"

HIDES

SKINS

"
AND

THE

LEATHER

OF

MAPOJFACTURE

VIEW

A LAYMAN'S
OF

INDUSTRY

THE

BY

JAMES

PAUL

WARBURG
M

Assistant
The

First

National

Second

THE

FIRST
OF

Cashier
Bank

of

Boston

Printing

NATIONAL
BOSTON

BANK

"***?
1

COPYRIGHT,

THE

FIRST

NATIONAL

1921

BANK

OF

BOSTON

*
o

OF

TABLE

CONTENTS

Foreword
THE

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

INDUSTRY

Part One
THE

Chapter

i.

RAW

MATERIAL

Hides.

Chapter 2. Skins.
Chapter 3. Flayingand Curing.
Chapter 4. Imperfections.
Materials.
Chapter 5. The Manufacturing
Part
THE

MANUFACTURE

Two
OF

SOLE

LEATHER

Processes.
Chapter 6. The Preparatory
Tanning of Sole
Chapter 7. Vegetable
Sole Leather.
Chapter 8. Finishing
Chapter 9. Other Heavy Leathers.

Leather.

Part Three
THE

MANUFACTURE

OF

UPPER

SHOE

AND

DRESSING

LEATHER

Chapter10. Calf-skins for Upper Shoe Leather.

Side and Patent Leather.
Chapteru.
Chapter12. Goat-skins and "Kid" Upper Leather.
Chapteri3. Other Upper Leather.
Chapter14. Oil Tannage of "Chamois" Leather.
Chapteri5. Tawing Glove Leather.
Chapter16. Book and Bag Leather.
Part
THE

ECONOMIC

Four

DISTRIBUTION

OF

THE

INDUSTRY

Chapter17. The World's Supplyof Raw Material.

Chapter18. Importsof Raw Material into the U. S.
Chapter19. Exportsof Leather from the U. S.
Chapter20. Marketingand Prices.

4C9022

THE

NATIONAL

FIRST

BOSTON

BANK
OF

substantial

is

stock-holder

in

INTERNATIONAL

THE

BANK

ACCEPTANCE

Pine

York

New

Street,

INC.

City

This

bank

trade.

been

recently

has

third

Over

of

its

organized

$i5,25o,ooo.

owned

by

firms,
a

to

its

offer

the

foremost

unparalled

enables

in

service

also

of

are

PAUL

which

plus
Sur-

and

ing
bank-

this

tution
instinew

stock-holders

United

and

Banks

European

feature,

unique

foreign

Capital

one

is

finance

to

the

fields.

foreign

leading

Among

banks

of

many

States.

M.

Chairman

WARBURG

D.

Vice-Chairman

G.

WING

F.

GOODHUE

ABBOTT

President

the

ILLUSTRATIONS
FRONTISPIECE

PAGE

Inspection
of Cattle beforekilling
PART,

ONE.

The

PART

TWO.

Material.

Raw

Flaying Hides

from

Cattle

19

Manufacture

The

of Sole

SortingHides beforeWashing
Soaking and Liming Pits with

Leather.

in Drum

Crane

Tumbler

26

Conveyor

Unhairing
Fleshing
Trimming on the Beam
Working Cylinderof Fleshing Machine

26
29

-----

30

31

(Drawing)

31

Yard

Pit Tan
"Rounded"

32

Hide,

Methods

two

34

(Drawings)
'

Bleaching
Oiling
Setting-Out
Rotting
Brushing
PART

THREE.

37

37
37
-

38
38

The

Manufacture

of

and

Upper-Shoe

Dressing

Leather.

SortingSkins
Paddle

42

Vats

Chrome

Tanning

Wheel

Shaving Machine
A Row
of Fat-LiquoringDrums
Slocum
StakingMachine
Baker
StakingMachine
(Grasshoppertype)

42

44

46

Straining
Seasoning and

49
49
50

Mechanical

Drying

Foot

50

Counter

Sorting and

Bundles

Making
Machine
o/*Splitting
DeliveryEnd showing two Splits
Feed

Setting
StrainingSide

54
54

Leather

Side

56

Leather

56

"Toggling"beforeJapanning
VarnishingRoom, Showing Ovens
Boarding the Grain
PressingSheep Skins
-

57
-

57

61
63

Glazing Machine
Serial
PART

Table

FOUR.

UnhairingMachine

The

Economic

Distribution

Exports of Leather
Price

Fluctuations

52
52

Eric?

out

46

65
68

of the

Industry.
74

(charts)

79

FOREWORD

EVOLUTION

THE

Probably
from

ived

kin

that

make

to

ling

anning

The

the

origin

years

that

at

of

picture

may

animal

some

savages.

of

Christ,

versed

as

ourselves
cloak.

as

early

an

We

are

think

may

of

the

in

of

waters

in

this

certain

Japanese
Failing such a
his chagrin that

ome

enough,
be

trying the

far

In
he
from

any

was

freak

soon

one

his

as

began
effect

discovering

way

bark.

over

fortunate
as

of
obtain

might
producing

of

the

to

render

were

as

bed-rock

produced
of

pelt

nature,

our

Until

fats,

of

preservative
provided
ways,

rudimentary
that

perhaps
of
it

tannage.
could

twigs

be

made

be

picture

may

or

pieces
he

sure,

into

to

more

smoke,

continued

were

To

find

once

and

cently
re-

manner.

would

We

or

that

very

primitive

it became

to

effect

preservative

alum.

to

supple,

more

discovered

dried,
signs of decay.

show

once

savage

had

skin

be

would

reaction

this

in

the

dry, giving place

Japan

of

pelt
surprised,

of

softness

and

softening

a
a

animal

leather

Nile

dried

first

at

it

of

natives

effect

these

the

had

leather

furthermore

then

him

way

to

attempt
that

streams

white

lard, and

an

they flowed

skins, for

upon

in

water

probably

was

the

skin

in

the

tanning

him

then

soak

of

least

seen

of

wearing

savage,

considerably annoyed to find that the

it was
thoroughly
entirely disappeared as soon
as
first
His
exceedingly disagreeable horniness.
an
nd

beyond

at

be

to

of

art

traced,

far

inhabitants

the

in

or

be

Specimens

still

the

all
less

Elizabeth.

