Doppler Log

The Doppler principle is the effect, which makes the tone of a fire engine change as it
passes the observer.
The fire engine is continuously emitting sound waves but if it is moving towards the
observer the wave fronts arrive closer together, which is equivalent to a higher
frequency.
As the fire engine starts to move away from the observer, the wave fronts arrive less
frequently at the observer and the tone is of a lower frequency.
As the train approaches a stationary listener, the pitch (frequency) of the rumbling
sound of the train is higher than when the train passes by, at which time the pitch
sounds the same as if the train were stationary.
As the train recedes from the listener, the pitch decreases.
Electromagnetic waves radiated by radar, as well as sound waves, obey the Doppler
principal, although electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light and audio
waves travel at the speed of sound.
The Doppler effect is a frequency shift that results from relative motion between a
frequency source and a listener.
If both source and listener are not moving with respect to each other (although both
may be moving at the same speed in the same direction), no Doppler shift will take
place.
If the source and listener are moving closer to each other, the listener will perceive a
higher frequency - the faster the source or receiver is approaching the higher the
Doppler shift.
If the source and listener are getting farther apart, the listener will perceive a lower
frequency - the faster the source or receiver is moving away the lower the frequency.
The Doppler shift is directly proportional to speed between source and listener,
frequency of the source, and the speed the wave travels.
In above figure v is the velocity of sound, and the propagation speed is c, every
wave is shortened due to the movement of the source by d

This shortening is equal to the source having moved a distance during the time
required to generate the wave.
The Doppler log is based on measurement of the Doppler effect.

fv = f c + v
c - v
It is seen that an observer, moving with a source of sound towards a reflecting plane,
receives a frequency:
Where fv is the received frequency, f the transmitted frequency, c the speed of sound
and v the speed of the source of sound.
By measuring fv and knowing f and c, the speed of a ship with regard to the seabed
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can be determined.

Principle
A transmitting transducer below the ship continuously emits a beam of sound
vibrations in the water at an angle (usually 60 to the keel) in the forward direction.
A second transducer aboard receives the echo caused by diffuse reflection from the
seabed.
A Doppler log uses a higher frequency than an echo sounder.
Advantages:
1.The resulting shorter wavelength leads to the more diffuse reflection desired; the
echo from a specular reflection would not be received, in view of the oblique incidence
of the beam.
2.The shorter wavelength makes possible a smaller beam-angle and so avoids the
dimensions of the radiating face of the transducer becoming too large.
3.The emitted power of the sound vibrations spreads less and thus the echo is
stronger.
Every point of the seabed is hit by the beam and causes a stronger or weaker echo in
the direction of the receiving transducer.
All these points are situated at a different angle to the horizontal direction;
The frequencies received aboard must differ for all these points. However, the
average frequency is approximately that from point P, at an angle to the horizontal.
Hence, though the distance between the ship and the seabed does not change, the
received frequency will differ (owing to the Doppler effect) from the transmitted
frequency.

From the Doppler frequency-shift, which can be measured, the speed v of the vessel
can be found.
A second transmitting transducer directs a beam in a backward direction and a second
receiving transducer receives its echoes.
The speed of sound waves in the water c depends, however, on the temperature and
(to a smaller degree) on the salinity and the water pressure.
For that reason a thermistor is mounted near the transducers. (A thermistor is a
resistance, the magnitude of which depends on the, temperature.)
Deviations of the sound speed c from the normal value are passed to the system
computer for correction of its calculations.
Note that the reading of a Doppler log depends solely on the speed of the sound
waves;

The propagation time of the pulse and its echo plays no role.
Automatic correction for changes in speed of sound
In some types of Doppler log, c/cos. is automatically kept constant. This is done by
building up each transducer from a large number (144) of electrostrictive elements.
For simplicity only four elements are shown:
If the four elements were supplied with alternating voltages in phase, the, resulting
sound waves would also be in phase, and the beam would be directed perpendicular
to the radiating face of the transducer, i.e. vertically.
However, the elements are fed with voltages that differ in phase by 120, so the
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sound waves have the same phase difference.

