as they do not have typical adjectival form:
bad
dark
honest
red
bright
deep
hot
silent
clever
difficult main
simple
cold
distant
old
strange
common good
quiet
wide
complete great
real
young
V. Negative prefixes
Adjectives may also be formed by means of a number of negative prefixes including
the following:
dis-: disagreeable dishonest
un-: uninteresting, unnecessary
il- : illegal, illogical
im-: impossible, impolite
in-: inconvenient, insignificant
ir-: irresponsible, irrelevant
VI. Degrees of Comparison
Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to
adjectives and adverbs.
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between
them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, a lioness may be larger than a lion, a purse
may be heavier than a suitcase, a womans eyes may be bluer than the sky, an idea may
be better than another one, etc. This characteristic of adjectives is called gradability.
Most adjectives in English are gradable, but there are some adjectives which are
non-gradable as they already denote the highest position on a scale:
favourite, main, final, immemorial, infinite, perpetual, organic, sole, sufficient,
supreme, universal, etc.
The degrees of comparison are the comparative, expressing a greater degree of
quality, and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality. These are
properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the
positive degree.
VI. 1. The Comparative
The Comparative in English is represented by:
the Comparative of Superiority
the Comparative of Inferiority
the Comparative of Equality

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VI.1.a. The Comparative of Superiority

In the case of monosyllabic and easily pronounced adjectives of two syllables,
the comparative is formed by adding the suffix er.
blue bluer, easy easier, fat fatter, happy happier, thin thinner
Most two-syllable adjectives and the adjectives which have three or more
syllables have the comparative with more.
careful more careful, famous more famous
VI.1.b. The Comparative of Inferiority
All adjectives form the Comparative of Inferiority by adding either not so/as ...
as or less ... than.
not as happy as..., less interesting than...
VI.1.c. The Comparative of Equality
All adjectives form the Comparative of Equality by adding as ... as.
as happy as..., as interesting as...
Some Comparatives of Equality have a superlative meaning:
as black as coal, as blind as a bat, as clear as crystal, as good, as gold, as
hungry as a wolf, as poor as a church mouse
VI.2. The Superlative
The Superlative in English is represented by:
The Relative Superlative
The Absolute Superlative
VI.2.a. The Relative Superlative
In the case of monosyllabic and easily pronounced adjectives of two syllables,
the relative superlative is formed by adding the ...-est.
blue the bluest, easy the easiest, fat the fattest, happy the happiest, thin
the thinnest
Most two-syllable adjectives and the adjectives which have three or more
syllables have the relative superlative with the most.
careful the most careful, famous the most famous
VI.2.b. The Absolute Superlative
All adjectives form the absolute superlative by adding the adverb very.
very thin, very careful
Other adverbs such as quite, extremely, awfully may also be added to form the
comparative.
quite happy, extremely dangerous, awfully tired
The
Positive
Degree
thin
famous

The
Comparative of
Superiority
thinner
more famous

The
Comparative of
Inferiority
not as thin as
less famous than

The
Comparative
of Equality
as thin as
as famous as

The Relative
Superlative
the thinnest
the most famous

The
Absolute
Superlative
very thin
very famous

Notes:
1. Some two-syllable adjectives have comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est
or more and most:

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e.g. common commoner/more common the commonest/the most common

simple simpler/more simple the simplest/the most simple
Here are some more: cruel, gentle, handsome, narrow, obscure, polite, remote, shallow, stupid, subtle.
2. Three-syllable adjectives derived from other adjectives by adding the prefix un may also have
comparatives and superlatives with either the endings er and est or more and most:
e.g. unhappy unhappier/more unhappy the happiest/the most happy
unlucky unluckier/more unlucky the unluckiest/the most unlucky

VII. Irregular Comparison

Some adjectives and adverbs in English have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Here is a list that includes the majority of them.
good/well
better
the best
evil/bad/ill worse
the worst
little
less/lesser
the least
much/many more
the most
old
older/elder
the oldest / the eldest
far
farther/further the farthest / the furthest
late
later/the latter the latest / the last
near
nearer
the nearest / the next

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with an adjective formed from one of the
verbs or nouns below:
act, care, change, comfort, describe, dread, enjoy, forget, grace, motion, power,
rely, submit, tire, truth
1. We had a lovely weekend; it was thoroughly enjoyable.
2. He never remembers my birthday; I don't know why he's so ..............
3. The problem is that there's nothing we can do about it; we're completely ............
4. I believe what he says because he's always been ............... in the past.
5. She never seems to run out of energy; she's completely ....................
6. She's a very ............... writer; she gives you a very good feel for the places and
characters in her stories.
7. Don't worry. If he's said he'll be there, then I sure he will. He's very ...............
8. His problem is that he always does exactly what people tell him to do: he's
just so ....................
9. You're so ................... you're always dropping things.
10. I love to watch good ballet dancers: they're so .......................
11. The cat stayed ................... as it waited to pounce on the bird.
12. It's a very ....................... climate; the weather can be completely different from
one day to the next.
13. It's important to keep ...................... after you retire.
14. The seats in first class were really ............. I could easily have fallen asleep in
them.
15. The situation out there is ............ More and more people are dying every day.
II. Fill each of the blanks with a suitable adjective from the list.

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devoid, free, certain, inclined, liable, concerned, filled, elect

1.Those ......... with the political implications of the new policy are very worried.
2.The outgoing President was accompanied by the President ..........
3.I'm ......... to think that it would be better to finish this later.
4.These buildings are ......... to collapse in a strong earthquake.
5.I was absolutely ......... I'd left it on the table.
6.The landscape was completely ......... of any sign of human habitation.
7.Please feel ......... to use the phone if you need to.
8.The ex-prisoner is ............ with remorse for what he has done.
III. Circle the adjectives listed a, b, c or d, that can fill each gap. One, two, three or
all of them may be possible.
1. The ... child was comforted by his aunt.
a. sick b) afraid c) frightened d) ill
2. They had stories ... about their travels through India.
a. unlikely b) galore c) a-plenty d) countless
3. A speedy solution is ....
a. main b) principal c) chief d) crucial
4. He was taken ... by the ferocity of the criticism.
a. aback b) unawares c) surprised d) unaccustomed
5. The ... train is almost never on time.
a. last b) late c) early d) stopping
6.This is ... reward for twenty years of loyal service.
a) due b) scant c) meagre d) proper
IV. Give the adjectives corresponding to the following words:
interest, beauty, sand, oppress, relevance, cloud, therapy, dirt, nation,
fascinate, attract, science, part, obsess, race, youth, enjoy, mountain, use,
question, depth, vary, economy, control, envy, technology, strength, length,
rely, mercy, influence, art, describe, child, noise, love, understand, trouble,
contempt, grace, illustrate, province, eat, attention, shame, logic, repeat.
IV. Copy the table into your notebook and put the adjectives in the box
into the correct columns.
patient, relevant, attractive, literate, flexible, regular, legal, agreeable,
mature, convenient, tasteful, moral, replaceable, responsible, significant,
possible, legible, honest, rational, explicable, justified, mortal, reversible,
destructible, perfect, friendly, soluble, polite, logical, interesting, separable

un-

it-

imimpatient

in-

ir-

dis-

V. Copy the table into your notebook and write the adjectives in the correct
columns. Put them into pairs of adjectives with similar meanings.

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surprising, starving, nice, filthy, devastated, wonderful, hungry, delicious, big, tasty,
furious, ugly, impossible, small, hideous, terrified, good, enormous, tired, thirsty,
amazing, angry, vital, parched, dirty, upset, important, terrible, frightened, minute,
exhausted, perfect, difficult
gradable
non-gradable
surprising
amazing
VI. Give the degrees of comparison of the following adjectives and use them in
sentences of your own: beautiful, thin, interesting, bad, little, old, good, lucky,
common, little, unhappy.
VII. Complete the sentences with adjectives derived from the words in capital
letters at the end:
1. Even those who lived through the Holocaust found it . (TO COMPREHEND)
2. My job was to try and understand something that was not ... (TO
UNDERSTAND)
3. The characters of the novel are people struggling to resume lives that war had
rendered ..... (MEANING)
4. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the events in former Yugoslavia convinced
film director Francisco Rosi of the ... relevance of the book's theme. (TO
ENDURE)
5. Sometimes I would watch war films and think it was all too histrionic and too ....
(THEATRE)
6. The liberators were met with .... enthusiasm. (TO INFECT)
7. If art consists of the .... and the ..., then this musician's art fails on the latter
account. It is too easily imitated, in a way that Charlie Parker's seemingly ....
melodism never was. (TO DEFINE, TO IMITATE, EFFORT)
8. Your cousin is a consummate liar. He told me an ... story about how he had
helped rob a bank in the City of London. (TO BELIEVE)
9. The way he behaved to his poor ex-wife is both ... and ...
(TO FORGIVE, TO
FORGET)
10. Uncle Tom's Cabin showed how ... cruelty was from the institution of slavery
and how fundamentally ... were free and slave societies. (TO SEPARATE, TO
RECONCILE)
11. The cheese was repulsively... . (ODOUR)
VIII. Complete the following idiomatic comparisons:
as blind as a ... (1); as drunk as a ... (2); as mad as a ... (3); as light as a ... (4); as dark as
... (5); as strong as an ... (6); as fit as a ... (7); as poor as a ... (8); as dead as a ... (9); as
clear as ... (10); as old as the ...(11); as keen as ... (12); as bright as a ... (13); as cool as
a ... (14); as busy as a ... (15); as stubborn as a ... (16); as deaf as a ... (17).
IX. Translate into English:
1. Ultimele tiri sunt ncurajatoare.
2. Mie mi-au plcut ambele fete, dar eu cred c cea mai mic e i cea mai drgu.
3. Sfaturile pe care mi le dai sunt ntotdeauna utile.
4. Brbatul cu umerii lai si puse pe el haina neagr cu mneci lungi i plec n
grab.