reign of Queen
to

that

this
tan-

of

more

back

raw

by

manufactured

been

ten

to

are

cannot

primitive

in

object

and

imputrescible
accomplished

have

to

twofold

de-

the

caused

change

The

dates

probable

it is

the

be

one

to

fact, scientists

animals

of

of

birth

fully

were

the

in

ancestors

We

time

the

and

Europe,

in

museum

delta

before

first

skins

time

leather, said

Egyptian

housand

the

into

skin

was

the

preserve

history

ancient

"ur

to

attempt

ecorded

the

this

it to

probably not
happened

of

both.

or

knows

has

whether

to

as

render

of how

but

what

matter

physical,

is to

leather

seen

just
as

opinions
or

processes

elastic.
or

their

in

ever

animals;

various

leather; and,

chemical,

is

has

understands

he

it

divided

day

of

skin

the

thinks

iven

who

man

every

INDUSTRY

THE

OF

in

of

long
would
modern

shoe, but nevertheless

decay, and
The

softened

times

lacking by

was

which

end

of

well

established

the

to

would

skin

practicallyimmune
degree.
the
development of leather manufacture
comparatively negligible,and historical

to

in

progress

mediaeval

he

from

certain

trace

sixteenth

possess

its

the

century

We

course.

know,

manufacture

however,

of

until
data

that

leather

curried

are

by the
was

that

at that time
Hungary,
Spain was
producing
fair quality of morocco.
a
Gradually the industry spread over
Europe,
America, and other parts of the world; machinery was
slowly perfected
take the place of manual
to
finishes, such as
operations; new

waxed
and

calf

in

and

cordovan

chemistry
ninety per

and

alum-tanned

kid,

leathers; and

evolved

the
of the

added

were

finally,about

chroming

process,

world's

to

the

old

thirtyyears
which

by

shoe

Spanish
ago,

that

it is estimated

leather

crup

scientific

is made

to-day.
the fact
remains
industry, even
now,
that it rests
than
primarily on
an
empirical basis, far more
so
any
other of our
cinal
primary industries. While it is probably true that mediherbs
constituted
the first chemical
well
it may
discovery of man,
be claimed
that industrial
chemistry, to which our
present civilization
of
its
material
the preservation
owes
in
so
adjuncts,
originated
many
The

remarkable

of animal

^^
"-

Besides
infinite
which

cent,

feature

of

upper

the

skins.
the

usage

number
it will

of
be

of

leather

purposes

for
to

boot

which

soles
it has

and

uppers,

been

there

adapted,

are

some

an

of

impossible to treat here in even

a
manner.
cursory
in any
belittle
the importance
to
by these omissions
way
of the subjects which
the author
has felt to lie beyond the
of this pamphlet.
Furthermore, in order to avoid duplication,
scope
the arbitrary expedient has been
adopted of discussing in Part Two
the
of
sole
leather, and in Part Three
only
vegetable tannage
only the
chrome
for making upper
leather.
boot
In this manner
each
process
method
of tanning is taken
detail
in
the
field
in
where
finds
it
its
up
but
inferred
it
be
the
reader
that
must
not
by
lay
greatest application,
sole leather is never
leather is made
chromed, or that no upper
by the
While
this fact is brought out
later on, it cannot
vegetable processes.
be too
the
outset.
strongly emphasized at
To attempt a discussion
of the entire industry within
brief a space
so
is at best a precarious undertaking. For
of
simplificationthe
purposes
has
been
divided
into four groups:
1. The
Raw
subject
Material; that
is, hides and skins, what they are, where
from, how
they come
they are
of which
obtained, and their imperfections; also the materials by means
made
2. The
Manufacture
of Sole
into leather.
and
other
they are
Manufacture
3. The
of Boot
Upper, Glove, Book, and
Heavy Leather.
other
Distribution
4. The
Economic
of the Industry.
Light Leather.
It is

not

intended

these

of

(Each

is

groups

itself

in

for

subject

far

book

than

longer

this.

the

through
Brothers

and

courtesy

and

derived

admirable

received

Bank

from

given
of

Boston,
of

Mass.

19,

1921.

and
of

trade

his

statistical

the

and

data.

in

the

much

To
Boston

from

valuable

staff
of

the

tion.
observahas
Mr.

been
K.

J.

assistance
credit

much

too

of

the

in,

helpful

pages

these

advice

first-hand

for

Finally,
of

Keating,

assistance

only

especially

industry,

Machinery

of
for

subsequent

articles,

publications.
D.

Tanning

Bank

not

in

Howes

Massachusetts.

opportunities

contained

books

Perry
for

indebted

available

Company,

Turner
of
National

First
is

material

study

Mr.

The

made

were

Leather

Company,

exceptional

various
to

compilation

Boston,

the
other

from

Adcock's

of

for

booklet

Lawrence

Industries

author

the

of

Much

April

friends

but

criticism,

C.

and

Swift

industries

this

in

A.

Associated

the

other

many

leather

be

of

Company,

Company

and

contained

illustrations

The

The
research

First

was

not
can-

National
work

and

THE

FIRST

NATIONAL

BANK

BOSTON
OF

with

jointly

the

National

Bank

York

of

of

5o%

the

Commerce

New

in

stock

of

owns

THE

FRENCH

AMERICAN

New

This

York

City

owned

is

corporation

by

$i,3oo,ooo,ooo.,
resources

are

held

being

the

the

by

this

226

National

Comptoir

the

connection

branches

in

also

Madagascar,

the

Paris

and

and

London

in

Algeria,

Guadaloupe,

Morocco,

French

Guiana.

Paris.

avail

itself

Spain,

The

the

Egypt,

Comptoir

French

East

Indo-China,

and

de

can

India.

of

5o%

interest,

England,

agent

Banks

combined

largest

corporation

France,

Australia,

whose

d'Escompte

over

Tunis,

banks

over

Through

of

CORPORATION

BANKING

is

Colonial

Africa,

tinique,
Mar-

ONE

PART

MATERIAL
THE

RAW

CHAPTER

HIDES
The
material
is

and

hides

horses,

for

between

This

"kip."
various

what

the

belting
used

often

are

hides

split

are

used

as

Leather."

because

material

of

into

the

will

be

sole

and

of

these

the

foreign

and

used

mutton,

but
are

known

to

imports

rule,

see

one

while

glove

that

say

the

naturally

go

and

Ski*

UPP

raw

leather.

