Euclid's Theorems

A theorem sometimes called "Euclid's first theorem" or Euclid's principle states that if is a
prime and
, then
or
(where means divides). A corollary is that
(Conway
and Guy 1996). The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is another corollary (Hardy and Wright
1979).
Euclid's second theorem states that the number of primes is infinite. This theorem, also called the
infinitude of primes theorem, was proved by Euclid in Proposition IX.20 of the Elements (Tietze
1965, pp. 7-9). Ribenboim (1989) gives nine (and a half) proofs of this theorem. Euclid's elegant
proof proceeds as follows. Given a finite sequence of consecutive primes 2, 3, 5, ..., , the
number
(1
)
known as the th Euclid number when
is the th prime, is either a new prime or the product
of primes. If is a prime, then it must be greater than the previous primes, since one plus the
product of primes must be greater than each prime composing the product. Now, if is a product
of primes, then at least one of the primes must be greater than . This can be shown as follows.
If is composite and has no prime factors greater than , then one of its factors (say ) must be
one of the primes in the sequence, 2, 3, 5, ..., . It therefore divides the product
.
However, since it is a factor of , it also divides . But a number which divides two numbers
and
also divides their difference
, so must also divide
(2
)
However, in order to divide 1, must be 1, which is contrary to the assumption that it is a prime
in the sequence 2, 3, 5, .... It therefore follows that if is composite, it has at least one factor
greater than . Since is either a prime greater than or contains a prime factor greater than , a
prime larger than the largest in the finite sequence can always be found, so there are an infinite
number of primes. Hardy (1992) remarks that this proof is "as fresh and significant as when it
was discovered" so that "two thousand years have not written a wrinkle" on it.
A similar argument shows that

and
(3
)

must be either prime or be divisible by a prime

. Kummer used a variation of this proof,
which is also a proof by contradiction. It assumes that there exist only a finite number of primes
, , ..., . Now define
and consider
. It must be a product of primes, so it

has a prime divisor in common with . Therefore,

have proved the initial assumption is wrong by contradiction.

which is nonsense, so we

It is also true that there are runs of composite numbers which are arbitrarily long. This can be
seen by defining
(4
)
where

is a factorial. Then the

consecutive numbers

, ...,

are composite, since

(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(1
0)

Guy (1981, 1988) points out that while

is not necessarily prime, letting be the next
prime after
, the number
is conjectured always to be a prime known as
a Fortunate prime, though this has not been proven.

Theorems One and Two, with important Definitions and

Postulates
Translated by Alex Pearson

Euclid's 23 Definitions for plane geometry: The definitions begin the Elements.
1. A point is that of which there is no part.
2. A line is a widthless length.
3. A line's ends are points.
4. A straight line is one which lies evenly with the points on itself.
5. A surface is that which has only length and width.

6. The ends of a surface are lines.

7. A plane surface is one which lies evenly with the lines on it.
10 When a straight line set up on a straight line makes the adjacent
. angles equal to one another, each of the equal angles is right, and the
straight line standing on the other is called perpendicular to that on
which it stands.

15 A circle is a plane figure contained by one line [which is called the

. circumference], and all the straight lines coming from one point of

those lying within the figure and falling [upon the circumference of the
circle] are equal to one another.

Note: An interpolation is suspected in the brackets. Manuscripts have the words,

but the other ancient sources, namely the commentators, do not. Nor does papyrus
Herculanensis No. 1061., the oldest source on The Elements. Heath notes (The
Thirteen Books 184), "The words were doubtless added in view of the occurrence
of the word "circumference" in Deff. 17, 18 immediately following, without any
explanation. But no explanation was needed ... Euclid was perfectly justified in
employing the word if Deff. 17, 18 and elsewhere, but leaving it undefined as
being a word universally understood and not involving in itself any mathematical
conception."
23 Parallel lines are whatever straight lines which, being in the same
. plane and being shot out to infinity in both directions, fall together
with one another in neither direction.

