Organization Definition:Organisations are groups of people who work

interdependently toward some purpose .

Organisational Behaviour definition:Organisational Behaviour refers
to the behaviour of individuals and groups within organisations and
the interaction between organisational members and their external
environments. SECOND DEFINITION: A field of study that investigates the
impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within
organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving
an organizations effectiveness
Importance of OB :*1. Provides road-map in the organisations ;*2.
Helps influence Organisational events ; *3. Helps individual in
understanding himself /herself and others better ; *4. Useful in
maintaining cordial industrial relations ;
?Scope of OB :*Individual Behaviour * Group Behaviour *Organisation
Psychology The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes
change the behavior of humans and other animals. PAPPALI BOX MEIN
Psychology AND BAJU MEIN VERY BIG BOX learning, motivation, personality,
emotions, perception, training, leadership effectiveness, job satisfaction,
individual decision making, performance appraisal, attitude measurement,
employee selection, work design, work stress AND BAJU MEIN BOX
individual.
Sociology The study of people in relation to their fellow human beings.
PAPPALI BOX MEIN sociology BAJU MEIN BIG BOX group dynamics, work
teams, communication, power, conflict, intergroup behavior. USKE NICHE
BIG BOX formal organization theory, organizational technology, organization
change, organizational culture. OOPAR WALE BOX KE BAJU MEIN BOX
organization system. NICHE WALE BOX KE BAJU MEIN BOX organization
system.
Social Psychology An area within psychology that blends concepts from
psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on
one another. PAPPALI BOX MEIN social psychology BAJU MEIN BADA BOX
behavioural change, attitude change, communication, group processes,
group decision making BAJU MEIN BOX group.
Anthropology The study of societies to learn about human beings and
their activities. PAPPALI BOX MEIN anthropology BAJU MEIN BADA BOX
comparative values, comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis BAJU
MIEN BOX GROUP. BADA BOX KE NICHE organizational culture, organizational
environment BAJUE MIEN BOX organization system.

Political Science The study of the behavior of individuals and groups

within a political environment.
BOX MEIN political science BAJU MEIN BADA BOX conflict, intra
organizational politics, power BAJU MIEN BOX organization system.
The Dependent Variables
Productivity*A performance measure that includes effectiveness and
efficiency.
Effectiveness*Achievement of goals.
Efficiency*The ratio of effective output to the input required to achieve it.
Absenteeism*The failure to report to work.
Turnover*The voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization.
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)*Discretionary behavior that
is not part of an employees formal job requirements, but that nevertheless
promotes the effective functioning of the organization.
Job satisfaction*A general attitude toward ones job, the difference
between the amount of reward workers receive and the amount they
believe they should receive.
Challenges and Opportunity for OB*Improving People Skills
*Empowering People *Stimulating *Innovation and Change *Coping with
Temporariness *Working in Networked Organizations *Helping Employees
Balance Work/Life Conflicts *Improving Ethical Behavior
Personality * Personality refers to the internal and external traits of
an individual which are relatively stable and which make the
individual different from others.
Personality Traits* Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals
behavior.
Personality Determinants : *Heredity ; *Environment ; *Situation ;
*Social ; *Family.
Personality theories: Humanistic: mans potential for self directiona dn
freedom of choice. *Trait: attribute of a person that appears consistently in a
variety of situation. *Type: people are grouped into identifiable categories
ex. Structure, psychological factor *pscychoanalytic: ego and superego
*social learning: social learning: learning through reinforcement, direct
experience, by observing others.
Personality Traits : *1.The Big Five Model of Personality
Dimensions: *

a. Extroversion : *Reflects a persons comfort level with relationships.

