Chapter 6
Signal Conditioning Circuit
Power Supplies and Amplifiers
6.1 An electronic instrumentation system consists of:
Fig
g (6-1)
( ) Block Diagram
g
Showing
g Components
p
of Instrumentation System
y
Ni k l cadmium
d i
Nickel
Li hi
B
i
Lithium
Batteries
- Lithium Iodine
-Capacity: 16 VAh/lb
OR
- Capacity: 16 VAh/Ib
- Not rechargeable
The narrowness of the voltage range for a given current change is a measure
of the voltage regulation of the circuit. If the input voltage and load do not
change much,
much this circuit is effective in obtaining steady and lower DC
voltage values from a source, even if the source is not well regulated.
Since the load applied to the voltage regulator will change with time in most
applications and the voltage source will - exhibit fluctuations, careful
consideration
id
i must be
b paid
id to the
h effect
ff on the
h regulated
l d voltage
l
VZ. For
F the
h
circuit shown in Figure. 6-3, the zener current is related to the circuit voltages
according to
Iz
Vin V z
R
(1)
I
Vin V 2
R
(2)
V z
Rd
(3)
Normally a manufacturer specifies the nominal zener current Izt,, and the
maxi-mum dynamic impedance (Rd) at the nominal zener current. In a circuit
design using a zener diode the zener current must exceed IzP, otherwise the
zener may operate near the "knee" of the characteristic curve where
regulation is poor (i.e.,
(i e where there is a large change in voltage with a small
change in zener current).
By substituting Equation.3 into Equation. 2 and solving for Vz, we can
express changes in the regulator output voltage Vout in terms of fluctuations in
the source voltage Vin:
Vout V z
Rb
Vin
Rd R
(4)
Therefore, the circuit acts like a voltage divider (for a change in voltage) with
the zener diode represented by its dynamic resistance at the operating current
of the circuit.
To limit the maximum power dissipation to less than 1W, the current through the
diode must be limited to
I z max 1W / 15V 66.7mA
Rd
14
30 20V 0.55V
Vin
Rd R
14 240
Figure (6-4)(a)
Fi
(6 4)( ) illustrates
ill
a simple
i l voltage
l
regulator
l
circuit
i i where
h
RL is
i a load
l d
resis-tance and Vin is an unregulated source whose value exceeds the zener voltage
Vz. The purpose of this circuit is to provide a constant DC voltage Vz across the
load with a corresponding constant current through the load. Providing a stable
regulated voltage to a system containing digital integrated circuits is a common
application.
Second, the load current will be the difference between the unregulated input
Second
current Ii and the zener diode current IZ:
L L I in I z
(5)
As long as VZ is constant and the load does not change, IL remains constant.
This means that the diode current changes to absorb changes from the
unregulated source.
I in
(Vin V z )
R
(6)
Vz
Iz max I in
RLmax
(7)
This is the largest current the zener experiences. The power dissipated by the
zener diode is
V
Pz max I z max V z I in z
R Lmax
V z
(8)
(9)
We can now
no solve
sol e for the minimum
minim m required
req ired current-limiting
c rrent limiting resistance R:
Rmin 69.7
6.6 Advantages:
Zener diodes are useful in circuits where it is necessary to derive smaller
regulates' voltages from a single higher-voltage source. When designing zener
diode circuits, one must select appropriate current-limiting resistors given the
power limitations of the diodes.
Although the zener diode voltage regulator is cheap and simple to use, it has
some drawbacks: The output voltage cannot be set to a precise value, and
regulation against source ripple and changes in load is limited.
Fi
Figure
(6-6)
(6 6) Fitt
Fitter V
Voltage
lt
W
Waveform
f
Sh
Showing
i d
dc and
d Ri
Ripple
l Voltages
V lt
Consider measuring the output voltage of a filter circuit using a do voltmeter and
an ac (rms) voltmeter. The dc voltmeter will read only the average or dc level of
p voltage.
g The ac ((rms)) meter will read only
y the rms value of the ac
the output
component of the output voltage (assuming the ac signal is coupled through a
capacitor to block out the dc level).
