The Collapse Stadium Roof

What were the most probable causes of this stadium to collapse? From these pictures and
some basic structural engineering and mechanic of materials knowledge the engineer
should be able to disgnose some probable causes that may cause the collapse. Please make
your observation , apply the knowledge and make your diagnosis. It is also necessary to
interview peoples on site during the collapse to know the sequence of events before
collapse and to confirm our diagnosis.
The roof was made up of space trusses. It was a skeletal latticed shells.
American Society of Civil Engineers(ASCE) defined a latticed structure is a structure in
the form of a network of elements(as opposed to a continous surface). Rolled , extruded or
fabricated sections comprise the member elements. Another characteristics of latticed
structural system is that their load-carrying mechanism is three dimensional in nature.

The general behaviour of this thin, very long span structure may be explained easily
and understood by the behaviour of thin shell , latticed shells and braced domes
structure .
Member Behaviour
A compressive structural member buckles after reaching its critical stress and enters
into post-buckling. The load carrying capacity of a buckled member is substantially
less than that of a pre-buckled member. Under a constant applied load environment,
the buckling of a member usually leads to inelasticpost-buckling.The post-buckling
behaviour of a truss member is greatly dominated by the selender ratio. A failure of a
member in a redundant truss system may potentially result in the stress reversal in
other members. Stress reversal in a buckled member is difficult to model exactly, and
not much experimental data are available.
A collapse mechanism results from the redistribution of load when one member fails,
causing a subsequent progressive overstress condition in other members. Initial lack of
fit may cause prestressing in members, with subsequent unexpected failure at relatively
low loads. Where member sizes are varied to allow as many members as possible to be
fully stresses under worst case loading(optimised design), progressive collapse may not
be possible. In this case, several members may fail simultaneously, thereby causing an
apparent brittle(sudden) failure os the structure.
In practice, space truss structures have a high number of redundant members, but this
does not necessarily confer a corresponding high factor of safety on the structure
because the path to collapse may pass through through a small number of members.
Collapse of such structures is not uncommon and can have dire safety and economic
consequences. Analyses based on the static load redistribution condition of space

trusses have shown that the loss of only one critical member can lead to total collapse
of the structure at full service loadings.
Two practical methods for analyzing space trusses for progressive collapse include a)
the member removal methods and b) the member residual strength method. Both
methods essentially follow the same procedure as outlined below:
(1) Analyze the structure(using linear elastic procedures) to determine which member
will fail first( i.e which member has the highest stress compared to the design capacity.)
(2) Depending on the method being used, either a) completely remove the member that
has reached its maximum capacity and will fail due to overstress(member removal
method) or b) limit the load capacity of the member after it reaches its maximum
capacity(member residual strength method).
(3) Reanalyze the structure with the removed(zero strength) or reduced strength
member, and identify the next member most likely to fail.
(4) Return to the second step and iterate until the structures capacity is signigicantly
reduced(i.e , the structure is about to collapse or can no longer carry the design load.)
When applying the Member Residual Strength Method, the designer must decide what
constitutes the residual strength of a member. For major structures, it is recommended
that full scale member tests be performed, in tension and compression, to estimate the
post-maximum load behaviour of the space truss members.
Dynamic Effects of member failure
In a truss-type structural system, when members are primarily carrying axial loads,
member failure may take place by yielding(tension) or buckling of compression
members. Besides due to external dynamic forces, a structural vibration, a tesionyielded member may take up additional load due to strain hardening, whereas
compressive buckled members lose strength and shed load to other members. The
critical stress beyond which a member buckles is normally far less than yield
stress.Therefore, a greater emphasis must be given for member failure under
compression. Two major types of sudden member failure which have potential to cause
dynamic effects in structure are:
(1) Brittle-type member failure. This type of failure may take place within the linear
ealstic regime. When a member fails in this fashion, it is assumed that the member
after failure does not have any load-carrying capacity. For material other than brittle,
this type of failure can arise due to reasons such as material defects, fabrication or
construction errors, impact and accident..
(2) Member failures due to buckling and post buckling. A compressive structural
member, after its initial elastic buckling may enter into inelastic post-buckling.
Depending upon the selenderness ratio and other factors, this process may be

accompanied by sudden loss in load-carrying capacity of the member, thus giving rise
to member snap/dynamic jump(a dynamic phenomenon)

Aerial View of the stadium

Pic 1
This lattice shell structure is very sensitive to movement of the supports.Any movement of
the supports will cause redistribution of forces within the whole structure. Can the two
concrete buttresses at both ends of the collpase roof and all the perimeter columns provide
the required rigidity? Proof ?