^eat

asmuch
In-

distinct,

this

mind

in

the

to

may

skins

and

bag,

means

known

particularly

are

bear

"

later,

this

by

entirely separate
to

and
into

the

for

only

not

Australia
United

in

sheepskins

other

are

chief

it

segregation

as

the

of

South

are

known
also
of

large
from

sole

of

sources

first
are

Hifa

and

packer
by

green-salted
and

leather.
class
not

"Mat-

and

countries,

upper

of

Fort

preferred

are

"Saladeros"

and

are

have

beef

American

and

other

quantities
these

years

American

as

from

hides

recent

supply

South

both

of

are

imported

world's

well.

varieties.

imported

States

which

"Frigorificos,"

manufacture

produce

as

country
of

source

America,

killing-plants

hides

the

South

this

in

tanners

The

trade

all

smaller

both

and
the

over

Some

used

factor

hides

from

aderos."

of

plants

of

tanners

Africa

and

variety

tanner,

are

reader

origin.

dominant

become

many

the

of

shoe,

upper

sole-leather

by

domestic

meat-freezing

hides

"~.

hides

shall

we

as

cases,

general

very

leather

heavy

to

no

sole

into

"spready"

"

thicknesses,

thickness,

industries

two

of

skin,

"sfa

start.

hides

hides

some

or

uppers

greater

making

advantageous

The

are

the

their

in

boot

of
As

of

process
as

the

layers

"Side

with

pelt

as

manufactured

surface

large

extra

several

production

it

to

as

used

the

Where

refers

generally

are

of

upholstery;

the

hides,

hides

and

into

world.

the

always

size

trade

animal.

those

for

trade

from

for

the
of

grades
leather;

of

parts

the

to

clearly defined, being

very

furrier

smaller

from

intermediate

The

"Hie

cattle,

full-grown

known

is

raw

"Hides,"

term,

derived

goats.

or

the

know,

we

as

are

"hide"

is not

the

of

size

heavier

The

sheep,

different

in

dressed,

is

such

"Skins"

small

however,

term,

animal

matter

and

as

The

animals,

larger

calves,

"skin"

meanings

wild

the

form,

manufactured.

is

technically

example,

large

of

while

buffalo;

animals

various

leather

coverings

to

or

animals,

and

which

from

applied

of

skins

they
South

hides,
very

but

heavy.

India

hides, often known

as
kips,because of the small size of the
hides, Russian
horse, and Javanese water-buffalo
hides also find their way
in smaller
to this country
quantities.
East

cattle, China

Indian

Domestic

Sources

might be expected,the chief domestic supply is derived from the

of the Middle
hides
"Packer"
West.
great meat-packing establishments
the
this
dominate
in
but
markets
exercise
not
a
only
country,
strong
hide markets
influence on
throughout the world.
Quite a large supply
As

also

from

comes

added

be

must

smaller

the
a

throughout the country.

they are
are
bought and
classified by:

Classifi-

cation

They are
Weight and
to

choose

random
from

Steer, Free
which

of the

sex
a

not

WTe
and

hides

it might be
classification,

hide
which

refer

weight

to

on

and

sex,

rule

basis

4.

and

to

Butt

Heavy

above

Light

Steer, Branded

Butt

Steer

Extreme

not

of brand

60

of brand

6l/2 ft.

Free

of brand

50

to

60

Ibs.

Free

of brand

25

to

50

Ibs.

branded,

and

branded, smaller

Steer

Light

Light Native

and

Texas

Same
Steer

Same

Cows
Cows

Bull

Branded

Ibs.

25

to

50

Ibs.

60

Ibs. and

50

to

60

Ibs.

25

to

50

Ibs.

Extremes

Heavy

Steers

Bulls
Branded

Hides

up.

brand

60

Ibs.

50

to

60

Ibs.

25

to

50

Ibs.

55

Ibs. and

and

of

Free

of brand
Branded

25

Ibs. and

Free

of brand

25

Ibs. and

Branded

25

Ibs. and

Under

Free

of

Brand

Cow

Free

of

Brand

60

Free

of

Brand

Free

of Brand

55

Ibs. and

up

Free

of

Brand

60

Ibs. and

up

Free

of

Brand

all weights

or

Bull

Hide

Cows

up

60

55

up

up

Ibs.
up
up

up

HIDES

COUNTRY

Heavy

and

Ibs.

Free

Bull

Buffs

up

across

plumper

Cows

Native

thin

Same

butt

and

to

50

spready

Ibs.

in.

18

over

Same

butt

Steer
and

Thus,

Free

Colorados

Native

Branded

butt,

Steer
and

3.

Free

Same

Light Colorado
Steer, Side

Texas

Texas

defects.

marks.

Same

Colorado

Heavy

on

Steer
Branded

pound.

per

Take-off;

60

Branded

Steer, Side

than

from

butt

Light

Extreme

cents

many

cured.

or

HIDES

Steer

Colorado

Heavy
Light

Branded

Butt

Extreme

Heavy
Light

Native

so

the brand

Steer

Light

of

Freedom

Heavy
Steer
Native
Spready
Steer
Light Native
Extreme

taken-off

well

so

pare
com-

price than

lower

"Pennsylvania, Country, Light Native

defects
shall discuss shortlythe various
skins, but before leaving the subject of
well to glance at a list of those terms

PACKER
Native

"Country" hides, which

command

and

these

to

local butchers

from

Geographical origin; 2.

animal;

example:

in

as

1.

Grubs."

found

are

"City" and

sold

cities,and

various

obtained

"Mataderos,"

"Packers," because
All hides

in

number

Both

and

"Saladeros"

to

abattoirs

considerable

Ibs.

25-45

and

up

Ibs.

45-60

Ibs.

II

CHAPTER

SKINS

preceding

the

In
which

made

is

which

skins

dressing

leathers,

different

varieties,

that,

we

with

avoid

ourselves

to

such

of

few

the

ious
var-

so-called
of

array

an

confusion,

hopeless

the

of

manufacture

confronted
to

material

raw

consider

to

come

the

for

once

order

in

confine

to

necessary

at

are

we

When
used

are

the

with

briefly

dealt

we

leather.

sole

into

of

kinds

chapter

comes
be-

it

commonly

most

used.

Calf,

and

goat,

of

skins

used

for

the

buttocks

horse-hide
leather.
the

the

is

made

is

chiefly

for

reason

is

being

alligator, crocodile,
;inds

and

Kips
sources

as

calf

skins

hides.