At all points of the line AB, however, the sound vibrations are in phase.
Such a line or plane is called a wave front; propagation is always perpendicular to a
wave front
Reflections
Both the echo sounder and the Doppler log react to reflections of sound waves from
the seabed; the former measures the propagating time and the latter the difference of
the two frequencies.
If the beam is propagated from one water layer into a second one of different
composition or temperature, there will be reflection; there will also be a Doppler effect
if the second layer moves relative to the first layer and if the beam hits this layer
obliquely.
In that case the frequency of the sound vibrations penetrating the second layer will
also change, if the speed of the sound waves in the second layer is different from that
in the first layer.
For the echo, however, the reverse frequency change will occur and will cancel out the
first change.
A Doppler log measures the algebraic sum of all Doppler frequency shifts experienced
by the sound on its way to the bottom (or to a reflecting layer) and back again.
To this frequency shift must be added the shift that arises at the transition of the
transducer vibrations between the ship and the water, and vice versa. If the beam hits
the bottom (bottom lock) the total frequency shift is, proportional to the speed of the
ship with regard to the bottom.
If there is no bottom contact, but only reflection against a water layer, the measured
Doppler shift is proportional to the speed of the ship relative to that water layer (water
lock).
Janus configuration
The placing of the two transmitting transducers, to produce forward and backward
beams is called a Janus configuration.
Due to the Janus configuration a linear relationship exists between the speed of the
vessel and the measured frequency shift.
A further advantage is that vertical movements of the ship cause equal changes to
the Doppler shifts in the forward and backward beams, so the difference remains the
same.
Vertical movements of the ship do not therefore influence the Doppler shift.

For measuring the athwart ship speed, a similar Janus configuration is mounted at an
angle of 90 deg. with the along ships transducers;
The distance from the bridge of a large tanker to the bows may be 250 metres, so
special information about the athwart ships speed both fore and aft is required when
mooring.
In that case athwart ships transmitting and receiving transducers are mounted both
fore and aft.
Janus configuration. A term describing orientations of the beams of acoustic or
electromagnetic energy employed with Doppler navigation systems.
The Janus configuration normally used with Doppler sonar speed logs, and docking
aids employs four beams of ultrasonic energy, displaced laterally 90 from each other
and each directed obliquely (30 from the vertical) from the ships bottom. This is to
obtain true ground speed in the fore and aft and athwart ship directions.
These speeds are measured as Doppler frequency shifts in the reflected beams.
Certain errors in data extracted from one beam tend to cancel the errors associated
with the opposite directed beam.
Pitching and rolling
From the figure we see that the speed for the dotted position of the ship, and for the
forward-directed beam increases to V1; for the backward-directed beam V1 decreases
to V1.

Results are obtained by taking the difference of the Doppler shifts for the forward
beam and for the backward beam.
In the horizontal position of the ship when this vector becomes smaller this vector
becomes greater, or vice versa, so the sum of the two vectors is approximately 2v,.
Hence the Doppler measurement of the speed is not, in practice, influenced by
pitching. The same applies to the two athwartships beams during rolling.
Continuous-wave and pulse, systems
Hitherto it has been taken for granted that the transmitting transducers generate
vibrations continuously, thus making it necessary for each beam to have a separate
transmitting and receiving transducer.
This is called a continuous-wave (c.w.) system. Transmitting and receiving transducers
are of identical construction.
Other types are pulse systems. In such a system a transducer generates pulses and
the same transducer receives the echo between the transmissions. Therefore a pulse
system needs only half as many transducers as a continuous-wave system.
In the continuous-wave system the reception of the echo can be disturbed by the
continuously emitted vibrations of the transmitting transducer going directly from
transmitting to receiving transducer (cross-noise or feedback).
With pulse systems this cannot occur, since a pulse is transmitted only after the echo
of the preceding pulse has been received, and the receiver is blocked during the
transmission.
The majority of Doppler logs in use are pulse systems
Transducers
The angle of the along ships beams is about 3 deg., that of the athwart ships beam is
about 8 degrees.
The frequency used is 100 to 600 kHz newer models have a transmission frequency
of maybe 2 MHz.
The surface area of each transducer need then be only about 10 cm2.
The high frequency and the concave shape of the surface also lead to a small beam
angle.
The higher frequency influences the reflection and the absorption but not the speed of
propagation.
The transducers are of the electrostnctive type.
Two possibilities for a Janus configuration.
Usually the transducers are inserted in a 'sea chest' or 'sea well, permitting their
removal for repairs or replacement without the ship requiring dry-docking.
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The diameter of the hole required in the hull plates is about 350 mm.
Replacement of a transducer (1) in a sea chest without the ship being dry-docked can
be done in the following way.

