INDIAN MATHEMATICS

by G. R. KAYE

Classic Literature Collection

World Public Library.org

Title: INDIAN MATHEMATICS

Author: G. R. KAYE
Language: English
Subject: Fiction, Literature
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D^J-

INDIAN MATHEMATICS

R.

KAYE

CALCUTTA & sniLA

THACKER, SPINK & CO

1915

8A

PRINTED BY
THACKER, SriNK & CO.

CALCUTTA

CONTENTS.

/i

I.

The

1.

orientalists

who

exploited Indian:

-histC'Ty

a 'Ul

about a century ago were not always perfect in

literature

and consequently promulgated

many errors. Gradually, however, sounder methods have
obtained and we are now able to see the facts in more

their

methods

of investigation

correct perspective.

In particular the early chronology has

been largely revised and the revision in some instances has

important bearings on the history of mathematics and allied

According to orthodox Hindu tradition the Surya

subjects.

Siddhanta,

most important Indian astronomical work,

the

was composed over two million years ago

Bailly,

towards

the end of the eighteenth century, considered that Indian

astronomy had been founded on accurate observations made

thousands

of

years

the

before

Christian

era.

Laplace,

basing his arguments on figures given by Bailly considered

that

some 3,000 years B.C.

recorded

actual

the

Indian

observations of the

had

astronomers

planets

correct

one

to

Playfair eloquently supported Bailly's views ;

William Jones argued that correct observations must

second
Sir

have been made at

but with the researches of

Thibaut,

and

and so on
Colebrooke, Whitney, Weber,

least as early as

and others more

correct

1181 B.C.

views were introduced

was proved that the records used by Bailly were quite

modem and that the actual period of the composition of the
it

original
It

of

the

Surya Siddhanta was not

earliar

than A.D. 400.

may, indeed, be generally stated that the tendency

early

tendency

is

orientalists

exhibited

was towards antedating and

this

connected with

two

in

discussions

notable works, the Sulvasutras and the Bakhshali arithmetic,

the dates of which are not even yet definitely

fixed.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

In the 16tli century, A.D.,

2.

Hindu

tradition ascribe

the invention of the nine figures with the device of place

to make them suffice for all numbers 'to the beneficent

Creator of the

univtirf^e

'

and

this

was accepted as evidence

of

This is a particular
the very great antiqiiitj of the system
.illtistr^ltipA i>^'an;attituile that was quite general, for early
!

Indian works' claim either to be directly revealed or of divine

One consequence of this attitude is that we find
origin.
absolutely no

We

ence.*

references to

foreign

origins

or foreign influ-

have, however, a great deal of direct evidence

that proves conclusively that foreign influence was very real

Greek and Roman coins, coins with Greek and
indeed

Indian inscriptions,

Greek technical terms,

etc.,

etc.

and

the implication of considerable foreign influence occurs in

archseological
certain classes of literature and also in the

remains of the north-west of India.

to foreigners

is

One

of the few references

given by Vahraha ^Mihira

who acknowledged

that the Greeks knew something of astrology

but although

he gives accounts of the Romaka and the Paulisa siddhdntas

acknowledgment of western
he never makes any direct
influence.
*

It

may be noted

ences in the
Alexander the Great.

Puratia.^,

that beyond the vague pseudo-prophetic referno early Indian writer mentions the invasion of

II.

For the purpose

3.

history of

discussion three

of

periods

Hindu mathematics may be considered

(I)

The

period

S'ulvasiitra

upper

with

the

in

limit

c.

A.D. 200
(II)

(Ill)

The astronomical period c. A.D. 400600.

The Hindu mathematical period proper, A.D.
6001200.

Such a division into periods does not,

represent the facts, but

it is

of course, perfectly

a useful division and serves the

We

purposes of exposition with sufficient accuracy.

have prefixed an

might

or Vedic, period but the literature

earlier,

Vedic age does not exhibit anything of a mathematical

nature beyond a few measures and numbers used quite inforof the

It is a

mally.

remarkable fact that

and third

second

the

of our periods have no

connection whatever with the

or

The

period.

S'lilvasutra

Indian

later

mathematicians

completely ignored the mathematical contents of

They not only never

sutras.
utilise

and

state that

no Indian writer

known

is

to

have

the S'ulva-

them but do not even

We

the results given therein.

century
as

refer to

first

can go even further

earlier

than the nineteenth

referred

the

to

containing anything of mathematical

S'ulvasutras

This

value.

connection will be illustrated as We proceed and

seen that the works of the third period

may

dis-

will

it

be

be considered as

a direct development from those of the second.

The

4.

means

'

S'ulvasutra

period.

the rules of the cord

'

and

The

is

term

S'lilvasutra

name given

the

to the

supplements of the Kalpasutras which treat of the construction of sacrificial

tras

were

altars.

composed

has

The period
been

in

which the

variously

fixed

by

S'ulvasu-

various

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

Max Muller

authors.

500

and

places

200

the

B.C.

origin

gave

R. C.

of

somewhere within the

period

the

Dutt

gave 800

Apastamba

the

lying

between

B.C.

Buhler

as

school

probably

as

last four centuries before the Christian

and Baudhayana somewhat earlier Macdonnell gives

As a
the limits as 500 B.C. and A.D. 200, and so on.
matter of fact the dates are not known and those suggested
era,

by

authorities

different

circumspection.

contents of

the

It

must

must

be

S'ldvasutras

known

as

from quite modern manuscripts

detail they have probably been

mind that the

borne in

be

also

with the greatest

used

to

us,

and that

in

extensively

taken

are

matters of

The

edited.

Apastamba, Baudhayana and Katyayana which

have been used for the following notes, indeed, differ from

editions of

each other to a very considerable extent.

The

SulvasTdras

are

primarily

not

are rules ancillary to religious ritual

No

matical but a religious aim.

are given and indeed in the

mathematical

they have not a matheproofs or demonstrations

presentation there

mathematical beyond the bare

Those

facts.

that contain mathematical notions relate to

and rectangles, (2) the
of squares
tion

(1)

equivalent
5.

theorem

number

In
is

of

circles

and

(2)

quite generally.

It

examples which

the

(1)

may

the
is

illustrated

be summarised thus

+ 152=172
72 + 242=252
122 + 358 = 372
152 + 352=392

+ 352=^392

82

+ 152=172

122

+ 352=372

the

Pythagorean

= 252

152

of

and squares,

Baudhayana.
32+ 4-= 52

52+12^=132

rules

the construc-

Apastamba.
3H 4-= 52
122 + 16-' -202
152+20-'

nothing

and squares.

connection with
stated

of

is

relation

diao'onal to the sides, (3) equivalent rectangles

(4)

but

52^-122=132
82

by a
:

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

Katyayana gives no such rational examples but gives (with

Apastamba and Baudhayana) the hypotenuse corresponding
to sides equal to the side and diagonal of a square, i.e., the
a\/2,

triangle a,
2^

+ 6'=: 40.

rational

There

were

may

that

indication

3 4

an expression
feet

it

that

is

\/W+b =

3,

gives such a scale)

of a direct

result

^a

a-{-

was

of the diagonal

measurement

by

obtained

4,

and 34 (and

the result

and

accurate to about ith of an inch

the

rule.

but, given a scale of

measures based upon the change ratios

Baudhayana actually

Sulvasfitra

3.4.34^

much commented upon

This has been

the

and

be represented by

+ 3' = 10,

any general

from

obtained

1^

an arithmetical value

given

is

which

of a square

no

is

examples

Incidentally

and he alone gives

rt/y/S,

only

is

for a side of six

or

it

is

possible

approximation

the

by Tannery's R- process, but

it

quite

is

'J,

no such process was known to the authors of the

Sttlvasutras.
The only noteworthy character of the fraction is the form with its unit numerators.
Neither the
certain that

value

nor this form of

itself

fraction

occurs in any

later

Indian work.

There

is

Pythagorean
of

an

one

other

theorem to

indication

of

the

be

noted,

formation

follows

of

with

the

occurrence

the

viz.,

square by the

The text

successive addition of gnomons.

is as

connected

point

relating to

this

" Two

hundred

constitute
pradesa.

To these

and

the

twenty-five

sevenfold

agni

of

these

with

bricks

aratni

and

'

sixty-four

more are

these bricks a square

is

to

formed.

be added.

The

square consists of sixteen bricks.

With

side of the

Thirty-three

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

6
bricks

remain and these

on

placed

are

all

round the borders."

sides

This subject
matical

still

never again referred to in Indian mathe-

is

works.

The questions
completely

realised

theorem, and
irrational

(a)

the

generality

been

much

of this period

sound notion

discussed

had

Pythagorean

the

of

whether they had a

(b)

have

whether the Indians

but

the

of

the

ritualists

who coinposed the Sulvasutras Avere not interested in the

Pythagorean theorem beyond their own actual wants, and it
is

quite certain that even as late as the

mathematician
of

the

gives evidence of a

irrational.

Further, at

develop any real theory

modern

Indian

of

no

the Pytuacjorean theorem other

2th century no Indian

complete understanding
period

geometry,

work denies the

the

did

and a

Indians

comparatively

any proof

possibility of

of

than experience.

The fanciful suggestion of Burk that possibly Pythagoras obtained his geometrical knowledge from India is not
supported by any actual evidence.
The (liinese had acquaintance with the theorem over a thousand years B.C., and the
Egyptians as early as 2000 B.C.
().

Problems relating to equivalent squares and rectangles

are involved in the prescribed altar constructions

quently the

give constructions,

Sulvasutras

Pythagorean theorem,

and conse-

by help

of

the

of

(1)

a square equal to the sum of two squares

(2)

a square equal to the difference of two squares

(3)

a rectangle equal to a given square

(4)

a square equal to a given rectangle

(5)

the decrease of a square into a smaller square.

Again we have to remark the significant fact that none

of these geometrical constructions occur in any later Indian
Work.

The

first

two are

direct geometrical applications

of

INDIAN

c-=ar~h^

the rule

MATHEMATICS.

the third pives in a geometrical

ay

the sides of the rectangle as

a

gives

{'')

geometrical

and

and

construction

corresponds to Euclid,

II,

the fourth rule

for

form

(6

the

-j

The

Circle.

According to

of the period it was,

to square the

its

brated

4.

the altar building ritual

under certain circumstances, necessary

circle,

and

consequently

we have

in the Sulvasutras attempts at the solution

and

not

fifth is

perfectly clear but evidently corresponds to Euclid, II,

7.

^^j

this

of

recorded

problem,

connection with altar ritual reminds us of the cele-

Delian

The

problem.

solutions

one case there

crude although in

is

offered

pretence

of

are

very

accuracy.

Denoting by a the side of the square and by d the diameter

of the circle whose area is supposed to be a^ the rules given

may

be expressed by
(a)

da-\-^{ax/2a)

(/3)

a=d-l^d

Neither of the

first

two

rules,

which are given by both Apas-

tamba and Baudhayana, is of particular value or interest.

The third is given by Baudhayana only and is evidently
obtained from (a) by utilising the value for a' 2 given in
paragraph

above.

We

have

thus

^-2+v^- "
=

_ i4--i
s

^
j_

577
408

8.-29.6

which, neglecting the last term,

is

This

^8.:i9

implies

knowledge

of

:\

12;24

139:^

41

8.2i).6.8

S.-jg.e.S.lSQH

the value given in rule

the

process

of

(7).

converting a

fraction into partial fractions with unit numerators, a knowledge most certainly not possessed by the composers of the

Svlmsfifras

for

as

Thibaut

says

there

is

nothinf^

in

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

8
these

rules

which would

justify

were expert in long calculations

the

assumption that they

and there

is

no indication

any other work that the Indians were ever acquainted

with the process and in no later works are fractions exin

pressed in this manner.

It is

record

worthy

of

no attempts

squaring the
S'ulvasutras.

circle

note that later Indian mathematicians

at

the

and never

solution

of

the

problem

of

refer to those recorded in the

III.

A.D. iOO TO 600.

There appears to be no connecting link between the

8.

of

the

recorded

is

astronomical

western

introduction

the

until

In

ideas.*

Varaha Mihira wrote

gives a summary account

of the five

which was probably composed in

Varaha Mihira's

collection

account we have of what

ment
"not

of

astronomy

sixth

India

of

century A.D.

which

Siddhdntika

most important

its original

became

afterwards

400,

into

astro-

Of these the Surya Siddhdntu,

nomical works then in use.

than A.D.

the

Pahclia

his

nothing

Sulvasutras

the

to

developments

Indian

later

Subsequent

subject.

further

and

mathematics

S'ulvasutra

form not

earlier

standard

the

work.

the earliest and most authentic

is

may

be termed the
'

in India.

scientific treat-

Although," writes Thibaut,

Hindus learned from the

Greeks, he at any rate mentions certain facts and points of
doctrine which suggest the dependence of Indian astronomy
directly

on the
from

stating

science of

his

that

the

Alexandria

Varaha Mihira
Siddhantas

the

writes

Paulisa,

the

Saura and the Paitamaha

is

accurate,

near to

*
'

There

The two remaining ones are

This

has

we

know

employs
are

the

already

terms

of

following

Romaka, the Vasishtha, the

The Siddhanta made by
it

stands the Siddhanta pro-

claimed by Romaka, more accurate

as

astrological writings, he freely

undoubted Greek origin."

Paulisa

and,

far

is

the

Savitra

(Surya)*

from the truth."

somewhat important bearing on the date

of

the

example, the date of their composition were accepted

as 500 B.C. a period of nearly 1,000 years, absolutely blank as far as
S'nlcasvtras.

If, for

mathematical notions aie concerned, would have to be accounted

for.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS^.

10

Tho

5).

Pancha

considerable

Siddhdntikd

contains

mathematical interest

material

and from the

historical

point of view of a value not surpassed by that of

Indian

The

works.

mathematical

Siddhanta

is

perhaps

of

considered

to

contain

the

It

is

as follows
' (1)

section

most

the

essence

interest

of

the

parts,

later

the Paulisa

and may

be

Indian trigonometry.

of

of the tenth part of the square

circumference,

which comprises 360

the diameter.

