Abstract
When a cool fluid such as water is injected into a hot reservoir, a growing region of cooled rock is established
around the injection well. The rock matrix within the
cooled region contracts, and a thermoelastic stress field
is induced around the well. For typical waterflooding of
a moderately deep reservoir, horizontal earth stresses may
be reduced by several hundred psi. If the injection pressure
is too high or if suspended solids in the water plug the
formation face at the perforations, the formation will be
fractured hydraulically. As the fracture grows, the flow
system evolves from an essentially circular geometry in
the plan view to one characterized more nearly as
elliptical.
This paper considers thermoelastic stresses that would
result from cooled regions of fixed thickness and of elliptical cross section. The stresses for an infinitely thick
reservoir have been deduced from information available
in public literature. A numerical method has been
developed to calculate thermoelastic stresses induced
within elliptically shaped regions of finite thickness.
Results of these two approaches were combined, and empirical equations were developed to give an approximate
but convenient, explicit method for estimating induced
stresses.
An example problem is given that shows how this theory
can be applied to calculate the fracture lengths, bottomhole
pressures (BHP's), and elliptical shapes of the flood front
as the injection process progresses.
Introduction
When fluids are injected into a well, such as during
waterflooding or other secondary or tertiary recovery
processes, the temperatures of the injected fluids are
typically cooler than the in-situ reservoir temperatures.
A region of cooled rock forms around each injection well,
and this region grows as additional fluid is injected. Formation rock within the cooled region contracts, and this
leads to a decrease in horizontal earth stress near the injection well. In Ref. 1, the magnitude of the reduction
in horizontal earth stress was given for the case of a radially symmetrical cooled region.
Another factor, which may occur simultaneously, is the
plugging of formation rock by injected solids. There is
extensive literature 2-8 indicating that waters normally
available for injection contain suspended solids.
Laboratory tests demonstrate that these waters, when injected into formation rocks, can plug the face of the rock
or severely limit injectivity. In field operations, injection
often simply continues at a BHP that is high enough to
Copyright 1985 Society of Petroleum Engineers
78
E{3AT
(bo/ao)
- - - - .................. (1)
1 +(bo/ao)
TWO-WINGED FRACTURE
1.0
MINIMUM HORIZONTAL
EARTH STRESS
REGION OF
MINOR AXIS)
( MAJOR AXIS
0.8
!I~
~
0.6
"'" 0.4
'=- w
1.0
O - - - - - - - - - = : : : : ; ; ;.....~----__j
g'1>--<I
0.6
<I
'f~
'=- w
I
................. (2)
0.4
MINOR AXIS)
( MAJOR AXIS
0.2
0.1
The sign convention used in the current study is compressive stresses are positive, tensile stresses are negative.
Thermoelastic stresses for regions of elliptical cross section and finite thickness have been determined approximately by a numerical procedure (Appendix A). The
results for the finite- and infinite-height elliptical cylinders
are combined and portrayed graphically in Fig. 2. Empirical Eqs. 3 and 4 were developed from Fig. 2 to give
a convenient, explicit method to estimate the average interior stresses in elliptical cooled regions of any height.
(I-v) .::luiT
E{3.::lT
(bo/ao)
I +(bo/ao)
.I
I +(bo/ao)
10
100
1000
MINOR AXIS)
( THICKNESS
E{3.::lT
is replaced by
(I-v) .::luiP
(I-v) .::lu2T
E{3.::lT
I
= I +(bo/ao)
(bo/ao)
EJ.::lp
I +(bo/ao)
and
(I-v) .::lu2T
E{3.::lT
is replaced by
(I-v) .::lu2P
............................. (4)
FEBRUARY 1985
EJt..p
79
WELLBORE
WELLBORE
ERBURD
Fig. 3-Side view of a vertical two-winged fracture shortly after initiation, and later, after becoming
confined and extending laterally.
= lwP-w In
(a
+b l
ao+b o
a o +bO)
Lf
tJ..Pf = 0.00074
.................... (6)
[ i wP-w L f(E)3 ]
2 3
(I-v)
(h)
',4
......
(10)
and
tJ..p p = the pressure drop through perforations
connected to the fracture, 16
=
PI=al+~ 2(1-1'
7rU~ )rj ,
CASE 1:
CASE 2:
.................. (12)
. ....................... (13)
.......