The

Packers,

the

large quantity

other

the

of

skins

price

is

for

glazed

the
side

leather,

the

garoo,
kan-

dog,

and

antelope,

the

it from

various

leather

into

as

grade

Europe,

weight;
by

groups

breeds
well

of

the

as

value.

men's

and

then

condition

chief

use

and

uppers,

sold

of

the
of

of
the

the

calf

Calf

while
and

India,
calf

skins

markets,

age

same

come

butchers,

their

other

weight

the

country

America,
sell

cattle, the

The

boot

South

most

actual

this

in

country

Packers
in

from

speaking,
used

city and

Chicago

of

determining

high

skins
kid

pound

killed,

from

The

Different

in

outside

skins

on

however,
a

on

calf
skin
skin

heavier

fixed

and

its

itself,
leather
uppers

shoes.

women's
Goat

The

factors

making

in

are

fine

of

saddlery
of

of

from
its

"Patent"

flaying

those

generally
calf

the

from

world.

per

when

of

bulk

graded

skin.

per

all

skins

of

remainder

and

bag

difficultyof

seal, frog, chamois,

imported

are

cents
are

condition
are

used

obtained,

are

others

the

of

parts

basis

for

hide

or

because
the

Kinds
Skin

extensively

are

so-called

into

It is well

deer.

of

from

hides

"shell,"

valuable

material

use

horse
The

japanning

frequently

less

making

bags.

the

leather.

the

of

proportion

greatest

leather, while

excellent

an

the
for

particularly

for

used

its limited

Other

carcass.

is

and

cordovan

into

Pig-skin

used

are

uppers

horse,

far

by

hides, kips, and

cattle

boot

of

form

which

that

making

and

grain,

animals

also

remember

to

skins

sheep

smaller

are

uppers

made

the

material

for
from

from

light, high
these

which

grade

skins

is

are

men's

easily

made
and

the
women's

well-known
footwear.

distinguishable

by

its

Skin

beautiful
Goat

Skin

clear

calf skin.
to
are

made

The
form
from

grain, which is more

uniformly defined than that of
chief difficulty
lies in obtainingskins of sufficient substance
a

strong leather.

Besides

uppers

other

many

articles

the skins of these

for book-binding,
animals; moroccos
upholsteryleather,and sundry articles such as purses,

glove,bag and
pocket-books,and

country, except in

ladies' belts.

no
Practically

Texas, so that the

imported from foreigncountries.

of the
Cape are the chief sources

goats

are

bred

in this

majority of the skins used are

Asia Minor, Spain, Austria,and the
vast

kind

of skins

most

suitable

for

glove

leather,while the best skins for making glace kid are derived from
India, China, Brazil, Mexico, the Cape, and other Asiatic countries.
One

of the

highestgrades,known

province of Behar.

The

most

as

Patnas,

come

from

the

Indian

desirable skins for the manufacture

of

in Norway,
produced on the European continent, particularly
Spain, and Germany. In this country goat skins are usually
bought at a price per dozen.
Sheep are raised in a great many
parts of the world, in fact almost
where
the excessive
in
countries
everywhere
densityof the popexcept
ulation
Sheep-skin
has made
grazing impossible. Nevertheless
good sheep skins
abundant
for this is that
not
are
as
as
might be expected. The reason
these animals
and that,as
and mutton,
raised primarily for wool
are
a
general rule, the higher the qualityof the wool obtained, the less
substantial is the skin.
A large supply of domestic
sheep skins is
obtained
from
the slaughter-houses
of the Middle
West, but a great
number
also imported from
Australia,New
Zealand, Africa, and
are
other countries.
South
America
tremendous
produces
quantities of
the
skins
but
the
to
sent
are
at Mazamet,
sheep,
chiefly
great pulleries
!
France.
used
the
ing
skins
for
are
Sheep
making
cheaper grades of dressthose from
the Cape, for gloves.
leathers,and also, particularly
A common
practice is to splitthe skins of these animals, using the
or
outer,
grain half (the skiver) for glove leather,and the liningfor
"chamois"
or
parchment.
dlery,
such as sadPig skin yieldsa leather which, for certain purposes,
Pig Skin
be approached by any substitute.
Nevertheless
it is so
cannot
these skins, because
of the largequantityof fat that
costlyto remove
is lost in the process,
that most
killers preferto leave the skin on
the
Scotland
and
countries
the
carcass.
only
are
Germany
practically
which produce pig skin in largequantity. Imitations,particularly
for
and
detectible
the
absence
but
bags
are
by
portmanteaus, are numerous,
of the holes left by the bristles.
We have alreadymentioned
of the less frequentlyused skins of
some
other
mammals
well
those
of
of the amphibious reptiles,
and
as
some
as
Other
fish.
sufficient
there
Given
skins
even
are
incentive,
Animals
practicallyno
morocco

are

(161

CHAPTER
FLAYING
Much

Inexpert
Flaying

III

CURING

AND

methods

The

the hides
and
skins
removed
from
the
by which
are
the
to
deal,
slaughtered animals
according
a
great
vary
ideas
countries.
number
of
Moreover,
vast
prevalent in different
a
butchers
still flay in an
the
exceedingly antiquated manner,
by which
hides
rendered
manufacturer.
are
practically useless to the leather
Not
only do inexpert slaughtermen often misshape the hides, instead of
but
leaving them
frequently they actually cut holes or deep
square,
In many
this
scores
through careless handling of their knives.
cases
Kosher
is due
haste.
to
killing
ignorance, in others to ill-warranted
reduces
somewhat
the
value
throat
of a
the
is
entire
hide, because
of

carcasses

slashed.
The
Modern

Methods

ten

French

years

device

known

recently by
going

American

slaughtered, the

Packer

the

System

hind

The

operation
stunned

details

the

into

of

the

in

number

by

how

American

his

The

"Header"

then

"Leg-breakers" loosen
the skin
"Siders," remove
is laid

passes

in

whose

names

hide.

The

off the

neck

The

the

starts

it from

from

to

the
the

After

its back.

on

succession

one

of

or

of its

both

past

has

cattle, which

once

hide
the

this

For

first

are
as

last

"Fell-cutters,"

the

blood

the

from

specific

"Floorsmen,"

hung

more

are

hanging

conveyor

whom

the

remove

shanks, and

it is

animals

known
first man,
and
throat
allowing the

sides.