Having assumed the

is

four parts of a circle the

part of a sign

Take

[is

eighth

the

of

sine

to be found].

the square of the radius and call

constant.

The fourth part

The

Aries.

of]

of

constant

it is

the

be

to

is

The square-

two quantities are the

roots of the

it

[the square

square

lessened by the square of Aries.

" (3)

anv

The square-root

" (2)

of

of

sines.

order to find the rest take the double of the

In

deduct

arc,

it

from

the

diminish

quarter,

the radius by the sine of the remainder and

add to the square

of

the

half

sine

of

[The

"

Aries

"

The
unit

eighth part of a
is

rules

radius)
(1)

(3)

indicated the

given

may

"

sign

first

be

is

the

the desired sine."

" (=30) is
" sign " of

expressed

Thfr

arc.

in

3 45'

and by

.30.]

our notation

(for

as

7r=VTo"
Sin-^

(2)

Sin 30=|,

(^)

They are followed by a

'

however,

of

Sin

60= v^I^T

^(1-Sin(9(^2,)y

table of 24 sines progressing

vals of 3 45' obviously taken from

Instead,

double

sum

square-root of the

square

of half of that the

Ptolemy's table

dividing the

radius into

by

inter-

of chords.

60 parts, as

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
did Ptolemy,

chord a

a
^ =

siw

convert
change.
(3438')

Paulisa
,

,.

120

iuto

it

,,

parts
,

table

chords into

of

nim to

numerical

without

sines

as

for

this division oi the radius enabled

the

divides

11

Aryabhata gives another measure for the radius

which enabled the sines to be expressed in a sort of

circular measure.

We

thus have three distinct

(a)

The chords

(6)

The

(c)

The Aryabhata

Ptolemy, or

of

Paulisa

or

sine

stages

ch'da

sin

sin

-^

with

-^-^^

= 6U

A with

or

sine

ch'd

^=120
(I

with r=3438'

To obtain

the value of

(c)

Thus the
function

earliest

occurs

in

- actually

known

the

Indian

u.sed

record

the use

of

this

of

=3.14136)
of

works

sine

of

this

function

was

877919]

and although we

be incorrect we must

aclaiowledge that

attributed

to el-Battani

now know

this

to

fSi(

astronomical

At one time the invention

period.

was

[A.D.

much more

the Arabs utilised the invention to a

scientific

end than did the Indians.

In some of the Indian works ~of this period an interpolation formula for the construction of the

given.

It

=
n

This

may

j^

is

of

sines

is

be represented by
15l!!:JL where

table

Sin a

A" -

8in

a Sin (h l)a,

given ostensibly for the formation of the table, but

the table actually given cannot be obtained from the formula.

10.

A.D.

Aryabhata.

476)

at

the

head

indeed he was the

*

Although

first

Arj-abhata's

generally accepted

matter.

Tradition

as

of

places

the Indian

to

there

mathematicians

(born

and

formally on the subject.*

write

Ganitdy

authentic,

Aryabhata

as
is

first

an

published by Kern, i-^

element of doubt in the

12

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

He was renowned

as an astronomer

and as such tried to introduce sounder views of that science but was bitterly opposed
by the orthodox.
The mathematical work attributed to
him consists of thirty-three couplets into which is condensed
a good deal of matter.
he

proceeds

he deals with the

involution,

algebraic

progressions

The

identities.

practical

applications

followed

etc.

by

areas

and

then a set

some

may

remaining rules

with the exception

and

section in whicli

shadow problems,

circle,

on

propositions

which

and

evolution

to

Next comes a semi-astronomical

volumes.

of

Starting with the orders of numerals

of

simple

be termed

the

very

last

relates to indeterminate equations of the first degree.

Neither demonstrations nor examples are given, the whole

text consisting of sixty-six lines of

that

it

is

often

mathematical treatise

some record

to

difficult
it

is

of the state of

bare rules so coiidensed

of

interest

chiefly

knowledge at a

we know,

matics

it is

the earliest

and because

it

because

it

is

critical period in

the intellectual history of the civilised world

far as

As a

interpret their meaning.

because,

as

Hindu work on pure mathe-

forms a sort of introduction to the

school of Indian mathematicians that flourished in succeeding

centuries,

Aryabhata's work contains one of the

known

to us of an attempt at a general solution of indeter-

minates of the

The
is

records

earliest

first

degree by the continued fraction process.

rule, as given in the text,

no doubt as to

its

is

general aim.

hardly coherent but there

It

may

be considered as

forming an introduction to the somewhat marvellous develop-

ment
in

of

the

this

branch

works

noteworthy rule

of

mathematics that we find recorded

Another
Brahmagupta and Bhaskara,
given by Aryabhata is the one which contains

of

an extremely accurate value

3 ^^^ (=3-1416)
rather extraordinary that Aryabhata himself never

of a circle to the diameter,

is

of the ratio of the circumference

this value, that

it

viz., tt

but

it

utilised

was not used by any other Indian mathe-

INDIAN MATHEMATICS,

writer

the

before

matician

quotes

century

12th

and

Aryabhata as recording

15

no

that

noteworthy points are the rules relating to volumes

of a

pyramid

the base

is

of the area of a circle (of the

root

not

uncommon

of

area,

this

as the epanthein

e.g.,

of solids

the volume

given as half the product of the height and

the volume of a sphere

the

Other

value.

this

which contain some remarkable inaccuracies,

Indian

in

later

occurs

or

same radius

t-^J^

Indian
in

stated to be the product

is

as the sphere)

Similar

works.

The

were

errors
rule

and

known

Aryabhata's work and there

is

type of definition that occurs in no other Indian work,

e.g.,

" The product of three equal numbers

also

has twelve edges."

is

a cube

and

it

IV.

(JOO 1200.

A.D.

Aryabhata appears to have given a

11.

delinite bias to

Indian mathematics, for following him we have a series of

works dealing with the same

selves

we know very

but some

not

if

been preserved

all

little

so, for

matician,

One
of

is

*'

'

598.

9th century.

born A.D.

991.

born A.D. 1114.

of

possibly sounder

is

much more importance

treat

of

same

the

historically.

topics

with

Brahmagupta's work appears to have been

the others.

Bhaskara mentions another mathe-

Padmanabha, but omits from

of the chief points of difference

geometry.

Brahmagupta

cyclic quadrilaterals

this

born A.D.

Brahmagupta's work

writers

these

all

'

mathematically and

used by

the mere names

the most renowned of this school, probably

is

and

Bhaskara

difference

'

S'ridhara

Generally

indeed beyond

them-

writers

Mahavira

undeservedly

tlie

the works of the following authors have

Brahmagupta

Bhaskara

Of

topics.

subject until

deals

while the

by the time

is

fairly

later

of

his list Mahavira.

in the

treatment

completely

with

gradually

drop

writers

Bhaskara

it

has

ceased

to be understood.

The most

interesting characteristics of the works of this

period are the treatment of

(i)

[(n)

indeterminate
the

rational

equations

right-angled

and (m) the perfunctory treatment

triangle;
of pure geometry.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Of these topics
with

to

it will

some extent

be noted that the second was dealt

in the

Sulvasutras

mination seems to show that there

that the

writers

of the results
12.

of

the

15

third

is

no

but a

close

real connection

exa-

and

period were actually ignorant

achieved by Baudhayana and Apastamba.

Indeterminate

Equations.

names and dates connected with the

minates in India are

The

interestini;

early history of indeter-

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

16

They were naturally disappointed but the

532).

may have

their visit

effect

of

been far greater than historical records

show.

The

1.3.

knowledge

of

state

regarding

equations in the west at this period

Some

is

not definitely known.

works of Diophantus and

of the

are lost to us

indeterminate

those of Hypatia

all

but the extant records show that the Greeks

this analysis so

far

had explored the

field

rational solutions

(not necessarily integral) of

the

and second degree and

The Indian works record

first

deoree.

solutions

integral

cases of the third

distinct advances

on what

=c
+ 1 =

by

(A)

ax

{B)

Du'
is

t-

only roughly indicated by Arya-

bhata but Brahmagupta's solution

practically

equations of

of

solution of (A)

The

certain

as to achieve

For example they give rational

Greek analysis.

of the

is left

of

(for

the positive sign)

is

the same as

cq-bt,
y= + cp + at
zero or any integer and ^V? i^ the penultimate con-

x=
where

is

vergent

of

ajb.

The Indian methods

for

Du''

may

the solution of
1

be summarised as follows
If

where

Da^+h=c- and Da-+ft=y' then will

D{caT ya)^+ h^= (c y a a Df
(a)

is

any suitable

integer.

Also

where n

is

any assumed number.

The complete integral solution is given by a combination

given by Brahma(a) and (6) of which the former only is

INDIAX MATHEMATICS.
gupta,

both

while

17

by Bhaskara (five centuries

method by composidesignates (a) the
given

are

The latter
tion
These solutions are alone
and (b) the cyclic method.
sufficient to give to the Indian works an important place in

later).

'

'

'

the

history of

'

mathematics.

the combination of
all praise

theory

of

is

it

(a)

and

the

modern

Greek

cyclic

'

Hankel

the finest

numbers before

best

Heath)

(6)

certainly

says,

thing

'

achieved

He

Lagrange."

method
{i.e.,
" It is beyond
in

attributed

the
its

mathematicians, but the opinions

invention to the Indian

of

Of the

authorities

Tannery, Cantor,

{e.g.,

are rather in favour of the hypothesis of ultimate

origin.

The following consjjectus of the indeterminate problems

dealt with by the Indians will give some idea of their work
in

direction

this

and

now laiown

occur in Greek works

ficantly

illustrates

*(1)
(2)

ax -^ hy

(3)

X ^^

a,

^^ c

cz

Mod.

(5)
(6)

Du'

Ax

I*"

(10)
(11)

(12)
(13)

...

rt^

Mod.

h^

=D

^2

(9)

Cxy

-{-

(8)

-{-

6i

- l=t^
Du^ s ^ t'
Dhi' s = f'

(7)

to us the conspectus signi-

general similarity of treatment,

+ By
Z)w- + 1 =

(4)

hy

ax

few of the cases actually

although

at^

=
s - Du^ = f
Du + s =
x a =
Du' au

t^

^2

s'',

Of these only numbers

-">,

=^t^

7,

S,

12

14

occur before the twelfth

century.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

18

(14)

aa;

+a=
= s\ 3

bx

s'\

(17)

+ 3
+ btf = s\ ax' x' x'-^ if 1 = s\

(18)

x^

(19)

aa;^

(20)

(15)
(16)

(21)
(22)

(23)
(24)

(25)

(26)
(27)
(28)

{'x'

(29)

^8)

a^x' - b^o

Mod.

Mod.

f
t-

u^

<3

^'^

?/2

a;2

t^

a;3

_(_

t'

xy

t'\

a;2

0)8

-=

s"-,

s,

1 ^

if

X y =
+y^
x^ + y^ = s\
+ ^2 ^
=
X y ^s\
+
+ ^^ =
+^ =
^y =.
+
+ ^2
as' + 1 =
ax + 1 = s\
X
wxyz = a {w
y
a ^ o Mod. b
cc

- f)

{x'^

by''

ax''

^2^

^) 5 4. 1

(^.

-\-

-{-

-\-

:^

^2

t'

z)

a;3

a;

?/

S-,

12

s-\-t-\-u

a;2

t^

I/'-!

-v^?!^

a;

^;^

vj

+ V^MT' +

^8,

+y
'2

a;"'

?/-

4 =. M^

= w\
z'

i/a;+?/+2

i/x-^^-^

^x'-y^ + ^ = f
(30)

w +

a^

a;

6-,

c",

a;^
+ 18 = P,
+ 18 =: e,
^2
+ 6 + c +
+ 11 = 13.
+ e + /+

w'a;

ft

+ 2 =
+ 18 =

(Z

(^^

g\

5r

Rational right-angled triangles.

The Indian
mathematicians of this period seem to have been particularly
attracted by the problem of the rational right-angled triangle
and give a number of rules for obtaining integral solutions.
14.

The following summary

of the various rules relating to

problem shows the position

of the Indians fairly well.

this

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

19

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

20

Other problems connected with the rational right-angled

given by Bhaslcara are

triangle
e.g.,

sum
is

The sum

(1)

of the sides

of the sides is 56

numerically

equal

equal

numerically

and

to

is

some

the

historical interest

40 and the area 60,

their product 7

product

of

The geometry of this period

(1) Lack of definitions, etc.

15.

The area

(4)

the

is

sides.

characterised

is

The

(2)

The area

600, (3)

hypotenuse,

the

to

of

by

(2)

Angles are not dealt with at

(3)

There
of

is

no mention

of

all

parallels

and

no theory

proportion

(4)

Traditional inaccuracies are not

(5)

gradual

decline

in

uncommon

geometrical

knowledge

is

noticeable.

On

other hand, we have the following noteworthy

the

relating to cyclic

rules

quadrilaterals

q=.^{sa) (sb) {s-c) (s-d)

{i)

(m)

x'=^{ad-\-hc) (ac-^bd) (ab-^cd)

y-={ab-\-cd) {ac-\-bd)l{ad^bc)

where x and y are the diagonals of the cyclic quadrilateral

BrahmaThis {ii) is sometimes designated as
{a, b, c, d).
*

gupta's
16.

order

theorem'.

The absence

sufficiently

of definitions

differentiate

that of the early Greeks

the

and

indifference to logical

Indian

from

geometry

but the absence of what

may

be

termed a theory of geometry hardly accounts for the complete

absence of any reference to parallels and

angles.

Whereas

on the one hand the Indians have been credited with the
invention of

the sine function, on

the

other

there

is

no

evidence to show that they were acquainted with even the

most elementary theorems

The presence
with correct ones
of triangles

and

of a

(as

number

is significant.

quadrilaterals,

such) relating to angles.

of incorrect rules side

The one
viz.,

by

side

relating to the area

the area

is

equal to the

21

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
product of half the sums of pairs of opposite

sides, strangely

enough

6th century

occurs

well as

Chinese work of

in

the works of

in

By

Boethius and Bede.

based

that the area

emphasized.

volume

For cones

pyramid

common

sphere are

a function of the perimeter

is

all

an

gives

incorrect

incorrect rules for the

the

for

volume

Mahavira

the rules assume that 7r=3.