--"
Also, rj is the radius of the extending end of the fracture. This is equal to the smaller of the two values; Lj
or hl2 (see Fig. 3).
Eqs. 12 and 13 are two independent expressions for the
pressure at the extending end of the fracture. The computed fracture length must be adjusted until these equations are satisfied simultaneously. Then the resulting
fracture length will accommodate leakoff of the injected
fluid and satisfy the fracture extension criterion.
Opening of Secondary Fractures. Fig. 4 shows expected
fractures for three injection conditions. For Case 1, the
injection rate exceeds slightly the ability of the unfractured formation to accept the fluid. A short fracture extends from the wellbore; the surrounding region of cooled
rock, although slightly elliptical, is nearly circular in
shape. Because this cooled region is nearly circular, the
thermoelastic reduction of horizontal stresses is nearly
uniform in all directions. The direction of minimum stress
remains the same as that initially in the reservoir, and the
fracture is oriented perpendicular to the minimum earth
stress. In Case 2, the injection rate is much larger (or some
fracture-face damage has occurred); thus, the fracture extends a greater distance from the well. The cooled region
becomes more elongated in shape. As the cool region
elongates, the thermoelastic reduction in stress parallel
to the fracture exceeds the thermoelastic stress reduction
perpendicular to the fracture. This tends to reduce the difference between stresses within the cooled region that are
parallel and perpendicular to the fracture. There is an
elongated shape of the cooled region where all stresses
FEBRUARY 1985
3000
~
ill
a:
,,
::J
(f)
(f)
ill
"
a:
a. 2500
,
-------
ill
.~
--'
0
-- ----
:c
'"
lI-
'"
....
---------------
------------
..................................
2000
CD
k =
k = 100 md,
k =
1200
50 md, PR
k = 100 md,
~ 1000
PR = 2000 psi
1000 psi
1000 psi
PR
ill
!:S
:c
l-
e}
ill
--'
500
ill
a:
::J
I-
,/
<
a:
LL
500
1000
1500
1800
MAJOR
i='
w
SEMIAXE~ ~
W
LL Z
1000
.--- --
02
CJ)0
YES
INDEPENDENTLY COMPUTE THE LHS
AND RHS OF EQUATION 16,TO
SEE IF JOINTS PERPENDICULAR TO
THE TWO-WINGED FRACTURE OPEN UP
Zw
00
000
zO
w--'
~ ~ 500
ow
I<
s:
MINOR SEMIAXES
GO TO EQUATIONS
I--_---'-N:..::O'-< LHS
FOR A JOINTED
FRACTURE SYSTEM
:c
<
I-
RHS?
i='
w
LL
if 1000
z
z>
5 YRS? >-"N"O_ _ _- - - - - . J
2000 psi
100 md, P
R
2000 psi
50 OR 100 md,
PR = 1000 psi
--- k
CJ)O
50 md, PR
~
~
~
O~
00 a:
~
~
Z...J
wo
~ 0
oU
500
w
I
I-
;'
;'
;'
1000
1500
1800
82
5,000 [1,524]
100 [30.5]
3,000 [477]
5
150 [65.6]
70 [21.1]
TR,OF[C]
T w , of [0C]
Reservoir Rock Properties
1.5x10- 7 [2.2x10- 8 ]
3.3x10- 6 [4.8x10- 7 ]
2 x 10 6 [13.8]
0.29
0.25
0.20
0.024 [5.0x 10 -3]
1 x 10 -5 [5.6 x 10 -6]
0.15
35 [2347]
3,500 [24.1]
1.35
0.25
psi- 1 [kPa- 1 ]
E, psi [GPa]
krw
C r,
So,
Sw;
'K)]
psi [MPa]
(<TH)max/(<TH) min
(<TH)min,
<I>
1.0 mg II
10.0 mg II
50.0 mg II
- - - n<T
1000
Ii:
\"""fYV"""
l:::I
500
I-
(!)
FRACTURE LENGTH
....I
--
- --
0'
500
1000
1500
1800
in Fig. 8 for the low reservoir pressure example. Fracture length is influenced markedly, but for this example
the waterflooded zone remained nearly circular.
An understanding of thermoelastic fracturing enables
a designer to predict injection well performance more accurately. It could be useful in determining the number of
injection wells required for a waterflood, in sizing injection pumps, and in estimating the effect that water quali83
Conclusions
1. A numerical method has been developed to calculate
the change in horizontal earth stress resulting from a step
change in temperature (or pressure) across a region of
elliptical cross section and finite thickness.