*Extroverts :sociable , talkative , open to establish new relationships.
*Introverts :less sociable, less talkative, reluctant for new relationships.
b. Agreeableness :*Refers to a persons ability to get along with
others.*Highly agreeableness :Value harmony , cooperative , trusting.*Low
agreeableness : focus more on their own needs than others.
c. Conscientiousness: *Refers to the number of goals that a person
focuses on. *Highly conscientious : focus on few goals at time ,Organized
,responsible, dependable. *Low conscientious :focus on many goals at time,
careless ,irresponsible.
d. Emotional Stability : *individuals ability to cope with the stress;
*Positive emotional stability : calm, enthusiastic and secure. *Low emotional
stability : nervous , depressed and insecure.
e.Openness : *Addresses ones range of interests. *Extremely open
people: listen to new ideas, changes, innovative . *Less open people :less
receptive to new ideas and willingness to change their minds.
Myers- Briggs Type Indicator *Developed by Katherine Briggs and
Isabel Briggs-Myers ; *A personality test mainly used for hiring that
measures the following traits;*1.PAPPALI BOX MEIN extroversion BOX MEIN
how people prefer to focus their attention BOX MEIN introversion. TWO AND
FRO ARROW. *2.PAPPALI BOX MEIN sensing BOX MEIN collection of
information BOX MEIN intuition TWO AND FRO ARROW. *3.PAPPALI BOX MEIN
thinking BOX MEIN process and evaluate information BOX MEIN feeling TWO
AND FRO ARROW. *4.PAPPALI BOX MEIN judging BOX MEIN orient themselves
to the other world BOX MEIN percieving TWO AND FRO ARROW.
Major Personality Traits that affect OB*
1. Core Self-evaluation *Self-esteem :Individuals degree of liking or
disliking themselves *Locus of Control:The degree to which people believe
they are masters of their own fate.* a.Internals (Internal locus of control)
*Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. *
b.Externals (External locus of control) *Individuals who believe that what
happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
2.Machiavellianism *Individuals propensity to manipulate people. *Prone
to participate in organisational politics ; *Adept to play interpersonal game
playing , power tactics ,identifying influence systems in the organisation.

Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures *Power Distance *The

extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and
organizations is distributed unequally. *Low distance: relatively equal power
between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth *High
distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with
status/wealth and those without status/wealth
Individualism The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals
rather than a member of groups. *
Collectivism A tight social
framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part
to look after them and protect them. Masculinity The extent to which the
society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where
assertiveness and materialism are also valued. Femininity The extent to
which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.
Uncertainty Avoidance The extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. High
Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not like ambiguous situations &
tries to avoid them. Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind
ambiguous situations & embraces them. *Long-term Orientation A
national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
* Short-term Orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
present and the here and now.
Attitudes By attitudes we mean the beliefs, feelings , and action
tendencies of an individual or group of individuals towards objects ,
ideas and people . Quite often persons and objects or ideas become
associated in the minds of individuals and as a result of attitudes
become multidimensional and complex
Formation of attitudes PAPPALI CIRCLE MEIN ATTITDES LIKH AND ALL
AROUND BOXES. 1. Operant conditioning 2. Family and peer groups 3.
Neighbourhood 4. Economic status 5. Mass communication 6. Experience
with the object 7. Classical conditioning 8. Vicarious learning.
Functions of Attitudes : *Adjustment :- Help people to adjust to their
work environment;* 2. Knowledge :*Maintain a stable , organised and
meaningful structure of their world to prevent chaos; *3. Ego
defensive : *People form and maintain certain attitudes to protect their
own self-images; *4Value expression : *- Expresses individuals central
values and self-identity.
Types of Attitudes *Job Satisfaction *A collection of positive and/or
negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job. Job