After the transducer (which is connected to the other apparatus by means of a cable
with a plug and socket) has been disconnected, some nuts (2) are loosened and the
bolts turned in the direction of the arrows. Now the transducer (1) can be drawn
upwards until it is above the flange (4) in the upper part (3) of the sea chest. This
upper part is then shut off from the lower part (6) by means of a sliding valve
operated by the hand wheel (5). In order to check that the valve is properly shut a tap
(not shown in the figure), connected to the upper part (3), can be opened. If the water
in the upper part is not under pressure the bolts (7) of the flange (4) may be removed.
By using grease, the transducer can be slid easily from the top flange (8). The
sequence is reversed when a new transducer is mounted.
Measurement of ship's speed relative to bottom or to water
Owing to absorption by particles in the water at a depth of 200 to 400 metres, the socalled deep scattering layer (DSL), a Doppler log may only function, down to about
200 metres, unless the set is equipped to work in the layer of 10-30 metres below the
surface.
When reflections are received from this layer the speed of the ship relative to that
layer, and not relative to the bottom, is obtained. Thus uncertainty and confusion may
occur.
Apart from the effect of the Deep Scattering Layer, the water at 10 to 30 metres
below the keel also causes an echo and Doppler effect by volume-reverberation.
This is called 'water track' (as opposed to 'bottom track'). In deep water there is a
considerable difference between the time of propagation for bottom reflection and
that for reflection from the mass of water at a depth of 10 to 30 metres. Receivers can
be made operative for only a short period (a certain 'window' of time) either
immediately after or a short time after each pulse transmission.
Suppose that the receiver has bottom contact, with the window occurring a short time
after, transmission.
If the Doppler log then loses bottom contact, the window is automatically shifted to
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occur immediately after pulse transmission.

As a result, the receiver reacts only to reflections from the 10-30-metre water layer.
When this happens, 'bottom track' indicator is replaced by 'water track'.
When sufficiently low frequencies are used, echoes may still arrive from a rocky
bottom at a depth of 600 metres and more.
In some Doppler log, for depths less than 600 metres it is possible to switch manually
to the water track mode.
Uses of the Doppler log
For, example, for a tanker of 200 000 tonnes with a residual speed when tying up of
0.2 knots (0.1 m/s), the energy to he absorbed by a pier or dolphin together with the
ship's side is:
1/2mv2 = 1000 000 joules.
The Doppler log can measure the speed to the nearest 0.01 knot or 5 mm/s;
unfortunately, however, it sometimes does not function correctly during docking if the
screws of tugs cause air bubbles (which reflect sound waves) to pass through the
beams (aeration). Since the sound waves are reflected off by the water air barrier
the Doppler may give wrong readings.

