CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL

Submitted to: SIR RASHID FIAZ.

Submitted by: IMTISAL-E-NOOR.
REG NO:2010-NUST-BE-CHE-39
CHE-03
DUE DATE:26th april 2011.

WHAT IS STEEL?
Steel is hard, strong, bluish gray metal alloy of iron and is one of the most
widely used material in the world, steel is Most important engineering and
construction material. Steel has carbon content from 0.2 to 2.1 percent (by
weight), depending on classification according to composition and their
physical properties. The most important alloying component for iron is carbon
but other alloying elements i.e. magnesium, chromium, vanadium and
tungsten and small amount of sulfur, silicon, phosphorus and oxygen are also
present. Steel is used for mostly as a structural and fabricating material .In
steel carbon and other alloying material are used for creating hardening and
preventing dislocations in the iron atom. Ductility ,hardness and tensile
strength of steel depend on the amount of alloying materials and their form of
presence in iron .Hardening and strength or ductility of steel depend on
carbon content present in iron .The increased carbon content make the steel
harden and strong but less ductile.
Steel is versatile, strong and resilient .it can be recycled over and over again
without losing its properties. Steel is major raw material which is used in
construction, infrastructure and bridges as well as used in household
appliances.
Steel industries are considered as the gauge of economic health as its vital
role in economic development.

Steel making flow chart:

The above process is used for steel making (from ore to products).
Classification of steel:

According to composition:
Steel can be classified according to the composition.
The most commercial steel can be classified into two groups
1. carbon steel
2. alloy steel

Carbon steel:
This type of steel has less than 1 percent of carbon and traces of manganese
,sulfur ,silicon ,phosphorus .The properties and characteristics of this type of
steel are according to the carbon content present in it and there is a minor
influence on this type of carbon due to the alloying and residual materials.
Plain carbon steel is subdivided into four groups
1. low carbon steel
2. medium carbon steel
3. high carbon steel
4. very high carbon steel

Low:
In low carbon steel the carbon content is less than 0.30 percent and is
the most commonly used grades .They can be machined and welded nicely
and their ductility is greater than high carbon steel
Medium:
In medium carbon steel the carbon content is from 0.30 to 0.45 percent
carbon .Due to increased carbon content there is an increase in hardness and
tensile strength and decrease in ductility .And its machining and welding is
difficult than low carbon steel due to increased content of carbon.
High:
In high carbon steel the carbon content is in between 0.45 to 0.75 percent.
And it is the challenge for welding and machining this type of steel .heating is
necessary to produce acceptable welds and is also used to control the
mechanical properties of steel after welding.
Very high:
. In very high carbon steel the carbon content is up to 1.50 percent .this
type of steel requires heat before, during and after welding to control its
mechanical properties .this type of steel is used for hard steel product such as
metal cutting tools and truck springs.
Designation system of carbon steel:
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit-designation system:
SAE 1XXX
First digit:
First digit indicates that either it is a carbon steel or alloy steel. 1 indicates
carbon steel as in above example and 2-9 are for alloy steel.

Second digit:
Second digit indicates the modification of steel:
0 - Plain carbon, non-modified
1 - Resulfurized
2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized
5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0%
Last two digits:
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%.
Example:
SAE 1045:
in which 1 indicates plain carbon (non modified) steel and contains 0.45%
carbon in this type of steel.

Alloy steel:
Alloy steel is a type of steel in which one or more elements other than carbon
have been intentionally added, to produce a desired physical property or
characteristic. Common elements that are added to make alloy steel are
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium , boron and
vanadium.
There are two types of alloy steel
1. low alloy steel
2. high alloy steel
Low alloy steel:
In low alloy steel the carbon content is below 0.25 percent and often 0.15
percent for specially welding applications .and the common alloying materials
are manganese ,nickel , chromium ,molybdenum ,silicon ,vanadium and
boron and the less common alloying elements are aluminum, cobalt ,copper
,titanium ,tungsten ,tin and zirconium .mostly low alloy steel is used to achieve
better hardenability and is increased corrosion resistance in certain
environment. low alloy steel is difficult to weld .By lowering the carbon content
to 0.10 percent along with other alloying materials increase strength of the
material.
High alloy steel:
The type of steel in which there are alloying element more than 8% by weight
of total other than carbon and iron is classified as high alloy steel.
High alloy steel consists of at least two chemical elements and the properties
of this type of steel depend on the percentage of chemical element present in

it .if the percentage is high then its properties are depend on that chemical
element with high percentage .High alloy steel is highly corrosion resistant
with high reliability, and is used extensively in petrochemical, pharmaceutical,
and nuclear power plants, heat exchangers, centrifugal separators, driers,
pipelines, couplings, valves, bolts, salt manufacturing, exhaust gas
desulfurizers, and semiconductor cleaning equipment.
Designation system of alloy steel:
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) have established four-digit-designation system:
According to the four-digit classification SAE-AISI system:
First digit:
First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel:
2- Nickel steels
3- Nickel-chromium steels
4- Molybdenum steels
5- Chromium steels
6- Chromium-vanadium steels
7- Tungsten-chromium steels
9- Silicon-manganese steels
Second digit:
Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents.
if the 2nd element is 1 or 2 it means 1% and 2%
.
Last two digits:
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%.
Example:
SAE 6230
This is alloy Chromium-vanadium steel, containing 2% of chromium and
0.30% of carbon.