Definition: Ripple
r=
Ripple voltage(rms)
Dc voltage
Vr rms
100%
V de
(10)
Example
p e ((1):
):
Using a do and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit,
we obtain readings of 25 V do and 1.5 V rms. Calculate the ripple of the filter
output voltage.
Solution:
r
V r rms
1.5V
100%
100% 6%
V de
25V
Voltage regulation :
%V .R.
V NL V FL
100%
V FL
(11)
(12)
Example (2):
A dc
d voltage
lt
supply
l provides
id 60 V when
h the
th output
t t is
i unloaded.
l d d When
Wh
connected to a load, the output drops to 56 V calculate the value of voltage
regulation.
S l ti
Solution:
Eq. (12)
%V .R
V NL V FL
60V 56V
100%
100% 7.1%
V FL
56V
If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the no-load voltage, the voltage
regulation calculated is 0%,
0% which is the best expected.
expected This means that the
supply is a perfect voltage source for which the output voltage is independent
of the current drawn from the supply. The smaller the voltage regulation, the
better the operation of the voltage supply circuit.
(13)
The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated (see
Appendix B) to be
Vr (rms)= 0.385 Vm
(14)
0.385V m
V r rms
100%
100% 121%
V de
0.318V m
(15)
For a full
full-wave
wave rectified voltage the dc value is
Vdc = 0.636 Vm
(16)
The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be calculated (see
Appendix B) to be
Vr (rmx) = 0.308 Vm
The percent ripple of a full-wave rectified signal can then be calculated as
(17)
V r rms
V dc
100%
0.308V m
100% 48%
0.636V m
(18)
Figure ( 6-7 ) Capacitor Filter Preparation: (a) full=wave Rectifier Voltage; (b) Filtered Output Voltage
ac input,
p Figure
g
((6-8)(a)
)( ) shows a full-wave bridge
g rectifier and the output
p
waveform obtained from the circuit when connected to a load (RL). If no load
were connected across the capacitor, the output waveform would ideally be a
constant dc level equal in value to the peak voltage (V.) from the rectifier
circuit.
circuit
Figure (6-8) Capacitor Filter: (a) Capacitor Filter Circuit; (b) Output Voltage Waveform
However, the purpose of obtaining a dc voltage is to provide this voltage for use by
various electronic circuits, which then constitute a load on the voltage supply. Since
output we must consider this practical case in
there will always be a load on the filter output,
our discussion.
Idc
4 3 fC
2.41I dc 2.4V dc
C
RL C
(19)
S l ti
Solution:
Eq.(19) : V r (rms )
2.7(50)
1.2V
100
g , Vdc:
6.15 Dc Voltage,
From Appendix B, we can express the dc value of the waveform across the
filter capacitor as
V dc Vm
I dc
4.17 I dc
Vm
4 fC
C
(20)
Where Vm is the peak rectifier voltage, Idc is the load current in mill amperes,
and C is the filter capacitor in microfarads.
Example (4):
If the peak rectified voltage for the filter circuit of Example (4) is 30V,
calculate the filter dc voltage.
4.71I
4.17(50)
Solution:
Eq.(20) : V V
30
27.9V
dc
dc
100
66.16
16 Filter
Filt Capacitor
C
it Ripple:
Ri l
Using the definition of ripple [Eq. (10)], Eq. (19), and Eq. (20), with Vdc Vms, we
can obtain the expression for the output waveform ripple of a full-wave
rec-tifier and filter-capacitor
p
circuit.
r
2.4 I dc
V r (rms)
2.4
100%
100%
100%
Vdc
CV dc
RL C
(21)
where Ids
amperes C is in microfarads,
microfarads Vdc
volts and RL is in
d is in mill amperes,
d is in volts,
kilohms.
Example (5):
Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter for a peak rectified voltage of 30V,
capacitor C = 50 F, and a load current of 50 mA.