Involvement *Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and

considering performance important to self-worth. Organizational
Commitment *Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and
wishing to maintain membership in the organization (Affective, Normative,
and Continuance Commitment) Perceived Organizational Support
(POS) *Degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their
well-being. Employee Engagement*An individuals involvement with,
satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the organization.
Benefits of Positive Attitudes: *Increases productivity ; *Fosters
teamwork ; *Solves problems ; *Improves quality ; *Increases Loyalty ;
*Increases profits ; *Fosters better relationships with employees ,
employers and customers ; *Reduces stress ; *Makes for a pleasing
personality .
Relation between Attitude , Values and Behaviour PAPPALI 7 BOXES
BANA. 1. Beliefs about behavior 2. Attitude towards the behavior 3.
Perceived situational constraints 4. Beliefs about group and societal norms
4. Perception of norms 5. Intentions 6. Behavior. BABOR to ATTB to I to B
arrow. BAGASN to PON to I arrow.
Importance of Motivation *Motivated employee has better
performance ; is more quality oriented ; *Helps in attracting and
retaining people who are considered important resources these days ;
*Important for better utilisation of current as well as probable future
technology ;
Process of Motivation in the Organisation *Identify needs
*Searches for ways to satisfy needs *Engages in goal directed behavior
*Performs *Receives either rewards or punishment *Reassess needs
defincincies.
Early theories *1. Scientific Management : *Work should be assigned
scientifically ; *Differential piece should be paid to workers; *Limitations:
*Taylor dehumanised employees by treating them merely factors of
production ;
2. Human Relations Model : * money is not primary motivation
;people can be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and by
making them feel useful and important; *Limitations : *-undue reliance
on social contacts at work situation ;
Content theories:
1. Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory : *1940s , psychologist Abraham
Maslow ; *Needs are arranged in a hierarchy , whereby people are

motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified;

Limitations : Researches proved that people do not progress through
the hierarchy ; Contributions : *More holistic , humanistic and positive
approach to the study of human motivation ; *Positive perspective by
focusing on need gratification than need-deprivation ;
2. Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory : *Frederick Herzberg
(1957) conducted study on accounts and engineers to determine the
factors in an employees work environment which caused satisfaction
or dissatisfaction ; Limitations : *Over generalisation of facts and it is
methodologically bound ; *Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two
distinct feelings and relative influence of two factors vary according to
occupational levels ; *Contributions : *- Focused on need for
increased understanding of role of motivation in organisation ;
*Recommends specific action for managers to improve motivational
levels;
3. ERG Theory :*Clay Alderfer ; *Study : Questionnaires given to 100
employees at different levels in a bank; *1. Existence : basic
physiological needs (hunger and thirst) protection from physical danger
;*2. Relatedness : social and affiliation needs ; respect and regard for
others;
*3.Growth : need to develop and realise ones potential ;
Advantages : *More consistent with knowledge of individual
differences ; *Less restrictive and limiting than earlier theories ;
Disadvantages : Does not offer clear cut guidelines ;
Achievement Motivation Theory : *David C. McClelland ; *Following
three needs motivate behaviour , but degree of need varies from
individual to individual ; *1. Need for Achievement (nAch) : *Employees
with a high need for achievement derive satisfaction from achieving
goals; *2. Need for Power (nPow) : * Employees with a high need for
power derive satisfaction from ability to control others; * 3. Need for
Affiliation (nAff) : * Employees with a high need for affiliation derive
satisfaction from social and interpersonal activities ; *Advantages :
*Highlights importance of matching the individual and job need ;
*Managers to certain extent can raise the achievement need level by
creating proper environment; *Disadvantages: *According to
psychologists whether the motives can be taught to adults;
*Methodology used was Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) , wherein the
interpretation of responses may suffer researchers biases.

Group Decision-Making Techniques *1. Interacting GroupsTypical

groups, in which the members interact with each other face-to-face. *2.
Nominal Group Technique A group decision-making method in which
individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments in a
systematic but independent fashion. *3. Brainstorming An idea-generation
process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives, while
withholding any criticism of those alternatives. *4. Electronic Meeting A
meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for anonymity of
comments and aggregation of votes.
Team Versus Group Difference*Work Group A group that interacts
primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group
member perform within his or her area of responsibility. * Work Team A
group whose individual efforts result in a performance that is greater than
the sum of the individual inputs.
Importance of Teams :*Teams typically outperform individuals. *Teams
use employee talents better. *Teams are more flexible and responsive to
changes in the environment. *Teams facilitate employee involvement.
*Teams are an effective way to democratize and organization and increase
motivation.
Types of Teams
1.Problem-Solving Teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few
hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the
work environment.
2.Self-Managed Work Teams
Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the responsibilities of their former
supervisors.
3.Cross-Functional Teams
Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work
areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
4.Virtual Teams
Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal.
Team Characteristics *The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues *A
limited social context *The ability to overcome time and space constraints