ARPA and Doppler log

Automatic ground-stabilization
An isolated land target (lighthouse with a Racon) with good response is selected as
reference. It is acquired and tracked by one of the ARPA tracking channels and then
designated as a fixed target. This makes it possible for the tracker to calculate the
ground track of own vessel and hence to maintain the movement of the electronic
origin of the display in correlation to it.
When using this facility the observer should be particularly watchful for other targets,
which approach the reference target, and, in particular, for those which pass between
the observing vessel and the reference target. If the target moves too close to the
echo ref. target chances of target swop may be greatly increased.
In general the same stabilization is applied to the radar picture presentation and to
the true vectors, i.e. either both are sea-stabilized or both are ground-stabilized. Thus
in general, where automatic ground-stabilization is selected, true vectors will indicate
the ground tracks of targets and not their headings.
Failure to appreciate this can render the presentation dangerously misleading if it is
mistakenly used in the planning of collision avoidance strategy.
One might expect the danger of observers being misled in this respect to be less than
in the case of a raw radar display because, except in case of an along-track tide, there
will be angular displacement of own vessels vector from the heading marker.
The above makes it possible to have true-motion parallel indexing. It also makes it
possible to maintain electronic navigation lines and maps in a fixed position on the
screen.
However, it must be stressed that the presentation may not afford traffic heading
information and may therefore in principle be unsuitable for collision avoidance.
Automatic ground-stabilization can also be achieved by using the output from a twin
axis Doppler log that is locked to the ground or feed from the GPS.
Sea Stabilized:
Whenever ARPA is used in the True track mode, data relating to own vessels motion is
fed in from the speed log and from the gyro/magnetic compass.
Assuming that the speed log is feeding in the vessels speed through the water and is
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not on the bottom lock mode, then the displayed true track of the vessel would be
sea stabilized.
Vectors would therefore indicate the true track through the water of other vessels as
well and thus would also the visual aspects of the other vessels, irrespective of ant
tide/current experienced.
IT IS THEREFORE VERY IMPORTANT THAT WHEN ARPA IS USED IN THE TRUE TRACK
ANTI COLLISION MODE, THAT IT IS ONLY USED IN THE SEA STABILIZED MODE.
The above is the reason that in spite of a vessel being equipped with a GPS receiver, it
is compelled by regulation to carry an operational speed log. The ARPA has to have a
feed from the speed log.
Ground Stabilized:
Coastline drift may be prevented by feeding in the set and drift due to the
current/tide, or by having the feed come in from the speed log working on bottom
lock condition. Or also by incorporating the CMG obtained from the GPS.
Another way is to have the facility of echo reference lock on to a stationary target
(selection of the same requires utmost care, and is not recommended for the novice).
Under the above the display becomes ground stabilized. The displayed vector will
then indicate the targets true tracks. Of course due to the potentially misleading
effect of the data relating to the tracked vessels aspect, this mode should not be
used when assessing collision risk or planning avoidance strategy.
There are advantages of using either a True or a Relative motion display. Relative
motion displays and subsequent plotting gives an immediate indication of which ships
are on a collision course.
On the other hand, whether a target is stationary or moving can be usually
distinguished more readily with a true motion display.
Generally any one of the displays may be used, however with the inherent advantage
for collision avoidance, relative motion maybe more suitable for open sea condition for
collision avoidance.
Now regarding whether to use Ground stabilization or not.
Well ground stabilization display may and will give a misleading idea about a
target/ship in coastal areas, involving tidal currents.
GPS speed in general gives ground speed, and there lies the necessity of having a
speed log, which can give input to the Radar of the set and drift experienced by own
vessel.
In the following example the same is highlighted:

The above is a case of an own vessel observing another target in an area where the
current is a factor. If ground stabilization is used, then the own vessel course is taken
by the ARPA as 000 deg. And speed of 12k, however due to the current the actual
vector of own vessel is Co. 018 deg. and spd. 12.5k.
Thus unless sea stabilisation is used, the plot will give a totally erroneous result and
will seem that the vessels are passing clear when actually they would be colliding.
This necessitates the use of a speed log as is mandatory under SOLAS.

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