Solution:
Eq.(21) : r
2.4 I dc
2.4(50)
100%
100% 4.3%
CV dc
100(27.9)
d
V r (rms)
1.2V
100%
100% 4.3%
V dc
27.9V
Fi
Figure
(6-10)
(6 10) O
Output V
Voltage
l
and
d Di
Diode
d C
Current W
Waveforms:
f
(a) Small C (b) Large C
Notice that for smaller values of capacitor, with T1 larger, the peak diode
current is less than for larger values of filter capacitor.
capacitor
Since the average current drawn from the supply must equal the average
diode current during the charging period, the following relation can be used
(assuming constant diode current during charge time):
I dc
T1
I peak
T
I peakk
T
I dc
d
T1
T1
T
Idc
Ipeak
6.18 RC Filter:
It is possible to further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter capacitor by
using an additional RC filter section as shown in Fig. (6-11) the purpose of
the added RC section is to pass most of the dc component while attenuating
(reducing) as much of the ac component as possible.
Rectifier output Figure (6-12) shows a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter
followed by an RC filter section.
section The operation of the filter circuit can be
analyzed using superposition for the do and ac components of signal.
66.19
19 Dc
D Operation
O
i off RC Filter
Fil Section:
S i
Figure (6-13) (a) shows the dc equivalent circuit to use in analyzing the RC
filter circuit of Fig. (6-13)(b) Since both capacitors are open-circuit for dc
operation, the resulting output dc voltage is
V dc,
RL
V dc
R RL
Example (6):
Calculate the dc voltage across a 1-k load for an RC filter section
(R = 120, C = 10 F). The do voltage across the initial filter capacitor is
Vdc = 60 V.
Solution:
Eq.(20) : Vdc,
RL
1000
Vdc
(60V ) 53.6V
R RL
120 1000
66.20
20 Ac Operation of RC Filter Section:
Figure (6-14)(b) shows the ac equivalent circuit of the RC filter section. Due
to the voltage-divider action of the capacitor ac impedance and the load
resistor, the ac component of voltage resulting across the load is
V , r (rms)
(22)
Xc
V r (rms)
R
1 .3
C
(23)
Example (7):
Calculate the dc and ac components of the output signal across load RL in the
i i off Fig.(6-14).
Fi (6 14) Calculate
C l l the
h ripple
i l off the
h output waveform.
f
circuit
Solution:
DC Calculation:
Eq.(20) : V dc,
RL
5k
150V 136.4V
V dc
R RL
500 5k
AC Calculation:
Th RC section
The
ti capacitive
iti impedance
i
d
is
i
Eq.( 22) : X c
1.3 1.3
0.13k 130
C 10
p
of the output
p voltage,
g , calculated usingg Eq.(10),is
q ( ),
The ac component
V r, (rms)
Xc
130
V r rms
(15V ) 3.9V
R
500
V r, rms
V
,
dc
100%
3.7V
100% 2.86%
136.4V
1.
2.
If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to
cause the series control element to decrease the amount of the output voltage thereby
voltage
maintaining the output voltage.
If the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to
cause the series control element to increase the amount of the output voltage.
66.23
23 Series Regulator Circuit:
1. A simple series regulator circuit is shown in Fig. (6-16). Transistor Q1 is the series
control element, and Zener diode DZ provides the reference voltage. The regulating
operation can be described as follows:
2
2.
If the output voltage decreases,
decreases the increased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q1
to conduct more, thereby raising the output voltage- -maintaining the output constant.
3. If the output voltage increases, the decreased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q1
to conduct less, thereby reducing the output voltage- maintaining the output constant.
Example (8):
Calculate the output voltage and Zener current in the regulator circuit of Fig.
(6 17) for
f RL = 1 k .
(6-17)
Solution:
IR
20V 12V
8V
36.4mA
220
220
For RL = 1 k
IL
Vo 11.3V
11.3mA
RL
Ik
IB
Ic
11.3mA
226 A
50
I z I R I a 36.4mA 226A
since VZ remains fixed). If Q2 conducts more current, less goes to the base of
transistor Qt, which then passes less current to the load, reducing the output
voltage thereby maintaining the output voltage constant. The opposite takes
place if the output. Voltage tries to decrease, causing less current to be
supplied to the load, to keep the voltage from decreasing.