Euclid's 5 Postulates: These come right after his 23 definitions. The word for "postulate" means
"demand." In other words, these statements are true by insistence, not by proof.
1 Let it be demanded that from every point to every point a straight line
. be drawn,
2 and that a limited straight line extend continuously upon a straight line,
.
3 and that to every point and every distance a circle be drawn,

.
4 and that all right angles are equal to one another,
.
5 and that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior
. angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight

lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles
less than the two right angles.

Note on Postulate 5 from Dunham, 53-60: This postulate has caused controversy
since ancient days. Many mathematicians have tried to argue that this assertion can
be proved in a theorem instead of "demanded" as true in a postulate. In the 19th c.,
famous mathematicians developed an alternate geometry, called non-Euclidean
geometry, which rejected this postulate and then demonstrated the logical results.
Some mathematicians postulated that more than one line can be drawn parallel to a
line, some that no parallels can be drawn. The results were counterintuitive but no
less logically correct than Euclid's; however, they appear not to apply to our world.
The Hungarian mathematician Johann Bolyai (1802-1860) published a piece on
non-Euclidean geometry in 1832. He wrote of his discovery, "Out of nothing, I
have created a strange new universe." (Dunham 56) The same discovery was
published simultaneously but independently in Russia by Nikolai Lobachevski in
1829. When Bolyai realized that he was not the first to publish non-Euclidean
ideas, he wrote, "it seems to be true that many things have, as it were, an epoch in
which they are discovered in several places simlutaneously, just as the violets
appear on all sides in springtime." (Dunham 57) In 1868, an Italian mathematician,
Eugenio Beltrami, proved that non-Euclidean geometry was as valid as Euclidean.

Euclid's 5 Common Notions

1 Things equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
.
2 And if equal things should be added to equal things, the wholes are
. equal.
3 And if from equal things equal things should be taken away, the

. remaining things are equal.

4 and things fitted to one another are equal to one another.
.
5 And the whole is greater than the part.
.
Note on common notion 4: What Euclid apparently means by "fitting" one thing to
another is imaginarily picking up, for instance, a triangle and placing it down upon
a corresponding triangle to see if all the points correspond to one another. Many
mathematicians feel that this "fitting" belongs to the physical sciences and as such
is incompatible with the metaphysical, hypothetical science of geometry. Euclid
uses it in his fourth theorem.

The First Theorem (my translation)

upon a given, straight, bounded line to construct an equilateral triangle
Let there be the given, straight, bounded line, AB. It is necessary, then, upon the straight line,
AB, to construct an equilateral triangle. With center A, then, and with radius AB, let a circle be
drawn, the circle BCD. And again, with center B, then, and radius BA, let a circle be drawn, the
circle ACE. And from point C, through which the circles cut one another, to the points A, B let
there be joined straight lines, the lines CA, CB. And since the point A is the center of the circle
CDB, the line AC is equal to the line AB. Again, since the point B is the center of Circle CAE,
the line BC is equal to BA. It has been shown that CA is also equal to AB. For indeed, both of
the lines CA and CB are equal to the line AB. Things, then, that are equal to the same thing are
also equal to one another. And the line CA is surely equal to the line CB. The three lines, then,
CA, AB, BC are equal to one another. Equilateral, then, is the triangle ABC. And it has been
constructed upon the given, straight, bounded line, AB. [Upon the given, straight, bounded line,
then, an equilateral triangle has been constructed.] The very thing it was necessary to make.

Notes: The description of the circles depends upon postulate 3. The joining of the points into
lines depends on postulate 1. Definition 15 is the key to the theorem: that the radii of the circle
are all equal. Common Notion 1, transitive property of equality, is the coup de grace. One
objection to this theorem has been that it takes for granted that the circles do meet.