Conflict : the struggle between incompatible or opposing needs ,

wishes , ideas, interests , or people. Conflict arises when individuals or
groups encounter goals that both parties cannot obtain satisfactorily.
Levels of Conflict :*Intra-individual Conflict goal and role conflict
,frustration; *Inter-individual Conflict- TA , Johari Window etc. ; *Intra-group
Conflict disputes between family members ; *Inter-group Conflict
limited resources, goal incompatibility.
Inter-Personal Conflict *1. Transaction Analysis *The study of moves
people make in their dealings with each other and is based on the
idea that peoples interactions resemble moves in games. *Introduced
by Eric Berne ; popularised by Thomas Harris in 1960s. *Assumes that
a person has three ego states : *The Parent Ego state : the part of a
persons personality that is authoritative , overprotective , controlling ,
nurturing , critical and righteous ; *The Adult Ego State : represents the
mature , rational and objective part of a persons personality ; *The
Child Ego State : represents the childish , dependent and immature part
of a persons personality ;
2. Johari Window :* - Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham ; *Useful in analysing the causes for inter-personal conflict ;
*The model is based on two assumptions : *
a. degree to which the
person knows about himself or herself ; * b. degree to which the
person is known to others ;
3. Life Positions : PAPPALI FOUR BOXES positive negative I am ok you are
ok.
Conflict Resolution : *1. Intra-personal Conflict : *Minimise and
prioritise roles ; *Develop compatibility between personal and
organisational goals; *2. Interpersonal Conflict : *Altering behavioural
inputs ; *Win-win situation ; *3. Intragroup Conflict : *Realising the
strength of unity ; *4. Intergroup Conflict : *Organsiation redesign ;
*Expansion of resources ; *Avoidance.
Organisation Structure : Is the formal system of task and authority
relationships that how people coordinate their actions and use
resources to achieve organisations goal ;
Organisation Design : The process by which managers select and
manage elements of structure so that an organisation can control the
activities necessary to achieve its goals. Key Factors in Organisation
Design : Environment, business strategy, technology, internal contingency,
factors

Importance of Organisation Design *Dealing with contingencies;

*Gaining competitive advantage; *Managing diversity ; *Efficiency and
Innovation ; *Organization Designs
Simple Structure* A structure characterized by a low degree of
departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single
person, and little formalization.
Bureaucracy* A structure of highly operating routine tasks achieved
through specialization, very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are
grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow spans of
control, and decision making that follows the chain of command.
Matrix Structure *A structure that creates dual lines of authority and
combines functional and product departmentalization. *Key Elements:
*+Gains the advantages of functional and product departmentalization
while avoiding their weaknesses. *+Facilitates coordination of complex and
interdependent activities. *-Breaks down unity-of-command concept.
Team Structure The use of teams as the central device to coordinate work
activities. Characteristics: *Breaks down departmental barriers.
*Decentralizes decision making to the team level. *Requires employees to
be generalists as well as specialists. *Creates a flexible bureaucracy.
Virtual Organization *A small, core organization that outsources its major
business functions. *Highly centralized with little or no departmentalization.
*Advantage: Provides maximum flexibility while concentrating on what the
organization does best. *Disadvantage: Reduced control over key parts of
the business.
Boundaryless Organization An organization that seeks to eliminate the
chain of command, have limitless spans of control, and replace departments
with empowered teams.
Mechanistic Model *A structure characterized by extensive
departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network, and
centralization.
Organic Model *A structure that is flat, uses cross-hierarchical and crossfunctional teams, has low formalization, possesses a comprehensive
information network, and relies on participative decision making.
Innovation Strategy*A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major
new products and services.
Cost-minimization Strategy *A strategy that emphasizes tight cost
controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and
price cutting.