"Rumpers,"

of

of

is that

head,
or

operation the
it
head-down,

and

"Backers,"

which
from
they detach the
imply the parts of the animal
who
is completed by the "Droppers,"
pull the hide
process
the floor for inspection.
and shoulders, and drop it on

foreman
any

sticking the

of

the

animal

of

one

Thus, taking the case

the head, the
on

task

kinds

overhead

an

and

America.

plants
killed, by

each

workmen,

ever,
how-

Packers,

American

various

blow

severe

sticker, performs
drain.

of

perform.

to

efficient systems,

most

developed by the
freezing plants of South

procedure
animal, immediately after it has been
legs. It then travels slowly along

considerable

to

also

tail-extractor.

about

in Europe, and
great favor
of using
the English method

in

those

the

Without

does

as

invented

flaying,originally

Tainturier, is

results,
the

as

probably

are
more

Gaston

by

excellent

produces
a

mechanical

of

process

ago

cuts

goes
or

over

scores,

each
he

hide

is at

once

$18]

with
able

great
to

care,

tell from

and

if he

their

covers
dis-

location

the hide

on

which

last for any

the ears

not

After

tails,the

workman

made

of all mistakes

hides

is

in the

responsible. Accurate

work,

so

that

an

check

is

kept

inefficient operative does

Check

on

Workmen

length of time.
have
are

Cows, Heavy Native

been

graded

cut, and the switches trimmed

into various
selections,such

the

from
as

Branded

Steers, etc.

favorably with those taken off

Packers,
are
by
preferredby most sole leather tanFrigorificos
because
they are cleaner, more
carefullytrimmed, and fleshed.
jners
and
iThe practicethere is to bathe the cattle thoroughly before killing,
side
under
the
hides.
The
hair
afterwards
wash
is scraped
to
a
!
spray
the surplus
of water
and the flesh side severelybrushed, after which
flesh is scraped off. Accordingly there is less waste
material on
these
the highest
hides than on any other kind, and as a rule,they command
"Packers"
are
price per pound. In the same
given a higher value
way
Argentine Frigorificohides

than
The

"Cities"

or

compare

and

the American

"Countries."

flayingprocess

varies, of

course,

with

animals, but the generalprincipleremains

tender the skin, the greater care
and more
is
it.
aging
|

calves, sheep, goats,

other

Flaying

Hides

$19

the

necessary

from Cattle

The

same.

to

or

smaller

avoid

dam-

After

the hide

only

not

Curing

sible,but also
primitive way

in

some

America,
a

Drying
Unsatis-

Green

Saltmg

Pickled

"India
tanned"

it

clean

as

to

manner

the animal

it is

sary
neces-

posmost

simply to dry the hides in a cool place away from

This practice
shipping them away in loose bundles.
in

and
hide

long
frequently,
moreover,
heat, or by the fact
amount

from

and blood
dirt,manure,
as
it
againstdecay. The
preserve
of

is

China, and
Mexico.

of

to

extent, in India, Arabia,

the most
favorable
circumstances

certain

under

Even

will lose considerable

soaking requiredbefore

certain

Scdtin*

dried

removed

skin has been

wash

the sun, before

is still followed
South

or

to

dried
that

it

hides

they were

moisture

be

can

and

put

skins

dried

remains

in

substance,because
in the lime
are

too

the

ruined

fast.
center

liquor. Very
to
by exposure

In the latter
of

of the

the

case

hide

and

indication of which is the loosening

one
quickly develops putrefaction,
of the hair,known
as
"hair-slip."
A better method
is that of curing the skins with salt and then drying
The latter process
them, or of shippingthem wet-salted to the tanner.
^at
usec^
the
and
hides
American
skins
treated in this
*s
Packers,
ky
or
referred
to
manner
are
as
usually
"green salted,"as opposed to the
salted
condition in which most
dry
foreignhides are received. Frigorificos are
soaked in brine and then shipped in a green
salted condition.
The use
of impure salts,especially
and also
those containing gypsum,
the excessive and uneven
stains,
spreading of salt are likelyto cause
which no
of later treatment
will completely remove.
In modamount
is exercised
both in putting the
ern
packing plants the greatest care
hides in the salt beds, and in brushing them thoroughly when
they are
taken out.
Inasmuch
hides are
sold for so many
as
cents
per pound,
it is essential that vendor
and purchaser agree on
the amount
of tare
caused by salt,manure
and moisture.
One of the best methods
in
of preservingskins is to pickle them
casks of brine, or acid and salt solution.
This is frequentlydone with
of their
be applied to hides,because
sheep and goat skins,but cannot
size. Skins received from foreigncountries, in this condition are
very
of fine dressingleathers.
popular with the tanners
It has long been the practicein India to give the skins a rude preHminary tannage before shipping them to other parts of the world.
Such skins are
referred to by the trade as "India-tanned,"a term
leading
misand in effect
is only partial,
to the layman, because the tannage
of curing, since the majority
than a method
to nothing more
amounts
of tanners
begin by eliminatingits effects.

$20}

CHAPTER

IV

IMPERFECTIONS

Through
may

be

they

may

removed.

not

were

the carcass,
hides
and
skins
Take-off or
being carelessly flayed from
scored, or improperly rounded.
Through imperfect curing CunnS
Defects
be excessively horny, putrefied within, stained
by salt, or permanently
discolored
by the iron in bloody fragments of flesh which

cut,

there

are

All

the

value

countries

have

of

bacillus, which
famous

his

not

other

virus

of

bichloride

hoof-and

herds

immunity

disease,
"Tick"

lasting damage.

less

or

of

all

in

all

with

almost

first

all parts

the

until

it

and

times, is the

"grubs."