According to application:
According to application steel can be classified into two types:
1.Stainless steel
2.Tool and die steel

Stainless steel:
This is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content. Stainless steel
is more resistant to stains , corrosion ,and rust than ordinary steel . it was
discovered in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield , England , but the
discovery was not announced to the world until 1915. It is also called a
corrosion resistance steel when the alloy type and grade are not detailed,
particularly in the aviation industry .stainless steel is used where the
properties of steel as well as the resistance to corrosion is required .there are
about 150 grades out of which 15 are most commonly used.
Stainless steel is commonly used in table cutlery , jewelry , watch bands ,
watches , handgun model , pistol , storage tanks , tankers ,food processing
plant ,surgical instruments as well as in the aviation industry.
Designation system of alloy steel:
AISI has established three-digit system for the stainless steels:
2XX series chromium-nickel-manganese austenitic stainless steels
3XX series chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels
4XX series chromium martensitic stainless steels or ferritic stainless steels
5XX series low chromium martensitic stainless steels

Tool and die steels:

Tool and die steels are high carbon steels (either carbon or alloy) possessing
high hardness, strength and wear resistance. With carbon content between
0.7% to 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled
conditions to produce the required quality of steel. Tool steels are heat
treatable. In order to increase hardness and wear resistance of tool steels,
alloying elements forming hard and stable carbides (chromium, tungsten,
vanadium, manganese, molybdenum) are added to the composition.
Tool and die steels are used to shape other metals by cutting, forming ,
machining and die casting. Tool and die steel is used to make chisels, forging
dies, hummers, drills, cutters, shear blades, drills, razors. drawing and forging
dies, shear blades, highly effective cutters ,cutting tools parts working at
elevated temperatures, like extrusion, casting and forging dies. molds for
injection molding of plastics.
Tool and die steels can be classified on their use, mechanical properties
,composition and method of heat treatment.
Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice
of grade depends on whether a keen cutting edge is necessary or not, as in
stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and
service conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes, pickaxes, and
quarrying implements or not.

Designation system of tool steel:

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) have established one-letter system in combination with a
number for tool steel.
The letter means;
W- water hardened plain carbon tool steel
O- oil hardening cold work alloy steel
A- air hardening cold work alloy steel
D- diffused hardening cold work alloy steel
S- shock resistance low carbon tool steel
T- high speed tungsten tool steel
M- high speed molybdenum tool steel
H- hot work tool steel
P- plastic mold tool steel

According to de-oxidation practice:

De-oxidation of steel is a steel making technological operation, in which
concentration of oxygen dissolved in molten steel is reduced to a required
level.
On de-oxidation degree base steel can be divided into four groups
1. Rimmed steel
2. Killed steel
3. Semi-killed steel
4. Capped steel

Rimmed steel:
Rimmed steel is also known as drawing quality steel. Rimmed steels are low
carbon steel which are partially deoxidizes or non-oxidized. carbon content is
less than 0.25% and manganese content is less than 0.6% in rimmed steel.
Rimmed steels evolve sufficient amount of carbon mono-oxide during
solidification.
These steel are,
therefore ideal for rolling, large number of applications, and is adapted to coldbending, cold-forming and cold header applications.
A wide variety of steels for deep drawing is made by the rimming process,
especially where ease of forming and surface finish are major considerations.
This type of steel can be classified on the base of their good surface quality
and the amount of blowholes on their ingots.

Killed steel:
Killed steels are completely deoxidized steels and the commonly used

deoxidizing elements are silicon and aluminum. Their solidification does not
cause formation of carbon monoxide (CO).
Ingots and castings of killed steel have homogeneous structure and no gas
porosity (blowholes)
Killed steel, because of greater uniformity in chemical composition and
soundness is used for forging, carburizing, heat treatment and other
applications.
Symbol K stands for killed steel.

Semi - killed steel :

semi-killed steel are incompletely deoxidized steels. this type of steel has
characteristics between rimmed and killed steel. Structural steels containing
0.15 to 0.25% carbon are generally semi-killed.
Semi-killed steel containing some amount of excess oxygen, which forms
carbon monoxide during last stages of solidification.
In semi-killed steel, the aim is to produce metal free from surface blowhole
and pipe. They are used for general structural applications. This type of steel
is suitable for drawing operation (except severe drawing).

Capped steel:
Capped steels are partially de-oxidized steels.Capped steel has
characteristics similar to those of rimmed steels but to a degree intermediate
between those of rimmed and semi-killed steels.
The good surface and mechanical properties of capped steel make it ideal for
the production of sheet and strip products.
The four basic forms of deoxidized steel in descending order of oxygen
removal are killed, semi-killed, capped, and rimmed steels.