Brahmagupta

17.

of

and area

an

of

gives
ellipse

mathematician from

end

definite

in

view

a fairly complete set of rules

gives

dealing with the cyclic

whom

construction

^the

appreciate the theorems,

some

of

a cyclic

quadri-

commentators did not

which are given

of

the works of Mahavira and S'ridhara

in

and by the time of

Bhaskara
understood.

had ceased to be
indeed condemns them outright as
they

a person "

he or the

either

he obtained his material had a

The

Bhaskara

and

quadrilateral

with rational elements.

lateral

"How

unsound.

can

he says " neither specifying one of the perpendi-

culars, nor either

questioner

is

answers the

the diagonals,

of

still

more

so

is

Such a
he who

question."

Brahmagupta

15,

ask the rest

a blundering devil and

Besides the two rules

graph

fvirther

is

rule

is

on.

so

fully

it

Aryabhata, S'ridhara and Mahavira,

to

incorrect rules for the circumference

and

as

Mahavira,

Brahmagupta,

Mahavira, the idea on which

iVryabhata

of

Ahnies,

the

(^)

and

gives

(ii)

rules

already given in para-

corresponding

to

the

formula

2r=-^-^
SlU A

(in)
^

'

(iv)

teral

and

a^-\-b'c'

If

{ay,

and

etc.,'

cjj,

hy,

Co)

is

+ /5^ = y' then the quadrilaand has its diagonals at right

a^

cyclic

angles.

This

figure

trapezium."

commentatoi

is

From

sometimes
the triangles

obtains

the

termed
(3,

4,

5)

quadrilateral

" Brahmagupta 's

and (5, 12, 13) a
(39,

60,

52,

25),

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

22

with diagonals 63 and 56,

of

He

etc.

introduces

also

proof

Ptolemy's theorem and in doing this follows Diophantus

19)

{in,

from triangles

in constructing

new

triangles {ay, by, cy,)

60,

65).

and

{a,

b, c)

and

(a,

/3,

y,)

and uses the actual

examples given by Diophantus, namely (39, 52, 65) and (25,

An examination

18.

of

{ac, (3c, yc,)

the

Greek mathematics

the

of

period immediately anterior to the Indian period with which

we

are

now

dealing shows that geometrical knowledge

in a state of decay.
rical

work

much

of

After Pappus

(c.

was

A.D. 300) no geomet-

value was done.

His

successors were,

apparently, not interested in the great achievements of the

earlier

Greeks and

acquainted with

many

of the earlier treatises

the

style

of

certain that they were often not even

it is

of their

works.

had ceased to

The high standard

attract, errors crept in,

exposition deteriorated and practical purposes

predominated.

The geometrical work

of

Brahmagupta

is

almost what one might expect to find in the period of decay

in Alexandria.
scientific

It contains

exposition

of

the

one or two gems but

subject

obviouslv taken from western works.

and

the

it

is

not

material

a
is

V.

We

above notes, given in outline the

historically important matters relating to Indian mathematics.
For points of detail the works mentioned in the annexed
19.

in the

have,

bibliography should be consulted

but we here

briefly indicate

the other contents of the Indian works, and in the following

we
a somewhat

sections

fictitious

importance, to the personalities of the

and

mathematicians

Indian

have achieved

shall refer to certain topics that

the

to

relations

between

the

mathematics of the Chinese, the Arabs and the Indians.

GUPTA

deals very

mixtures

of

with

briefly

operations, square

also

which occupy the

simple

equations

receive

comparatively but

of

the

MahavIra's work
whole.

solids,

equations

degree,

The

ordinary

is

arithmetical
;

interest,

sums

of the

geometry as already described

notions

of

greater

fuller

the

circle

simple algebraic identithe

first

and

second

portion of the work, and

and second

first

little

of

shadow problems, negative

qualities, cipher, surds,

indeterminate

progressions,

elementary

elementary mensuration of

ties

ordinary

rule of three, etc,

metals, arithmetical

including

and positive

the

and cube-root,

squares of natural numbers

but

Brahma-

Besides the subjects already mentioned

20.

degrees

which

attention.

but more elementary on the

operations

are

treated

with

more

completeness and geometrical progressions are introduced

many problems on
is

made

algebra.

of the
It is

(inaccurately).

indeterminates are given but no mention

and it contains no formal

the only Indian work that deals with ellipses
'

cyclic

method

'

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

2-i

The only extant work by S'ridhara

but shorter

but he

^^quations,

quoted as having dealt with quadratic

is

etc.

Bhaskara's Lilavatl

based on

is

while his

sition

of the algebraical topics dealt

is

deals

with combina-

with by Brahmagiipta,

the most complete of the Indian algebras.

After the time of Bhaskara (born A.D.

mathematical work

Even
a

and,

being a more systematic expo-

tions,

Vlja-ganita,

work

S'ridharas

the topics already mentioned,

besides

Mahavira's

like

is

of historical value

no Indian

1114)

or interest

known.

is

before his time deterioration had set in and although

" college

Bhaskara

"'

was

method

Indian

teaching

perpetuate the

took an astrological

apparently,

it,

The

21.

founded to

bias.

examples

stating

of

of

parti-

cularly those involving algebraic equations are of sufficient

interest to be recorded here.

and

not

symbolical

at

all

The early works were

and even

in

rhetorical

modern times the

nearest approach to a symbolic algebra consists of abbrevia-

The only

tions of special terms.

real

symbol employed

is

or at the side of the

affected.

Ms.,

a cross

Sarada

is

The

first

In the Bakhshali

used in place of the dot as the latter

script is

the

many

in

the

employed to indicate cipher or nought.

mention

of special terms to represent

quantities occurs in Bhaskara's Vlja-ganita which

in

the

usually a dot placed above

negative sign of operation, which

quantity

is

twelfth century of

our

imknown

was written

Bhaskara says

era.

"As

and the colours black (kdlaka), blue

and others besides
(nilaka), yellow (pltaka) and red (lohitaJca)
these have been selected by ancient teachers* for names of
as

{ydvat

tdvat)

'

'

values

of

unknown

The term ydvat

of

quantities."
tdvat

is

understandable and so

colours but the conjunction

The use

of

is

is

the use

not easy to understand.

two such diverse types as ydvat

*Xot Indians.

tdvat

and kdlaka

25

INDIAN MATHE.AIATICS.
(generally abbreviated to yd

the

possibility

former

of

unknown

quantity,

undefined

(or

'

as

'

definition
aoriston,

of units.'

many

as

that the

possible

the

of

i.e.,

'

an

To pass from

requires little ima-

'

Diophantus had only one symbol for the unlmown

gination.
if

number

to

'

is

monddon

iMthos

unlimited)

It

Diophantus'

with

an unlimited number

and

hd) in one system suggests

a mixed origin.

connected

is

and

the use of ydvat tdvat were of Diophantine origin the

Indians would have had to look elsewhere for terms for the
other

unknowns.

With

reference to the origin of the use

we may point out that the very

early Chinese used calculating pieces of two colours to represent positive and negative numbers.
of colours for this purpose

As neither the Greeks nor the Indians used any sign for
addition they had to introduce some expression to distinguish

The Greeks used

the absolute term from the variable terms.

M an

abbreviation for monddes or

used ru for

rujja,

'

units

'

while the Indians

a unit.

The commoner abbreviations used by the Indians are

as

follows

kd

,,

kdlaJca,

ru

,,

rupa,

va

,,

varga,

gha
ka
It

is

the

for ydvat tdvat,

Ijd

the

ghana,
,,

second

the

unknown.

absolute

quantity.

square.

cube.

Icara/ia,

unknown.

first

surd.

hardly appropriate to discuss Sanskrit mathematical

terminology in detail here but

mention a few other terms.

varga varga

is

used but

it

it

will

not be out of place to

To denote the fourth

power

occurs only once within our period.

In more modern times varga ghana gMta-\ denoted the

power, varga ghana, the sixth and so on.
+ G'/(a<a=the product.

fifth

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

26

Certain Greek terms are used, e.g.,jdimtra (Gk. diametron),

harija

lepte),

{Gk.

{Gk. kentron), trikona {Gk.

Jcendra

{Gk.

denarion),

'

etc.

orizon),

dramma

Many

borrowed from Indian astrological

considerable

number

(udrochoos)

Pdrthona {Gk.

of

{Gk.

these

of

trigonon), lipta {Gk,

drachme),

dindra

however,

terms,

are

works which contain a

Greek terms such

as

Hridroga {Gk.

apok-

Parthenos), djjoklima {Gk.

lima), etc., etc.

side
with
The curious may compare pdrsva 'a rib,
the Greek pleura ; koti which primarily means a claw or horn
'

'

'

but

is

used

kdthefos
is

used

for

jdtija

to

and so on.

the

perpendicular

which means

'

legitimate,'

denote a right-angled

triangle

with

a triangle,

side of

'

genuine,

with

'

but

orthogonia

I
*?

iff

fir.

ST.

'^

^W

ft

if?

p.

r & '^Is P
^i-

jsr

"^

re

p-

i*

ii

p/ ig:

5..iLi>'.-'.

??rS^tt^^:^ifK-X>:\-

if'i:

tf

c p
H
!? f^

'fe^

1^

t
I

4v

Ft

fif
s^

ft*

^ ^

S.'ff-

s^"

ir*-

".

p-

^<6^
^ <^
nr
rs^

&
IF

c^ fe 5? "
sy B^ ft

"s^

theories as to the origin or these symoois nave vcku. puuuucu,

some

of

which

orientalists

still

gave

continue to

them

be recorded.

place-value,

but

this

The

earliest

error

soon

26 (o)
W'r rdiulmlc this section with a few illustrations transliterated from Sanskrit manuscripts.

Indian Forms.

yd

6 ru 300

ya 10 rn 100

yam
yam

l& yd Q ru
16 yo 9 ru 18

yd va va
yd va va
yd_
i/(i

yd va 2 yd 400 nl
yiJ

va

197 io 1644
Aw

ka & ka b ka

'2

) 9999

f/n

n't

ka

ru
r 630i{

n'l

'i

Equivalents.

VI.

According to the Hindus the modern

22.

system of arithmetical notation

led the

early orientalists

system had been

to

is

divine

of

believe

at

that,

place-vahie

any

were

use

not

and that

ones

place- value

rate,

from time immemorial

in use in India

an examination of the facts shows that the early

in

This

origin.

the

but

notations

modern

the

place-value system was not introduced until comparatively

modern

termed

niently
(c)

The early systems employed may be conve-

times.

the

(a)

KharoshthI,

Aryabhata's alphabetic notation,

(6)

Brahmi,.

the

the word-symbol

(d)

notation.

The KharoshthI

(a)

and was

script

is

written from right to

and Central Asia

The notation is shown

in use in the north-west of India

at the beginning of the Christian era.

in

the

accompanying

from the Aramaic

with

the

system

on the

of

common

was,

has

little

notations.

derived

apparently,

The

direct connection

smaller

elements

left.

India.

Indian notation for

in fairly

It

and

The Brdhml notation

old notations
the

table.

Indian

other

are written
(6)

left

It
it

is

the

most important

of

the

might appropriately be termed

occurs in early inscriptions and was

use throughout India for

many

centuries,

The
and even to the present day is occasionally used.
symbols employed varied somewhat in form according to
time and place, but on the whole the consistency of form
exhibited is
remarkable.
They are written from left to
right with the smaller elements on the right.

Several false

theories as to the origin of these symbols have been published,

some

of

which

orientalists

still

gave

continue to

them

be recorded.

place-value,

but

this

The

earliest

error

soon

VI.

According to the Hindus the modern

22.

system of arithmetical notation

led the

early orientalists to

system had been

is

in use in India

at

that,

any

were

use

place-value

not

rate,

from time immemorial

an examination of the facts shows that the early

in

This

divine origin.

of

believe

place-value

and that

ones

the

but

notations

modern

the

was not introduced until comparatively

The early systems employed may be conve-

place-value system

modern

times.

termed

niently
(c)

the

(a)

Kharoshthi,

Aryabhata's alphabetic notation,

(6)

Brahmi,.

the

the word-symbol

(d)

notation.

The KharoshtJil

()

and was

script

is

written from right

the

accompanying

from the Aramaic

with

the

and Central Asia

The notation is shown

of

common

was,

has

little

notations.

derived

apparently,

The

direct connection

smaller

elements

left.

India.

Indian notation for

in fairly

and

The Brahml notation

old notations
the

system

on the

It

table.

Indian

other

are written
(6)

left

in use in the north-west of India

at the beginning of the Christian era.

in

to

It
it

is

the

most important

of

the

might appropriately be termed

occurs in early inscriptions and was

use throughout India for

many

centuries,

The
and even to the present day is occasionally used.
symbols employed varied somewhat in form according to
time and place, but on the whole the consistency of form
exhibited is
remarkable.
They are written from left to
right with the smaller elements on the right.

Several false

theories as to the origin of these symbols have been published,

some

of

which

orientalists

still

gave

continue to

them

be recorded.

place-value,

but

this

The

earliest

error

soon

MATHEMATICS.

INDIAN

"28

disproved
letters of

was then suggested that they were initial

then it was propounded that the
numerical words
itself

it

symbols were aksharas or syllables

that the symbols were
the

corresponding

severally

then

it

initial letters (this

These

numerals.

was again claimed

time Kliaroshthi) of

have

theories

been

disproved.

The notation was possibly developed on different prinThe first three symbols are natural
ciples at different times.
and only
of

differ

from those

horizontal instead

of

of

many

vertical

formation of the symbols for

evident

but

possibly

the

other systems in consisting

strokes.