Of

the

nefarious

there

these

hypoderma

are

work
chief

two

lineatum,

both

are

with

is the

world,

leaves

and

no

Southern
in our
wastage
the cattle three
four
or

the

of

to

Russia

they

little insects

referred

in

except
known

offenders, the hypoderma

commonly

to

Other
Diseases

outrage.

abnormal

and

extreme

countries

discovered
that "dipping"
was
the
tick
from
prevented
fly
perpetrating its annual
year
Greater
than
the damage
caused
by all animal
diseases,

States
times

the

with
the

reason

curable

is, however,
great

of

municated
com-

first made

disinfected

being

Anthrax

anthrax

easily

is

China

this

diseases

the

is

civilized

from
for

and

without

caused

fever

decrease

degree

of

cattle, but

hides

spores,

in

addition

beings. Pasteur
rendered
by innoculation
of
even
today, because

this germ,
but
disease, it is customary
infected
cattle.
Dry

which

In

often

human

to

with

mouth

which

virulent

most

waste

of mercury.
fever, well-known

milder

carelessness

guard.

causes

greater

this
danger from
destroy and cremate
anthrax
;not
infrequently contain
this country
not
permitted to enter

by human
his

on

skin.

the

and

animals

discovery

attenuated

of natural

to

Perhaps
only lays

is

tanner

animal's

an

caused

defects

the

contend

to

affecting live-stock.
to

the

are

number

considerable

destroy

or

These

against which

ignorance,

or

as

bovis,
warble-

as

Grubs

flies.
larvae

These

insects

their

eat

is still

that
licked

they

the

egg

off,
"

then

eat

is

thus

way

their

lay
through
of

matter

laid

on

finding

their

way

eggs

the

the

on

hide.

Whether

debate;

acrimonious
the

fet-locks

their
out

way

of
into

of

they
some

cattle, from
the

usually along

$21

hides

cattle,

which

digestive tract,
the

in

eat

scientists

and
or

spine; others

wards
out-

contend

they
"

the

and

are

that

maintain

that the eggs

off,and

them

In any

event,

wastage
hide
when

no

Defects

"grubby"
the

larva

Sheep,

while

successful

spine, where

the animal

cannot

lick

then

cure

penetrate the hide from the exterior.

has yet been developed,and the annual

In this country it is customary

to consider
if it contains
than 5 holes, during the months
more
is

doing

sells for
not

damage.

its

lower

affected

by

grubby

hide is classed

as

price per pound.

the

have other similar inwarble-fly,

They also suffer from
shearing the grain of

sect
enemies, such as the blow-flyand ticks.
scabs, and during the winter months
prior to

their skin is

wrinkled, a defect known

as

"cockle," the

cause

of which

definitely
recognized.
-^-11 animals, but particularly
sheep and goats, scratch themselves
briars or cactus
on
plant,or
though this ought not to be permitted
barbed
wire.
India goat skins are particularly
on
likelyto show scars
of this nature, which mar
the grain and reduce the value of the skin.
The
from
origin,grade, take-off,weight, sex, and freedom
fections
imperthe careful buyer of hides and
all things which
skins
are
be able to estimate correctlywhat
must
watch, in order that he may
his yieldof leather will be.
is

Scratches

the

along

is tremendous.

No. 2 hide and

Sheep

laid

are

that the larvae

not

"

"

{221

CHAPTER

THE
Before
leather
the

to

hides

skins,

of those

processes

of

manufacture,

necessary

in

order

consecutive

continuity

to

made

is

processes
reader, there

average

useful

methods
devote

to

of

making

brief

an

task, and

easy

the

on

space

the

applied to
anticipating some

without

so,

not

the

on

different

be

confusion

skin,

yet it would

seem

and

hand,

one

the

of

of

lack

other.

those

Taking only
the

do

avoid

to

the

out

it may

materials, which, when

To

leather.

it into

convert

follow

to

and

enumeration

MATERIALS

MANUFACTURING

proceeding
from

the
are

of which

products

four

general

ways

familiar

most

are

which

in

leather

is

used
for sole, belting^
most
By vegetable tannage;
commonly
pour
leathers.
Also for upper
heavy bag leathers.
s Principal
2.
of
leathers, Means
By "chroming;" used chiefly for calf and kid upper
Making
but also for sole, belting, and
other
leathers.
Leather
3.
By tawing; used for glove leather.
for making
"chamois"
used
leather.
4.
wash
By oil tannage;
or
1.

and

addition

In
with
to

there

which
realize

that

the

not

four

here.

methods

chemical
But

mentioned

combinations

with

tannages

it is

important

above

each

other,

quently
fre-

are

as

shall

we

later.

see

is obtained

Vegetable tannage

vast

the

by soaking

skin

raw

in

containing either the twigs, barks, leaves, roots, or

and
from
made
them.
trees
shrubs, or else extracts

fruits

number

the

(a).

of

Oak,

bark,

very

yields

The

chief

tannin

containing

tannin

of the

contain

sole

trees,

leather

(mixed

and

or

made

extracts

much

tannages
and

Oak

Gambier

of

There

are

Vegetable
Tannage

tain
cer-

are

colloidal

most

from

extensively used.
Quebracho, a
which
is rapidly displacing Oak

Union

Sumach

these

which

tion
solu-

important are :
Wattle, Chestnut, Spruce, and

Willow,

of

American
and

Hemlock,

materials
few

tannin.

as

barks

are

tree,

vegetable

Hemlock,

The

(b).

these

known

substance,

or

cardinal

and

mineral

ourselves

concern

in various

employed

other

certain

are

shall

we

are:

their

South
in

Oak

this

bracho.
QueTrees
wood

American

country.

(Quebracho),

Hemlock).
the

most

important

shrubs, both
Shrubs

used

in

tanning light dressing leathers, or

(23)

in

calf and goat

finishingchromed
Malay Archipelago, is also
liquorsin sole leather tanning.

Valonia, made

^c)

Fruits

and

used

fruit

from

the

Both

extracts.

extensively
of

Near

Indian

an

contain

Eastern

tree,

are

are

depositson leather what the trade knows as

chieflyin conjunction with other materials.

Besides

these there

(in

materials,
combinations

obtain

to

leather

Process

with

speed with which

required for most

completed, as
vegetable tannins

Alum

Both

ning
vegetabletan-

note

of the

some

chromed, while side

now

tanned
is

by

superficially

far the

most

portant
im-

of its great advantages is the

against the great length of time

The
to
complete their work.
fullyin due course,
analyzemore

properly, a tawing
the only other
salts,
on
that
commercial
of tawing
wide
which
finds
.is
application
process
alum
salt.
leather
with
and
Formaldehyde, potassium salts,and
glove
all minerals

Nearly

used

have

minerals

oils,such

Animal

Oil

and

hides

effect

other

Tannage

shall

we

monly
com-

One

tannages.

which

is

process

it is

basis of this process,

Salt. )
is Chrome

tree,

"bloom."

of other
shall

sometimes

is

of the mineral

with

leather

upper

oak
most

effects.

various

kid

and then
usually chromed
vegetablematerials; the chrome

Chrome

Tawing

number

subsequent chapter we

used

tremendous

of the calf and

Most

The

are

the

largeproportion of ellagic

acid,which
used

from

comes

strengthenbark

to

acorns

unripe fruit of

Myrobalans, the

Gambier, which

skins.
used

the

to

wash

tan

have

been

kind

of soft

There

are

the above

as

cod, whale,

leather,which

main

"crown"

or

for

making

most

being tried out every

commonly used materials,and

combinations
most

tannages

attempt

to

in

commercial

discuss

here

the

topic.