According to manufacturing methods:

Steel is produced from pig iron by processes which involves reducing the
amounts of carbon, silicon and phosphorous.
There are three main steel manufacturing processes as under:
1.Basic Oxygen Process (BOP)
2. Electric-arc furnace
3. Ladle refining

Basic Oxygen Process (BOP)

The Basic Oxygen Process is the most powerful and effective method of steel
making.
structure of basic oxygen converter: basic oxygen converter has a vertical
steel shell lined with refractory lining.

The furnace is capable to rotate about its horizontal axis on trunnions. This
rotation is necessary for charging raw materials and fluxes, sampling the melt
and pouring the steel and the slag out of the furnace.
The Basic Oxygen converter is equipped with the water cooled oxygen lance.
The basic oxygen converter uses no additional fuel. The pig iron impurities
(carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous) serve as fuel.
The steel making process in the oxygen converter consists of charging steel
scrap, pouring liquid pig iron into the furnace, charging fluxes, oxygen
blowing, sampling and temperature measurement, tapping the steel to a ladle,
de-slagging.
The iron impurities oxidize, evolving heat, necessary for the process. The
forming oxides and sulfur are absorbed by the slag. The oxygen converter has
a capacity up to 400 t and production cycle of about 40 min.

Electric-arc furnace :
Structure of electric-arc furnace:
The electric-arc furnace employs three vertical graphite electrodes, one for
producing arcs, 2nd is for striking on to the charge and 3rd one is for heating
it to the required temperature.
As the electric-arc furnace utilizes the electric current so it is capable to melt
up to 100% of steel scrap.
The steel making process in the electric-arc furnace consists of: Charging
scrap metal, pig iron, limestone and lowering the electrodes and starting the
melting and oxidizing stage At this stage the heat, produced by the arcs,
causes oxidizing phosphorous, silicon and manganese. The oxides are
absorbed into the slag. By the end of the stage the slag is removed. (deslagging, reducing stage).lime and anthracite are added at this stage for
formation of basic reducing slag. The function of this slag is refining of the
steel from sulfur and absorption of oxides, formed as a result of de-oxidation.
(Tapping, Lining maintenance)
Electric arc furnance is useful as in this
unlimited scrap quantity may be melt, easy temperature control, deep desulfurization, precise alloying.

Ladle refining :
Ladle refining is post steel making technological operations, performed in the
ladle prior to casting with the purposes of de-sulfurization, degassing,
temperature and chemical homogenization, de-oxidation and others. Ladle
refining may be carried out at atmospheric pressure, at vacuum, may involve
heating, gas purging and stirring.
De-sulfurization is performed by addition of fluxes (CaO, CaF2 and others)
into the ladle and stirring the steel together with the slag, absorbing sulfur. In
the production of high quality steel the operation of vacuum treatment in ladle
is widely used. Vacuum causes proceeding chemical reaction within the

molten steel. This reaction results in reduction of the quantity of oxide

inclusions.

According to heat treatment:

Steel can be classified according to heat treatment also.
It can be subdivided into following sub groups.
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Case hardening
5. Ion nitriding
6. Tempering
7. Precipitation hardening
8. Cryogenic treatment of steel
9. Salt bath heat treatment

Annealing:
Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and
holding it at a certain temperature (annealing temperature), followed by
controlled cooling. Annealing temperature and the control cooling rate depend
on the alloy composition and the type of the annealing treatment.

Normalizing:
Normalizing is a process in which a steel is heated to about 100F (55C)
above the upper critical temperature, followed by soaking and cooling in still
air at room temperature.
Normalizing treatment is similar to the full annealing treatment. The difference
is in the cooling method and rate full annealing involves slow controlled
cooling if the furnace or in some medium providing slow cooling rate.
As
normalizing requires less time, it is more economically efficient heat treatment
method than full annealing.

Hardening:
Hardening is a heat treatment process involving heating a steel above the
upper critical temperature, followed by soaking and then rapid cooling
(quenching).

Case hardening:
Case hardening is the diffusion heat treatment operation which involves two
stages:
Heating a steel part to a temperature above the upper critical temperature in a
medium, containing an element capable to saturate the surface layer of the

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part through diffusion.

Heat treatment of the part in order to obtain the desired combination of
mechanical properties of the hard outer case and the ductile core.

Ion nitriding

:
Ion nitriding is a surface Hardening heat treatment, in which Nitrogen is
supplied to the work piece surface in form of plasma.

Tempering :
Tempering is a heat treatment operation involving reheating hardened steel to
a certain temperature below the lower critical point followed by soaking and
then cooling.

Precipitation hardening :
Precipitation hardening is basically strengthening by precipitation of fine
particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution.

Cryogenic treatment of steel :

Cryogenic treatment (tempering) is a processing of the material at a
temperature below 80K resulting in improvement of its properties.

Salt bath heat treatment

Salt bath heat treatment is a heat treatment process comprising an immersion

of the treated part into a molten salt (or salts mixture).
Steel can also be classified on the bases of its shape, quality and strength
level according to the industrial and commercial requirements in relative
fields.

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