Internal Structures of Prokaryotic Cells

Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane is a double-layer of

phospholipids with associated proteins and other molecules. It is essentially
the bag that holds all of the intracellular material and regulates the
movement of materials into and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: This is the gel-like fluid that the cell is filled with, inside the plasma
membrane; liquid with all of the cellular organelles suspended within.
Cytoskeleton: It's only recently been discovered that rod-shaped bacteria and
Archaea possess cytoskeletal proteins that function in a similar way to the
cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. This scaffolding provides structural support to
the cell and plays a role in cell division.
Ribosomes: All cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, have multiple
ribosomes within. Ribosomes are the tiny protein-making machines of the cell.
Cell Wall: Nearly all prokaryotes have a protective cell wall that prevents them
from bursting in a hypotonic environment (an aqueous environment with a
lower concentration of solutes than are found within the cell). The composition
of cell walls vary depending on the type of organisms, but most cell walls
contain a combination of the major organic molecules proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. Bacteria have a unique molecule called
peptidoglycan in their cell wall.
Nucleoid: The nucleoid is the region of the prokaryotic cytoplasm that contains
the genomethe main genetic material (DNA) of the cell. Bacteria and
Archaeans typically have a single, circular chromosome.
Plasmids: In addition to the bacterial chromosome, bacteria may also contain
one or more plasmids. A plasmid is a non-essential piece of DNA that confers
an advantage to the bacteria, such as antibiotic resistance, virulence (the
ability to cause disease) and conjugation (a bacteriums ability to share its
plasmids with other bacteria). Plasmids are also found in some eukaryotic
microbes, such as yeasts.
Capsule

The outer layer of of prokaryotic cells is a gummy or slimy covering (it is

sometimes labelled as the "slime capsule") that may help bacteria stay
together in colonies and/or provide some protection to the cell.

Flagellum (sing.)
the plural form is
"flagella"

Flagella are not limited to prokaryotic cells; certain eukaryotic cells also have
flagella - but there are are differences between the three types of flagella i.e.
those found in:
1. Bacterial cells (also called prokaryotes) and the subject of this page
2. Archaeal cells (although archaeal flagella are superficially similar to
bacterial flagella)
3. Eukaryotic cells (e.g. animal cells)
In many cases the flagellum of a prokaryotic cell (e.g. a bacterium) is
responsible for themotility, i.e. ability to move spontaneously and actively consuming energy in the process, of the cell. The flagellum of a prokaryotic
cell does not "beat" but rotates about a "bearing" in the cell wall - resulting in
a "corkscrew" motion that drives the cell forwards in much the same way as
a propeller propels some ships forwards.

Pili (pl.)
the singular form is
"pilus"
(also
called Fimbriae pl.
or fimbria sing.)

A pilus is a hair-like appendage many of which are present on the surface of

many bacteria. In this context the words "pilus" and "fimbria" are sometimes
used interchangeably.

The words "fimbria" (singular) and fimbriae (plural) are also used in other
contexts within biology, with different meanings in each. In the context of
prokaryotic cells, a fimbria (or apilus) is a protein rod that is sometimes called
a proteinaceous appendage. It is shorter and thinner than a
flagellum. Fimbriae (or pili) tend to be approx. 3-10 nm in diameter and up to
several m long. See scientific numbers for more about the units nm and m.
Fimbriae (or pili) help bacterial cells adhere to each other, to animal cells and to
inanimate objects. A single bacterium can have as many as 1,000 fimbriae.

Some scientists prefer to reserve the word "pilus" for the appendage that is
sometimes called the "sex pilus" because it participates in DNA transfer
during bacterial conjugation - the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or
mating.

Vacuole

A cell's vacuole can occupy a large proportion of the total volume of the cell - e.g. 90% of
the volume of some mature plant cells. Each vacuole is enclosed by a vacuolar membrane
called the tonoplast.

Contents of the vacuole:

Cell sap, which is a solution of salts, sugars and organic acids.

Enzymes needed for recycling components of cells, e.g. chloroplasts.
Anthocyanins are sometimes present in cell vacuoles. These are chemical
pigments responsible for some of the (non-green) colours of glowers, e.g. reds,
blues, purples.

Functions of the vacuole:

Cell
Nucleus

Helps maintain turgor pressure pressure (turgidity) inside the cell. This pressure
pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall. Plants need turgidity to
maintain rigidity.

The nucleus is the "control center" of a eukaryotic cell (i.e. plant cells and animal cells butnot bacterial cells, which do not have a membrane-bound cell nucleus).

Functions of the cell nucleus:

The cell nucleus controls the activity of the cell by regulating protein synthesis within the
cell.

Structure of the cell nucleus:

Each cell nucleus is surrounded (one could equally say "enclosed") by a nuclear membrane
that is also known as the "nuclear envelope". The contents of the nucleus - so, inside the
nuclear membrane - includes DNA (genetic material) in the form of genes and a nucleolus.

7.

Nucleolus
(inside the nucleus)

The nucleolus is
located within the
nucleus and is
the site of
synthesis of:

transfer
RNA
ribosomal
RNA
ribosomal
subunits

8.