The voltage V2 provided by sensing resistors R1 and R2 must equal the sum of
the base-emitter voltage of Q2 and the Zener diode, that is,
V BE 2 V z V2
R2
Vo
R1 R 2
(24)
R1 R2
V z VBE 2
R2
(25)
Example (9):
What regulated output voltage is provided by the circuit of Fig (6-18) for the
following circuit elements: R1 = 20 k , R2 = 30 k , and VZ = 8.3 V?
Solution:
From Eq. (24), the regulated output voltage will
Vo
20k 30k
8.3V 0.7V 15V
30k
6.25 Op
Op- Amp Series Regulator:
Another version of series regulator is that shown in Fig. (6-19). The op-amp
compares the Zener diode reference voltage with the feedback voltage from
sensing resistors Rl and R2. If the output voltage varies, the conduction of
t
transistor
i t Q1 is
i con trolled
t ll d to
t maintain
i t i the
th output
t t voltage
lt
constant.
t t The
Th output
t t
voltage will be maintained at a value of
R
Vo 1 1 V z
R2
Example (10):
Calculate the regulated output voltage in the circuit of Fig. (6-20)
Solution:
(26)
(27)
Example (11):
Determine the regulated voltage and circuit currents for the shunt regulator of
Fi (6-25).
(6 25)
Fig
Solution:
The load voltage is
IL
VL
8.9V
89mA
RL 100
Vi VL 22V 8.9V
109mA
Rs
120
(The current through the Zener and transistor base-emitter is smaller than Ic
beta )
by the transistor beta.)
6.30 Improved Shunt Regulator:
The circuit of Fig (6-26) shows an improved shunt voltage regulator circuit.
The Zener diode provides a reference voltage so that the voltage across R1
senses the output voltage. As the output voltage tries to change, the current
shunted by transistor Q1 is varied to maintain the output voltage constant.
Transistor Q2 provides a larger base current to transistor Q1 than the circuit of
Fig.(6-26), so that the regulator handles a larger load current. The output
voltage is set by the Zener voltage and that across the two transistor base-emitters,
Vo = VL = VZ + VBE2 + VBEI
(28)
The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND). While the input voltage
may vary over some permissible voltage range and the output load may vary
bl range, the
h output voltage
l
i constant within
i hi
over some acceptable
remains
specified voltage variation limits.
These limitations are spelled out in the manufacturer's specification sheets. A
table of ppositive voltage
g regulator
g
ICs is pprovided in Table ((6-2)) .
Table (6-2): Positive Voltage Regulators in 7800 Series
IC Part
7805
7806
7808
7810
7812
7815
7818
7824
Output Voltage(V)
+5
+6
+8
+10
+12
+15
+18
+24
Minimum Vi (V)
7.3
8.3
10.5
12.5
14.6
17 7
17.7
21.0
27.1
Nominal output
voltage
5V
6V
8V
10V
15V
18V
24V
Regulator
7805
7806
7808
7812
7815
7818
7824
Min.
11.5
55
Typ.
12
3
71
4
0.018
2.0
350
2.2
Max.
12.5
120
100
Units
V
MV
DB
mV
V
mA
A
A
Output voltage:
Table (6-3)
(6 3) shows the specification for the 7812 that the output voltage is
typically + 12 V but could be as low as 11.5 V or as high as 12.5 V.
Output regulation:
The output voltage regulation is seen to be typically 4 mV to a maximum of
100 mV (at output currents from 0.25 to 0.75 A). This information specifies
that the output voltage can typically vary only 4 mV from the rated 12 V dc.
Example
p ((12):
)
Draw a voltage supply using a full-wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and
IC regulator to provide an output of +5 V.
Solution
The resulting circuit is shown in Fig. (6-32).
Example (13)
For a transformer output of 15 V and a filter capacitor of 250 F, calculate the
i i
i
l
h connectedd to a load
l d drawing
d
i 400 mA.
A
minimum
input
voltage
when
Solution:
The voltages across the filter capacitor are
V r peak 3
2.4(400)
2.41I
3
6.65V
250
C
Since this voltage is greater than the minimum required for the IC regulator
(from Table (6-3), Vi = 7.3 V), the IC can provide a regulated voltage to the
given load.