"four"

" forty "

to

was

No

principle

"thirty"

formed

is

of

now

from the

by the addition of a stroke and the " sixty " and

" eighty " and " ninety " appear to be
" seventy " and
The hundreds are (to a limited
connected in this way.
extent) evidently built upon such a plan, which, as Bayley
pointed out, is the same as that employed in the Egyptian
thirty

hieratic forms

but after the " three hundred " the

Indian

system forms the "four hundred" from the elements of

" a hundred " and " four," and so on.
The notation is
exhibited in the table annexed.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

30

(c)

Aiyabhata's alphabetic notation also had no place-

Brahml notation

value and differed from the

smaller elements on the

left.

read from

It

left to right.

Letters

Values

..

Letters

Values

h kh
1
t

Letters

Values

11

tli

be exhibited thus

ch

dh

j jh
8

10.

dh n

th

12 13 14 15 16 17

18 19 20.

ph

21

22 23 24 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

bh

and

It was, of course, written

may

g gh

having the

in

sh

100.

The vowels indicate multiplication by powers of one

hundred.
The first vowel a may be considered as equivalent
The values of
to 100"*, the second vowel ^=100^ and so on.
the vowels

may

Vowels
Values

therefore be

10

10^

shown thus

ri

10^

10^

10^*^

lO'^

The following examples taken from

illustrate the application

of the

ai

system

10*

au
10^^

Aryabhata's Gitihd
:

M?/M^/in=(2+30). 10^+4.10*5=4320000
caijagiyinumlchIi=6+30 +3.10^ +30.10'+5.10* +70.10*
(50+7).10^=57,753,336

The notation could thus be used

numbers in a sort of mnemonic form.
referred

to

in

paragraph 9 above was

bhata in this notation which, by the

astronomical purposes.
in India,

It

for

expressing

The table

of

large

sines

expressed by Arya-

way, he uses only

for

did not come into ordinary use

but some centuries later

it

appears occasionally in

a form modified by the place-value idea with the following

lvalues

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
vowels are sometimes used as ciphers

Initial

example

earliest

century.

modified system

this

of

variations

Slight

The word-symbol

{d)

31

is

twelfth

the

of

The

also.

occur.

notatioti.

extraordinarily popular in

A notation
and

India

is

that became

was

use

in

still

introduced about the ninth century, possibly from the East.

In

notation

this

may

number

may
tc.

be

word that

any
used

the eyes,

seven by asva, the horses

the lunar days

(of

lunar mansions

view

was invented

universal

thought to have been

in

by

tithi,

tiakha, the

notation.

The

etc.

etc.,

orthodox

place-value notation that

India and until recently

in

Two

twenty-seven by nakshatra the

place-value

that the modern

is

Hindu

feet)

fifteen

twenty by

of

e.g.

thirty-two by danta, the teeth

modern

The

(e)

idea

Jcarna, the ears,

or

the sun)

(of

the half month)

hands and

nails (of the

the

denote that number

to

be expressed by nayana,
;

connotes

now

is
it

was

use in India at a very early date.

tradition ascribes the invention to

God

According

to Ma(;oudi a congress of sages, gathered together by order

of

Brahma (who

king

figures

An

reigned 366 years), invented the nine

inscription of A.D.

595

a genuine example of the system.

is

the

" Indian figures "

contain

According to M. Nau,

known

were

supposed to

in

Syria in

A.D. 662

authority makes such erroneous statements about

" Indian " astronomy that we have no faith in what he

but

his

about

says

other

" Indian"

mediaeval works refer to

On

the other hand

'

it

matters.

Indian numbers
is

held that there

Certain
'

and
is

so on.

no sound evi-

dence of the employment in India of a place-value

earlier
'

than about the

divine

Ma^oudi
595

is

ninth

origin' indicates
is

century.

nothing

system

The suggestion

but historical

obviously wildly erratic

other

of

ignorance

the inscription of A.D.

not above suspicion* and the next inscription with an

example

of the place-value
*

The

fip;ures

system

is

nearly three centuries

were obviously added at a later date.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

32

while there are hundreds intervening with

later,

The references

of the old non-place value system.

diseval

examples
in

me-

works to India do not necessarily indicate India proper

but often simply refer to

'

the East

with regard to numbers has been

Woepcke

misreading by

(geometrical, having to

hindasi

which

and

has

nothing to do with

and the use

'

of the

further confused

others

of

do with

by the

Arabic

term

numeration,

etc.)

the

Again,

India.

term

it

has

been

assumed that the use of the abacus " has been universal in
India from time immemorial," but this assumption is not
its
based upon fact, there being actually no evidence of
use in India until quite

evidence that
into India, as

indicates
it

modern
that the

times.

notation was

was into Europe, from

the circle are briefly described and

(in 10)
TT

is

introduced

a right to left script.

it

has been pointed out

that Aryabhata gives an extremely

The topic

there

In paragraph 7 above certain attempts at squaring

23.

of

Further,

is

accurate value

perhaps of sufficient interest to deserve

The Indian values given and used

are not altogether consistent and the subject is wrapped in
Briefly put the Indians record an extremely
some mystery.
some

special

accurate

mention.

value at a

actually use

it.

Date

but seldom or never

The following table roughly

the matter stands

Circa.

very early date

exhibits

how

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

Date
Circa.

33

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

34
24.

naturally

The mistakes made by the early

opinions of

historians

the

misled

Chasles, Wcepcke,

of

mathematics,

Hankel and

upon such mistakes are now no longer

spite,

however, of the progress

there are

still

many

orientalists

made

errors current,

already touched upon, the following

have

and the

others founded

authoritative.

In

historical research

in

of which,

may be

besides those

cited as examples

casting out nines " is not of Indian origin

The proof by
and occurs in no Indian work before the 12th century
(6) The scheme of multiplication, of which the following is
"

(a)

'

an Indian example

of the

16th century,

was known much earlier to the Arabs

and there is no evidence that it is of
(c)
The Regula duorum
Indian origin
{d)
jalsorum occurs in no Indian work
The Indians were not the first to give
;

double solutions of quadratic equations

Bhaskara was

not

the

differential calculus,"

discoverer of the

etc., etc.

"

princijjle

of

the

VII.

Of the personalities of the Indian mathematicians

25.

we k]iow very

little

Brahmagupta's opinion

own
is

of

Aryabhata

The following notes

worth

and Pulisa* and

We

opinions are worth repeatiiig.

inscription.

down

indeed but Alberuni has handed

his

have also Bhaskara's

perhaps,

contain,

that

all

recording.

Alberuni writes

(1,376)

'
:

which Brahmagupta relates on

which he himself agrees,

is

Now
his

is

it

own

entirely

evident that that

unfounded

blind to this from sheer hatred of Aryabhata,

And

excessively.

the same to him.

in
I

this respect

and with

authority,

but

whom

he

is

he abuses

Aryabhata and Pulisa are

take for witness the passage of Brahma-

gupta where he says that Aryabhata has

subtracted some-

thing from the cycles of Caput Draconis and of the apsis of

moon and thereby confused the computation

eclipse.
He is rude enough to compare Aryabhata to
the

of

the

worm

which, eating the wood, by chance describes certain characters in

who

knows

these

thoroughly

things

stands

Aryabhata, Srishena and Vishnuchandra

They are not capable

gazelles.
'

faces.

'

In such offensive

maltreats

Again

opposite

to

like the lion against

him see their

terms he attacks Aryabhata and
of

letting

him.'
:

'

''

Aryabhata

differs

an opponent."

On

the

other hand,

Again,

differs

from us

Brahmagupta

Pulisa for what he does, since he does

book Smriti.'

from the doctrine

who

the book Smriti, just mentioned, and he

" He, however,

without intending to draw them.

it,

not

differ

speaking of Varahamihira,

of
is

praises

from the
Srishena,

According to Alberuni Pulis'a was an Indian and Paulis'a a

(J

reek.

IXDIAX MATHEMATICS.

36

Aryabhata
a

man

Brahmagupta

\'ishnuchandra,

and.

declares these things ilhisory he

Yarahamihira.

Of

and

acknowledged, dogma,

generally

Alberuni

'
:

stands outside

that

writes

says

not

is

the

allowed/

former

In

'
:

If

times,

the Hindus used to acknowledge that the progress of science

due to the Greeks

is

much more important than

that which

But from this passage of Yarahamihira

due to themselves.
alone {see paragraph 2 above) you see what a self -lauding
is

man

he

others:

'

is,

doing justice to

whilst he gives himself airs as

another place

in

but.

110) Alberuni says

(ii,

and he

the whole his foot stands firmly on the basis of truth

clearlv speaks

guished

men

out

the

followed

Would

truth

instance,

Brahmagupta, who

at

distin-

all

example."

his

Of Brahmagupta, Alberuni writes

for

God

to

On

'
:

110)

(ii,

But look,

'
:

most

the

certainly

is

distinguished of their astronomers .... he shirks the truth and

under the compulsion

lends his support to imposture

some mental derangement,

to rob of his

consciousness

whom God

man whom

like a

death

Brahmagupta

If

about

is

....

of

is

one

'

They have denied our signs,

although their hearts knew them clearly, from wickedness
and haughtiness," we shall not argue with him, but only
"If people must under circumstances
whisper into his ear
of

those of

says,

'

give

up opposing the

case),

religious

why then do you

order

forget to be so yourself"

the

belief

that

that

above mentioned

codes

(as

people

my

I, for

seems to
be

to

part,

be

pious

am

if

your

you

inclined to

which made Brahmagupta speak the

words (which involve a

sin

against con-

was something of a calamitous fate, like that of

him, notwithstanding the
befallen
Socrates, which had

science)

abundance
intellect,

of

his

knowledge

and notwithstanding

and
his

the

sharpness

of

his

extreme youth at the time.

For he wrote the Brahmasiddhdnta when he was only thirty

years of age.

If this

lirop the matter.'

indeed

is

his

excuse

we accept

it

and

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

Au

found in a ruined temple

inscription

deserted village of Khandesh in the

to

Bhaskara

illustrious

the

in

followinu

was deeply versed

like

who

true
;

and the

Triumphant

'
:

knowledge

whose

feet

of

an

.was in poetics

omniscient

seat

were revered by crowds of poets,

tell

of

etc.

us of Bhaskara's grandson

King

Simghana,

promulgated by the

doctrines

in metrics,

.Bhaskara, the learned,

Veda,

the

Changadeva, chief astrologer

spread the

by the

revered

down the law

the

is

the three branches, the

in

rest.

religious merit, the root of the

The inscription goes on to

'

laid

unto the three-eyed

endowed with good fame and

of learning

terms

Patna,

at

Presidency, refers

in the Vaiseshika system,

)nultifarious arithmetic

creeper

Bombay

Bhaskaracharya whose feet are

wise, eminently learned ....

a poet,

37

who, to
Bhas-

illustrious

karacharya, founds a college, that in his college the Siddhanta-

siromani and other works composed by

as other works

by members

Bhaskara,

of his family, shall be

as

well

necessarily

expounded.'

most

Bhaskara's

means

which

popular

charming.

"

intelligent Llldvati,'' etc.,

as

to

daughter he

legends have no

is

tises

as

''

on algebra

of

too diffusive

" and

of

"
"'

uses

entitled

the

the

phrase

Lildvatl
'

'

Dear

arisen certain legends

supposed

be

addressing.

The

of his V'lja ganita refers to the

trea-

to

basis.

Brahmagupta,

substance of them in
oratification

He

is

and thus have

historical

Bhaskara at the end

'

work

t^'ridhara

states that he

and Padmanabha

has compressed the

a well reasoned compendium, for the

learners."

VIII.

Chinese Mathematics.

2G.

There appears to be abun-

dant evidence of an intiniate connection between Indian and

Chinese

A number

mathematics.

China and Chinese

and succeeding

visits to

Indian

of

embassies

India are recorded in the

to

fourth

The records of these visits are

not generally found in Indian works and our knowledge of
them in most cases conies from Chinese authorities, and there
is no record in Indian works that would lead us
to suppose
that the Hindus were in any way indebted to China for mathecenturies.

matical knowledge.

But, as pointed out before, this

on the part of the Hindus

is

characteristic,

account be taken as an indication of

have now before us a

fairly

silence

and must on

lack of influence.

complete

account

no

We

Chinese

of

mathematics* which appears to prove a very close connection

between

the

two

countries.

connection

This

briefly

is

illustrated in the following notes.

The
questions

earliest
is

Chinese work that deals with

said to be of the 12th century B.C.

an acquaintance with the

Pythagorean

mathematical

and

chmig Suan-shu or

was composed at

'
'

Perhaps

theorem.

the most celebrated Chinese mathematical work

is

records

it

the Chin-

Arithmetic in Nine Sections

which

'

'

second century

least as early as the

B.C.

known to have
been written in A.D. 263.
The "' Nine Sections " is far
more complete than any Indian work prior to Brahmagupta

while

Chang T'sang"s commentary on

(A.D. 628) and in some respects

It treats

square
solids,

of

is

percentage,

fractions,

and cube-roots,

in

it

is

advance

partnership, extraction of

mensuration

of

plane

problems involving equations of the

*

of that writer.

By Voshio Mikami.

first

figures

and

and

second

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Of particular interest to us are the following

degree.

area of a segment of a circle =1

chord and

'

and

bhata's strange rule

given by

is

and

gives

the volume of

the Indians

all

One

and Sridhara.

section

number

" There

numerators

What

every

Indian

the

is

the

work

after

of

Arya-

for

cone=(

and the

volume

correct

for

deals with right angled triangles

problems

of

the height

is

in

used

are

diameter

the

feet

the following

like

high,

break

the

of

6th

the

""

feet

end

the upper

which being broken reaches to the ground 3

stem.

'

reproduced by Brahmagupta

is

bamboo 10

is

unit

above)

pyramid which

a truncated

'

which possibly accounts

sphere=^/VrX volume,

which

with

fractions

paragraphs

{cf.

where

).

problems dealing with the evaluation

in the

partial

roots,

(c

The

the perpendicular, which actually occurs

'

MahavTra's work
of

39

from

of

the

This occurs in

century.

problem

The

about two travellers meeting on the hypotenuse of a rightoccurs some

angled triangle
the

same form

about the

elaborate
it

gives a

examples

first

tables

'

7th

the

and

exactly

an

arithmetical

treatise

It indulges in big

numbers and

square-root and

equations

of

the

is

3,

and by

?"'

the remainder

re-appears

The
Brahmagupta and is
centuries.

in

earliest

contains

first

degree.

is

is

2.