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5. Am mncat puin astzi aa c mi-e o foame de lup.

6. Este firesc ca polonezii s vorbeasc poloneza, turcii s vorbeasc turca, iar
finlandezii s vorbeasc finlandeza.
7. Cu ct se ntuneca mai tare, cu att mai speriat era: nu voia s fie vzut de
nimeni.
8. Cltoriile n spaiul cosmic devin tot mai frecvente.
9. Se uit pe furi la femeia mbrcat n negru.
10. Avem amintiri att de frumoase despre locul acesta nct ne-am gndit c o s-l
revizitm.

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III. 5. THE PRONOUN

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
Pronouns are used to refer to people and things without naming them. They
replace nouns or noun phrases, making texts less repetitive.
II. Classification
There are several types of pronouns:
personal
possessive
reflexive
demonstrative
indefinite
reciprocal
relative
interrogative
II.1. Personal pronouns
a. Form: - as a subject: sg. I
you
he/ she/ it
pl. we
you
they

- as a complement: sg.

me
you
him/ her/ it
pl.
us
you
them

b. Uses:
The pronoun I is always written with a capital letter.
All the verbs in English (excepting Imperatives) must have a pronominal
subject:
They dislike inefficiency.
You and one are used impersonally meaning everyone, no one or anyone.
You/ one should always tell the truth.
They is used impersonally denoting a collective agent telling something:
They say he is dishonest.
It is used for people or things with an unknown gender, with a noun to refer to
persons and in expressions about the weather, temperature, time, dates and
distances:
Where is my book? It is on the shelf.
Who is at the door? It is Olivia.
Its cold outside.
What time is it? Its nine oclock.
How far is it to Chicago? Its ten miles.
II. 2. Possessive pronouns
a. Form:
sg.
mine

pl.

ours

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yours
yours
his/ hers
theirs
b. Use: - possessive pronouns replace possessive adjectives. The noun missing was
mentioned before:
This is my book. This book is mine.
Were using his car, not her car. Were using his, not hers.
II. 3. Reflexive pronouns
a. Form: sg. myself
pl.
ourselves
yourself
yourselves
himself/ herself/ itself
themselves
b. Uses:
With reflexive verbs like to enjoy oneself, to amuse oneself, to help oneself, to
hurt oneself, to cut oneself, to wash oneself:
Please help yourself with some cake!
He hurt himself during the game.
But some verbs which are reflexive in other languages are not reflexive in
English: to dress, to comb, to shave, to meet.
Sue and Joe met last year.
To show an action performed for or on oneself:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
Why are you so angry with yourself?
To emphasize the doer of an action:
The president himself attended the meeting.
II. 4. Demonstrative pronouns
a. Form:
this, that (singular referent); these, those (plural referent)
b. Uses:
The pronouns are in number agreement with the noun they replace:
This (umbrella) is mine. That is his.
These (discs) are mine. Those are his.
This, these refer to objects that are near the speaker; that, those refer to objects in
the distance, not near the speaker:
This is here, that is there.
The former the latter have the meaning of the first and, respectively, the
second of two; they have the same form for singular and plural:
Andy and Janet are cousins: the former is a student, the latter is a pupil.
II. 5. Indefinite pronouns
a. Form: - all; both; much; many; more; most; little; a little; few; a few; another; the
other; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everyone; everything; some;
any; no one/ none; somebody/ thing/ one; anybody/ thing/ one; nobody; nothing;
enough; several; one.
b. Uses:
The series ending in body refers to people, that ending in thing refers to
things.
Everybody is at home.
Everything is possible here.

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The pronouns beginning with some- are used in affirmative sentences and in
interrogative sentences when an affirmative answer is expected; those beginning
with any- are used in negative sentences when they follow a negative verb or a
negative word, or in interrogative sentences when we are not sure about the
answer:
I have something to tell you.
Shall I give you something to read?
I didnt see anybody.
Is anybody at home?
Both refers to only two people, things and is used with plural verb:
The boys are both sleeping.
Either and neither refer to two people or things; either means one or the other,
neither means not one and not the other:
Which book do you prefer? Neither/ either.
Much means a great amount or quantity of; many means a great number of:
Much of his information was vital for us.
Many of us have seen this film.
Little means not much and is used for uncountable nouns; a little means at
least some:
Little is known about him.
Is there any soup left? Yes, a little.
Few and a few refer to countable nouns; few underlines the smallness of a
number; a few means at least some:
We expected many guests but only few came.
A few of us managed to arrive in time.

II. 6. Reciprocal pronouns

a. Form: each other; one another indicating that two people do the same thing, feel the
same way or have the same relationship.
b. Uses:
The two constructions are normally interchangeable:
We sent each other/ one another gifts.
There are some verbs which indicate reciprocity and do not use a reciprocal
pronoun; however, if the speaker wants to emphasize the relationship, a
reciprocal pronoun may occur:
When they met, they embraced and then they kissed (one another).
II. 7. Relative pronouns
a. Form: who, whom, whose, whoever, which, whichever, that, what
b. Uses:
Who, whom, whose (shows possession), whoever refer to persons:
This is the boy who/ whom I told you about.
The woman whose car is parked there is my cousin.
Which refers to animals or things:
Thats the film which he likes best.
Whoever, whichever, whatever refer to something or someone that is unknown:
Ill help whoever needs me.
Show me whatever you have.

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II. 8. Interrogative pronouns

a. Form: who, whose, whom, what, which
b. Uses:
Used as the subject or object of a clause, or the object of preposition:
Who has broken the vase?
What is she doing now?
In idiomatic expressions:
What about? = what do you think about?
I cant tell which is which/ who is who.
He has used a what-do-you-call it= I dont know its name.

B. EXERCISES
I. Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first one and
contains the word(s) in brackets:
1. We only have a week left. (all)
2. All the participants will be sent an agenda. (every)
3. This idea wont work, and the other one also wont work. (neither)
4. We only want a weaker dollar. (all)
5. The two proposals are interesting. (both)
6. Dr. Jones is one of my colleagues. (mine)
7. Two theories proposed by him proved correct. (his)
8. This is your electric drill. (yours)
9. There is nothing to read at home. (anything)
10. It was Mary who asked that stupid question. (herself)
II. Fill in with the suitable reflexive pronouns:
1. There isnt much to do on weekends, so we have to amuse
2. Jerry has fallen off the ladder this morning and has injured
3. The students were happy because they could watchon the video.
4. You can letinto the house with the small key.
5. As she was not hungry, she had to forceto eat.
6. The boy lockedin the bathroom.
7. We were surprised when we sawin that large mirror.
8. The light in the stairway switchesoff after two minutes.
9. The soldier didnt know that the gun was loaded so he shot
10. My sister is going to France soon, so she is teachingFrench.
III. Fill in with some; any; someone; anyone; none; somebody; anybody; nobody;
something; anything; nothing:
1. I cant see my wallet; must have taken it.
2. Do you haveto add?
3. If you have no money, I can lend you
4. I rang the bell two or three time, butanswered.
5. He must beimportant.

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6. is more important than good health.

7. You can find practicallyyou want in this shop.
8. I think theresat the door. Were you expecting?
9. I have some very good wine. Would you like?
10. She wanted to drink some coffee but there wasleft.
11. of us has ever heard such an interesting story.
12. This time I cant dofor you.
13. Im going to the supermarket since I want to buy
14. There isin my bag; its empty.
IV. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding relative pronouns:
1. The womanis crossing the street now is one of my teachers.
2. This is the school inEinstein learnt.
3. The child toyou gave that toy was very happy.
4. Professor Jones, forI have great respect, has taught us many interesting things.
5. The gentlemanI have just greeted is a famous scientist.
6. The coffeeyou have made is very strong.
7. Pollution is a problemmust be solved as soon as possible.
8. The problemswe did yesterday were difficult for us.
9. This is the manson won the competition.
10. The chairyou are sitting on is an antique.
V. Make up questions to which the following sentences are the answers. Refer to
the words in italics by using interrogative pronouns:
1. We are going to buy a new central heating.
2. That car over there is Johns.
3. We saw a lot of strikers in the street.
4. London is the capital of Great Britain.
5. The teacher is explaining a new theory.
6. That project belongs to me.
7. Ill choose the red one.
8. She asked him about that scholarship.
9. I asked them for a cup of tea.
10. She begged the child to keep quiet.
VI. Transform these sentences replacing alone with by + a reflexive pronoun
according to the model:
My daughter prefers to do her homework alone.
My daughter prefers to do her homework by herself.
1. I dont live alone: I have two roommates.
2. Most people dont enjoy going to a dance alone.
3. Did you really do it alone?
4. We wont be able to build this machine alone.
5. He plans to go the there alone.
VII. Fill in the blanks with the right reciprocal pronouns:
1. You and I love

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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The three girls havent spoken to for a long time.