Imitation Strategy *A strategy that seeks to move into new products or

new markets only after their viability has already been proven.
3. Narcissism : *Has grandiose sense of self-importance *Requires
excessive admiration *Has a sense of entitlement *Is arrogant *Tends to be
rated as less effective
4.Self-Monitoring * A personality trait that measures an individuals
ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. *High
Self-Monitors *Receive better performance ratings *Likely to emerge as
leaders *Show less commitment to their organizations *
5.Proactive Personality *Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes
action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. *Creates positive
change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or
obstacles.
6.Risk-Taking *High Risk-taking Managers*Make quicker decisions*Use less
information to make decisions*Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations **Low Risk-taking Managers *Are slower to make decisions
*Require more information before making decisions *Exist in larger
organizations with stable environments **Risk Propensity *Aligning
managers risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to
organizations.
7.Personality Types: *Type As *are always moving, walking, and eating
rapidly; *feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
*strive to think or do two or more things at once; *cannot cope with leisure
time; *are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
many or how much of everything they acquire. *Type Bs *never suffer
from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience; *feel no
need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments;
*play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any
cost; *can relax without guilt.
Measuring Personality *Important to : *- Make hiring decisions; *Understand people , so as to manage them better ; *Methods : *1. Selfreport Survey : * - Most common way , in which the individuals assess
themselves. *2. Observer-rating survey : *-an independent assessment done
by a third person . *3. Rorschach Inkblot Test : *-the individual is supposed
to state what inkblots seem to resemble; *4. Thematic Apperception Test :
*- Individual is required to write stories on a series pictures (drawing
/photos) cards.

Perception A process by which individuals organize and interpret their

sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives
information about the environment-seeing, hearing , feeling, tasting and
smelling.
Factors that influence Perception PAPPALI 7 LINES CHOD KE BEECH
MEIN BOX BANA KE LIKH perception. USKE OOPAR BADA BOX MEIN LIKH
factors in the perceiver: *attitudes *motives *interests *experience
*expectations. NICHE BAJU MEIN BADA BOX factors in the situtatoin: time,
work setting, social setting. EK DUM NICHE BADA BOX MEIN factors in the
target* novelty *motion *sounds *size *background *proximity *similarity
Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others
Attribution Theory *When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to
determine whether it is internally or externally caused. Distinctiveness:
shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: response is
the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same
way over time. PAPPALI DIAGRAM YAAD RAKH individual behavior se DCC se
external and internal.
Errors and Biases in Attributions *1. Fundamental Attribution Error
*The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments
about the behavior of others. *2.Self-Serving Bias *The tendency for
individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting
the blame for failures on external factors.
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
1.Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
2. Halo Effect Drawing a general impression about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic.
3. Contrast Effects Evaluation of a persons characteristics that are
affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank
higher or lower on the same characteristics.
4. Projection Attributing ones own characteristics to other people.
5. Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
Specific Applications in Organizations *Employment Interview
*Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers judgments
of applicants. **Performance Expectations *Self-fulfilling prophecy

(Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects

preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities. **Ethnic
Profiling *A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled
outtypically on the basis of race or ethnicityfor intensive inquiry,
scrutinizing, or investigation. **Performance Evaluations *Appraisals are
often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another
employees job performance.
Rational Decision-Making Model Describes how individuals should
behave in order to maximize some outcome. **Model Assumptions *Problem clarity *- Known options *- Clear preferences *- Constant
preferences *- No time or cost constraints *- Maximum payoff
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model *Define the problem.
*Identify the decision criteria. *Allocate weights to the criteria. *Develop the
alternatives. *Evaluate the alternatives. *Select the best alternative.
The 3 components of creativity model expertise, creativity skills, task
motivation PAPPALI CIRCLE JOIN KARR TEENO.
VALUES a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end-state of existence.
Value System: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individuals values in
terms of their intensity.
Importance of Values *Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures. *Influence our
perception of the world around us. *Represent interpretations of right and
wrong. *Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others.
Types of Values - Rokeach Value Survey *Terminal Values *
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to
achieve during his or her lifetime. * Ex: Comfortable life (prosperous life);
Instrumental Values *Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
ones terminal values. *Ex:Ambitious (hard-working , aspiring)
Five Value Dimensions of National Culture *Power Distance
*Individualism vs. Collectivism *Masculinity vs. Femininity *Uncertainty
Avoidance *Long-term and Short-term orientation
Innovation: a new idea applied to initiating or improving a product,
process, or service*Sources of Innovation:*Structural variables: organic
structures *Long-tenured management *Slack resources *Interunit
communication *Idea Champions: Individuals who actively promote the
innovation