2. The horizontal stress changes have been calculated
for a variety of elliptical shapes and thicknesses. The computed stresses have been checked against solutions
available in the literature for the limiting cases of elliptical cylinders of infinite height and circular cylinders of
finite height.
3. The horizontal stress changes have been correlated
and empirically fitted with equations so that approximate
solutions can be calculated readily.
4. Examples using typical elastic and thermal properties of rocks show that the injection of cool water can
reduce earth stresses around injection wells substantially, causing them to fracture at pressures considerably
lower than would be expected in the absence of the thermoelastic effect.
5. The fracture initially should be a two-winged fracture, which propagates perpendicular to the direction of
the minimum principal horizontal stress. Depending on
the shape of the cool region and the difference between
the minimum and maximum in-situ horizontal earth
stresses, fractures perpendicular to the main two-winged
fracture eventually could open, thus creating a jointed
fracture system.
6. Short fractures, which result from low injection rate,
high permeability, or low reservoir pressure, do not
significantly change the shape of the waterflood front from
the circular shape that would be expected for an unfractured well. Longer fractures, which result from high injection rates, low permeability, high reservoir pressure,
or poor water quality, cause the waterflooded region to
become noticeably elliptical in shape.
Nomenclature
ao
a1 =
A
bo
b1 =
c
Cf
C =
[m]
84
F I , F2
!:J.P3
rf
ri =
Rs
S or
S wi
=
=
=
t
T =
Tw
TR
!:J.T
U =
vp =
Vc
V wI
~1
(UH ) max
(UH ) min
p
Ur
Uo =
U1
U2
!:J.UIP
!:J.UIT
!:J.u2P
!:J.U2T
cJ>
Xo
a =
(3
o=
J-t
~ =
~0
bbl [m 3]
the value of (n" Wi)/Ac when the
fracture face or perforations are
bridged completely by solids from the
injection water, lbm/sq ft [mg/cm2]
an angle used in the numerical model for
computing the average stress change
inside an elliptical inclusion of finite
height (see Fig. A-Ia), degree [rad]
linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
in.l(in.-OF) [mm/(mm'K]
length of the sides of the square
gridblocks used in the numerical
model for computing the average
stress change inside an elliptical
inclusion of finite height (see Fig.
A-Ib), ft [m]
viscosity, cp [Pa' s]
Poisson's ratio
an elliptic coordinate
the value of ~ that describes the outer
boundary of the cooled region
FEBRUARY 1985
earth
stress (net stress born by the rock
matrix plus pore pressure), psi [MPa]
minimum in-situ, total horizontal earth
stress, psi [MPa]
tangential stress, psi [MPa]
total earth stress at the extending end of
the fracture that is perpendicular to the
fracture, psi [MPa]
total earth stress that is parallel to the
fracture, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress perpendicular to the major axis
of the ellipse resulting from a pressure
difference (p - P R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress perpendicular to the major axis
of the ellipse resulting from a
temperature difference (T - T R)
between the elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress parallel to the major axis of the
ellipse resulting from a pressure
difference (p - P R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
change (final-initial) in average interior
stress parallel to the major axis of the
ellipse resulting from a temperature
difference (T - T R) between the
elliptical cylinder and the
surroundings, psi [MPa]
porosity
Subscripts
C = core
f = fracture
gr = mineral grains
H = horizontal
o = oil
p = perforations
R = undisturbed reservoir value
S = skin damage
w = water
References
1. Perkins, T.K. and Gonzalez, J.A.: "Changes in Earth Stresses
Around a Wellbore Caused by Radially Symmetrical Pressure and
Temperature Gradients," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (April 1984) 129-40.
2. Doscher, T.M. and Weber, L.: "The Use of the Membrane Filter
in Determining Quality of Water for Subsurface Injection, " Drill.
and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1957) 169-79.
85
AN ELEMENTAL CYLINDRICAL
INCLUSION
--------------~--~~-------J-------.x
(a)
,.
y
r
t
I-V
,....
iv
/
V
,"-.,
'"
,.i"- t-
I--
(b)
Fig. A-1-Method of calculating stresses within an elliptical inclusion of finite height: (a) resolution of stresses
resulting from a cylindrical inclusion into a stress normal to the x-axis at an arbitrary point on the x axis;
(b) an elliptical inclusion (be/a e =0.6) approximated
by the superposition of right circular cylindrical inclusions.