Stadium before collapse

Pic 2
Imagine if the collapse happened at this moment. Thousands of people will be killed
and injured!
Stadium after collapse

Please look these pictures for clues. It showed some tell tale sign that need to be
confirmed by measurements, analysis and testing

Pic 3 What were the sequence of failures before total collapse?

Pic 4 Observed the remaining space trusses attached to the concrete buttress

Pic 5

Pic 6

Pic 7 . The other concrete buttress. Observed similar pattern of failure

Pic 8 Concrete Buttress

Pic 9 See the large span between the concrete butress and the first column support
along the perimater

Pic 10

Pic 11

Pic
12
What were the possible forces acting on assemblage in the
zone where the space truss snapped? These forces originated
from :Vertcally- Dead Load, Rain water loading!In plane loading
due to temperature effect, Horizontally(reversable)-wind
loading and other dynamic loading such as ground movement!

What were the Demand of all possible worst forces at the end of space trusses
near the concrete butresses? What were the Capacities of the steel members,
connections and assemblage against those forces?

Pic12a

Pic 12b

Pic 13

Pic 14

Pic15

Pic 16

Pic16a Click on the caption to enlarge the pic.

This photo showed the space frames were supported by connection at the column
butress and the columns along the perimeter of the stadium. This column free
portion on both side of the stadium looks unstable. The space frame was mainly
supported by the columns placed along the perimeter of the stadium.(See photo
18,12,20 and 22.

Question:
What was the adequacy of these columns to support the worst loading from the space
frame? Observe the size of the last perimeter steel column assemblage?

Pic 17

Pic 18

Pic 19

Pic 20 The space truss were supported by steel columns along its perimeter and the
two concrete buttresses at the tips.

Pic20a View during construction

Pic21
Notice all column bases were dislodged at the its connection to the concrete stump.
Need to observe the mode of failure of the base plate. It may be failure of the
welds,shearing of bolts, prying of the plate due to inadequate thickness or snapping
of hold down bolt in tension or any of their combination. I am sorry I dont have the
photos of this column to concrete stump connections

Pic 22

Pic 22a

Pic23
This photo showed the inclined, curved space frame was supported only at two
points i.e at the last perimeter columns and the concrete stump(see pic 12). The
photos showed the column free span was very large maybe greater than 30 m.
The above configuration may create large torsional forces at the column stump
supports.
(compare
pic
1
with
pic
28).
What was the worst torque at the ends of the space trusses where it snapped?(see
pic 7 & 8). What was the torsional capacities of the space trusses at that section?

Pic 24a

Pic 24b

Typical Nodes

Typical Tubular members

Typical steel ball joints

HERE to see a more detail view of Pic 24b and what evidences can you get on the
failure of this zone to help you in the failure investigation of this space trusses?
HERE to see a more detail view of Pic 21 and evidences on the perimeter columns
after collapse
Here are the evidences from Pic 24b.Similarly evidences can be identified,
categorised
from
other
components
of
the
structures.
From
this
pic
it
was
observed
;
1. Buckling of inclined members(tube){Sign of load exceeding Buckling capacities}
2. Pullout of the threaded screws from the ball joints{Sign of very high tensile load
in the tubular members exceeding its tensile capacities}
Why the two tubular members buckled and the other members threaded bolts were
pullout of the steel ball joints?
This photo extracted from Pic23 shows Why the two inclined tubular members
buckled and the other members threaded bolts were pullout of the steel ball joints.
The truss (self weight and any live load) P at an eccentricity e , any horizontal load
resulted from wind pressure, the dominating effect of geometry and the ends
restrains created large torsional forces at the supports. These forces must be
resisted by the inclined and diagonal tubular members which were either in tension
or compression. These forces exceeded the axial compressive and tensile capacities
of
the
tubular
members
creating
the
observed
phenomena.
It is believed the buckling of the tubular compression strut triggered the
progressive collapse of the whole roof. A detailed structural analysis as stated in
the Member Behaviour will proof this diagnosis.