I hope jack and Julie get on with
My nephew called on me yesterday. We hadnt seen for more than two years.
Our children and theirs took an instant dislike to
Alec and I stayed up late last night. We had a lot to say to
Our former classmates are very happy to meet
The two boys looked at
Although Angela and Sarah say that they are friends, I know that, in fact, they
hate
10. The four children took their schoolbags and said goodbye to
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English using pronouns wherever
possible:
1. Nu este nici o frm de adevr n ceea ce spune ea; nu-i adevrat c ea personal
s-a dus acolo.
2. Este timpul s plecm, nu-i aa?
3. I-am cutat pe Frank i Patrick mai bine de o or i, n cele din urm, i-am gsit
pe amndoi n parc.
4. George a fost cel care a intrat primul n atelier.
5. Pe cine ai mai ntlnit acolo?
6. Cartea pe care am cumprat-o luni este foarte interesant.
7. Casa al crei acoperi este rou a fost vndut unui american.
8. Dup ce s-au uitat unul la altul cu insisten, cei doi au izbucnit n rs.
9. Colegii notri nu au gsit pe nimeni acolo iar laboratorul era zvort.
10. Cine altcineva te-a mai vzut intrnd aici?
11. i Maria i Lucy au promis c vor fi aici la ora cinci, ar nici una nu a venit nc.
12. Cu excepia ctorva polonezi i a noastr, toat lumea a plecat n excursie.
13. Cui i-ai dat raportul scris?
14. Cum de mi-ai gsit adresa? Cine i-a dat-o?
15. A cui este maina de lng poarta noastr?
16. Ce altceva a fi putut face?
17. Care este haina ei? Sunt trei aici i nici una nu este a mea.
18. Primele exerciii sunt corecte, celelalte sunt greite.
19. Care dintre biei i-a spart geamul?
20. Prietena mea are doi biei: unul este medic iar cellalt este cercettor n
domeniul tehnic.

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III.6. THE NUMERAL

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. The Cardinal numeral
1. FORM:
1 one
11 eleven
21 twenty-one
2 two
12 twelve
30 thirty
3 three
13 thirteen
40 forty
4 four
14 fourteen 50 fifty
5 five
15 fifteen
60 sixty
6 six
16 sixteen
70 seventy
7 seven17 seventeen 80 eighty
8 eight
18 eighteen 90 ninety
9 nine
19 nineteen 100 one hundred
10 ten
20 twenty

106 a (one) hundred and six

621 six hundred and twenty-one
806 eight hundred and six
1,000 one thousand
1,000,000 a (one) million
1,000,000,000 a (one) billion

2. USES:
Notes:
- The figure 0 can be read in the following ways:
- in mathematics: nought [no:t]
- for temperature: zero
- for telephone numbers, TV , radio, long numbers: oh [u]
- in sport scores: nil [nil] (in team games); love [lv]
- There is nos after hundred, thousand, million, etc., except when followed by
of:
hundreds of people (meaning lots of).
-When the cardinal number contains a full stop, the number(s) that occur after
the full stop indicate a fraction: 7.25 (seven point twenty-five)
- When the numbers are over 999 and are written in figures, they get a comma or
a blank:
1, 987 or 1 987
2, 513, 608 or 2 513 608
Common ways of calculating
a. addiction:
2+3=5
(two plus three is/are five)
b. subtraction:
93=6
(nine minus three is/ are six)
c. multiplication:
6 x 5 = 30
(six multiplied by five is/ equals thirty)
d. division:
40 : 5 = 8
(forty divided by five is/ equals 8)
e. powers:
35 = 241
(three to the power five is two hundred and fortyone)
f. root:
25 = 5
(the square root of twenty-five is five)
3
27 = 3
(the cube root of twenty-seven is three)
Fractions
a. Common fractions:
one half

numerator/ denominator

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 three fourths
one fourth
2/3 two thirds
6/35 six thirty-fifths
b. Decimal fractions:
35.89
thirty-five point eight nine
0.5
nought point five
0.03
nought point nought three
Measurements
a. linear measure:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
12 inches = 1 foot (ft)
3 feet = 1 yard (yd)
1 mile = 1.6093 metres
3 miles = 1 league = 4.83 kilometres

1.00
1.15
2. 30
3. 05
9. 45
6. 55
10. 40
15. 00
23. 15

b. nautical measure
6 feet = 1 fathom
100 fathoms = 1.829 metres

Telling the time

Its one oclock a.m. / Its one a.m.
Its a quarter past one.
Its half past two/ Its two thirty. (modern)
Its five past three.
Its a quarter to ten/ Its nine forty five (modern)
Its five minutes to seven.
Its twenty minutes to eleven.
Its three oclock in the afternoon/ Its three sharp.
Its a quarter past eleven at night/ p.m.

Expressing age
a. Using to be followed by a number:
He is fifteen (years old).
b. Using the preposition of after a noun, followed by a number:
She was a girl of twelve.
c. With the help of a compound adjective: number + a singular noun referring to a
period of time + old:
A fifteen-year-old boy
d. When we refer to the approximate age we can use in + pronoun + teens/ twenties/
fifties etc. or over + number:
She was in her teens then, now shes in her mid-fifties.
I think he is over sixty.

Telephone numbers
Each digit of a telephone number is spoken separately; if there are two identical
numbers occurring together, we say double 2/4/8 etc.:
142093 (one for two oh nine three)
566791 (five double six seven nine one)

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II. The ordinal numeral

1. FORM
1st the first
2nd the second
3rd the third
4th the fourth
5th the fifth
6th the sixth
7th the seventh
8th the eighth
9th the ninth
10th the tenth

11th the eleventh

40th the fortieth
th
th
12 the twelfth 50 the fiftieth
13th the thirteenth
60th the sixtieth
th
14 the fourteenth
70th the seventieth
15th the fifteenth
80th the eightieth
th
20 the twentieth
90th the ninetieth
21st the twenty-first 100th the one hundredth
30th the thirtieth
1,000th the one thousandth

2. Uses:
a. When we want to identify something by indicating where it comes in a sequence:
January is the first month of the year.
This is the seventh time when Im calling her!
Notes:
- dates may be written in the following ways:
April 1, 1946/ April 1st, 1946/ 1st April 1946/ 1st of April 1946
- ordinal numbers can also be written in an abbreviated form:
the 1st; the 2nd; the 52nd; the 76th, the 98th
III. The Multiplicative numeral
1x
2x
3x
4x

It shows the proportion in which a quantity is increased:

single, once
10x
tenfold, ten times
double/ twofold, twice 100x a hundredfold, a hundred times
triple/ threefold, thrice
fourfold, four times
IV. The Distributive numeral

It shows the distribution or grouping of objects:

one by one
two by two/ by twos/ in twos
ten by ten/ by tens/ in tens
in dozens (in sets of twelve)
in score (in sets of about twenty)

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B. EXERCISES
I. Read the following numbers and fractions:
408; 1/3; 6.08; 5,728; 25,100; 9/10; 964; 198/4; 673; 68/12; 0.7; 10.58
II. Read the times of the clock:
3:25; 6:45; 9:00: 1:15; 4:50; 23:35; 18:00; 8:35
III. Read the following dates and phone numbers:
21 June 1998
118605
2 April 1805
225799
5 August 1789
179300
3 December 1866
126603
30 May 2006
0234557891
23 July 2007
0722006784
IV. Answer the following questions:
1. What time do you get up?
2. What time do you have breakfast?
3. What time do you leave home?
4. What time do you usually get to university?
5. What time does your first class start on Mondays?
6. What time do you have a break?
7. What time do you have dinner?
8. What time do you go out with your friends at the weekend?
9. What time do you go to bed?
10. What will you be doing in ten years time?
11. When is your birthday?
12. When is Christmas?
13. When is our national holiday?
14. When is the first day of the year?
15. Whats the date today?
16. Whats the date when Einstein was born?
V. Read and solve the following mathematical operations:
1+8
3x6
2/3
10 + 3
7 x 10
8/9 x 2/7
9 + 18
120 x 4
6/7: 3/14
30 21
15: 3
23
100 75
100: 5
2 2 + 32
1,250 500
0.5 + 0.7
10.06 4.02
VI. Use the following words in sentences of your own:
forty; love; thirty-one; nought point five; hundreds; dozen; gross; three fourths;
tenfold; once; three times; over ninety; one by one; twice as many.

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VII. Translate into English:

1. Copiii au intrat n coal doi cte doi.
2. Am citit sute de pagini n ultimele sptmni.
3. Tocmai am cumprat dou duzini de cutii de chibrituri.
4. Cred c maina are acum mai mult de 100 km/ or.
5. Biletul tu este rezervat pentru data de 22 iunie.
6. Un sfert din locuitorii acestui orel lucreaz n acel centru comercial.
7. Numai dup ce am citit problema de trei ori am reuit s o neleg.
8. Noi splm maina de dou ori pe lun.
9. Speculantul dorea s obin un ctig ntreit de pe urma facerii.
10. Am ntlnit-o o dat sau de dou ori dar nu am vorbit cu ea niciodat.
11. Regina Elisabeta II este actualul monarh al Marii Britanii.
12. A treilea capitol mi s-a prut mai uor de citit dect cel de-al doilea.
13. Care este rspunsul tu la cea de a douzeci i una ntrebare?
14. Invenia lui a adus un profit nzecit fabricii la care lucreaz.
15. Brbatul n vrst de cincizeci de ani de care mi-ai povestit mi-a prut mult mai
tnr.
16. Radical din optezi i unu fac nou.
17. Ea ne sun o dat la dou zile doar ca s vad ce mai este nou.
18. Toi oamenii influeni sunt ntrebai despre cum au fcut primul milion de dolari.
19. Nu uita c trebuie s te trezeti la ora ase fix mine diminea.
20. Sunt sigur c acest castel a fost construit cu mai mult de o sut de ani n urm.