C. Process Theories :
1.Expectancy Theory : - Work effort is directed towards behaviour
that people believe will lead to desired outcomes; Important
variables of Expectancy Theory : *a.First level outcome: performance
achieved as a result of efforts ; *Ex: productivity , absenteeism *b.
Second-level outcomes : rewards (positive or negative) that the first
level outcomes are likely to produce; *Ex: promotion etc. *c.
Expectancy : belief that an effort elicits performance ; *d. Instrumentality
: perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second-level
outcomes; *e. Valence : individuals preference for an outcome ;
*Advantages: *Provides clear guidelines for increasing employee
motivation by altering a persons expectancies , instrumentalities and
outcome valencies ; *Individuals do not act on the basis of strong
internal drives , unmet needs or application of satisfiers or
dissatisfiers ; *Disadvantage : *Complex hence reduces detailed usage of
this theory ; *Needs further research on its application ;
2. Equity Theory : motivation to act develops after the employee
compares inputs/ outcomes with the identical ratio of relevant others
*Four important terms: *Person : individual for whom equity or inequity
exists ; *Comparison other / Relevant other : any group or individual
used by a person as a referent regarding inputs and outcomes ; *3.
Inputs : characteristics which individuals bring with them to the job :
education , skills , experience etc. *4. Outcomes : pay , promotion and
fringe benefits received from a job ; *Advantages: *Theory recognises
influence of social comparison processes on motivation ; *Has a more
realistic approach as compared to Content theories ; *Disadvantage :
*Applicable where people are morally mature ; *Whether given factor
is input or output ; *Ex: responsibility is input by some while it might
be output for others ;
3. Porter and Lawlers Model : *Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler
III ; *Model attempts to : *- identify the source of peoples valences and
expectancies and *- link effort with performance and job satisfaction ;
*1.Predictors of Effort : *Effort is perceived as function of perceived
value of a reward (rewards valence) and the perceived effort-reward
probability (an expectancy).*2. Predictors of Performance : *Is

determined by more than effort . *3. Predictors of Satisfaction : *Intrinsic

rewards: intangible outcomes such as achievement ; *Extrinsic rewards :
tangible outcomes such as pay and recognition; PAPPALI DIAGRAM BANA
10 boxes. 1. Value of reward 2 perceived effort reward probability 3. Effort 4.
Abilities and traits 5. Role perceptions 6. Performance 7a. intrinsic rewards
7b. extrinsic rewards 8. Perceived equitable rewards 9. satisfaction
4. Goal Setting Theory :A goal is basically a desirable objective ,
the achievement of which is uppermost in the mind of a person.
*Goals are used for two purposes in the organisation : *As motivational
devices in the sense that employees work towards meeting these
goals; *As a control device when performance is monitored in relation
to the goals set for individuals and departments
Group(s) *Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who
have come together to achieve particular objectives.
Types of Groups *1. Formal Group *A designated work group defined by
the organizations structure. *2. Informal Group *A group that is neither
formally structured nor organizationally determined; appears in response to
the need for social contact. *3.Command Group *A group composed of the
individuals who report directly to a given manager. *4. Task Group *Those
working together to complete a job or task. *5.Interest Group *Those
working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.
*6.Friendship Group *Those brought together because they share one or
more common characteristics.
Why People Join Group : *Security *Status *Self-esteem *Affiliation
*Power *Goal Achievement
The Five Stage Model of Group Development*1.Forming
StageThe first stage in group development, characterized by much
uncertainty. *2.Storming Stage *The second stage in group development,
characterized by intragroup conflict.*3.Norming Stage*The third stage in
group development, characterized by close relationships and
cohesiveness.*4.Performing Stage*The fourth stage in group
development, when the group is fully functional.*5.Adjourning Stage*The
final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by
concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance.
Group Properties
1. Roles : a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone
occupying a given position in a social unit . *Role identity : certain
attitudes and behaviours consistent with a role ;*Role perception : an

individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given

situation . *Role expectations : how others believe a person should act
in a given situation ; *Role conflict :a situation in which an individual
is confronted by divergent role expectations ;*e. Psychological Contract
: An unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from
the employee and vice versa.
2.Norms*Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared
by the groups members.*Classes of Norms:*Performance norms
*Appearance norms *Social arrangement norms *Allocation of resources
norms
Norms and Hawthorne Studies :*A series of studies undertaken by
Elton Mayo at Western Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago
between 1924 and 1932.*Research Conclusions:* Worker behavior and
sentiments were closely related.* Group influences (norms) were significant
in affecting individual behavior.* Group standards (norms) were highly
effective in establishing individual worker output. *Money was less a factor
in determining worker output than were group standards, sentiments, and
security.
Conformity Adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group.
Reference Groups Important groups to which individuals belong or hope
to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
Deviant Workplace Behavior Antisocial actions by organizational
members that intentionally violate established norms and result in negative
consequences for the organization, its members, or both.
Workplace Deviant Behaviours *Category*xamples*Production
*Leaving early,Intentionally working slowly,Wasting resources **Property
*Sabotage ,Lying about hours worked ,Stealing from the organization
**Political *Showing favoritism, Gossiping and spreading rumors, Blaming
coworkers **Personal Aggression*Harassment, Verbal abuse, Stealing from
coworkers
5. Cohesiveness*Degree to which group members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group.**To encourage group
cohesiveness : *Make the group smaller. *Encourage agreement with group
goals. *Increase time members spend together. *Increase group status and
admission difficultly. *Stimulate competition with other groups. *Give
rewards to the group, not individuals. *Physically isolate the group.
Size How the size of an organization affects its structure. As an organization
grows larger, it becomes more mechanistic.

Characteristics of large organizations: *More specialization *More

vertical levels *More rules and regulations
Characteristics of routineness in activities: *Routine technologies are
associated with tall, departmentalized structures and formalization in
organizations. *Routine technologies lead to centralization when
formalization is low. *Nonroutine technologies are associated with delegated
decision authority.
Environment Institutions or forces outside the organization that potentially
affect the organizations performance. *Key Dimensions- *Capacity: the
degree to which an environment can support growth. *Volatility: the degree
of instability in the environment. *Complexity: the degree of heterogeneity
and concentration among environmental elements.
Organisational Role : In organisations employees play either taskoriented , relations-oriented or self-oriented roles;
Role Conflict : Occurs where people face competing demands;
Organisational Stress: Stress arises when an individual perceives
that the demand from the stressors far exceeds the ability of the
person to respond ;
Leadership : the relationship in which one person (the leader)
influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain
goals desired by the leader and / or group .
Importance of Leadership :*Commits followers to organisational goal
as well as pools needed resources *Raises the level of human
conduct and ethical aspirations ;
Skills of a Leader : *Personality : extrovert , sociable ; *Positive self
beliefs ; *Drive to pursue goals ; *Integrity : truthful and capable of
translating words into deeds ; *Capable of motivating others ;
*Knowledge ; *Cognitive and practical ability : capable of processing
information and solving problems;
Comparison between Leadership and Managership *leadership:
Process of influencing for the purpose of achieving shared goals
*managership: Authority to carry out planning , organising ,
coordinating ,directing and controlling the activities of other ; *leaders:
innovate, inspire, long-term view, ask what and why, originate, challenges
the status quotient, do the right things. *managers: administer, control,
short term view, ask how and when, initiate, accept the status quotient, do
things right.