Extracted from Pic23

3. ruptured of the members(tubes) and the nodes. {Sign of very high tensile load in
the tubular members and the steel ball joints exceeding its tensile capacities}
a) Analyse the structure and determine the maximum axial forces in members.

Confirm these members behave as intended i.e compression or tension. Thsese

forces are the demand. (Note: In the vicinity of the cantilever around the perimeter
columns the top boom will be in tension and the bottom boom will be in
compression. The inclined diagonals may be in tension or compression. Similarly for
members
at
the
concrete
butress
supports.)
b) Determine the axial capacities(compression or tension) of these members.
c) Determine the factor of safety i.e ratio of capacities/Demand for the critical
members.The member with lowest factor of safety will probably collapse first.
Do the 4 steps analysis as stated in Member Behaviour for progressive collapse .
Based on the observation, evidences,results of analysis and diagnosis it is then we
do the elimination processes to zoom in the most probable cause of the collapse. It
may be due a combination of causes.
Testing

We start by doing some actual 1) components and 2) representative samples tests

cut
from
the
collapse
space
truss
components.
The representative sample tests will yield basic properties of the materials(steel
tubes) such as the Yield Stress and Yield strain, % elongation, rupture stress and
strain
and
so
on.
These basic properties should be used to estimate the component compressive or
tensile
strength
of
the
members.
Next we do the component test to determine and confirm the capacities of the
tubular members especially in compression, tensile capacities of the threaded bolts
and tensile and compressive capacities of the steel ball joints, and compression
capacities of the sleeves and the end cones(see typical node above). See pg. 90 of
ref. 10 for Load tests on space truss connections.
Probable
Causes
Compare the results of Strucutral Analysis with what observed on site or evidences
obtained from site. If the results dosnt telly with what observed on site, your
analysis
was
wrong.
Revised
your
structural
analysis.
Compare the materials properties results obtained from tests with the what were in
the
drawings
and
specification.
Determine what does not comply with the specified Code of practices, drawings and
specification.
In most cases, at the Diagnosis Stage, simple hand calculation will do (without
using computer softwares etc). Softwares are only used to check and confirmed the
diagnosis. The FUNDAMENTALS are the most important in the failures
investigation . Understanding the fundamentals will guide us to answer a lot of key
questions e.g What, Where, Why ,How the failure happened? It will help us on what
to focus during the investigation and saving time on unncessary processes e.g there
is no necessity to test the concrete strength of the buttresses or column stumps as
the pictures showed all the steel ball connected to the conrete components were
intact. We can eliminate the strength of the concrete in the investigation even by
looking at the pictures. So the focus should be on the steel space frame and its
components. Decisions on what type of analysis, type of tests, location of samples
to be tested and frequency of sampling, selection of components to be tested shall
be decided during the desk study .

Allowable
compressive stress versus selenderness l/r ratio; fy=240
from ref 3

Pic 24c

Pic 25
Both photos Pic24a & Pic 24b showed the space frame snapped at the ball joint
connections. The ball joint connections fixed to the concrete stump were intact.

Questions:-

1. What are the magnitude forces in the members and joints at

this point of failure under worst combination of loading acting on
the whole roof structure?
2. What were the capacities of the members and connections at
this point of failure?