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III.7. THE ADVERB

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Definition
Basically, adverbs often tell us when, where, why, or under what conditions something
happens or happened. In other words, they may describe the time, place, manner or
cause of an action. Here are some examples:
Type
Example
I paid him a visit yesterday.
Time
The party is going to take place here
Place
Manner She tapped him gently on his shoulder.
Adverbs are words that can modify:
A verb: He drove slowly.
an adjective: He drove a very fast car.
another adverb: She moved quite slowly among the trees.
a clause: Unfortunately, he was fired yesterday.
II. FORM
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective:
honest
gradual
silent
Adjective bright
brightly honestly gradually silently
Adverb

sudden
suddenly

Note: When the adjective ends in ic, the adverb is formed by adding the suffix ally:
e.g. basic - basically, numerical - numerically

However, this is not a reliable way to find out whether a word is an adverb or not as:
many adjectives may end in ly: e.g. kindly, friendly, elderly, lonely, lovely
motherly, etc.
many adverbs do not end in -ly and some have the same form as the
corresponding adjective.
adjective adverb
fast
fast
late
late
early
early
hard
hard
much
much
enough
enough
III. Comparison
Like adjectives, many adverbs are gradable and they may form comparatives and
superlatives in a similar way to adjectives.
The
Positive
Degree
fast
rapidly

The
Comparative
of Superiority
faster
more rapidly

The Comparative of
Inferiority
less fast than
not so/as rapidly as

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The
Comparative
of Equality
as fast as
as rapidly as

The Relative
Superlative
the fastest
the most rapidly

The
Absolute
Superlative
very fast
very rapidly

IV. Some adverbs require a subject-verb inversion. There are at least eighteen types of
inversion:
1. negative adverb
Never do I sleep.
Only at night can I study.
In no way could I help you with your Japanese grammar question.
I believe that only rarely will I need your help.
Not until I got home did I realize that my shoes were untied.
Question form is obligatory. It is used with all verbs. Notice that sometimes the
inversion occurs right after the negative intro form and sometimes it occurs in the next
subject and verb.
2. intro adverbial
Into the room ran the lady.
First comes love, then comes marriage.
After A comes B, then comes C, next comes D.
Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
Inversion is optional. It is used with be-verbs, linking verbs, and verbs of
direction. Notice that sometimes we have an adverb, like first and down and sometimes
we have an adverb phrase like into the room or after A. These adverbs and adverb
phrases usually show location or direction. This type of inversion usually only occurs
with be-verbs, linking verbs and verbs that show direction or movement, like come, go,
run, etc.
3. comparatives
Cheetahs run faster than do antelopes.
You speak Chinese better than do I.
Inversion is optional. It is used with all verbs. We normally only have inversion
here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects.
4. here is, here are, here comes, here come
Here is some good food for you to try.
Here are the books that I dont need anymore.
Here comes the bus!
Inversion is obligatory. It is usually used only with these verbs.

B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the appropriate adjective or adverb.
1. They drove under a low / lowly bridge.
2. She has travelled wide / widely.
3. Make sure you're here at seven o'clock sharp / sharply.
4. She loved him dear / dearly.
5. We'll be there short / shortly.
6. Three-toed sloths live deep / deeply in the Amazon forest.
II. Give the adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives:
useless, deep, voluntary, formal, strong, heavy, certain, anxious, scientific, various,
original, slight, kind, local, absent, easy, graceful, idle, sudden, rapid, violent,

320

comparative, complete, accurate, local, attentive, light.

III. Complete each sentence using too or enough and one of the following
adjectives or adverbs: dark, deep, difficult, early, far, heavy, interesting, late,
loud, old, rich, thirsty, well.
1. They didn't catch the train because they didn't leave home...
2. You are... to understand such things.
3. Our neighbours couldn't sleep because the music in our room was...
4. We couldn't do that problem because it was...
5. We were... to drink a well dry.
6. You couldn't take a photograph because it is... here.
7. The cupboard was... to be moved by the child.
8. This book is... to be read by all of you.
9. They couldn't hear her voice because she was... away.
10. Mr. Brown is... to afford such an expensive car.
11. We got to the theatre... and so we missed the first act.
12. This river is... to be crossed.
13. George spoke... to win the speech prize.
IV. Use the adverbs in the brackets in the right degree of comparison:
1. He usually gets here much (early) than the others.
2. However, I can swim (well) than your brother.
3. Mike plays football (badly) of all the players.
4. She speaks English (fluently) as a native speaker.
5. The wind blew (hard) yesterday than I did on Sunday.
6. Jack knows English grammar (well) of all the students.
7. She usually enjoys films (much) than plays.
8. She didn't do this part (thoroughly) as the first part.
9. She certainly hopes to finish her work (fast) than that.
10. Mr. Williams explains things (clearly) of all teachers.
V. Put the following adverbs in the right position:
1. We have seen that statue (never).
2. The boy is very active after meals (often).
3. I learn many new English words in our English class (usually).
4. Does the foreman eat lunch with the other workers (ever)?
5. The food in this restaurant is good (seldom).
6. I have time to see visitors in the afternoon (rarely).
7. My father smokes in the office during the day (never).
8. Why don't you speak to your neighbour (ever)?
9. Mr. Brown dictated reports to his secretary (often).
10. Were you ready for breakfast by eight o'clock (already)
VI. Paraphrase the following sentences using an adverb in place of the words in
italics:
1. William jumped two meters with ease.
2. The policeman left the room in a hurry.
3. My daughter was sleeping in peace.

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4. Although outnumbered, our troops fought like heroes.

5. The farmer gazed with pride at his vegetables.
6. The tramp looked with hunger at the bread the old lady gave him.
7. The Chinese vase was broken by accident.
8. The prisoners were beaten without mercy.
9. Jonathan works all the sums in his head.
10. Now we can look forward to the future with hope.
VII. Fill in the blanks with hard or hardly :
1. She was so tired that she could... speak.
2. They tried... but they didn't succeed.
3. At the end of the trip she had... any money.
4. How could you lend him such a valuable dictionary when you... knew him?
5. If you want to pass such a difficult exam, you will have to work...
6. The room was so crowded there was... anywhere where to leave the luggage.
7. You must know the answer; think...
8. This time she... ate anything.
9. Don't hit him too...
10. It was raining... when we left the house.
VIII. Complete each sentence with an adverb. Form these adverbs from the
following adjectives: bad, bright, careful, fast, fluent, foolish, good, happy, hard,
immediate, merry, polite, punctual, thorough.
1. Why are you so rude? You should behave...
2. My daughter has improved her English lately: she doesn't make grammar
mistakes and she speaks...
3. It was a beautiful day: the sun was shining..., the birds were singing... and the
children were playing...
4. Sammy is a good football player. He always plays...
5. Why are you driving so... today? You may have an accident.
6. ... we heard a terrible noise.
7. I opened the door... lest mother should hear me.
8. Our manager is a... educated man.
9. Bob did not study this lesson as... as the other ones.
10. I don't know what happened to him that evening, but he behaved...
11. Only by working... will you manage to pass such a difficult exam.
12. As she doesn't want to learn the new words, she speaks French... and she
writes it even...
13. I am not late. I have arrived...
14. As this is an urgent matter, we must solve it...
IX. Answer the questions using the adverbs in brackets followed by inversion:
1. Was John dismissed as soon as he had been promoted? (no sooner)
2. Has she ever stayed in such an expensive hotel? (never before)
3. Can you pass this difficult exam without working hard? (only by)
4. Does she know much about this? (little)
5. Have you ever eaten such good cakes? (never)

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6. Did Sandra go both to the cinema and to the theatre? (not only ... but also)
7. Shall I find such interesting museums anywhere else? (nowhere else)
8. Will you visit these people again? (never again)
9. Will he be permitted to leave? (under no circumstances)
10. Did the telephone ring immediately he had entered the room? (scarcely)
X. Translate into English:
1. Jimmy joac fotbal la fel de bine ca i fratele su acum.
2. Nicieri n alt parte nu vei gsi atta nelegere.
3. Niciodat nu am mai vzut o femeie mai frumoas.
4. Ceaiul este prea fierbinte ca s-l beau repede.
5. De-abia atunci nelese vorbele tatlui su.
6. Nu i-am vzut pe copii de ieri diminea.
7. De-abia am ajuns la caban c a i nceput s polu.
8. Unele plante cresc mai repede n locuri mai ntunecate.
9. Din fericire, folosim aceast cldire doar temporar.

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III.8. THE CONJUNCTION

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. It can
connect nouns, verbs and clauses:
Bob and Dan are friends (nouns)
He will drive or fly (verbs)
It is early but we can go (clauses)
Call the movers when you are ready. (clauses)
A definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a
conjunction should be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an
invariable grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the items it
conjoins. The definition can also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit
with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
The most cohesive signals are connectives like therefore, which make a fairly
explicit relation between two clauses: that of reason. And, on the other hand, is the
vaguest of connectives. Sentences may be contrasted by either but or and, but logical
connectors denoting a contrast have been put under but, because that coordinator is
more commonly used with contrasted sentences. These two together with or make three
logical connectors which are explicit connectors and refer to the following relationships:
* and listing: -enumeration
- addition: -reinforcement
- equation
- transition
- summation
- apposition
- result
- inference
* but contrast
- concession
* or reformulation
- replacement
Although it has a restrictive use, the conjunction for can be seen as a sentence
connector. On a gradient between pure coordinator and pure subordinator for and so
that (meaning with the result that) occupy an important place. Yet and so resemble
coordination in some respects. Nor represents a clear case of coordination. It contains a
negative feature, which introduces some syntactic difference. Both, either, neither as the
first items in a correlative pair with and, or nor are not in themselves coordinators, since
like nor they can be preceded by a central coordinator (and or or).
There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating and
correlative
a. Coordinating conjunctions are the ones which connect two equal parts of a
sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the
following ways:
* and is used to join or add words together: They ate and drank.
* or is used to show choice or possibilities: He will be here on Monday or
Tuesday.