APPENDIX A
Thermoelastic Stresses for
Inclusions of Finite Thickness
In a previous paper, I the Myklestad 21 solution for thermal stresses in an embedded, semi-infinite cylinder with
a circular cross section was adapted to give tangential
stresses for an embedded circular cylinder of finite height.
A similar superposition procedure has been used to obtain radial thermoelastic stresses in a circular cylinder of
finite height. The thermal stresses within a cylindrical inclusion with an elliptical cross section and finite height
can be computed approximately with the aid of these solutions. Fig. A-Ib shows an inclusion of elliptical cross section. The inclusion is approximated by an array of square
gridblocks, which are replaced by right circular cylindrical
inclusions whose volumes are equal to the gridblock
volumes.
7CTi2=02,
.............................
(A-I)
APPENDIX B
Equations Applicable to a Flow System
with Elliptical Coordinates
i=
Although a more sophisticated understanding of saturation and temperature distributions can be obtained by
numerical analysis, it is conceptually revealing to study
a simplified case where properties are considered to be
constant within selected regions. Fig. B-1 shows such a
simplified view of saturations and temperatures. For this
type of approximation, the volume of the cooled region
is determined by an energy balance. For the case of no
conduction heat transfer from the underburden and overburden to the pay zone, 22
a:
=>
I-
en
....J
(5
r__________________________
Sor
_
O~-----L
~Iw
........................... (B-1)
=>
~
~~
~ w~
::;;
J:ffi
1-1-
a:
I-
Ow
wI-
0
Oz
Oz
....J
,I
O
U.U
I
COLD
REGION -1-'- - - - - HOT REGION - - - - - -
r(HOT I COLD)
r(WATER lOlL)
RADIUS
In a similar manner, the waterflooded region is approximated as an elliptical region confocal with the line crack
and having volume V wt.
and
_1_
Let FI =exp
1 . ]
exp (2~o)-
exp
(2~o).
(2~o)
and
Then
Therefore,
ao=Lj.Jii;
and
V wt =
Wi
cf> (l-Sor -Swi)
FEBRUARY 1985
................... (B-5)
and
b l =Lj..!F; -1I.Jii;)/2,
................ (B-8)
APPENDIX C
Formation Face Damage Resulting From
Injection of Suspended Solids
Contained in Injection Fluids
Typically in laboratory tests, core plugs are saturated with
brines having the same composition as test waters that
subsequently are injected into the cores. Stable base-line
permeabilities can be established by flowing one or two
thousand PV of synthetic brine through each core before
87
For a fixed particle-size distribution, growth of additional internal resistance or external filter cake is directly proportional to the product of volume injected and
concentration of total solids being filtered and inversely
proportional to the core area. Thus, the resistance term,
Rs, as determined from the laboratory measurements, can
be correlated vs. (no' WJAc).
Fig. C-I shows a typical plot for injection of a water
sample into a suite of cores of varying permeability that
was taken from a single formation. The additional flow
resistance caused by filtration of suspended solids appears
to consist of two parts.
1. There is a rather small but detectable initial
resistance, which increases progressively as additional
water is injected. The additional flow resistance can be
represented approximately by the mathematical expression
>;
'"
"0
E 102
:;>,' :
.,
a::
:;>'
= 75 md .",'
/
./
68/
230
10
1L-~~~~L-~~~~
no' Wi
Rs=F3 ( ~
__~~~UU_ _~~~UW
)nl
.................... (C-2)
10
(noWi) (mgx~)
,A C
cm 2
!1PCE=
iwiJ.wLc
kAc
if
iwiJ.w
The resistance tetm, R s, will be a function of volume injected per unit area of core; but since flow is laminar,
Rs should be independent of flow rate or water viscosity.
The [volume/area] needed to completely bridge the core
face and the subsequent increase in external filter cake
resistance can be determined adequately. Because of the
form of Eq. Col, the flow resistance term, Rs, should
be viewed as fracture skin damage and should be added
to all other flow resistance terms needed to account for
flow through the formation rock beyond the fracture face.
88
kPa
SPEJ
Original manuscript (SPE 11332) received in the Society of Petroleum Engineers office Aug. 19, 1982. Paper accepted for publication June 2, 1983. Revised manuscript
received Feb. 22, 1984.