Simillar questions should be asked for the columns and

connections along the perimeter that support the roof
structures
Since this part of the structures was subjected to cyclic loading
the steel members and joints may fail by fatigue. Fatigue
considerations are important because the consequent failure is

generally sudden and at a stress level much lower than the

ultimate stress.
Questions:-

Will the configuration and assemblage of members and joints as

shown in fig 25 being able to withstand the worst forces at this
location? Definitely it cant because it snapped at this point. Why?
What did the assemblage indicated ?

The configuration and assemblage of members and connections

as shown in fig 25 were not suitable for any reversal of loads
such as wind or dynamic loading.

Shah Alam Stadium

Pic 26

Pic
27
The latticed shell roofs were supported rigidly on all three sides

Pic 28
The shape(see the dominating effect of geometry in attached
article) and the ends restrains are very important in this egg
shell
like
structures.
Hold an A4 size paper along the shorter edges with you left and
right hand respectively. Move your hands a bit towards each
other so that the paper form a curves. The distnace between
the fingures of the hands is the span of the thin shell; It can
span
thousands
of
time
of
its
thickness.

Now hold the paper just along one of the longitudinal edge. The
paper
cant
even
supports
its
own
weight.
The three edges must be designed to provide the required
rigidity(see
Shah
Alam
Stadium(pic
28).
Loads applied to the shell are carried by in general through a
combination of bending and stretching(inplane membrane
tension or compression of struts) actions, which generally vary
from
point
to
point.
For flat roof shell or latticed shells bending was the dominant
effect.

Diagnosis
1. What are the Loading acting on the roof? The gravity dead load were the self
weight of the trusses system and the roof covering(roof sheets) Impose live load
were the wind(reversal in direction),temperature effects and loading derived

from

rainwater.

2. Determine the load path i.e flow of forces from the point of origin to the
foundation .

Gravity Load Distribution

We must consider not only what loading conditions might effect a structure, but
also how those loads are transfered from their point of origin through the structure
to the ground. Strucutral design decisions concerning the structural framing system
will dictate this flow of forces. The most direct path from the point of loading to the
ground will create the most efficient structure. The continuity of this line of transfer
is essential. However, this direct path is not always possible. As a matter of fact,
due to the nature of live loads this path is constantly changing.

Wind Load
The essence of wind load distribution through a structure from one structural
component to another, and how the structure resists this load can be investigated
by assuming a uniformly distributed wind load acting on any one face of the
structure at any one time. Normally a wind load design requires a separate analysis
of wind from two perpendicular directions, such as wind from the north or south
and

then

from

the

east

or

west.

The portion of the load going to the roof tends to cause the roof to move laterally;
this lateral movement is resisted by the end walls. The movement of the end walls
is prevented by their connection to the foundation.

Temperature Effect

Space trusses are subject to thermal expansion and contraction due to changes in
temperature and thus may be subject to axial loads if restrained. Potential
temperature effect must be considered in the design especially the span is large.

Load path is a chain

o
o

It
The

is
roof

only

acting

as

diaphragms

strong
and

end

as
walls

its
are

weakest
links

in

the

link.
chain.

o The connections between the roof, end walls, and foundation are additional links.
o These additional links serve as the connective points that complete the chain.
o The connections are just as important as the diaphragms and end walls.
o The loads imparted on a building must successfully pass through all of these

elements in order to reach the ground and effectively resist applied forces.
o In other words, the load path or chain must be continuous and complete. There
can be no weak links in the load path chain.
To have an effective horizontal force-resisting system, there must be a continuous
load path.
* To be effective, each part of the horizontal force-resisting system must be
adequate

and

properly

connected

to

the

other

parts

in

the

system.

o Roof diaphragm must be strong enough to safely resist the any horizaontal loads
o Connections from the roof diaphragm to the end walls(acting as shear walls)
must

be

strong

enough

to

transfer

the

force

to

the

shear

wall.

o End walls at the base of the roof structure must be connected to the footing
o Footing must be adequate
3. From the pictures and along the load path determine the location of weak chain
link(failures) (bolts, base plate, buckling of components, snapping of ball joints
etc)

that

lead

to

the

collapse

of

the

4, List down weak chain link which will be probably the causes of collapse.

roof.