The Second Theorem (my translation)

upon a given point to place a straight line equal to a given straight line
Let there be the given point A, and then the given straight line BC. It is necessary, then, upon the
point A to place a straight line equal to the straight line BC.
Then let there be joined from the point A to the point B the straight line AB, and let there be
constructed upon it the equilateral triangle DAB, and at the straight lines DA and DB, let the
straight lines AE and BF be extended; and with the center B, and then with the distance BC, let
there be drawn the circle CGH, and again with the center D and the distance DG, let a circle be
drawn, GKL.
Since, therefore, the point B is the center of [the circle] CGH, BC is equal to BG. Again, since
the point D is the center of the circle GKL, the line DL is equal to the line DG, of which the line
DA is equal to the line DB. The remainder, then, the line AL is equal to the line BG. But it has
also been shown that the line BC is equal to the line BG. Each of the lines AL and BC, therefore,
is equal to the line BG. Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
The line AL, therefore, is equal to the line BC.
To the given point A, therefore, lies the line AL equal to the line BC: the very thing which was
necessary to make.

A note from Sir Thomas Heath: "We should insist here upon the restrictions imposed by the first
three postulates, which do not allow a circle to be drawn with a compass-carried distance;
suppose the compasses to close of themselves the moment they cease to touch the paper. These
two propositions (1.2, 1.3) extend the power of construction to what it would have been if all the
usual power of the compasses had been assumed; they are mysterious to all who do not see that
postulate iii does not ask for every use of the compasses." (The Thirteen Books of the Elements,
246, quoting De Morgan, 1849)
Think about this process as mentally discovering lines instead of mechanically drawing them.
The lines and figures are already there, they just need to be described. Without theorems 2 and 3,
we could not say, "draw line A equal to line B," nor "cut off segment B from A."
This theorem uses post. 1, of course, to draw lines between points; theorem 1 to make the
equilateral triangle; post. 2 to produce the lines from the segments; post. 3 to make the circles;
c.n. 3 to establish the equality of remainders; c.n. 1 transitive equality.

Einstein's Equivalence Principle

According to the "Relativity" of Galileo, there is no physical difference between "rest" and
constant velocity, although he and Newton assumed there was some frame of reference based on
an absolute velocity of "rest." Trying to physically identify such a frame of reference led to
difficulties [note]. In response, Albert Einstein denied that there is a frame of reference that is
absolutely at "rest," but he did propose another absolute velocity: not one of rest but one just the
opposite -- the velocity of light. This stood common sense on its head, but one reason for it was
perfectly conventional: The velocity of light was built into Maxwell's Equations, implying that it
was always the same, regardless of frame of reference. An absolute "rest" frame of reference
would relativize the velocity of light, contradicting Maxwell's Equations. Einstein simply chose
to accept this implication and followed the consequences. There is now a lore about this, with
Einstein considering throught experiments as he rode the trams back and forth to his job at the
Swiss Patent Office in Bern. If the tram were going the velocity of light, the time on the clock at
the end of the street would appear to have frozen, since the light carrying the subsequent states of
the clock would never catch up to the tram (which, hopefully, was not about run over anyone).
That gave the "Special Theory of Relativity" of 1905.

In the "General
Theory of
Relativity" of
1915, Einstein
examined the
implications of
equating inertial
mass with
gravitational mass.
Newton had
assumed these
were the same, but
he had not
considered that
they were exactly
the same, i.e. in
some sense
physically operated
the same way. The
lore about this now
is that Einstein saw some roofers at work in 1907. It occurred to him that if a roofer fell off the
roof, a not unusual event in the trade, he would experience weightlessness during the fall. Was
this weightlessness physically identity to that of free fall in space?
Inertial mass resists changes in velocity. A frame of reference moving, or "resting," at a constant
velocity is thus called an "inertial frame of reference." Gravitational mass exerts and responds to
gravitational accelerations. Newton assumed these two kinds of mass were the same thing.
Einstein made this a postulate of General Relativity, the Equivalence Principle. According to this
principle, since cases 1) and 2) below are experienced in the same way, without weight, they are
the same. Similarly with cases 3) and 4), with weight. It is cases 1) and 4), however, and 2) and
3), that seem to match up on the criterion of the absence, or presence, of motion, respectively.
The identities of the Equivalence Principle will hold if it is space itself, in a gravitational field,
that is doing the accelerating in 2) and 4), carrying the inertial frames of reference, insensibly,
along with it. Weight is produced by the application of an inertial force: by a rocket engine in 3)
but by the surface of the earth in case 4). In relation to space itself, the surface of the earth is
accelerating and pushing on us in 4). The acceleration of space itself is the "curvature" of
spacetime.
1) floating in free fall in
the absence of a
gravitational field, as in
deep space.
a) no weight.
b) no gravity
c) no change in

2) floating in free
fall in the field of a
large gravitating
body, such as the
earth.
a) no weight.
b) gravity

velocity.

c) change in velocity.