Example (14):
Determine the maximum value of load current at which regulation is
maintained for the circuit of Fig. (6-32).
Solution:
To
T maintain
i t i Vi(min)
( i ) 7.3
7 3 V,
V
V r peak V m Vi min 15V 7.3V 7.7V
so that
V r (rms)
V r peak
7.7V
4.4V
Th value
l off load
l d current is
i then
h
The
I de
458mA
2.4
2.4
and
(29)
Iadj = 100 A
Example (15)
D t
Determine
i the
th regulated
l t d voltage
lt
i the
in
th circuit
i it off Fig.
Fi (6-33)
(6 33) with
ith R1 = 240
and R2=2.4k .
Solution:
Eq. (28):
2.4k
V o V o 1.25V 1
(100 A)(2.4k
240
Example (16):
Determine the regulated output voltage of the circuit in Fig. (6-34).
Figure (6-34)
(6 34) Positive Adjustable-Voltage
Adjustable Voltage Regulator for Example (16)
Solution:
The output voltage calculated using Eq. (28) is
1.8k
V o 1.25V 1
100 A1.8k 10.8V
240
Solution:
0.01
20
20 200 10 6 20 0.0022
100
EX2:
Solution:
0.02
2
2 500 10 6 2 0.0045
100
22. Source
So rce Effect:
Effect
Source effect is the change in output for change in line voltage (input)
a) Constant voltage source : 0.01 % + 200
b)) Constant current source : 0.02% + 500
3. Temperature Effect:
It is the change in the output voltage or current per degree centigrade (C)
following the warm-up period of 30 minutes.
a) Constant voltage source : 0.01 % + 200
b)Constant current source : 0.01% + 1
44. Drift Stability:
It is a change in the output under constant load over an 8 hours period following
the 30min warm-up period is:
a) For Constant voltage source: 0.03% + 500
b)For Constant current source: 0.03% + 3
5. The
Vout
Vin
((30))
The input and output impedances of an amplifier, Zin and Zout, are found by
measuring the ratio of the respective voltage and current:
Vin Vin / I in
Z out V out / I out
(31)
(32)
For the operational amplifiers
amplifiers, Zin is larger than 100 k and Zout is a few ohms
or less.
In amplification the work inside the linear region.
(33)
(34)
Fig (6-38)
Fig.
(6 38) 741 op amp pin
pin-out
out
We need only Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to completely analyze op amp
circuits. Actual op amps are usually packaged in eight-pin dual in-line
k
i
d circuit
i i (IC) chips.
hi
Th designation
d i
i for
f a generall
package
(DIP) integrated
The
purpose op amp produced by many IC manufacturers is 741. It is illustrated
in Figure (38) with its pin configuration (pin-out). As with all ICs, one end of
the chipp is marked with an indentation or spot,
p , and the ppins are numbered
counterclockwise and consecutively starting with 1 at the left side of the
marked end. For a 741 series op amp, pin 2 is the inverting input, pin 3 is the
non-inverting input, pins 4 and 7 are for the external power supply, and pin 6
is the op amp output.
o tp t Pins l,
l 5,
5 and 8 are not normally
normall connected.
connected Figure
Fig re (38)
illustrates the internal design of a 741 IC available from National
Semiconductor. Note that the circuits are composed of transistors, resistors,
and capacitors that are easily manufactured on a single silicon chip. The most
valuable details for the user are the input and output parts of the circuit
having characteristics that might affect externally connected components.
66.42
42 Inverting Amplifier:
An inverting amplifier is constructed by connecting two external resistors to
an op amp as shown in Figure (6-39). As the name implies, this circuit
inverts and amplifies the input voltage. Note that the resistor RF forms the
feedback loop. This feedback loop always goes to the inverting input of the
op amp, implying negative feedback.
We now use Kirchhoff s laws and Ohm's law to analyze this circuit. First, we
replace the op amp with its ideal model shown within the dashed box in
Fi
(6 40) Applying
A l i
Ki hh ff' current law
l
d C andd utilizing
ili i
Figure
(6-40).