Indian works

Indian

it

There are certain things whose number

number

9th

work

contained in Mahaviras

Repeatedly divided by 3 the remainder

5 the remainder

be

those

is

explanation of

'

The example

will

century.

indeterminate

of

unknown.

Suan-ching

like

clear

in

centuries later

Mahavlra's work.

in

The Sun-Tsu
of

ten

is

by

What
of

the

example

is

" What number divided

by 6 has a remainder 5, and divided by 5 has a remainder
of 4 and by 4 a remainder of 3, and by 3 a remainder of 2 ?"
given by

Mahavira

has

similar

examples.

In the 3rd century the Sea Island Arithmetical Classic was

written.

Its distinctive

problems concern the measurement

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

40

of the distance of an island

oiven

tion
lies

to

written

some

indicate

and the

shore,

solu-

Aryabhata's Ganita some two centu-

in

The Wu-fsao

later.

appears

occurs

from the

6th century

the

before

deterioration.

the

contains

It

erroneous rule for areas given by Brahmagupta and Mahavira.

The

arithmetic

Chang-Cli'iu-chien

of

written

may have

century contains a great deal of matter that

6th

the

in

been

Indeed the later Indian

the basis of the later Indian works.

works seem to bear a much closer resemblance to

Chang's

arithmetic than they do to any earlier Indian work.

The problem

the hundred hens "

'

of

'

is

considerable

of

Chang gives the following example

"A cock
costs 5 pieces of money, a hen 3 pieces and 3 chickens 1 piece.
If then we buy with 100 pieces 100 of them what will be their
respective numbers ?"
interest.

No mention
but

occurs in

it

form

of this

problem

is

for 5, 9 geese for 7

and 3 peacocks

drammas

birds for 100

by Brahmagupta,

Mahavira and Bhaskara

" Five doves are to be had

made

for the

for 3
for 9.

in

the

following

drammas, "

7 cranes

Bring 100 of these

prince's gratification."

It

is

noteworthy that this problem Was also very fully treated by

Abfi Kamil (Shoga) in the 9th century, and in Europe in the

middle ages

it

acquired considerable celebrity.

Enough has been

considerable

show that there existed a very

between the mathematics of the

said to

intimacy

Indians and Chinese

and assuming that the chronology

is

roughly correct, the distinct priority of the Chinese mathematics

gives

is

established.

On

the

other

more advanced developments

of

hand Brahmagupta
indeterminate equa-

tions than occurs in the Chinese Avorks of his period,

is

and

not until after Bhaskara that Ch'in Chu-sheo recorded

it

(in

A.D. 1247) the celebrated fat-yen cJiin-yi-shu or process of

indeterminate
I'-hsing

nearly

maintained

analysis,
six

which

centuries

intellectual

is,

however,

earlier.

intercourse

The

with

attributed to

Chinese

India

since

had
the

41

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
century and had translated

first

They

works.

(unlike

many

Indian

their

(Buddhistic)

Indian

give

generally

friends)

the source of their information and acknowledge their indebt-

becoming

with

edness

From

courtesy.

century

7th

the

Indian scholars were occasionally employed on the Chinese

Mr. Yoshio Mikami states that there

Astronomical Board.
is

no evidence

On

Chinese mathematics.

Indian influence on

of

the other hand he says

"
'

the discoveries

made

China

in

niay have touched the eyes of Hindoo scholars."

Arabic Mathematics.

27.

with

very

little

justification,

It

that

has often been assumed,

owed

Arabs

the

their

knowledge of mathematics to the Hindus.

Muhammad
earliest

Musa el-Chowarezmi

b.

Arabic writer on

known work

is

mathematics

of note

The early

the Algebra.

(A.D.

782)

and

is

the

his best

orientalists

appear

to have been somewhat prejudiced against Arabic scholarship

for,

apparently without examination, they ascribed an Indian

origin

to

M.

b.

Musa's work.

' There

follows:

and CoLEBROOKE
]\lrisa

nothing in

is

repeated

individually,

The

it,

'

used was as

argument

wrote

history,"
respecting

Cossali,

Muhammad

ben

which favours the opinion that he took

from the Greeks, the algebra which he taught to the Muham-

madans.

History

presents

him

in

no other

light

than a

mathematician of a country most distant from Greece and

Not having taken algebra from the

contiguous to India

Greeks, he must either have invented

from the Indians.'

As a matter

of

it

himself or taken

fact his

algebra shows,

by Kodet, no sign of Indian influence and

wholly based upon Greek knowledge
and it

as pointed out
practically

now

well

known that

the development of mathematics

the Arabs was largely,

influence

and

)nathematics

enced
11th

that,
later

considerably

century

if

Indian

Brahmagupta were

by the Arabs.

wrote

'

is

is

among

not wholly, independent of Indian

on the other hand,

than

it

You

possibly

Alberuni

mostly find

writers

influ-

in

the

even

the

early

that

on

42

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

Hindus are

so-called scientific theorems of the

utter

devoid

confusion,

of

any

in a

order.

logical

..

.since they

cannot raise themselves to the methods of strictly

deduction ....

to point out to

them some

deduction and the scientific method of

fact

is

translated

rules of logical

mathematics,

all

that in the time of el-ManiQn

Indian

certain

scientific

beyan to show them the elements on which

this science rests,

The

state of

astronomical

On

into Arabic.

work
this

certain

(or

basis

(A.D.

etc."

772)

was

works)

was assumed that

it

the Arabic astronomy and mathematics was wholly of Indian

while the fact that Indian works were

origin,

translated

is

really only evidence of the intellectual spirit then prevailing

in

No

Baghdad.

one can deny that Aryabhata and Brahma-

gupta preceded M.
is

Musa* but the

b.

fact

remains that there

not the slightest resemblance between the previous Indian

works and those

of

obscured by the
treatise

by M.
As

Indorum.

M.

b.

Miisa.

publication in

b.
is

The point was somewhat

Europe

of

an arithmetical

Musa under the title Algoritmi de Numero

well
known the term India did not in

times necessarily denote the India of to-day and

mediaeval

despite the title there

Indeed

its

Indian

origin.

contents

is

nothing really Indian in the work.

prove

conclusively

that

The same remarks apply to

it

not

is

several

of

other

mediaeval works.

From

28.

madan

the time of M. b. Miisa onwards the

mathematicians

made

remarkable

Muham-

progress.

To

we need only mention a few of their disTabit

tinguished writers and their works on mathematics.
b. Qorra b. Merwan (826-901) wrote on Euclid, the Almagest,
illustrate

this

fact

"

the arithmetic of

Nicomachus, the right-angle triangle

parabola, magic squares,

LQka

el-Ba'albeki (died

amicable numbers,
c.

Arabian,

natives of Syria.

while

Qosta b.

A.D. 912) translated Diophantus

* It should not be forgotten, however, that

was an

etc.

the

.Tamblichus,

Nicomachus (A.D. 100)

and Eutocius were

Damascius,

43

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

and wrote on the sphere and cylinder, the

El-Battani (M.

etc.

commentarv

Sinan,

b.

and

Ptolemy

on

rule

A.D.

in

of

two

errors,

b.

Aslam

Hipparchus. and M.
circle

M.

b.

and
b.

(c.

850-930)

and decagon,

el-Buzgani,

Euclid,

born

Diophaiitus,

Musa, works on arithmetic, on the

b.

Abu

sphere, etc.. etc.

Abdelgalil,

'1-Wefa

commentaries on

wrote

940,

Abu

etc.

errors,

877-919) wrote

A.D.

wrote on algebra and geometry, the pentagon

the

two

made notable advances

Abu Kamil Shoga

trigonometry.

in

Gabir

b.

rule of

A.D.,

Sa

el-sigzT

'id,

(Ahmed

951-1024) ^vTote on the trisection

of an angle, the sphere, the intersection of the parabola

hyperbola, the

hyperbola and

Lemmata
its

(M. b. el-Hasan,

determinate

Archimedes, conic sections, the

asymptotes,

etc.. etc.

1016 A.D.) wrote

equations

Ahmed, Abu'l-Rihan

after

on

and

Alberuni

in-

(M.

b.

A.D. 973 and

in

geography, chronology and astro-

wrote on mathematics generally, and in particular on

Chaijami,

and died
a

Bekr. el-Karchi

arithmetic

was born

tangents, the chords of the circle, etc.

He

Abu

Diophantus.

el-Blrunl)

besides works on history,

nomy

of

and

the
in

celebrated

Omar

b.

Ibrahim

was born about A.D.

poet,

el-

104(>

A.D. 1123 a few years after Bhaskara was born.

Wrote an algebra in which he deals with cubic equations?

commentary on the

on mixtures of metals

difficulties in
;

the postulates of Euclid

and on arithmetical

difficulties.

This very brief and incomplete resume of Arabic mathe-

matical works written during the period intervening between

the time of

Brahmagupta and

Bhaskara indicates at

least

considerable intellectual activity and a great advance on the

Indian works of the period in

except,

perhaps,

all

indeterminate

branches of mathematics

equations.

IX.

That the most

29.

from

mathematicians

Indian

^?ssentially

Aryabhata

based upon western knowledge

A somewhat

in this direction

also established

is

now

be termed Greek,

established.

but

the connection

e.g.,

quadratic indeter-

That the Arabic develop-

minates, cyclic quadrilaterals, etc.

of Indian

mathematics was practically independent

of

influence

also

is

Arab

The

proved.

based

mathematicians

wholly upon Greek knowledge

]\I.

are

very intimate with respect to those

not

is

may

sections that

to us,

Bhaskara

to
is

of the

intimate connection between early Chinese and

Indian mathematics

ment

works

iniportaiit parts of the

but the

almost
Work
of them known

their

earliest

Musa. flourished after Brahmagupta so that the

b.

Arabs could not have been the intermediaries between the

and

Greeks

Indeed

Indians.

their

chronological

position

has misled certain writers to the erroneous conclusion that

they

ol)tained

elements

their

of

mathematics from the

Indians.

Other

possible

Indians and

Greeks

The former

Persia.

paths
are
is

might possibly throw

period

well

is

of

light

between

known

available

the

of

we might be

China

silk

on the subject.

and
it

at

trade

The

the

by way

of

first

seems.

Avith

China

intellectual

and China at the critical

being numerous references to

Chinese literature.

Chinese

able to

now

between

India

there

early

but as the evidence

way

not so improbable as

such communication in
lations

by

about the early

Further information

communication

communication

of

If

mathematical

draw more

stands there

works

were

definite conclusions,

is

warrant more than the bare suggestion

sound trans-

nothing that would

of a Chinese source.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

We

have already mentioned the

45

visit

mathematicians to the Court of C'hosroes

certain other

facts

Persian

of the

which at

The Sassanid

route.

somewhat

shows a

remarkable

of enlightenment in India that

Crupta

" The

period.

translations,

Mr.

orient."

Sassanian
direct

Vincent

Greek

the

a^e

of

religion
literature

culture

and who,

but states

the

in

who were
in

the-

contheir

throughout

the

probability

that

there

of

no

is

evidence.

Although

it

may

to the actual route

be possible to offer only conjectures

by which any

knowledge reached India

period

under

the

consideration

mathematical

the

sculpture,

work

of

architecture, coinage,

Mr. Vincent

Smith

particular class of

the fact

Greek on India was considerable.

in

with

Smith discusses the

on India

influence

229-652,

roughly corresponds with

the west by their

diffused

consideration

parallelism

Persian empire at this time were the Syrians,

nected with

there are

period, A.D.

missionaries

real

and

I,

jnstifv the

least

Greek

certain

of

"

refers

as^

Greek

remains that durino- the

intellectual
It

the

is

influence

evident

Indians

astronomy,

not onlv

but

also

astrology,

to the cumulative

of

in

&c.

proof that

the remarkable intellectual and artistic output of the Gupta

by reason of the contact

India and that of the Roman

period was produced in large measure

between the

Empire

;'"

The

civilization

and research

is

almost daily adding to such proof.

flourishing state of the

in India since the

its

of

days of Asoka,

principal rulers

gave a

great

Gupta empire, the gxeatest

and the wise

influence of

impetus to scholarship of

The numerous embassies to and from foreign

which were means of intellectual as well as political
countries
no doubt contributed to the same end
communication
all

kinds.

and the knowledge of Greek works displayed by Aryabhata,

Varaha Mihira, and Brahmagupta was one of the natural
results of this renaissance

of

learning.

APPENDIX

I.

ExTKACTS FROM TexTS,

The Sulvasutras.
In

*1.

manners

the

of building the agni.

measure out the

We

2.

4:

of

the

difEereut

shall explain

how

to

required for them.

4:

4:

The cord stretched across a square produces an

45.

area of twice the

size.

Take the measure

4(3.

square for the length

for the breadth, the diagonal of

the diagonal of that oblong

side of a square the area of

the

treat

shall

circuit of the area

its

we

following

which

is

the

three times the area of

is

square.
*

H:

4c

4:

4:

The diagonal of an oblong produces by itself both

the areas which the two sides of the oblong produce sepa48.

rately.

49.

This

is

seen in those oblongs whose sides are three

and five, fifteen and eight, seven and

twenty-four, twelve and thirty-five, fifteen and thirty-six.
and

twelve

four,

He

51.

If

square cut

:|c

oflt

a piece from the larger square by making a

which you wish to deduct.

oblong so that

it

there cut

By

is

oi.

side

Draw one

touches the other

this line

the

of

smaller

square

of the sides across the

side.

Where

which has been cut

it

off

touches

the small

deducted from the large one.

4c

from another

you wish to deduct one square

mark on the ground with the

square

4:

4:

4:

He

He

4:

These numbers refer to BaudhSi'ana's edition as translated by Dr

Thibaut.

MATHEMATICS.