{24}

use

particular

"Helvetia."

such

not

the

numberless

represent the

as

tanning agent used

as

oxidized and

oil, are

from the fleshshall see, is made

we
for
also
used
is
making glove leather.

process

leather,known

tannages.

menhaden

and chemicals, which play

dye-stuffs
lead us
do so would
for
to
industry,

shall

in

the

or

the

of

as

are

more

chrome

at

basis

such

brains

tanning, or

in combination

used

splitsof sheep skins; this

and
("Fats

skins, but besides

present

day,
form
time.

but
the
We

subsidiarymaterials,

numerous

too

an

important part

far afield from

the

Sorting Hides

Soaking

and

before Washing

Liming

Pits with

in Drum

Crane

Tumbler

Conveyor

CHAPTER
THE
the

Since
of

skins

and

upper

almost

"

and

woolens,
leather

The

tannery,
of

Part

in

the

from

used

hides

the

the

as

hides

Three,

of

smaller

American

by

converting

manufacture

the

of the

skins

the

entirely separate
of cotton
goods
cattle through the

are

manufacture

first the

then,

light leathers

majority

so

follow

and

and

heavy leather
dressing leathers

much

as

PROCESSES

into

and

shall

we

"

of

kinds

hides

of
shoe

distinct,

sole

PREPARATORY

tanning

into

VI

sole

of

ious
var-

animals.
leather

tanners

Soaking

green-salted. The first thing to be done, after

of
have
been
all traces
the hides
opened out and sorted, is to remove
In
much
dirt
order
this
the
salt and
to
as
possible.
as
accomplish
soaked
soft water,
considered
in clean
hides
ciently
suffiuntil they are
are
clean.
Where
hides
received
dry-salted, or simply flint
are
make
the salt or
the hides
dried, plain soaking will not remove
pliable
the
unless
for
left
in
water
they
so
are
enough
subsequent processes,
deal
of
It
therefore
that
substance
is
lost.
is
a
gelatinous
long
great
the process
hasten
often
to
action, and
by mechanical
by
necessary
The
mechanical
method
chemicals
of softening usually conwell.
as
sists
of kneading the hides
in a drum
is nothing more
tumbler, which
hollow
drum
fitted
shelves
like
those
of
with
than
paddle-wheel.
a
a
the hides
As the drum
are
rotates,
given a thorough beating, and this
is frequently augmented
by introducing acids or alkalies into
process
arrive

the

in

water

Plain
also

of

roots

Since

the

hair

is made

lime

are

by itself
to

also

add

lime
a

vary

single pit, others

use

in

the

lime

not

very

liquor
great
what

of

and

for

deal;

of

more

$27)

as

the

is

that

the

process

varies

four

five

the

do

or

their

hair-bulbs
red

as

than
tanners

some

is known

claim

the

pit.

rapidly destroy
depilatory agent, such

length

The

liming.

experts

many

is

as

liquor is to loosen
removed, but the process

be

tannery,

other
The

sodium.
in

the

that

pits,

lime

in

easily

in

does

some

cement-lined

square,

it, namely

hides

it may

ruined

or

sulphide of
rarely left

methods

that

important

most

the

placing

so

in

suceeds

which

in

done

usually

is

operation

it is customary
or

drum.

the

object

of the

leather

tannery

soaking

the

primary

one

the

at

but

hides

days.
liming

three-pit system,

in

Liming

arsenic

The
in

which

Different

each

Methods

essential

three

of

thing

workman
like

the

pits

is

than

stronger
stirred

be

must

up

the

be

to

One

last.

frequent intervals,
of "pulling." A

at

by the ardous
process
the pit with
into
reaches down
a
long two-handled
five
times
as
a
fire-tongs,
only
long, and pulls out

used

this

and

solutions

successive
is that

done

ment
instru-

the

hides,

This
has now
leaving them on the side of the pit to drain.
process
modern
such
tanneries
devices
been supplanted in some
by mechanical
as
paddle-vats which keep the liquors in motion; in a few tanneries,
the hides
are
hung from
poles joined to a connecting rod opposite
This
ends of which
are
contrivance,
alternatelyraised and lowered.
the "rocker
known
as
pit,"is more
frequently applied to the coloring
pits.
Other
of their
in lime
liquor the hides lose most
During their immersion
Depilatories natural
the
loose
that
and
hair
becomes
it will
so
sufficiently
grease,
methods
off
machine.
There
other
the
of
in
are
unhairing
easilycome
which
done
such
with
is
as
depilation,
sheep skins,
sweating,
frequently
the hair being attacked
by the putrefactionwhich rapidly develops in
method
hair by a treatment
heat.
of removing
with
A
moist
new
but as yet too
is very
efficient,
expensive to be commercially
enzymes
practicable.
The
formerly
operation after liming, namely that of unhairing, was
Unhairing
tasks performed on
the first of a series of manual
wooden
convex
a
still survives
surface
called the beam, which
and gives the name
of

buildingin which these operations are

by machinery. The
formerly
dehairing instrument

"beam-house"
out

knife

blunt

There

Vnhairing

with
the

over

Machine

to

beam, thus

hides

The

right. By

use

loosened

for

was

ward
scraped down-

was

hair.

unhairing, the

chief

two

types

table

soft felt

rubber
backing
usually converge

or

knives, which

helical

in

the

the hide

carried

now

used

The
latter is almost
feed, and the ^^Uet^ed.
for hides, while the former
is employed for lightskins.
fed over
roller,immediately after coming out of lime,
a

are
a

removing

machines

various

are

edge, with which

concave

being the serial

invariablyused
between

the

this

the

means

hair

is

and

cylinder armed

half

to

scraped

the

off

left and

and

the

dull

with
half

hide

to

the

slightly

stretched.
The

Fleshing

and
use

next

thing

this is done
knife

first

one

with
and

then

accomplished by
to

remove

is

in

the hair.