3) accelerating through the application of a force

in the absence of a gravitational field, as in deep
space.

4) standing on the surface of a large

gravitating body, such as the earth.

a) weight.
b) no gravity
c) change in velocity.

a) weight.
b) gravity
c) no change in velocity.

Curiously, these cases to not cover the experience of weight during rotation. Both physically and
metaphysically this is a signficant feature of the business. This is part of the more general
question of angular momentum in physics.

What is Democracy?
You and a few of your friends have decided to start a fan club for your favorite band. You want
to develop some kind of government to keep the club organized and running smoothly. You all
agree that everyone should have a share in managing the club, making decisions, and regulating
finances so you decide to form your club as a democracy.
What is a democracy? At the most basic level, it is a type of government or political system
ruled by citizens, people who are members of a society. In a democracy, citizens hold some level
of power and authority, and they participate actively in the political, or decision-making, process
of their government.

Direct Democracy
At first, your club is quite small, only about a dozen people. You can easily meet together to
discuss club issues, create rules, or by-laws, for your organization, and vote on various proposals
about how to spend money or which activities to enjoy together. Everyone has an equal chance to
propose topics for discussion, and everyone can voice an opinion.
Everyone also can vote yes or no on each proposal. The majority of votes wins, and those in the
minority ought to accept the decision of the majority in good grace, even if they don't
particularly like it. This is direct democracy in action - every member of the society participates
directly in the political process.

Let's see what direct democracy looks like on a daily basis. At a club meeting with all the
members present, one member of your club suggests the possibility of hiring a van to travel as a
group to a concert in a city about 60 miles away. A lively discussion follows, and nearly
everyone speaks up to voice an opinion. Some are positive about the idea, remarking that the
club members would enjoy being together and would not have to worry about transportation.
Others are less enthusiastic and argue that hiring a van is just too great an expense for your little
club. You decide to take a vote, and the majority decides to hire the van and require each member
who wants to use it to pay an extra $10 toward the cost. Those who voted no shrug, smile, and
put up their money just like everyone else. They want to enjoy the concert, too.

Representative Democracy
What happens if your club grows? You've advertised, promoted your club through social media,
and sent messages to all your friends to get them to join, and it worked! Pretty soon your club
has over 100 members, too many to meet together at one time or to give everyone a chance to
contribute to a discussion.
You decide that it's time to create a core group of people who can manage the club on behalf of
all the members, who will still have a say in club business and activities, but now more indirectly
by voting for club officers (president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer) and a five-member
\

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Argon

18

Current symbol is Ar.

[nb 7]

Ab

Alabamine

85

Discredited claim to discovery of

astatine.

[nb 8]

Ad

Aldebaraniu
70
m

Former name of ytterbium.

[nb 8]

Am

Alabamium 85

Discredited claim to discovery of

astatine. The symbol is now used for
americium

[nb 8]

An

Athenium

99

Proposed name for einsteinium.

[nb 9]

Ao

Ausonium

93

Discredited claim to discovery of

neptunium.

[nb 8]

Az

Azote

Former name for nitrogen.

[nb 7]

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Bo

Boron

Current symbol is B.

[nb 7]

Bv

Brevium

91

Former name for protactinium.

[nb 7]

Bz

Berzelium

59

Suggested name for praseodymium.

[nb 9]

Cb

Columbium 41

Former name of niobium.

[nb 7]

Cb

Columbium 95

Suggested name for americium.