Kirchhoff's
at node
assumption l, that no current can flow into the inputs of the op amp,
Iin = -iout
Fig
g (6-39)
(
) Inverting
g Amplifier
p
((35))
Also, since the two inputs are assumed to be shorted in the ideal model, C is
effec-tively at ground potential:
Vc = 0
(36)
(37)
(38)
S b tit ti Equation.34
Substituting
E ti 34 into
i t Equation.37
E ti 37 gives
i
Vout = iin RF
(39)
(40)
Vin
R
(41)
Vout Vin
RF
Fig (6
(6-42)
42) Noninverting Amplifier
Fig
g (6-43)
(
) Equivalent
q
Circuit for Noninverting
g Amplifier
p
(42)
(43)
((44))
(45)
1 F
Vin
Vin
iout R
R
(46)
6.44 Difference Amplifier (Dual inputs): The difference amplifier circuit shown in Figure (6-45) is used to subtract
l
i l In
I analyzing
l i
hi circuit,
i i we can use the
h principle
i i l off
analog
signals.
this
superposition, which states that, whenever multiple inputs are applied to a
linear system (e.g., an op amp circuit), we can analyze the circuit and
determine the response
p
for each of the individual inputs
p independently.
p
y
(47)
RF
V1
R1
RF
V2
R2 R F
((48))
(49)
V2
(50)
Fig (6-47)
(6 47) Difference Amplifier with V1 Shorted
The principle of superposition states that the total output Vout is the sum of the
outputs due to the individual inputs:
F
R
Vout Vout1 Vout 2 F V1 1 F
R1
R1
RF
R2 RF
V2
(51)
RF
V2 V1
R
(52)
6.45 Integrator:
The result is an integrator circuit. It is shown in Figure. 6-48 referring to the
l i for
f the
h inverting
i
i amplifier.
lifi The
Th relationship
l i hi between
b
l
analysis
voltage
andd
current for a capacitor:
dVout i out
dt
C
(53)
Integrating gives
Vout t
1
i out d
C o
(54)
1
Vin d
C o
(55)
Th f
Therefore,
th output
the
t t signal
i l is
i an inverted,
i
t d scaled
l d integral
i t
l off the
th input
i t signal.
i l
6.46 Differentiator:
If the input resistor of the inverting op amp circuit is replaced by a capacitor,
h result
l is
i a differentiator
diff
i
i i It
I is
i shown
h
i Figure.
Fi
(6 49) Referring
R f i to
the
circuit.
in
(6-49).
the analysis for the inverting amplifier, Equation. (34) is replaced by the
relationship between voltage and current for a capacitor:
dt
C
(56)
dVin
dt
(57)
6.47 Comparator:
The comparator circuit illustrated in Figure (6-50) is used to determine
another
whether one signal is greater than another.
Vout =
-Vsat
(58)
Where Vsat is the saturation voltage of the comparator and Vref is the reference
voltage to which the input voltage Vin being compared. The positive
voltage and the
saturation value is slightly less than the positive supply voltage,
negative saturation value is slightly greater than the negative supply voltage.
Some comparators (e.g., LN1339) have open-collector outputs, where the
output states are controlled by an output transistor operating at cutoff or
saturation This type of output,
saturation.
output illustrated in Figure (6-51),
(6 51) is called an open
collector output since the collector of the output transistor is not connected
internally and requires an external powered. circuit. The output transistor is
ON (at saturation) and the output is effectively grounded when Vin > Vref, and
the output transistor is OFF (at cutoff) and the output is open circuited when
Vin < Vref.
6.48 The Real op Amp:
An actual operational amplifier deviates somewhat in characteristics from an
ideal op amp. As the ideal operational amplifier model implies, real op amps
have very high input impedance, so very little current is drawn at the inputs.
At the same time, there is very little voltage difference between the input
terminals However,
terminals.
However the input impedance of a real op amp is not infinite,
infinite and
its magnitude is an important terminal characteristic of the op amp.
Another important terminal characteristic of any real op amp is the maximum
output voltage that can be obtained from the amplifier. Consider an op amp
circuit with a gain of 100 set by the external resistors in a non-inverting
non inverting
amplifier configuration.