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* but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas: She is small but strong.
* so is used to show result: I was tired so I went to sleep.
Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
b. Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal. A
subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the
relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
Some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:
after
before
unless
how
whether
although
if
until/till
once
as
since
when
since
because
than
while
that
Subordinating conjunctions can introduce a direct object, indirect object, causal,
temporal, conditional clause or contrast/concessive subordinate clause.
She told me that her father had died. (direct object clause)
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.(temporal clause)
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed. (temporal
clause)
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
(conditional clause)
Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and
baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs. (causal clause)
Although he had a lot of money, he never married. (concessive clause)
c. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Correlative
conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating
conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The most common correlative conjunctions are:
both . . .and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not only . . . but also
Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers
Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as
adverbs.

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B. EXERCISES
I. Choose the best answer for these questions:
1. Which conjunction is used to connect two equal parts of a sentence?
a. either; b. until; c. but; d. since; e. after
2. Which conjunction is used to connect two unequal parts of a sentence?
a. so; b.or; c.but; c. if; d.and
3. Which conjunction is used with the correlative neither?
a. and; b. nor; c. but; d. so; e. or
II. Choose the conjunction which fits best in the sentence:
1. I am hungry I don't want to eat.
a. but; b. so; c. after; d. before; e. or
2. He will eat he gets home.
a. or; b. because; c. when; d. and; e. since
3. Do you want pizza .. a hamburger?
a. than; b. so; c. while; d. as; e. or
4. I would tell you I knew.
a. and; b. unless; c. if; d. or; e. so
5. Come get it.
a. but; b.explain; c. and; d. when; e. so
6. He ate . he was hungry.
a. if; b.so; c.or; d.although; e. because
III. Choose the conjunction that most appropriately completes the sentence.
1. Alice moved to New York.__________, her mother stayed in Boston
a. What's more
b. However
c. Therefore
d. but
2. You have disobeyed me.___________, I will not help you again.
a. Besides
b. Even so
c. Therefore
d. so
3. Harrison is kind._____________, he is generous.
a. Furthermore
b. Nevertheless
c. Therefore
d. But
4. Television is entertaining, ___________ it is instructive.
a. moreover
b. so
c. or
d. and
5. Mr. Adams was an invalid, ___________he had an active career.
a. whats more

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b. but
c. therefore
d. otherwise
6. I live too far to visit you often. ________, you are never home.
a. besides
b. even so
c. otherwise
d. so
7. I prepared my English lesson. ___________, I wrote my French paper.
a. however
b. whats more
c. consequently
d. and
8. The road was wet and slippery, _________ there were many accidents.
a. furthermore
b. nevertheless
c. so
d. therefore
IV. Rewrite these sentences as conditionals
Model: Unfortunately I didn't see him, so I couldn't give him your message .
If I had seen him, I could have given him your message
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Unfortunately he didn't pass his exams or he might have gone to university.

He didn't realize what was happening or he would have run away.
Fortunately I didn't hear what she said or I would have been very angry.
They got in because you didn't lock the door properly.
It only happened because you didn't follow the instructions.
Luckily she didn't find out or she would have been furious.
It's lucky we booked a room or we would have had nowhere to stay.
It's a good job we weren't going any faster or someone could have been killed.
He was so tired that he went home at lunchtime .

IV. Match the two parts of these conditional sentences.

1. You can borrow the money, ...
2. He'll probably get lost, ...
3. Had I known you were coming,.. .. ,
4. George says he will come, ...
5. You are not allowed to park in the school, ...
6. Should he telephone while I'm out, ...
7. Henry Ford said you could have any colour you wanted, ...
8. Fred will be at school next week, .. ,
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

would have invited you to lunch.

would you ask him to call back later?
provided he has recovered from his cold.
unless you are a member of staff.
as long as it was black.

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f. provided he can stay overnight.

g. so long as you promise to pay it back.
h. unless someone shows him the way.
V. Rewrite these sentences to include a 'to'-infinitive purpose clause introduced by
the words given in brackets.
Model: Everyone was pushing because they wanted to get to the front of the queue.
(in order to)
Everyone was pushing in order to get to the front of the queue.
.
1. Try to write clearly. That way you will avoid being misunderstood. (so as to)
2. A lot of people learn English because they want to study in English. (in order to)
3. What do I need to know, if I want to be a good doctor? (in order to)
4. She turned up early because she wanted to get the room ready. (in order to)
5. If you want to have a hundred students, you will need at least three teachers. (in
order to)
6. I came to live in the country because I wanted to have trees around me instead of
buildings. (so as to)
7. They had to eat grass and drink melted snow if they wanted to stay alive. (in
order to)
8. He wanted to keep his car out of sight so he left it in the road. (in order to10 I
wanted to get to Madrid so I had to travel overnight from Barcelona. (to)
VI. The sentences below all have though, although, or even though. Use one of these
phrases to complete them.
we only arrived just in time; we had no time for lunch;
she kept her coat on;
he was difficult to understand; you're not as tall as he was; he still wasn't tired;
I used to when I was younger; the weather was awful;
I really like John.
Model: Although we were desperately hungry, we had no time for lunch.
.
1. We enjoyed our holiday, even though
2. .., even though it was very warm.
3. I don't play the piano now, although
4. You look very like your grandfather, although
5. Though he hadn't stopped working all day,
6.., even though his English was very good.
7., although he can be very annoying at times.
8. Although we set off early,
VII. Rewrite these sentences with Just as.
Model: I knew he would complain about everything, and he did.
He complained about everything just as I knew he would.
1. You said they would arrive late, and they did.
2. Everyone believed he would run away, and he did.
3. Most people thought the play would be a success, and it was. .
4. We hoped he would dowell at school, and he did.
5. We all thought Mary would win, and she did.

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VIII. Rewrite these sentences with so ... that.

Model:The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk
The hill was so steep that I had to get off my bike and walk
1. Her writing was very small. I could hardly read it.
2. The winter was bitterly cold. All the streams were frozen
3. His favourite shoes were very badly worn. He had to throw them away
4. He looked very young. Everyone took him for a student.
5. Ken got very excited. He kept jumping up and down
IX. Now rewrite these sentences with such ... that.
Model: The hill was very steep. I had to get off my bike and walk
It was such a steep hill that I had to get off my bike and walk
1. He was a dreadful liar. Nobody believed anything he said.
2. It proved to be a very difficult problem. Nobody could solve it.
3. We had a very good time. We didn't want to go home
4. His clothes were very old. They were falling apart
5. The food was very good. We all ate far too much
X. Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Haidei s ne intlnim din nou lunea viitoare, adic pe 12 iulie.
2. Unele fiine cum ar fi ursul i arpele hiberneaz n timpul iernii.
3. Ce-ar fi sa trecem pe la el dup amiaz, s spunem pe la ora 5 ?
4. "Unde este voin este i putin" spune un poroverb englezesc. i, fratele
meu, de exemplu, a muncit din greu, iar acum este inginer n cea mai mare uzin
din ora.
5. Erau o mulime de oameni la petrecere, cum ar fi familia Brown, familia Smith,
familia Johnson, care se cunoteau.
6. E pacat ca nu mergi la cinema cu noi.
7. Nu se tie cine a spart vaza aceea.
8. Orice ai spune sau ai face nu mai are nici o importan.
9. Oricine l vede rmne uimit.
10. Ceea ce ncearc ea s ne explice este c la ora aceea nu era nimeni acas.
11. Convingerea noastr este c a neles aceste lucruri i c i va face datoria.
12. S-au referit apoi la ceea ce citiser cu o zi n urm.
13. mprumuta bani oricui l ruga. Ne-am sculat foarte devreme ca s admirm
rsritul soarelui.
14. Am probleme cu maina nc de cnd am cumprat-o.
15. Ei au reacionat ca i cum n-ar fi tiut nimic de acel concurs.

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III.9. THE PREPOSITION

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
a. A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases other words in a sentence.
The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
It describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in"
or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when
you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use
your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its
object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun book in space
or in time.
Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called
prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words,
but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an
adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition).
This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an
adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or
where or under what conditions something happened.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any
associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are:
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, during, except, for,
from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through,
throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, and
without.
Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while
talking about it.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the
desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk
or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before
the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's
clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall
off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he
often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there
were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes
you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he
could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk,
by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

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All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until
the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a
bad mood [another adverbial construction].
Those words in bold are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things
besides locate in space or time (My brother is like my father. Everyone in the class
except me got the answer.), but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is
possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun (During a church service is not a good
time to discuss picnic plans;In the South Pacific is where I long to be ), but this is
seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.
Prepositions can be classified into: prepositions of time, of place, of movement,
of time.
b. Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in
We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.
We use on to designate days and dates.
My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.
c. Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
We use at for specific addresses.
Mrs. Smith lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.
We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.
Her house is on Boretz Road.
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and
continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition
IN
AT
ON
NO
(the) bed*
class*
the bed*
PREPOSITION
the bedroom
home
the ceiling
downstairs
the car
the library*
the floor
downtown
(the) class*
the office
the horse
inside
the library*
school*
the plane
outside
school*
work
the train
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
d. Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place

They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.