[nb 9]

Ch

Chromium

Current symbol is Cr.

[nb 7]

Cl

Columbium 41

Former name of niobium. The symbol is

now used for chlorine.

[nb 7]

Cp

Cassiopeiu
71
m

Former name for lutetium.

[nb 7]

Cp

Coperniciu
m

112

Current symbol is Cn.

[nb 7]

Ct

Centurium

100

Proposed name for fermium.

[nb 9]

Ct

Celtium

72

Former name of hafnium.

[nb 7]

Da

Danubium

43

Suggested name for technetium.

[nb 9]

104

Proposed name for rutherfordium. The

symbol and name were used for
element 105.

Db

Dubnium

24

[nb 7][nb
9]

Di

Didymium

Mixture of the elements praseodymium

and neodymium. Mosander wrongly
believed didymium to be an element

Einsteinium 99

Current symbol is Es.

[nb 7]

Ea

Ekaaluminiu 31
m

Name given by Mendeleev to an as of

then undiscovered element. When
discovered, gallium closely matched the

[nb 9][nb

[2]

10]

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

prediction.

Eb

El

Em

Em

Es

Ekaboron

21

Name given by Mendeleev to an as of

then undiscovered element. When
discovered, scandium closely matched
the prediction.

[nb 9][nb
10]

Ekaaluminiu
31
m

Name given by Mendeleev to an as of

then undiscovered element. When
discovered, gallium closely matched the
prediction.

Emanation 86

Also called "radium emanation", the

name was originally given by Friedrich
Ernst Dorn in 1900. In 1923, this
element officially became radon (the
name given at one time to 222Rn, an
isotope identified in the decay chain of
radium).

Ekamangan
43
ese

Name given by Mendeleev to an as of

then undiscovered element. When
discovered, technetium closely matched
the prediction.

Ekasilicon

32

Name given by Mendeleev to an as of

then undiscovered element. When
[nb 9][nb
discovered, germanium closely matched 10]
the prediction. The symbol is now used
for einsteinium.
[nb 8]

[nb 9][nb
10]

[nb 7]

[nb 9][nb
10]

Es

Esperium

94

Discredited claim to discovery of

plutonium. The symbol is now used for
einsteinium.

Fa

Francium

87

Current symbol is Fr.

[nb 7]

Fl

Fluorine

Current symbol is F. The symbol is now

used for flerovium.

[nb 7]

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Florentium 61

Discredited claim to discovery of

promethium. The symbol is now used
for flerovium.

[nb 8]

Fr

Florentium 61

Discredited claim to discovery of

promethium. The symbol is now used
for francium.

[nb 8]

Glucinium

Former name of beryllium.

[nb 7]

Gl

Glucinium

Former name of beryllium.

[nb 7]

Ha

Hahnium

105

Proposed name for dubnium.

[nb 9]

Hn

Hahnium

108

Proposed name for hassium.

[nb 9]

Hy

Mercury

80

Current symbol is Hg.

[nb 7]

Iridium

77

Current symbol is Ir. The symbol is now

used for iodine.

[nb 7]

Il

Illinium

61

Discredited claim to discovery of

promethium.

[nb 8]

Jodium

53

Former name of iodine.

[nb 7]

Jg

Jargonium

72

Discredited claim to discovery of

hafnium.

[nb 8]

Jl

Joliotium

105

Proposed name for dubnium.

[nb 9]

Ku

Kurchatoviu
104
m

Proposed name for rutherfordium.

[nb 9]

Lw

Lawrencium 103

Current symbol is Lr.

[nb 7]

Muriaticum 17

Former name of chlorine.

[nb 7]

Ma

Manganese 25

Current symbol is Mn.

[nb 7]

Ma

Masurium

Disputed claim to discovery of

technetium.

[nb 8]

Fl

43

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Md

Mendeleviu
97
m

Proposed name for berkelium. The

symbol and name were later used for
element 101.

Me

Mendeleviu
68
m

Suggested name for erbium.

[nb 7]

Ml

Moldavium 87

Suggested name for francium.