Leadership Styles : *The behaviour exhibited by the leader while

influencing the behaviour of followers. 1. Amount of authority retained by
leader. 2. Emphasis on task or people 3. Leaders assumption about people
4. Entrepreneurial style
Power Power is the ability to influence people and events
Characteristics important for effective use of Power :
*Understanding for both interpersonal and structural sources of power
and effective methods to use them ; *Understanding for nature of
exchange process underlying influencing strategies; *Aware of desirable
and undesirable behaviour in acquiring and using power ; *Seek
positions that allow the development and usage of power ; *Use
maturity and self-control in applying their power .
Power Tactics :
Are used by individuals on their own , within
groups (intra-groups) , and between groups (intergroup) in order to
influence people and events.
Politics : refers to the ways people gain and use power in
organisations
Types of Political Activities : *Selectively distributing Information *
2. Attacking / blaming others * 3.Using experts * 4. Managing
Impressions *5.Controlling information channels* 6.Controlling Agenda
*7.Game Playing * 8.Association with line executives * 9.Forming
Coalitions * 10.Increasing indispensability
Political Strategies for attaining Power in Organisation :
*Promoting limited communication; *Exhibiting confidence ; *Stimulating
competition among ambitious subordinates ; *Neutralising potential
opposition ; *Making strategic replacements; *Using research data to
support ones own point of view ; *Restricting communication about
real intention ;
Organisational Change is the process by which organisations move
from their present state to some desired future state to increase their
effectiveness .
Levels of Change *Individual Level ; *Group-level Changes ;
*Organisation-level Changes .
Process of Change *becoming aware of the pressure for Change
*Recognising the need for change *Diagnosing the Problem *Planning
the Change *Implementing the Change * Follow-up on the Change
Tactics for Overcoming Resistance to Change Education and
Communication *Show those affected the logic behind the change

**Participation *Participation in the decision process lessens resistance

**Building Support and Commitment *Counseling, therapy, or new-skills
training **Implementing Change Fairly *Be consistent and procedurally fair
*Manipulation and Cooptation *Spinning the message to gain cooperation
*Selecting people who accept change*Hire people who enjoy change in the
first place *Coercion *Direct threats and force
Luwins change model (Kurt Lewin) PAPPALI REMEMBER BADA ARROW
MEIN 3 WORDS 1. Unfreezing 2. Moving 3.refreezing. 1. KE NICHE reducing
the forces for status quotient 2. KE NICHE developing new attitutudes values
and behaviours 3. KE NICHE reinforcing new values attitudes and behaviours
Action Research
A change process based on systematic collection of
data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data
indicates *Process steps: *Diagnosis *Analysis *Feedback *Action
*Evaluation *Action research benefits:*Problem-focused rather than solutioncentered *Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance to change
Organizational Development A collection of planned interventions, built
on humanistic-democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational
effectiveness and employee well-being.
OD Values *Respect for people *Trust and support *Power equalization
*Confrontation *Participation
Six OD Techniques *1.Sensitivity Training *Training groups (T-groups)
that seek to change behavior through unstructured group interaction
*Provides increased awareness of others and self *Increases empathy with
others, listening skills, openness, and tolerance for others. *2.Survey
Feedback Approach * The use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies
among member perceptions; discussion follows and remedies are
suggested. *3.Process Consultation (PC) *A consultant gives a client insights
into what is going on around the client, within the client, and between the
client and other people; identifies processes that need improvement.
*4.Team Building *High interaction among team members to increase trust
and openness. *5.Intergroup Development *OD efforts to change the
attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other.
*6.Appreciative Inquiry *Seeks to identify the unique qualities and special
strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve
performance *Discovery: Recalling the strengths of the organization
*Dreaming: Speculation on the future of the organization *Design: Finding a
common vision *Destiny: Deciding how to fulfill the dream.