For a 1V input
p yyou would expect
p
a 100 V output.
p In reality,
y, the maximum
voltage output will be about 1.4 V less than the supply voltage to the op amp
for large load impedance. So if a 15 V supply is being used, the maximum
voltage output would be approximately 13.6 V and the minimum would be 13 6 V.
13.6
V
Two other important characteristics of a real op amp are associated with its
response to a square wave input. When you apply a square wave input to an
amplifier circuit you ideally would expect a square wave output. However, as
illustrated in Figure. (6-52), the output cannot change infinitely fast; instead,
it exhibits a ramp from one level to the next. In order to quantify the op amp
step response, two parameters are defined:
Slow rate-The maximum time rate of change possible for the output voltage:
SR
V
t
(59)
Rise time-The time required for the output voltage to go from 10% to 90% of
its final value. This parameter is specified by manufacturers for specific load
parameters
and input parameters.
Frequency response. An ideal op amp exhibits infinite bandwidth. In practice,
however, real op amp has a finite bandwidth, which is a function of the gain
established by external components. To quantify this dependence of
bandwidth on the gain,
gain another definition is used: the gain bandwidth product
(GBP). The GBP of an op amp is the product of the open-loop gain and the
bandwidth at that gain. The GBP is constant over a wide range of frequencies
because, as shown in Figure (6-53), typical op amps exhibit a linear log
relationship between open-loop
open loop gain and frequency.
frequency Note how the op amp
amp'ss
gain decreases with input signal frequency. Higher-quality op amps have
larger GBPs. The open-loop gain is a characteristic of the op amp without
feedback. The closed-loop gain is the overall gain of an op amp circuit with
feedback.
feedback
The closed-loop gain is always limited by the open-loop gain of the op amp.
For example, a non-inverting amplifier with a closed-loop gain of 100 would
10 000 Hz as illustrated in Figure
have a bandwidth of 0 Hz to approximately 10,000
(6-53). The frequency where the-open-loop gain curve first starts to limit the
closed-loop gain is called the fall-off frequency. As you increase the gain of a
circuit, you limit its bandwidth. Likewise, if your application requires only a
small bandwidth (e.g.,
(e g in a low-frequency
low frequency application),
application) larger gains can be
used without signal attenuation or distortions
Zi
Z1 Z i
V2 C *V1
Zi
*G
Z1 Zi
V3 V2 *
Zi
Zo Zi
Zi
Zi
*
*G
Zi Z1 Zo Zi
V4 V3 * G
V5 V4 *
Zi
Zo Zi
V6 V5 * G
2
Z
Vi Zi * G
*
*G
Zi Z1Zi Zo Zo Z 2
Zi Zi Z 2
Vi
Vo G 3
*
*
Zi Zo Zi Z1 Z 2 Zo
2
(60)
Vo = G. Vi
(61)
2. Dual Inputs:
(Differential)
- Both inputs
p and output
p are referenced to the gground
Vo = G. (V1i V2i)
* It will amplify
p y the difference between two input
p signals.
g
V1 = V
V2 = v + v
V = Common mode voltage
v = Is the small change
g voltage
g difference to be amplified.
p
Vo = G(v1i - V2i)=
For more accurate results, we use
(62)
Vo Gd * v Gc * V
(63)
Where
Gd
= Gain for the difference voltage (Difference mode)
Gc
= Gain for the common voltage (common mode)
Cmrr
= Common mode rejection Ratio
CMRR
Gd
Gc
(64)
N i Vni
(65)
S / N o
Fn = 10 Log [NF]
NF = Noise factor = S / N i
S / N o
S / N
Gp *Vi 2
Vo 2
(
)
Vno
Gp *Vni 2 VnA 2
(66)
Where:
Gp = power gain of Amplifier
I
i l noise
i
Vni = Input
signal
VnA = noise of the amplifier
Vi 2
)
Vni
GpVi 2
GpVn 2 VnA 2
(
NF
S / N i
S / N o
Vi 2 (GpVn
G V i2 VnA
V A2 )
Vni 2 * GpVi 2
NF 1
(S / N ) i
Vn 2 A
2
Vni * C p ( S / N ) o
(67)