INDIAN
58.

of the

47

you wish to turn a square into a

If

cord

stretched

towards the prachl

in

from

diagonal

the

circle

Describe the circle

line.

draw

the

half

centre

together

with

the third part of that piece of the cord which stands over.

Aryahhafd's gamta
6.

The

area

perpendicular

of

common

triangle

to the

A.D. 520).

(Circa,

the

is

product

two halves and

Half the product of this and the

height

is

the

the

base.

solid

with

half

the

of

six edges.

H:

Add

10.

four to

one hundred,

add again sixty-two thousand.

mate value

4:

of the circumference

The

4:

multiply by eight and

result

the approxi-

is

when the diameter

is

twenty

thousand.

The

13.

4:

4:

circle

is

4e

4:

produced by a rotation

and the quadrilateral are determined by

the triangle

their hypotenuses

the horizontal by water and the vertical by the plumb

4:

4:

The sum

29.

4:

H:

of a certain

number

hy each term in succession added

by the number of terms less one

line.

4:

of

terms diminished

to the whole

gives

the

and divided

value

of

the

whole.

Brahmagupta

He who

(Born

A.D.

598).

knows addition and the rest of

the twenty operations and the eight processes including
measurement by shadows is a mathematician.
1.

distinctly

45

4=

4c

The principal multiplied by its time and divided

by the interest, and the quotient being multiplied by the
factor less one
is
the time.
The sum of principal and
interest divided by unity added to the interest on unity is the
14.

principal.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

48

The number

17.

common

difference

sum

less

one

multiplied

term

to the first

of the

and

last

sum

the

is

of

number

the sides set

product

down

terms

sides

Half the

is

sum

four times and each lessened by the

multiplied

being

sides

the

is

of

and opposite

of half the sides

the rough area of a triangle or quadrilateral.

of

terms

the whole.

The product

21.

first

bv the

amount

the

*****
*****

amoiuit, and this multiplied by the

mean
is

and added

Half the

of the last.

terms

of

together

the

square-root

the

of

the exact area.

is

The diameter and the square of the radius respectively multiplied by three are the practical circumference
The square-roots extracted from ten times the
and area.
square of the same are the exact values.
40.

The integer multiplied by the sexagesimal parts of

fraction and divided by thirty is the square of the minutes
62.

its

and

The

tion.

proficient

by the

square

may

are

the

of

other

degrees.

'

merely for

stated

gratifica-

devise a thousand others or

rules taught problems set

glory

whole

the

of

As the sun obscures the

102.
eclipse

the

These questions

101.

solve

added to

to be
*

is

by

stars

astronomers

others.

so does the expert

an

in

people by reciting algebraic problems, and

may

still

assembly

more by

of

their

solution.

Mahdvlrcrs Gatdta-Sara-Sangraha
i.

(Circa.

A.D.

850).

The number, the diameter and the circumislands, oceans and mountains
the extensive

13-14.

ference

of

dimensions of the rows of habitations and halls belonging to

the inhabitants of the world, of the interspace, of the world
of light, of the

world of the gods and to the dwellers in

and miscellaneous measurements of

made out by means of computation.

all

sorts

all

hell,

these are

147.

vi.

least

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

49

Divide by their rate prices.

Diminish by the

among them and then multiply by the

least the

mixed

and subtract from the given number

up (this) into as many (as there are left)

price of all the things

Now

of things.

and then
the

split

These separated from the total price give

divide.

*****
dearest

the

of

price

solution of example
169.

vi.

[This

is

36 below.]

has to be laiown that the products of gold

It

as multiplied

purchase.

of

article

by

their

colours

when

gold gives rise to the resulting colour

by the mixed

divided

[See examples

(varrja).

**:(:*

24 and 25 below.]

Area has been taken to be

4c

two kinds by Jina

result
namely, that which is for
in accordance with the
practical purposes and that which is minutely accurate.
of

*****

vii.

2.

Thus ends the section

233.

vii,

of

devilishly

difficult

problems.
Sridhara's

(Circa

Of a series of numbers

1.

A.D.

Trisatikd

1030).

beginning with unity and

sum is equal to half the product

number of terms and the number of terms together with
increasing

by

one, the

In exchange of

32.

unity.

commodities the prices being trans-

posed apply the previous rule

(of three).

With

reference to

*****

the sale of living beings the price

to

of the

is

inversely proportional

their age.
If

65.

gnomon be divided by

the

gnomon and the shadow

which remains

1.

by

delightful
soft

and

propound
its

correct

the fraction of the day

sum

of the

elapsed or

be obtained.

will

Bhdsham
L.

twice the

(Born
this

elegance,

easy

1114).

process

of

calculation,

perspicuous with concise terms,

and pleasing

A.D.

to the learned.
4:
*

4i

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

50

139.

L.

From

is 'put.

side

that multiplied by twice

assumed nunlber and divided by one less than the

square of the assumed number a perpendicular is obtained.

some

being set aside

This

*****

side as put

and the

.is

Thus, "With

189.

the

subtracted

Such a triangle

hypotenuse.
L.

been

have

diagonal's

gupta and others.''

same

the

be

will

the

genuine.'

may

sides,

determinate

as

many

be

by Brahma-

-,

The circumference

213.

'

Yet, though indeterminate,

sought

L.

'

remainder

termed

is

diagonals in the quakirilateral.

by the arc the product

plied

by the arbitrary number

multiplied

is

is

the

less

termed

'

arc

being

multi-

From

first.'

the

quarter of the square of the circumference multiplied by five

that

subtract
first

first

By

product.

the remainder divide

product multiplied by four times the

diameter.

the

The

quotient will be the chord.

V.

owing

In the like suppositions, when the operation,

170.

restriction,

to

be

intelligent

Accordingly

disappoints the answer must by the

discovered

it

by

the

exercise

of

ingenuity.

iS'skJd T-i'. The 'conditions^ a clear intellect,

assumption of unknown quantities, equation, and the rule

of three

are

means of operation

V.

H?.

The

224.

understanding
intelligent

V.

225.

is

lii'

*'

analysis.''

-*):

rule of three terms

algebra.

What

is

is

arithmetic

there

Therefore for the dull alone

spotless

',

unknown
it

is, set

to

the

forth.

To augment wisdom and strengthen confidence,

read, read, mathematician, this abridgement elegant in style,

easily

understood by youth, comprising the whole essence of

and containing the demonstration

excellence and free from. defect.

calculation

full

of

,0-

of its principles

'>.'-

APPENDIX

II.

Examples.
1.

One-half, one-sixth,

are

immersed

Two

hastas are visible.

respectively

Answer
2.

Find the height

'^.

whom

the miser gave

if

dmmma

was given to a beggar by

he asked alms.

Tell

how many

cowries

thou be conversant in arithmetic with the

termed sub-division

of

fractions

1
cowrie.
Answer
dramma).
(1,280 cowries=l

3.

Out

of a

23.

of a sixteenth of the fifth of three-quar

ters of two-thirds of half a

reduction

of the pole

hastas.

The quarter

a person from

and one-twelfth parts of a pole

under water, clay, and sand.

swarm

L.

32.

on a blossom

of bees one-fifth settled

of Icadamba, one-third on a flower of sillndhri, three times the

difference of those

numbers

allured at the

jasmine

number

and

bloom

air,

same moment by the pleasing fragrance

pandanus.
Tell me, charming woman,

of a

of bees

hovered and flew

L. 54, V.

The third part

amorous struggle

fell

of a necklace of pearls

on the ground.

resting on the couch, the sixth part

Z = the

'S'=Siidhara,

Lilarati,

F=Vija

C=Chaturvecla.

108.

broken in an

Its fifth part

was seen

was saved by the lady

and the tenth part was taken up by her

*

the

Answerlb
4.

One

kutaja.

of

about in the

which remained,

bee,

flew to a

lover.

Six

pearls

Ganita, both by Bliaskara, J/=Muliavira,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

52

remained on the

was composed

lace

Say, of

string.

how many

pearls the neck-

AnsH'er~30.

5.

which

is

in

o^

j'y

nnvanquished,

powerful,

black snake

excellent

32 hastas in length enters into a hole 7| aiigulas

^

^^^^

^^^.^''

grows by 2|

its tail

tell

S. 26.

me by what
Answer

i^i

*^^

course of a quarter

ornament

aiigulas.

arithmeticians,

of

time this same enters fully into the hole

76i

M.

days.

(24

angulas=l

6.

A certain

he overtake the

will

Now

first

person

less

In

M.
advances 8 yivas

a mes-

a day.

25.

A white-ant

7.

31.

person travels at the rate of 9 yojanas a day

senger sent after goes at the rate of 13 yojanas

how manv days

v,

hasta.)

and 100 yojanas have already been traversed.

Ansiver

day

of

327,

vi,

one-fifth in a

day

In
and returns the twentieth part of an angula in 3 days.
what space of time will one, whose progress is governed by
these rates of advancing and receding proceed 100 yojanas ?

^wswer98042553
yavas=l

(8

720

dinaras

for

283.

(7.

768000

angula,

Twenty men have

8.

and

days.

angulas=l

yojana).

to carry a palanquin two yojanas

their

wages.

Two men

stop

after

going two krosas, after two more krosas three others give up,
and after going half the remaining distance five men leave.

What wages do they

Ansivers 18,
(4
9.

sun's
*

krosas=l
It

is

chariot

i=the

earn

57,

155,

Lilavati,

vi,

231.

yojana).

well loiown that the

are

M.

490.

seven.

F=Vija

Si^Sridhara, r=Chaturvecla

horses belonging to the

Four horses drag

it

along being

Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=Mahavira,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

They have

harnessed to the yoke.

ijojanas.

How many

times yoked in four

Every

Answer

J-J

to do a journey

times are they unyoked and

10

and

yojanas,

each

travels

horse

M.

will

one twenty cost

25|.

Three hundred gold coins form the price of 9 damsels

What

of 10 years.

is

the price of 36 damsels of 16 years

M.

Answer1^0.
12.

The price

of a

hundred

bricks, of

at six dindras,

we have
every

less in

V,

40.

which the length,

thickness and breadth respectively are 16, 8 and 10,

quarter

76,

L.

Answer
11.

158.

VI,

a female slave sixteen years of age brings thirty-

If

what

two,

how many

40 yojanas.
10.

70

of

settled

is

received 100,000 of other bricks a

Say,

dimension.

what we ought

to

pay?

Answer2d^II.
13.

Two

elephants,

285.

C.

which are ten

in

length,

nine

in

breadth, thirty-six in girth and seven in height, consume one

drona

of grain.

How much

will

elephants which are a quarter

dimensions

more

in

and

height

other

Answer
(64

be the rations of ten other

12

dronas, 3 prasthas, 1| kudavas.

kudavas=16 prasthas=l

C.

285.

drona).

One bestows alms on holy men in the third part of

a day, another gives the same in half a day and a third disIn what time, keeping to these
tributes three in five days.
14.

rates,

will

they have given a hundred

Answer
*

L=the

174Lilavati.

^-

r=Vija

S=SrIdhara, C=Chaturveda.

Ganita, both byBhaskara,

'^^^^

J/=Mahavira

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

54

what

mathematician,

Say,

15.

apportioned

the

are

shares of three traders whose original capitals were respec-

68 and 85, which have been raised by commerce

tively 51,

conducted by them
of

300

joint

in

stock to the aggregate

amount

A7isn'er15, 100, 125.

L.

One purchases seven

16.

Eighteen

What

the profit.

is

Answer 18-^ {^

for
is

two and

sells six for three.

the capital

Bakhshdli Ms.

1)=24.

93.

54.

camphor may be had for two

nishkas. and a pah of sandal wood for the eighth part of a
dramma and half a pala of aloe wood also for the eighth of a
dramma, good merchant, give me the value of one nishka in
17.

a pala

If

the proportions of

perfume

of

1,

16 and

for

wish

PricesDrammas

drammas =1

18.

If

of rice

kdkinls,

and one

half

mdnas

f+

of

kakinis=l

19.

If

V'

i,

of rice

merchant, and give

beans

for

%"

me

may
price,

be had for
take these

quickly two parts

will

proceed onwards
L.

on the

five

thousand,

the interest on 200 for a

month be

lent be tripled

sum with interest

hundred by the month amount in
the principal

tell

115.

6 drammas, in
?

C.

375.

287.

at the rate of

a year to one

the principal and interest respectively

Answer 625,

97, F.

If

^^^

dramma).

what time will the same sum

Answer
665 months.
20.

-^-

we must make a hasty meal

and depart, since my companion

Ansiver ^^ and -J^.
(64

nishka).

and a

three

14|, f,

one dramma and eight of beans for the same

thirteen

prepare

to

Answer
(16

best

L.

89.

Z=tlie Lilavati, T"=Vija Ganita, both by Bhaskara, /)/= Mahavira,

iS'=Sndhara,

C'=ChaturYecla.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

55

In accordance with the rate of five per cent, (per

21.

mensem) two months

the time for each instalment

is

paying the instalments of 8 (on each occasion) a

free in

Ansiver

M.

The

not known.

interest

months to

in ten

principal

money

that

of

64.

vi,

four
it

Tell the rate of interest

78.

Answer m.

C.

Subtracting from a

23.

for

of

the same rate and

lent to another person at

accumulated
the

the capital

man became

60.

months was
on

is

and

Five hundred drammas were a loan at a rate

22.

interest

What

60 months.

sum

lent at five in the

288.

hundred

the square of the interest, the remainder was lent at ten in

hundred.

the

amount

The time

equal

interest

of

Principal

Answer

There

24.

is

of

both loans was

8.

part of

varm,

of

14 varms, and 8 parts of 15 varms.

of

fire

make them

the mixed gold

all

F.

109.

into one

part

5 varms, 7 parts

4 varms, 4 parts of

Throwing these into

and then what

is

the varna

Answer 101.

^-

[The term varna corresponds to

'

the

part of 2 varms,

3 varms,

2 parts of

and

of

the

alike

'

carat

'

^^'

^'^^'

measure of

or

purity of gold.']

25.