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 Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These
are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs,
we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
e. Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months,
years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
We use since with a specific date or time.
He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
f. Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have
practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would
have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS

approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for

fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of

need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS

afraid of
angry at
aware of
capable of
careless about
familiar with

fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to

need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS

apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out

fond of
happy about
interested in
jealous of
made of
married to

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proud of
similar to
sorry for
sure of
tired of
worried about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined
to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared
on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes
similarities)
correspond to a thing, with a person
differ from an unlike thing, with a person
live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
Unnecessary Prepositions
In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not
necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be
especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.
She met up with the new coach in the hallway.
The book fell off of the desk.
He threw the book out of the window.
She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"]
Where did they go to?
Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead]
Where is your college at?
Prepositions in Parallel Form
When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be
idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice.
You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter.
The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance.
However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be
careful not to omit one of them.
The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie.
It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he
played.
He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.
We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
accuse of
agree with
apologize for
believe in
blame for
complain about
concentrate on
congratulate sb. on
cope with
decide against

They were accused of breaking into a shop.

I agree with playing darts.
They apologize for being late.
She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood.
The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories.
She complains about bullying.
Do you concentrate on reading or writing?
I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech.
He is not sure how to cope with getting older.
They decided against stealing the car.

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depend on
dream about/of
feel like
get used to
insist on
look forward to
prevent sb. from sth.
rely on sth.
succeed in
specialize in
stop sb. from
talk about/of
think of
warn sb. against
worry about

Success may depend on becoming more patient.

Sue dreams of being a pop star.
They feel like going to bed.
You must get used to working long hours.
The girls insisted on going out with Mark.
I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.
How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop?
He doesn't rely on winning in the casino.
How then can I succeed in learning chemistry?
The firm specialized in designing websites.
I stopped Andrew from smoking.
They often talk about travelling to New Zealand.
Frank thinks of playing chess.
We warned them against using this computer.
The patient worries about having the check-up.

B. EXERCISES
I. Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition: at, in, or on.
1. Will you wait for me _____ the bus stop?
2. Jane is _____ her bedroom.
3. Daria's books are lying _____ the floor.
4. The girls didn't want to spend a long time _____ the carnival.
5. I let the cat sit _____ my lap, but then suddenly it jumped _____ my face!
6. Do you live _____ the city or _____ the country?
7. Trent arrived _____ the school building just in time.
8. The rancher built a fence to keep his cows _____ the pasture.
9. Kevin and Mack are out practicing _____ the football field.
10. From afar, Heathcliff could see a light _____ the window.
11. The old house had so much grime _____ the windows that Bradley could hardly
see inside.
12. The shepherd boy grazed his flock _____ the grassy hillside.
13. The audience threw tomatoes _____ the terrible comedian.
14. Wrestling isn't real; those guys _____ the ring are just pretending.
15. David works _____ the field of network administration, while Marty works
_____ web design.
16. The car stalled and got stuck _____ the street.
17. Audrey lives _____ Third Street.
18. If William doesn't make any money on his book, he'll be out _____ the street.
19. I'll use my cellular phone when I'm _____ the bus, but never while I'm _____ the
car.
20. Passengers are not allowed to use electronic devices _____ airplanes during
takeoff and landing.

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II. Find the correct preposition:

I'm Peter and I live ..Germany. summer I like to travel ..Italy, because
..the weather and the people there. Last summer I took a plane ..Munich to Rome.
..the airport we went to our hotel ..bus. We stopped ..a small restaurant for a
quick meal. The driver parked the bus..the restaurant. Nobody could find the bus and
the driver, so we waited..the restaurant ..one hour. The driver was walking .the
small park .the restaurant which we didn't know. So we were angry .him. But my
holidays were great. We sat .campfires and went dancingthe early mornings.
III. Choose the correct preposition.
1. I'm tired.. waiting for you (of/ with/ on/ in)
2. I haven't smoked.. ages. (since/ for/at/to)
3. The police car chased the robbers .. the streets. (among/between/through/on)
4. You can look the word ..in a dictionary. (on/up/through/with)
5. She had problems ..reading the instructions. (to/by/in/with)
6. I'm looking . my key. Has anyone found it? (for/after/of/to)
7. The song was written .Madonna. (of/ from/ by/ on)
8. I can't come to the party. Don't wait ..me. (at/for/after/on)
IV. Fill in with the appropriate preposition:
1. My friend is good..playing volleyball.
2. She complains.bullying.
3. They are afraid .losing the match.
4. She doesn't feel ..working on the computer.
5. We are looking forward .going out at the weekend.
6. Laura dreams ..living on a small island.
7. Andrew apologized .being late.
8. Do you agree ..staying in a foreign country?
9. The girls insisted .going out with Kerry.
10. Edward thinks climbing trees in the afternoon.
V. Check these rules, then say which question is correct:
1) Continents - in; e.g. in Asia, in Europe
2) Countries - in; e.g. in China
3) Cities, towns, districts, provinces, counties, areas and villages - in; e.g. in Beijing,
in Kowloon.
4) Islands - on; e.g. on Lantau, on Hong Kong Island
Islands - groups of islands- in; e.g. in the Dao Yu Islands, in the Spratleys
5) Mountains - single mountains - on; e.g. on Yellow Mountain, on Mount Everest,
on the Peak
Mountain ranges - in; e.g. in the Himalayas
6) Lakes and Rivers- on (e.g. on the surface) in (under the surface); e.g. a boat on
the West Lake, swimming in the West Lake
7) Seas and Oceans- in; e.g. in the Pacific Ocean, in the South China Sea
8) Places that are different for different people- at ; e.g. at home, at university, at
work, at the doctor's, at my friend's flat
1. a. Brazil is of South America
b. Brazil is at South America.

335

c. Brazil is on South America.

d. Brazil is in South America.
2. a. New York is of the United States.
b. New York is at the United States.
c. New York is on the United States.
d. New York is in the United States.
3. a. I live on Bucharest.
b. I live at Bucharest.
c. I live in Bucharest.
4. a. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain of the Himalayas.
b. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain at the Himalayas.
c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on the Himalayas.
d. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the Himalayas.
5. a. Hong Kong is of the South China Sea.
b. Hong Kong is at the South China Sea.
c. Hong Kong is in the South China Sea.
6. a. I live of home.
b. I live at home.
c. I live on home.
VI. Identify the missing prepositions in the text and write them in the table below
the text. Some lines are correct; mark them with an X. Two examples are given:
The Final Exam
1 Two football players were taking an important final exam. If
2 they failed, they would be academic probation and not
3 allowed to play the Sugar Bowl the following week. The exam
4 was fill-in-the-blank. The last question read,
5 "Old MacDonald had a ........"
6 Bubba was stumped. He had no idea the answer. He knew
7 he needed to get this one right to be sure he passed. Making
8 sure the professor wasn't watching, he tapped Tiny the 9 shoulder.
10 "Pssst. Tiny. What's the answer the last question?"
11 Tiny laughed. He looked around to make sure the professor
12 hadn't noticed then he turned Bubba. "Bubba, you're so
13 stupid. Everyone knows Old MacDonald had a farm."
14 "Oh yeah," said Bubba. "I remember now." He picked up his
15 No.2 pencil and started to write the answer the blank. He
16 stopped. Reaching to tap Tiny's shoulder again, he
17 whispered, "Tiny, how do you spell farm?"
18 "You are really dumb, Bubba. That's so easy. Farm is 19 spelled E-I-E-I-O."
1

on

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

336

10

VII. What is the correct combination of prepositions for each paragraph?

1. A man walks _ a health food restaurant _ a day _ the office, sits down and orders
a nice big dish _ brown rice and stir-fry veggies. He grabs a handful _ peanuts _ the
bowl _ the counter _ the cash register while he's waiting _ his order, and as he starts
to chew he hears a voice say, "That's a beautiful tie; is that silk? Very nice choice!"
A. into, after, at, of, of, from, on, by, for
B. in, before, in, of, of, in, on, by, for
C. at, after, off, of, of, from, on, by, for
D. out of, along, at, of, of, from, on, by, for
2. Wondering who would make such a strange comment, he around and doesn't see
anyone _ him who could've speaking _ him. _ a shrug, he pops a few more uts _ his
mouth.
A. next to, at, after, in
B. near, to, with, into
C. close to, along with, on, out of
D. near, to, without, at
3. Next he hears a voice, "Those shoes are stylish, my man. they Italian leather?
They look great!" whirls around again but sees no one _ him. He glances sly around
and then _ his shoes, which he tucks selfsly _ the stool.
A. near, to, beneath
B. by, off, under
C. close to, to, under
D. near, at, under
VIII. In some of the lines of the following text there is one unnecessary
preposition. It is either incorrect or does not fit in with the sense of the text.
For each numbered line find this preposition and write it down on the right:
1 An engineering student was walking across campus when
2 another engineer rides up in a shiny new motorcycle.
3 Where did you get such a great bike?, asked the first.
4. The second engineer replied: Well, I was walking along
5 yesterday, minding my own business when a beautiful
6 woman rode up on this bike.
7 She threw the bike at the ground, took off all her clothes
8 and said Take what you want!
9 The first engineer nodded in approvingly
10 Good choice; the clothes probably wouldnt have fit in.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

IX. Translate into English:

1. Ei i place s asculte radioul, dar nu este ntotdeauna impresionat de
calitatea programelor.
2. Trebuie s v conformai regulilor jocului.
3. Alegei trei numere la ntmplare i nmulii-le cu cinci.
4. Nu tiam c te intereseaz istoria medieval.
5. Dei eram foarte grbii, ea a insistat s ne oprim i s cumprm cteva
ziare.

337

6. Produsele companiei noastre sunt mereu in conformitate cu standardele de

calitate.
7. Fusese acuzat ca ii furase poeta acelei doamne in negru.
8. Cu ce mergi la serviciu n fiecare diminea? Cu metroul sau cu autobuzul?
Sau poate cu maina?
9. John a fost pedepsit pentru c nu i-a fcut tema la timp.
10. De ce te uiti aa la mine? Te-am rugat s ai grij de pisic, iar tu ai lsat-o
s ias n strad?