Nuclear Membrane
(enclosing the nucleus)

Rough
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum
(RER)

The nuclear
membrane is also
known as
the nuclear
envelope and
encloses the
contents of the
nucleus of the
cell - separating
the contents of
the nucleus from
the rest of the
cell.Nuclear
pores in the
nuclear
membrane
enable various
substances, such
as nutrients and
waste products,
to pass into and
out of the
nucleus.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein synthesis (which takes place within
the ribosomes attached to the surface of the RER) as well as storage of proteins and
preparation for secretion of those proteins.

10.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is the site
of lipid synthesis and
secretion within cells.

11.

Mitochondrion (pl.)
the singular form is "mitochondria"

Mitochondria are
structures found in
both plant and animal
cells. They are
bounded by double
membranes, the
inner of which is
folded inwards,
forming projections
(called cristae),
hence the

representation of
mitochondria in
diagrams e.g. as
above.

Their function of
mitochondria
is energy
production.
Mitochondria contain
enzyme systems
needed to
synthesize adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
by oxidative
phosphorylation.
The quantity of
mitochondria within
cells varies with the
type of cell. In the
case of plant cells,
mitochondria may be
particularly abundant
in sieve tube cells
(also called sieve
tube members), root
epidermal cells and
dividing meristematic
cells.

Chloroplasts are the sites

Chloroplasts ofphotosynthesis within plant cells.

Chloroplasts are very important parts of

plant cells. Some cells include up to 50
chloroplasts. The number of
chloroplasts per cell varies according to
the type of cell and its function. They
are plentiful in leaf cells that receive
sunlight - as opposed to root cells that
do not receive light.

Chloroplasts are a type of plastid.

There are also other types of plastids

(not all of which are present in all plant

cells but all of which are derived
from proplastids).
See the diagram of plastids on the
right.

13.

Golgi Body (also called theGolgi

Complex and/or theGolgi Apparatus)

The Golgi apparatus of a cell is sometimes

called the "post office" of the cell or is more
generally described as a "packaging organelle"
because it plays a role in transporting proteins.
It's structure and appearance takes the form of
a stack of tiny pancake-like shapes, each of
which is enclosed by a single membrane and
contains fluid and biochemicals such as
proteins, sugars and enzymes.

Functions of the Golgi Apparatus:

Modifies some newly-synthesized

biomolecules before storing them in
granules, sometimes called vesicles ready for transport later.
Forms lysosomes - which are tiny sacs
filled with enzymes that enable the cell
to utilize its nutrients, so are sometimes
described as "cell digestion machines".
Lysosomes also destroy the cell after it
has died.
Transports the proteins produced in
the ER: After a protein has been
synthesized in the ER, a transition
vesicle (or "sac") is formed then floats
through the cytoplasm to the Golgi
apparatus, into which it is absorbed.
After processing the molecules inside
the sac, a secretory vesicle is formed
and released into the cytoplasm, moves
to the cell membrane, then releases the
molecules from the cell.

Plastids are double membrane bound organelles found inside plants and some algae, which are
primarily responsible for activities related to making and storing food. Many plastids are
photosynthetic but some are not.

Peroxisome, membrane-boundorganelle occurring in the cytoplasmof

eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes play a key role in the oxidation of specific

biomolecules. They also contribute to the biosynthesis of membrane lipids

known asplasmalogens. In plant cells, peroxisomes carry out additional
functions, including the recycling of carbon from phosphoglycolateduring
photorespiration. Specialized types of peroxisomes have been identified in
plants, among them the glyoxysome, which functions in the conversion of fatty
acids to carbohydrates.

Functions of the Cell Membrane

Both eukaryotic cells, including plant cells and animal cells, andprokaryotic cells, e.g. bacteria, are
enclosed by a cell membrane.
A cell membrane (see the simple diagram on the right) is a thin structure that is also known as
the plasma membrane.
The main functions of the cell membrane are:

to maintain the physical integrity of the cell - that is to mechanically enclose the contents of the
cell, and also
to control the movement of particles e.g. ions or molecules, into and out of the cell.

Lists of functions of a cell membrane ( = plasma membrane) can include various numbers of functions
because particles can move across the membrane in several different ways, including diffusion via ion
channels, active transport via membrane pumps, endocytosis (into the cell) and exocytosis (out of the
cell). Some lists count these different transport mechanisms as different functions while other lists count
"transport of materials" as one function of the cell membrane.

In cell biology, the centrosome (Latin centrum 'center' + Greek sma 'body') is an organelle that
serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell as well as a regulator
of cell-cycleprogression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883,[1] and later described
and named in 1888 by Theodor Boveri.[2] The centrosome is thought to have evolved only in
the metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells.[3] Fungi and plants lack centrosomes and therefore use
other MTOC structures to organize their microtubules.[4][5] Although the centrosome has a key role in
efficient mitosis in animal cells, it is not essential in certain fly and flatworm species.[6][7][8]
Centrosomes are composed of two orthogonallyarranged centrioles surrounded by
an amorphousmass of protein termed the pericentriolar material(PCM). The PCM contains proteins
responsible formicrotubule nucleation and anchoring[9] including -tubulin, pericentrin and ninein. In

general, each centriole of the centrosome is based on a nine triplet microtubule assembled in a
cartwheel structure, and contains centrin, cenexin andtektin.[10]