Gold

1,

2,

3,

suvarnas,

and

losses

1,

2,

3,

mashakas.

The average

loss is

hl+^l^^+M==^,
Bahhshdli Ms.

Z = the

.'s=Sridhara,

Lilavati,

F=Vija

C=Chaturveda.

Ganita, both by Bhaskara,

27.

.V=Mahavira

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

S6

Of two arithmetical progressions with equal sums

26.

and the same number of terms the first terms are 2 and 3,
the increments 3 and 2 respectively and the sum 15.
Find
the number of terms ?
Answer

27.

Bakhshali Ms.

3.

merchant pays

At the

I,

What was

I shall

was the amount

Answer

29.

as A,
as

'
'
:

40

'

10 sapphires,

and

his

own

The other

'

of

their

and

170.

" If you deliver

Tell me what
you.

replies

respective capitals

F.

much

gives

4,

as B,

much
much

gives twice as

gives 4 times as

100 pearls and

respectively

diamonds,

Ms.

rubies,

presented

each

and thus they became owners

the same value.
Tell me, friend, what
meeting

24,

96 [These are relative values only].

16, 1,

L.

The quantity
belonging

i=the

54.

stock one apiece to the rest in token of regard

were the prices of their gems respectively

pearls

156.

106,

Bakhslidli

etc.

possessing

jewellers

of stock of precisely

31.

25.

132.

is

gratification at

Answer

a hundred and I shall be twice

gives a certain amount,

Four

30.

me

be six times as rich as

the total

Answer

from

Give

gives 3 times as

C and

goods

Bakhshdli Ms.

as rich as you, friend

me

of the

40.

One says

28.

first

amount

the original

Answer

ten to

on certain goods at three

he gives ^ of the goods, at the

The total duty paid is 24.
and at the third ^.

different places.

second

octroi

18.

Lilavuti,

to

of rubies without flaw, sapphires,

one

F=Vija

-S^Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.

person,

is

five,

eight

and

100.

and

seven

Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=Mahaviia,

57

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

The number of like gems belonging to another

is seven, nine and six.
One has ninety, the other sixty-two
me quickly, then,
rupees.
They are equally rich.
Tell
respectively.

who
gem ?

art conversant with algebra, the prices,

intelligent friend,

of

each sort of

Answer

14,

[Bhaskara

tively are five,

them

three,

two and one.

to these four persons

and

eight

All are equally rich.

76,

Say quickly,

33.

31,

4,

friend, in

opened one by one, would

fill

what portion

together

me

severally,

rest

fill

of

of arrows to

of Pritha,

bow

slay Karna.
;

With

half his arrows he

parried
of

with six arrows he slew

with three he demolished the umbrella, standard and

foe.

Ansiver 100.
35.

pams
*

95.

with four times the square-root

and with one he cut off the head of the

were the arrows which Arjuna let fly ?

will

angered in combat, shot a quiver

the quiverful he killed his horse

;

day

L.

those of his antagonist

Salya

157.

yV.

The son

V.

a cistern, which,

Answer
34.

one day, half a day, the

it in

and the sixth parts respectively

third

are seven,

etc.

four fountains, being let loose

if

Tell

and the

friend, the rates of the prices of horses

Answer 85,

respec-

their mules are eight,

and the oxen owned by them

156.

belonging

the camels

four and one

are two, seven,

two, one and three

one,

six

&

105

relative values.]

'

The horses belonging

32.

to

assumes

'

V.

etc.

1,

1,

L. 67,

For 3 'panas 5

jjalas

of

11 ])alas of long pepper

i=the

'S:=Sridhara,

Lilavati,

How many

F=Vija

C=Chaturveda.

ginger

and

are

V.

obtained,

for 8 paiias 1

133.

for

pala of

Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=.\l;ihavira,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

58

By

pepper.

means

68 pahs

quickly obtain
Ansiver

Ginger 20,

purchase money

of

M.

long pepper 44,

pepper

cranes for five

the

gratification

Answer VviQeQ
56,

(This class
el-Misri

3,

27,

40,

21,

drammas

158-9;

M.

vi,

152.

36.

12.

problem was treated

of

900 A.D.).

(c.

seven

V.

5,

nine geese for seven and three peacocks for

prince's

Birds

150.

vi,

4.

Bring a hundred of these birds for a hundred

nine.

panas

60

Five doves are to be had for three drammas

36.

for

the

of

See H. Suter

by Abu KamilDas Buck der Seltenfully

Bibliotheca Mathematica 11 (1910-11), pp. 100-120.

heit, etc.

37.

In a certain lake swarming with red geese the tip

bud

of a lotus

was seen half a hasta above the surface of

the water.
Forced by the wind it gradually advanced and
was submerged at a distance of two hastas.
Calculate quickly,
of a

mathematician, the depth of the water

Answer \K
If a

38.

upon

ing

of the

root

is

it

Answer

= Sridhara,

of

it

in

F.

125.

one place by the force

meet the ground at sixteen

mathematician, at how

broken

i=the

tip

153

thirty-two hastas and stand-

ground be broken

wind and the

say,

bamboo measuring

level

hastas,

L.

many

hastas

from

the

L.

12.

Lilavati,

148.

T'= Vija Ganita, both by Bhaskara, 7l/=Mahavira,

C =Chaturveda.

59

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

39.

snake's hole

high and a peacock

pounces

he

many

perched on

is

Seeing a

summit.

the

hastas

pillar

at a distance of thrice the pillar, gliding towards his

snake,
hole,

foot of a

at the

is

an

equal

Answer

descended

how

both

pro-

L.

150.

12.

From

40.

distance

at

Say quickly

from the snake's hole do they meet,

hastas

ceeding

on him.

obliquely

tree

and went

to a

hundred

pond two hundred

monkey

high,

hastas

hastas distant,

while another monkey, jumping a certain height off the tree,

proceeded quickly diagonally to the same spot.

travelled

by them be

height of the leap,

tion

equal, tell

if

me

the space

If

quickly, learned

thou hast diligently

man, the

studied

calcula-

Answer m.

L.

The man who

41.

travels to the east

155;

moves

F.

126.

at the rate

and the other man who travels northward moves

The latter having journeyed for
the rate of 3 yojanas.

of 2 yojanas,

at

5 days turns to

days

will

move along the hypotenuse.

he meet the other

Answer

man

In

how many

M.

13.

vii,

211.

The shadow of a gnomon 12 angulas high is in one

place 15 angulas.
The gnomon being moved 22 angulas
further its shadow is 18.
The difference between the tips
42.

of the

shadows

of the

shadows

is

is

25 and the difference between the lengths

3.

Find the height

Answer im.

C.

of the

318

Ar.

light

16

L.

245.

The shadow of a gnomon 12 angulas high being

lessened by a third part of the hypotenuse became 14 angulas.
Tell,
quickly, mathematician, that shadow ?
43.

Answer221.
*

^'

1^^'

Z=theLilavati, r=Vija Ganita, both by Bhaskura, J/'=Mahavira,

<S=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

60

Tell the perpendicular

44.

drawn from the

of strings mutually stretched from the roots

two bamboos

and ten

fifteen

ground of unlcnown extent

Answer

high

hastas

to

summits

and

thirteen

the square

is

what

fifteen,

is

the area

length

splitting

and the middle breadth

sixteen

up

it

Ansiver

two

into

is

moon

the middle

triangles tell me, quickly, its area

of

sides

with that of the diagonals

Answers U^D,

side
all

is

unequal

with

quadrilateral

13x15, 13x20 and the top

bottom side is 300.
What are

^2

aC,

83.

the values here beginning

280, 48, 252, 132, 168, 224, 189, 44100.

59.

vii,

and a2 4- J2 = f-z then the quadrilateral Ac, Be,

cyclic and the diagonals are Ah -\- aB and Aa + Bh,

C2,

is

is

B =

20,

+ ahC^), &c.
a = 5, b = 12,

25

For

the area 44100.

In the present case

(ABc^

the area

315, 280

sides

the cube of 5 and the

M.
^2

S.

are

If

By

three hastas.

24.

The

47.

77.

S.

In the figure of the form of a young

is

flanks

AnsiverlOS.
46.

160.

L.

6.

and the face two hastas and altitude twelve, the

of four

of

upon

standing

Of a quadrilateral figure whose base

45.

intersection

13.

^ = 15,

The diagonals
the

full details see

are

LVavatl,

193.

48.

friend,

who knowest

construct a derived

the

secret

of

calculation,

with the aid of 3 and 5

figure

as

ele-

ments, and then think out and mention quickly the numbers

measuring

the

hypotenuse

perpendicular

is

ni

M.

34.

30,

construct

where
*

the other side and the

Answer IQ,
That

side,

triangle

a
5,

>i

//=the Lilavati, F=Vija

iS=Sridhara, (7=Chaturveda.

of

the

form

2w,

vi^

)i^,

vii,

94.

iii''^-\-/i.'^>

3.

r4anita,

both by Bhaskara, i)/=Mahavira,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
In the case

49.

perpendicular side
is

What

73.

Answer

are the elements here

Lllavati, say

longish

quadrilateral

55, the base is 48

is

M.

what

is

if

the

figure

and then the diagonal

8.

3,

Intelligent friend,

50.

is

of

61

121,

vii,

thou knowest well the spotless

the area of a circle the diameter of which

measured by seven, and the surface

of a globe or area like

a net upon a ball, the diameter being seven, and the solid

content within the same sphere

Answer

Area 38

If^gty

surface 153

|if;;

volume 179 \i%l

L.

51.

In a circle whose diameter

cumference
the

area

what

ten,

thou knowest, calculate, and

is

tell

the cir-

me

also

Answer

the

If

is

204.

x/ 1,000,

52.

The measure

part

devoured

Answer

The

S.

85.

moon

25,

/v/6250.

of

Rahu

is

52,

that of the

7.

arrow of Rahu

is 2,

that of the

moon

311.

C.
This

is

an eclipse problem and means that

circles

5.

of diameters 52

and 2.") intersect so that the portion of the line joining the
two centres common to the two circles is 7.
The common
chord cuts this into segments of 5 and
53.

The combined sum

ence, the diameter

circumference

diameter

is,

and the area

64)
*

is

measure
1116.

what the calculated

of the circumfer-

Tell

area,

me what

the

and what the

Ansiver 108, 972,

The

of the

2.

rule

y^ 64

L=the

given

M.

36.

is

circumference

vii,

//i^ ^combined

32.

sum+

which assumes that 7r=3.

Lllavati,

F=Vija Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=Mahavira,

tS=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

62

The

54.

How many

arrows

circumferential

18

are

are the arrows in the quiver

number.

in

M.

Ansiver31.

^^-^

n =^-

rule given is

The

Tell

me,

is

number

the

thou knowest, the content of a

if

piece of stone whose diameter

Answer

outside layer.

of arrows in the
55.

where

is

spherical

a hasta and a half

1|4.

The

rule

56.

S.

given

is

93.

v=d^ (^+^^8^-

altar

sacrificial

is

built of bricks 6 afigulas high,

broad and one hasta long.

half a hasta

289.

It is 6 hastas

long, 3

Tell me
rightly, wise
and half a hasta high.
man, what its volume is and how many bricks it contains.
S. 96.
Answer^, 72.

hastas broad

24

hastas

thou knowest,

If

57.

mound

hasta.

aiigulas=l

grain

of

tell

me

quickly the

whose circumference

is

36

of a

and height

Answer
The
58.

144.

measure

S.

rule used assumes that

of the

is

bow

12,

is

having the outline of a bow,

and the arrow

not known.

Find

measure
it,

Answer ^/'360
59.

is

24 in measure, and

What is the
Answer y/bim.

measure.

The

is

its

arrow

is

i=the

vised is

The
75.

bow

taken to be 4

in

minutely accurate value of the area

^^-

^'*'^'

^2.

= ac/v/10.

F=Vija
S=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
Lilavati,

vii,

outline of a

*****
*****
*****
^

rule

6.

friend.
M..

In the case of a figure having the

the string

102.

7r=3.

In the case of a figure

the string measure

measure

(xanita,

both

b}'

Bhaskara, J/=Mahavira,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

63

Multiplier consisting of surds two, three

60.

multiplicand the surd three with the rational

Tell

quickly the

product

and eight

iiumber

What

is

the

having the third

number which

part

the

of

remainder divided by ten

quarter of the original

seventy

The

one-third,

quantity

one half and a

added gives two

less

than

L.

may

be

summarised

this:

were

seen

)=fiS,

/(3)

AnsiveriS or
fifth

troop of monkeys

on

the

= 17

hill

their sport.

amused

were there

in

part of the troop less

or

congruous.

saj's,

all

three, squared,

in sight,

People

do

is

not to be taken for

not approve

139.

had

V.
" the second

having climbed

5.

" But,"' Bhaskara

with

V.

Say how many there were

50

squared

16.

gone to a cave and one monkey was

on a branch.

with

delighted

How many

chattering to each other.

The

of

grove and

in a

remaining

Answer

./'(.'

51.

//4

The eighth part

skipping

63.

and

five

=48.
1

Twelve

by

48.

solution

therefore r

was

multiplied

product subtracted, and the

and

V. 32.

Answer

62.

five.

^wsit'er V9+>v/450+v75+v54.
61.

neirutive

140.

it is in-

alisolute

numVjer."

Say quickly what the number is which added

times itself divided by thirteen becomes thirty ?

64.
five

Answer"^-.
65.

V.

certain

unknown quantity

The quotient added

three.

What

is

Answer b,
*

Z=the

to the divisor

the divisor

F Vija

iS=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.

168.

divided by anotlier.

and the dividend

is

fifty-

M.

8,

Lilavati,

is

to

vi,

274.

Ganita, both by Bhaskara, .l/=Mahvira,

INDIAN MATHEi\LA.TICS.

64:

What number

that which

by nought
and added to half itself and multiplied by three and divided
by nought amounts to the given number sixty-three ?
66.

Ansicer

14.

What

67.

is

multiplied

This assumes that {7=1.

four

numbers

L.

are such that their product

equal to twenty times their sum, say, learned

who

is

mathematician

unknown

art conversant with the topic of the product of

quantities

46.