338

III.10. THE INTERJECTION

A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not
grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. We usually follow an
interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic
prose, except in direct quotations.
Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real
grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in
writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical
connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation
mark (!) when written.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are
extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to
indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them
when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
The table below shows some interjections with examples.
interjection meaning

ah

alas
dear

eh

er
hello, hullo

hey
hi

example

expressing pleasure

"Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization

"Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation

"Ah well, it can't be heped."

expressing surprise

"Ah! I've won!"

expressing grief or pity

"Alas, she's dead now."

expressing pity

"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise

"Dear me! That's a surprise!"

asking for repetition

"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot

today."

expressing enquiry

"What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise

"Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement

"Let's go, eh?"

expressing hesitation

"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

expressing greeting

"Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise

"Hello! My car's gone!"

calling attention

"Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc

"Hey! What a good idea!"

expressing greeting

"Hi! What's new?"

339

expressing hesitation, doubt or

disagreement

"Hmm. I'm not so sure."

expressing surprise

"Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain

"Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading

"Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch

expressing pain

"Ouch! That hurts!"

uh

expressing hesitation

"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh

expressing agreement

"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm

expressing hesitation

"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

expressing surprise

"Well I never!"

introducing a remark

"Well, what did he say?"

hmm

oh, o

well

Characteristics:
1. it is an exclamatory word that usually expresses a strong emotion.
A word may stand alone
Hooray!
Help!
2. Followed by an exclamatory mark (!)
It may be followed by a related sentence.
Hooray! We won the championship!
Help! I can't hold on any longer!
2. A word of strong emotion ends in exclamation point (separate from rest of sentence)
Hey! Leave my friend alone!
Wow! I never thought she's go out with him!
3. a word of mild emotion ends in comma (part of the sentence)
Oh, sit still!
Say, are you busy?

B. EXERCISES
I. Underline the interjection in each sentence:
1. Brrr! The theater is as cold as ice!
2. Aha! There are some empty seats!
3. Ouch! Someone stepped on my toe!
4. Well, I suppose I should have studies more.
5. I wish that giggling would stop. Shhh!
6. Say, who told you about the party?
II. Use an appropriate interjection of your own for each of the emotions listed.
1. relief _________________ 4. astonishment_________________
2. joy _________________ 5. severe pain _________________
3. confusion _________________ 6. anger _________________

340

III. Rewrite each sentence below. Begin with the interjection in parentheses. Add
the correct punctuation after each interjection and at the end of each sentence.
1. They're announcing the winners (Psst)
_____________________________________________________
2. I guess I'll have to make a speech (Well)
_____________________________________________________
3. That wasn't so bad after all (Phew)
_____________________________________________________
4. I don't know if I can stand it any longer. (Help)
_________________________________________________
V. In each blank, write an appropriate interjection for the feeling shown in
parentheses.
Interjection Emotion
oh, good heavens surprise
aw, darn, oh, no disappointment
ouch pain
wow, goodness joy
uh hesitation
tsk impatience
Model: (Pain)! That really hurts. Ouch
1. (Surprise), I didnt expect to see you here.
2. (Impatience), I wish youd hurry up.
3. (Hesitation), I dont know the answer.
4. (Joy)! What a great present.
5. (Pain)! I cut my finger.
6. (Surprise)! We won the game.
7. (Hesitation), I dont know which way to go.
8. (Joy), that was a terrific movie.
9. (Pain), I bumped my head.
10. (Disappointment), were late again.
VI. Fill in each blank with an appropriate interjection. Use commas or exclamation
marks as punctuation.
Model: Wow! We had a fabulous trip.
1. I cant figure out, where we are.
2. I just banged my knee.
3. I didnt think the paper was due today.
4. I cant wait all day.
5. The picnic has been rained out again.
6. Thats the biggest balloon Ive ever seen.
7. Im so happy youre here for a visit.
8. That was a close call.
9. There isnt enough snow to go skiing.
10. You must be kidding.

341

III.11. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS

INFINITIVE PAST TENSE

PAST PARTICIPLE

[]

[]

begin
drink
ring

began
drank
rang

begun
drunk/drunken*
rung

run
shrink
da
sing
sink

ran
shrank

run
shrunk/shrunken*

sang
sank

sung
sunk/sunken*

spring

sprang

sprung

stink

stank

stunk

swim

swam

swum

= a ncepe.
= a bea.
= 1.a suna. 2.a rsuna (de), a face s
sune. 3. a iui.
= a alerga.
= 1.a se micora. 2.a intra la ap.3. a se
napoi, a se sustrage.
= a cnta.
= 1.a se scufunda. 2.a apune, a asfini.
3.a se lsa n jos.
= 1. a ni, a izvor (d. ap). 2.a strni
(vnatul). 3.a sri. 4.a declana(un
arc, min). 5. a avea originea.
= 1.a mirosi urt.2.a simi (un miros
urt).
= a nota.

* drunken, shrunken and sunken are used attributively.

cling

[]
clung

dig
fling
hang
sling

dug
flung
hung/hanged
slung

slink
spin

slunk
spun

stick

stuck

sting
strike

stung
struck

[]
clung

= a se ine de, a se lipi de, a rmne

ataat.
= 1.a spa. 2. a nfige, a vr.
= a arunca, a azvrli.
= 1. a atrna, a aga. 2. a spnzura.
= 1.a trage cu pratia. 2. a atrna, a
aga.
= a se furia.
= 1.a fila, a toarce, a rsuci.
2. a se nvrti/roti.
= 1. a nfige, a mplnta.
2. a lipi.
= 1.a nepa. 2.a ustura.
= 1.a lovi, a izbi. 2.a suna, a bate
(ceasul).

dug
flung
hung/hanged
slung
slunk
spun/span
stuck
stung
struck/stricken*

* stricken is used attributively.

swing
swung
swung
win
won
won
wring
wrung
wrung

= a (se) legna, a (se) balansa.

= a ctiga.
= 1.a rsuci, a stoarce. 2.a strnge
(tare).

342

[ou]

[ou]

break
broke
broken
choose
chose
chosen
freeze
froze
frozen
steal
stole
stolen
speak
spoke
spoken
wake
woke
woke/woken
weave wove/weaved woven/weaved
[o:]

[o:]

bear

bore

borne/born

swear

swore

sworn

tear
wear

tore
wore

torn
worn

[e]

[e]

bereave
bleed
breed
creep

bereaved/bereft
bled
bred
crept

bereaved/bereft
bled
bred
crept

dream
feed
feel
flee
keep

dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
fed
fed
felt
felt
fled
fled
kept
kept

kneel
lead

knelt
led

knelt
led

leap

leapt

leapt

leave
mean
meet
read
sleep
smell
speed

left
meant
met
read
slept
smelt/smelled
sped/speeded

left
meant
met
read
slept
smelt/smelled
sped/speeded

spell

spelled/spelt

spelled/spelt

= a sparge, a rupe, a frnge.

= a alege.
= a nghea.
= a fura.
= a vorbi, a se exprima.
= a se trezi, a se detepta.
= 1.a (se) ese. 2.a urzi (un complot).
3.a ese, (a lucra la rzboi).

= 1. a purta, a duce, a cra, a transporta.

2. a suporta, a ndura. 3. a (se) nate.
= 1.a jura, a depune jurmnt. 2. a se
jura. 3.a njura.
= 1. a rupe, a sfia. 2.a smulge.
= 1.a (se) purta (o hain), a fi mbrcat.
2.a uza, a ponosi. 3.a purta (prul,
barba).

343

= 1.a rpi. 2.a fura. 3.a priva.

= a sngera.
= a crete, a educa.
= 1.a se tr, a se furia, a se strecura. 2. a
se nfiora.
= a visa.
= 1.a hrni, a alimenta. 2. a pate.
= 1.a simi. 2.a pipi. 3.a dibui, a tatona.
= a fugi, a scpa cu fuga (de, din faa).
= 1.a pstra, a opri, a nu restitui. 2.a
pstra, a pune deoparte. 3.a ine, a
menine.
= a ngenunchia.
= 1.a ndruma, a conduce. 2.a cluzi, a
conduce.
= 1.a sri peste, a trece peste. 2.a face s
sar.
= a lsa, a prsi.
= a inteniona.
= 1.a ntlni. 2.a ntmpina.
= a citi.
= a dormi.
= a mirosi.
= 1.a se deplasa cu repeziciune, a merge
repede, a se grbi. 2.a accelera, a iui
(pasul).
= 1.a scrie liter cu liter. 2.a pronuna

sweep
weep

swept
wept

swept
wept

[ u:]

[o:]

draw

drew

drawn

overdraw
withdraw

overdrew
withdrew

overdrawn
withdrawn

[u:]

[ou]

blow

blew

blown

fly

flew

flown

grow

grew

grown

know
throw

knew
threw

known
thrown

[o:]
beseech
bring
buy
catch
fight
seek
teach
think

besought
brought
bought
caught
fought
sought
taught
thought

= 1. a trage. 2. a ntinde (arcul).

3. a desena. 4. a deduce, a trage
concluzii.
= 1. a exagera. 2. a depi (contul la banc).
= 1. a trage (napoi).2.a lua, a retrage. 3. a
(se) retrage.

= 1.a bate (d.vnt), a sufla. 2. a sufla greu,

a gfi.
= 1. a zbura. 2. a fugi, a o lua la goan. 3.
a flutura, a flfi.
= 1.a crete. 2. a face progrese. 3. a
deveni. 4. a cultiva.
= a ti, a cunoate.
= a arunca, a azvrli.