[nb 9]

Ms

Magnesium 12

Current symbol is Mg.

[nb 7]

Ms

Masrium

49

Discredited claim of discovery of indium. [nb 8]

Mt

Meitnium

91

Suggested name for protactinium. The

symbol is now used for meitnerium.

[nb 9]

Mv

Mendeleviu
101
m

Current symbol is Md.

[nb 7]

Ng

Norwegium 72

Discredited claim to discovery of

hafnium.

[nb 8]

No

Norium

Discredited claim to discovery of

hafnium. The symbol is now used for
nobelium.

[nb 8]

Ns

Nielsbohriu
105
m

Proposed name for dubnium.

[nb 9]

Ns

Nielsbohriu
107
m

Proposed name for bohrium.

[nb 9]

Nt

Niton

Former name for radon.

[nb 7]

Ny

Neoytterbiu
70
m

Former name of ytterbium.

[nb 7]

Od

Odinium

62

Suggested name for samarium.

[nb 9]

Lead

82

Current symbol is Pb. The symbol is

now used for phosphorus.

[nb 7]

72

86

[nb 7][nb
9]

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Pa

Palladium

46

Current symbol is Pd. The symbol is

now used for protactinium.

[nb 7]

Pe

Pelopium

41

Former name for niobium.

[nb 7]

Pl

Palladium

46

Current symbol is Pd.

[nb 7]

Po

Potassium

19

Current symbol is K. The letters were

later used for polonium.

[nb 7]

Rhodium

45

Current symbol is Rh.

[nb 7]

Rf

Rutherfordi
106
um

Proposed name for seaborgium. The

symbol and name were instead used for
element 104.

Ro

Rhodium

45

Current symbol is Rh.

[nb 7]

Sa

Samarium

62

Current symbol is Sm.

[nb 7]

So

Sodium

11

Current symbol is Na.

[nb 7]

Sp

Spectrium

70

Suggested name for ytterbium.

[nb 9]

St

Tin

50

Current symbol is Sn.

[nb 7]

St

Antimony

51

Current symbol is Sb.

[nb 7]

Tn

Tungsten

74

Current symbol is W.

[nb 7]

Tu

Thulium

69

Current symbol is Tm.

[nb 7]

Tu

Tungsten

74

Current symbol is W.

[nb 7]

Ty

Tyrium

60

Suggested name for neodymium.

[nb 9]

Unb

Unnilbium

102

Temporary name given to nobelium until [nb 10]

it was permanently named by IUPAC.

Une

Unnilenniu
m

109

Temporary name given to meitnerium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 7][nb
9]

[nb 10]

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Temporary name given to seaborgium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Unh

Unnilhexiu
m

Uno

Unniloctium 108

Temporary name given to hassium until

it was permanently named by IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Unp

Unnilpentiu
105
m

Temporary name given to dubnium until

it was permanently named by IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Unq

Unnilquadiu
104
m

Temporary name given to rutherfordium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Uns

Unnilseptiu
107
m

Temporary name given to bohrium until

it was permanently named by IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Unniltrium

Temporary name given to lawrencium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Unnilunium 101

Temporary name given to mendelevium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Uub

Ununbium

112

Temporary name given to copernicium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Uuh

Ununhexiu
116
m

Temporary name given to livermorium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Uun

Ununnilium 110

Temporary name given to darmstadtium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

[nb 10]

Uuq

Ununquadiu
114
m

Temporary name given to flerovium until [nb 10]

it was permanently named by IUPAC.

Unt

Unu

106

103

Chemica
l symbol

Name

Atomic
numbe
r

Origin of symbol

Why
not
used

Uuu

Unununium 111

Temporary name given to roentgenium

until it was permanently named by
IUPAC.

Ur

Uranium

92

Current symbol is U.

[nb 7]

Vi

Virginium

87

Discredited claim to discovery of

francium.

[nb 8]

Vm

Virginium

87

Discredited claim to discovery of

francium.

[nb 8]

Yt

Yttrium

39

Current symbol is Y.

[nb 7]

[nb 10]