Answer 5.
Bhaskara

4.

2,

11.

V.

puts arbitrary values for three of the quantities

210-

and gets

11 for the fourth.

you are conversant with operations of algebra

power less double the
tell the number of which the fourth
sum of the square and of two hundred times the simple
68.

number

If

is

one

ten thousand less

Ansusr II.
may

This

V.

be expressed by

.<* 2

case in which the fourth

sum

the cube of their

cubes

of the

The square

69.

is

(a;2+200

a:) = 9999.

It

is

138.

the only

power occurs.

sum

equal

of

two
twice

to

numbers
the

added to

sum

of

their

Ansiver1,
70.

Tell

sum of them
when added
numbers

20

me,

if

5,

76,

F.

etc.

you know, two numbers such

178.

that the

by four and three may

the product of the same

multiplied respectively
to

two be equal to

Ansicer b,

10

and

11,

F.

6.

209,

212.

Sav quickly, mathematician, what is the multiplier

by which two hundred and twenty -one being multiplied and
sixty-five added to the product, the sum divided by a hundred
71.

and ninety-five becomes cleared

Ansu-er5, 20, 35 &c.
*

L.

253

F.

65.

i=theLilavati, F=Yija Ganita, both by Bhaskara, iU=Mahavira,

<S'=Sridhara,

C=Chaburveda.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

What number

72.
five,

65

divided by six has a remainder of

divided by five has a remainder of four,

der of three and by three one of two

Answer

Br. xviii, 7

59.

What

73.

by four a remain-

square multiplied by eight and

added to the product

will

be a square

F.

160.

having one

7.

Here

Stt^

+1=^-2 and m=6,

Making the square

74.

35,

etc.

the

of

t=\l

residue

99,

of

82.

etc.

and

signs

minutes on Wednesday multiplied by ninety-two and eightythree respectively with one added to the product an

square

who does

this in a year is a mathematician.

Br.

92 w2

(1)

+1=^2

What

is

the

<=9, ^=82.

(2)

which

square

67.

xviii,

83 m2 +1=^2.

(2)

Answer {I) ^=120, ^=1151.

75.

exact

by

multiplied

sixty-

seven and one being added to the product will yield a squareroot

and what

is

that

which multiplied by sixty-one with

one added to the product

friend,

if

the method of the

will
'

do so

likewise

rule of the square

spread, like a creeper, over thy

mind

'

Declare

be thoroughly

V.
(1)

67 v? +1="'.

(2)

Answers-{\) w=5967, ^=48842.

it,

87.

61 u -\-l=t\

(2)

w=226,153,980,

=1,766,319,049.

76.

Tell

me

quickly, mathematician,

that the cube-root of half the

smaller

sum

of their

number, and the square-root

L=thQ

Lilavati,

F=Vija

of

two numbers such

product and
the

sum

of

the

their

Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=Mah5vira,

=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

66

and those extracted from the sum and difEerence

increased by two, and that extracted from the difierence of
their squares added to eight, being all five added together

squares,

may

yield a square -root

excepting,

however, six and eight?

F.

Answersx=8

1677/4

15128, etc.

?/=6, 41

190.

246, etc.

* 2i=the Lilavati, 7=Viia Ganita, both by Bhaskara, J/=Mahavira,

5=Sridhara, C7=Chaturvecla.

CHKONOLOGY.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(For a more complete bibliography see that given in the

Journal of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal,

VII, 10, 1911.)

First Period.

On the S'ulvasutras, J.A.S.B.,

1875. The Baudhayana S'ulvasutra, The

Thibaut,

G.

1875-6.The

(Benares)

Pandit

Katyayana S'ulvasutra,

1882.

76.,

BiiRK, A.

XLIV,

Das

1901

Apastamba-S'ulba-Sutra, Z.D.M.G., 55,

56,

1902.

Second Period.
Burgess, E. and Whitney, G.

Am.

Jour.

Or.

Bapu Deva Sastri

The

Soc, VI,

Silrya Siddhanta,

1855.

and Wilkinson,

L.

The

Surya

Siddhdnta and the S'iddhdnta Siromani, Calcutta,

1861.

Thibaut, G.

and Sudharkar Dvivedi.

The

Pancha-

siddhdntikd of Varaha Mihira, Benares, 1889.

RoDET, L.

Kaye, G.

Lerons de Calcul d'Aryahhata, Paris, 1879.

R. Aryabhata,

J.A.S.B., IV,

17,

1908.

Third Period.
Colebrooke, H.

T.

Algebra

with Arithmetic and

Men-

from the Sanscrit of Brahmagupta

Bhascara, London, 1817.
suration

Rangacarya, M.
viracdrya,

The

and

Ganita-Sdra-Sangraha of Mah^-

Madras,

1908.

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

69

Eamanujacharia, N. and Kaye, G. R.

The

Trisatika

of S'rTdharacharya, Bib. Math., XIII, 3, 1913.

Notations.

Indische
E. C. On

Buhler, G.

Bayley,

the Genealogij

London,

WoEPCKE,

F.

Memoire

R.

G.

S.B.,

Jour.

Modern Numerals,

1863.

Arithmetical

The

7,1907.

III,

Ancient

snr la propagation des Chiffres

Asiatique,

Indian

Numerical

Notations,

Use

J. A. S. B.,

India,

Indian

of

1882.

indiens,

Kaye,

Palreographie, Strassburg, 1896.

of the

Abacus

in

Old

32, 1908.

IV,

A.

J.

Indian Antiquary,

Systems,

1911.

Fleet,

F.

J.

Aryabhata's

Numbers,

Abacus

/.

in

R.

A.

S.,

Numerals,

1911.

of

expressing

The Use

of

the

India, J. R. A. S., 1911.

and Karpinski,

Smith, D. E.

system

Boston,

L. C.

The Hindu Arabic

1911.

Other Works.

Albenmi's India, London, 1910.

G. Astronomic, Astrologie und Mathematik,

Sachau, E.
Thibaut,

C.

Grundriss
9,

Indo-Arischen

der

Philologie,

III,

1899.

Hoernle, R.

The

Bakhshali Manuscript, Indian Anti-

quanj,

XVIII,

Kaye, G. R.

Notes

Bib. Math.,

Methods,

1888.

on Hindu Mathematical Methods,

XI,

4,

Indian

1911.Hindu
Education

Mathematical

1910-1913.

Source of Hindu Mathematics, J. R. A.

The Bakhshali Manuscript,

1912.

J.

A.

S.

S.,

B.,

The
1910.

VII,

9,

INDIAN MATHEMATICS.

70

Heath,

L.

T,

Diophantus

of Alexandria,

Cambridge,

1910.

The
Algebra
Rosen, F.
London, 1831.
H.

SuTER,

Die

of

Mathematiker

Araber und Ihre

Werke,

Mohammed
und

Musa,

Astronomen

Leipzig,

ben

der

1900.

The development of Mathematics in

YosHio Mikami.
China and Japan, Leipzig, 1912.
The general works on the history of mathematics by
Cantor, Gunther, Zeuthen, Tannery and v. Braunmuhl
and the articles by Woepcke, Rodet, Vogt, Suter and

Wiedemann
XI

should also be consulted.

82.

INDEX.

Abacus, 32, 69.

Chasles, 34.

24-25.

Abbreviations,

Chaturveda,

53-55.

38.

Abu
Abu Kamil, 40,
Abu Said, 43.
Bekr, 43.

Ghin-chang Suan-shU
Chinese mathematics,

43, 58.

70,

Abu'1-Wefa, 43.

Chosroes

Alberuni, 35-36, 41-42, 43, 69.

el-Chowarezmi

Alexandria,

Circle,

9, 15, 22.

Algoritmi de

Numero Indoriim -42.

Apastamba,

4, 68.

30-31, 69.

15, 45.

I,

the,

see

7,

8,

M.

b.

ilusa,

11, 12,

squaring, 7-8.

value

of

TT

]],

12,

32-33,

20.

47-48.

Arab mathematicians, 41-43,

Arithmetical notations,

Aryabhata,

70.

27-32.

Colebrooke,
Cossali,

11-14, 21, 31, 35-36,

40,47, 68, 69.

Astrology, 24, 26.

1,

41, 68.

41.

Cube-root, 23, 38.

Cyclic method, 16, 23.

Cyclic quadrilaterals,

20, 22, 48,

Astronomy, 1, 9, 68.
Athenean schools, 15.
Bailly,

32-33,

47-48, 61-62.

Alphabetical notations,
Angles,

38-41, 44,

6,

50, 60.

Damascius, 1.5, 42.

Decimal notations (see Place-

1.

Bakhshali M.s., the

1,

24, 55, 56, 69.

value notations).

el-Battani, 43.

Delian problem,

Baudhayana,

Diophantus,

Bhaskara,

4, 46, 68.

see

7.

16, 22, 25, 70.

14-21, 24, 37, 49-50,

12,

68.

el-Biruni

15,

alberuni,

Brahmagupta,

12, 14-23, 35-36, 38,

Egyptians,

6.

Epantheiii,

the,

13, 47.

Equations, 12, 15-18, 23-24, 26(a),

47-48. 68.

Brahmi numerals, 27, 29,

Braunmiihl, A. von, 70.
Biihler, G.,

3, 69.

40, 58-66.

Euclid, 7,

19.

Eutocius,

42.

Examples,

24, 2G(a), 51/.

Biirk, A., 6, 68.

Burgess, E.,

Fleet, J. F.,

68.

69.

Fractions, 5, 51.

Cantor, M.,

17,

70.

Casting out nines, 34.

Geometry,

Chang-ch'iu-chien, 41.

Gnomons, 5-6.
Greek influence,

Chang T'sang,

38.

14, 20-22, 46, 58/.

2, 0, 16, 17, 22, 45.

INDEX.

72
Greek terms,
Gunther,

9,

Punchu Siddhantika, the, 9-11, 68.

Pappus, 22.

26.

70.

S.,

20.

Parallels,

Paulisa Siddhanta, the,

Hankel, H.. 17, 34.

Heath, Sir T. L., 17, 70.
Hoerule, R.. 69.
Hypatia. 15. 16.

10.

2,

Pellian equation, 16, 17, 65.

Place-value notations, 2, 29, 31-32.

Plato,

15, 19.

Problems, 52/.
Progressions,

20-21, 40.

Inaccuracies,

Indeterminate equations,

12, 15-18,

40, 65-66.

Ptolemy,

23, 48, 49, 56.

10,

33.

11,

Pulisa, 35.

Inscriptions, 31, 37.

Pj^ramid, volume of, 21.

Interpolation formula, 11.

Pythagorean theorem,

Interest,

4-6, 38.

56.

47,

Qosta

Luqa, 42-43.
Quadratic equations,

Jambliehus, 42.
Jones, Sir W.,

b.

16-18, 24,

63-66.

1.

Quadrilaterals, 20-22, 60-61.

Kali^a

3.

iSiitras,

Ramanugacharia, M., 69.

el-Karclu, 43.

C,

Karpinski, L.

Rangacharia, M., 68.

69.

Rational triangles,

Katyayana, 4, 5. 68.
Kern, 11.
Kharoshthi numerals, 27, 29.
Laplace,

4,

18-19, 50, 60.

Regula duorum falsorum, 34.

Right-angled triangles, 4-5, 18-20,
60.

1.

Letter numerals,

30-31.

Llldvatl, the, 24, 37, 49-50, 51-64.

Macdonnell,

4.

Magoudi, 31.
Mahavira, 14,

19, 21, 23,

39; 40,

Rodet, L., 41, 68, 70.

Romaka Siddhanta, 2,
Rosen, 70.

Rule
Rule

9.

of three, 23, 26(a),

of

two

50, 53.

errors, 34.

48-49, 52-63, 68.

Mikami, Yoshio, 38, 41, 70.

Muhammad b. Musa, 41-42,

Muhammad
Rihau

Ahmed, Abu

b.

cl-Birunl.

'aSW Island' Arithmetic, the, 39-40.

Siddhanta Siromani, the, 37, 68.

70.

Simplicius,

'1-

35-36, 41-42,
43, 69.

Miiller,

Musa

Max,
M.

{see

Sine function, 9.
Sines, table of

10,

Musa),

Sphere, volume of

Nau, F., 31.

Nicomaehus,

Square-root,
42.

Squaring the

38-39.
2,

5,

b.

Sridhara,

circle,

14, 37.

,6 7, 46.

7-8, 47.

14, 21, 24, 37, 49, 51, 52,

60-62, 69.
Srishena, 35.

31.

Ibrahim el-Chaijami,

Paimauabha,

13, 39, 61, 62.

63.

Sulvasutras, the,

Omar

27-32, 69.

Numerical words,
*

Squares, construction of

''Nine Sections' Arithmetic, the,

Notations,

11.

Smith, D. E., 69.

Smith, Vincent, 45.

4.
6.

15.

43.

1,

3-8, 46-47, 68.

S'un-Tsii Suan-ching, the, 39.

Surya Siddhanta,
Symbols, 24.

the,

1,

9,

68.

73

INDEX.
Tabit

b.

Volumes,

Qorra, 42.

13, 21,

61, 62.

Table of siaes, 10.

Tai-yen process, 40.
Tannery, T,, 5, 17, 70.

Whitney,
Weber, 1.

Terminology, 24-26.
Thibaut, G., 1, 7, 9, 68, 69.

Wieddemau, E., 70.

Woepcke, 32, 34, 69,

Triangle, area

Word

Triangles,

of

20, 21, 47.

right-angled, 4, 18-19,

1,

68.

70.

numerals, 31.

Wu-t'sao, the, 40.

50, 60.
i^avat tdvat,

Trigonometry, 9-10.

2,

Vlja Ganita, the,

9, 35,

36, 68.

24, 37, 50, 51-66.

Vishnuchandra, 35, 36.

'2Q(a).

Yoshio :Mikami, 38, 41, 70.

Trisatika, 24, 27, 69.

Varaha Mihira,

24-25,

Zero.

64.

Zeuthen, H., 70.

The End.

World Public Library Association