[o:]
besought
brought
bought
caught
fought
sought
taught
thought

[ou]

[ i]

drive

drove

driven

ride

rode

ridden

rise

rose

risen

arise

arose

arisen

shrive(old use) shrove

smite
smote
stride
strode

liter cu liter.
= a mtura, a curi.
= a plnge.

= a implora.
= a aduce.
= a cumpra.
= a prinde.
= a lupta.
= 1.a cuta. 2.a urmri un scop.
= a nva (pe cineva), a preda.
= 1. a se gndi, a medita, a chibzui, a
cugeta. 2.a crede, a gndi. 3. a concepe.
4. a-i imagina, a-i nchipui. 5.a crede,
a socoti.

= 1.a conduce (un vehicul). 2.a goni, a

mna.
= 1.a clri. 2.a cltori (cu un mijloc de
transport public). 3. a clri (un cal).
= 1.a se scula,a se ridica (d.lun). 2. a
rsri (d. soare).
= 1.a se ridica, a aprea, a se ivi.
2.a rsri.
= a se mrturisi (la preot).
= 1.a lovi, a izbi. 2.a afecta. 3.a vrji.
= 1.a ncleca. 2.a pi, a face pai mari.
3. a sri.

shriven
smitten
stridden

344

strive
thrive
write

strove
throve/thrived
wrote

striven
thriven
written

= 1. a se strdui. 2. a se lupta.
= a prospera, a propi.
= a scrie.

(no change)
bet
burst
broadcast
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
let
put
rid
set

bet/betted
burst
broadcast(ed)
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
let
put
rid
set

bet
burst
broadcast(ed)
cast
cost
cut
hit
hurt
let
put
rid
set

shed

shed

shed

shut
slit
split

shut
slit
split

shut
slit
split

spread

spread

spread

thrust

thrust

thrust

[t]

[t]

bent
lent
rent
sent
spent

bent
lent
rent
sent
spent

bend
lend
rend
send
spend

[au]
bind
find
grind
wind

bound
found
ground
wound

= a pune/face un pariu.
= a izbucni, a exploda.
= a radiodifuza.
= a arunca.
= a costa.
= a tia.
= a bate, a izbi, a lovi.
= a rni.
= a permite, a ngdui, a lsa.
= a pune.
= a elibera, a scpa.
= 1.a pune, a aeza. 2.a regla, a
potrivi. 3.a asfini, a apune.
= 1.a vrsa (lacrimi, snge). 2.a
lepda (frunze). 3.a revrsa, a
rspndi n jur.
= a nchide.
= a (se) despica, a (se) crpa.
= 1.a despica. 2.a tia. 3.a
desface. 4.a dezbina. 5.a scinda.
= 1.a ntinde, a desfura.
2.a rspndi.
= a lovi, a izbi, a mbrnci.

= 1.a coti. 2. a (se) ndoi.

= a da cu mprumut.
= 1.a rupe. 2. a sfia. 3. a despica.
= a trimite.
= 1. a cheltui, a irosi, a risipi. 2. a
petrece (timpul).

au
bound
found
ground
wound

= a lega.
= a gsi.
= a sfrma, a pisa, a mcina.
= 1. a erpui. 2. a (r)suci
(ceasul). 3. a se rsuci/ncolci.
4. a se schimba (d. preri). 5. a
se scoroji.

345

sell
tell
foretell

ou

ou

sold
told

sold
told

foretold
[i]

bite
chide
hide

bit
chid/chided
hid
[u]

= a vinde.
= 1.a spune, a zice. 2.a
povesti, a relata.
= a prevesti, a prezice.

foretold
[i]
bitten
chid/chided
hidden

= a muca.
= a certa, a dojeni, a mustra.
= a (se) ascunde.

[ei]

forsake
mistake

forsook
mistook

forsaken
mistaken

partake
shake

partook
shook

partaken
shaken

take

took

taken

[ei]

[i]

= a prsi, a abandona.
= a nelege greit vorbele
cuiva.
= a mprti, a participa la.
= 1.a scutura, a cltina.
2.a zgudui, a zdruncina.
3. a intimida, a speria.
4. a tremura.
= a lua.

bid

bade/bid

bidden/bid

forbid
forgive
give

forbade
forgave
gave

forbidden
forgiven
given

= 1.a porunci. 2. a invita,

a pofti 3.a dori, a ura.
4.a oferi un pre.
= a interzice.
= a ierta.
= a da.

[]
sat
spat

[]
sat
spat

= a sta jos.
= 1. a scuipa. 2. a manifesta

sit
spit
dispre.

3. a pufni (d.pisici).
[d]

[n]

hew
mow

hewed
mowed

hewn
mown

saw

sawed

sawn

sew
show
sow
strew

sewed
showed
sowed sown
strewed

sewn
shown

= a tia, a despica.
= 1. a cosi. 2.a secera. 3.a
tunde (iarba).
= 1.a tia cu ferstrul.
2.a ferstrui.
= a (se) coase.
= a arta.
= a semna, a presra.
= 1.a rspndi, a mprtia.
2.a acoperi/presra (cu).

strewn

346

abide

abode

Miscellaneous
abode

= 1.a locui, a sta. 2.a rmne.

3. a rbda, a se supune.
be
was/were
been
= a fi.
beat
beat
beaten
= a bate.
blend
blended/blent
blended/blent
= a amesteca.
bless
blessed/blest
blessed/blest
= a binecuvnta.
build
built
built
= a construi.
burn
burned/burnt
burned/burnt
= a arde.
clothe
clothed/clad
clothed/clad
= 1.a mbrca. 2.a acoperi.
come
came
come
= a veni.
become
became
become
= a deveni.
overcome
overcame
overcome
= 1.a nvinge,a subjuga.
2. a ntrece. 3. a pune stpnire (d.
emoii).
4. a coplei (d. durere).
deal
dealt
dealt
= 1.a repartiza, a distribui.2.a avea
de-a face cu cineva.
do
did
done
= 1.a face, a svri, a ndeplini.
2. a aciona, a proceda.
outdo
outdid outdone
= a ntrece.
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
= 1.a locui. 2.a insista asupra.
eat
ate
eaten
= a mnca.
fall
fell
fallen
= a cdea.
foresee
foresaw
foreseen
= a prevedea, a ntrezri.
forget
forgot
forgotten
= a uita.
get
got
got/gotten
= a cpta, a primi, a obine.
go
went
gone
= a merge.
undergo
underwent
undergone
= 1.a suferi. 2.a pi. 3.a trece prin.
have
had
had
= a avea.
hear
heard
heard
= a auzi.
overhear
overheard
overheard
= 1.a auzi din ntmplare.
2. a surprinde (o conversaie etc.).
hold
held
held
= 1.a ine. 2. a reine, a opri, a mpiedica.
3. a conine, a avea. 4. a deine,
a poseda. 5. a imobiliza.
behold
beheld
beheld/beholden = a zri, a vedea.
withhold
withheld
withheld
= 1.a reine, a opri. 2. a refuza.
knit
knitted/knit
knitted/knit
= a mpleti, a tricota.
lay
laid
laid
= a pune jos, a culca, a aeza.
mislay
mislaid
mislaid
= a pierde, a zpci.
lean
leant/leaned
leant/leaned
= a se nclina, a se apleca.
learn
learned/learnt
learned*/learnt
= a nva.
lie
lay
lain
= 1.a fi culcat, a fi ntins. 2. a zcea.
light
lighted/lit
lighted/lit
= a aprinde.
load
loaded
loaded/laden*
= 1.a ncrca. 2. a coplei.
* laden, learned, molten (iron) are used attributively.
lose
lost
lost
= a pierde.
make
made
made
= 1.face. 2. a fabrica. 3. a prepara.
melt
melted
melted/molten*
= a se topi.
pay
paid
paid
= a plti.
347

rot

rotted

* rotten is used attributively.

say
said

rotted/rotten*

= 1. a putrezi. 2. a se ofili,
a se prpdi. 3. a se caria.

said

= 1. a spune, a zice. 2. a recita (versuri).

3. a afirma. 4.a exprima n
cuvinte. 5.a-i exprima prerea, a se
pronuna.
= a vedea.
= 1.a (se) brbieri. 2.a tia (subire).
3. a se freca de, a se atinge de.
= a tunde.
= a strluci.
= 1.a potcovi. 2.a ncla.
= 1.a se npusti, a da buzna. 2. a vna.
3. a ncoli (d. plante). 4. a trage cu
arma.
= 1. a aluneca, a se da pe ghea.
2. a trece pe nesimite.
= 1.a vrsa, a rsturna. 2.a da pe dinafar.
= 1.a strica. 2.a rsfa. 3.a se strica.
= a sta n picioare.
= 1.a nelege, a pricepe. 2. a afla, a lua
cunotin despre.
= a rezista, a ine piept.
= a (se) umfla.
= a pi, a clca.
= 1. a lucra, a munci. 2. a prelucra.
3. a executa, a nfptui. 4. a pune la
treab. 5. a face, a produce.
6. (d. maini) a funciona. 7. a merge,
a avea succes. 8. a fermenta.

see
shave

saw
seen
shaved shaved/shaven

shear
shine
shoe
shoot

sheared
shone
shod
shot

sheared/shorn
shone
shod
shot

slide

slid

slid

spill
spoil
stand
understand

spilled/spilt
spilled/spilt
spoiled spoiled/spoilt
stood
stood
understood
understood

withstand
swell
tread
work

withstood
swelled
trod
worked

withstood
swollen/swelled
trodden/trod
worked/wrought*

* wrought (iron) = (fier) forjat.

(adapted by Doina Cmeciu and Elena Bonta from Eckersley, C.E.: A Comprehensive English
Grammar)

348

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352