to
a

very

sharp

lawn-mowc

other

the

The

work

similar

flesh

over

adhering

manner.

blade

convex

machine

instead of being blunt, are

fleshingmachines

the

remove

and
the

to

The

old

dull

concave

beam;

but

the

side,

inner

method

to

was

edge, using
all

this

is

now

differs very
little from
the one
used
real difference
is that the helical knives,

which

only
exceedingly sharp. Both the unhairing and
much
the principle of the ordinary
on
very

Whereas,
processes

the

in

making

as

we

shall

see

later,there remain

several other

preliminary

making of upper leather,there only remain two in

The first consists in removing
of hides into sole leather.
the

hand what few short hairs have escaped the machine, and the second
simply the washing out of the lime which still remains in the hides.
is continually
water
The latter is usually done in a drum, into which
of
fed through a hollow
axle, but is sometimes
accomplishedby means
used
is
sole
acid
for
bath.
The
acid
method, however,
an
rarely

by
is

leather.
After

they have

and
liquors,

from

been
now

cleansed
on

we

must

the hides

are

ready

for

think of the hair side

Unhairing

29

as

the

tanning

the

"grain."

De-liming

Trimming

Working

Cylinder

on

the

Beam

of Fleshing

Machine

BUTT

DOUBLE

BEND

SHOULDER

BELLY

"Rounded"

Hide,

two

Methods

The

second

stronger tanning

pit.

pits, known
than

solution

"handler"

weakest

of

series

into the

pumped

is

the

as

the first.

"handlers," contains

Usually

last

Similarly,the

strongest "handler"
There
are
usually six

the

liquor from

the

"suspender"
liquor from the

strongest

or

derives

its

"Handlers'

"layer."
or
eight "handlers," and the
or
liquorsare frequentlystrengthenedby extracts
gambier. In these
pits,as in the succeeding"layaways," the hides are laid flat instead
of being hung from
poles. The first handler liquor usually reads
weakest

about

25"

the

used
barkometer
indicate the
to
(an instrument
this
is
and
until the
solutions),
increased,
tanning
gradually
on

strengthof

final process
is reached.
the
In
"layers,"of which

used, which
100".

high as

the

toughen

In order

to

there

are
usually five,strong extracts are
often registering
leather,the barkometer
as
give the leather what the trade calls "bloom"

this stage to
ellagicacid. The

it is customary

at

add

valonia,

or

other

some

"Layers"

substance

in the pits
length of time consumed
varies with the kind of leather to be produced, and also with the ideas
The generaltendency is to hasten the process
of different tanners.
as
much
as
possibleby the use of stronger extracts, which often has a
deleterious effect upon
the product. Good
sole leather
vegetable-tanned

containing

in the

remains

There
duction
is

pits for several months

is,however,

method

one

of mechanical

Drums

for almost

sometimes

"

hasteningthe

process,

This system, known

action.

used by
successfully

of

French

many

and

wheels

a
year.
the intrd

tanningTDrum

drum

as

Tanning
leather]

sole

American

some

with

by

the

hides

anc
revolvingpaddle
keep
the
of
motion, thereby so accelerating process
impregnation
that, by gradually strengtheningthe liquors with extracts, hides can
be tanned in a few days. The leather produced in this way, however
is not
generallyconsidered as durable as that tanned more
slowly in
the pits,and also is very likelyto have a loose grain.

tanners.

liquorsin

The

oldest

drain

sole leather

practiceamong

after

being removed
has
production
brought about
to

trivances, such
transferred

is to

process

as

from

reels

the

of the
The

are

use

most

also used
of stronger

commonly

in this country

are:

with

hides

to

add

is to

tanners

usage

by

the hides

of mechanical

of which

means

Another

acid

allow

pit,but the desire for speedy

common

cranes,

suspenders,the objectbeing
ized oils

the

each

pit to another.

one

treat

or

from

before

of

way

the hides

conare

yarious

Speeding
Methods

shorteningthe

putting them

into the

susceptible.Solubilgreater water-proofqualityand to permit

to

make

them

more

extracts.

used

vegetablematerials

for

tanning sole leather")

and gambier.
/

oak, quebracho,hemlock, valonia

{35

VIII.

CHAPTER

SOLE

FINISHING

LEATHER

has been
sole leather
into
of hides
Strictlyspeaking, the conversion
leather
sole
is sold,
since
However,
completed in the "layaways."
and
color
since
but by weight, and
not
by superficial measurement,
finish
affecting the price it commands,
are
important considerations
the product
of operations before
considerable
number
there
remain
a
is

first of

The

"Seasoning'

the market.

for

ready

the
usually consists of what
finishing processes
"seasoning." As in any other industry, this
a
large field. Proper seasoning consists in fixing

these

calls

mysteriously

tanner

is used

term

to

cover

in

l]iej^mnmjn_jh^^
term'means

caseTTnTs

result is not
The
oils.
only a fixing,
sulphonated animal
stance
suband
additional
weight
saturation,
lending
complete
often
the product.
This
not
is
abused,
although
process
the
of
much
chemicals,
use
hygroscopic
now
formerly, by
as

with

mixed
but

more

to

nearly
such

as

The

'Bleaching"

"

so

as

soon

it

most

extracts
the^teain^rinsTrieiig^hot

drumming

"

exposed

of

use

strong

to

trade.

only

not

extracts

for

the

besides

leather

the

but

washed

are

out

as

water.

color, which

dask. brown

swell

salts, which

barium
it is

next
Accordingly,
lightening the color,
If bleaching is carried

is

to

remove

operation
also

serves

far

too

popular
bleaching process,
is not

reason

some

it

leather, but

the

saturates

easily

gives

with

the

which

ing.
superfluous season-

results

in

injury

to

the

fibres.
As

Drying
and

Oiling

rule

hung for this

drying loft.
oiled^c-nthe
used.
the

to

once

"SettingOut"

Alter

leather

stage

was

it is

meaning

is

over

purpose

leather

the

operation

leather

now

wooden

to

for

bars

dry

and

setting-out machine.

the

When

allowed

several
days, being
placed in racks in the
and
has
sufficient time
After
elapsed it is taken down
a
commonly
grain side with a swob, cod-oil being the most
how
thoroughly it has been dried,
oiling,depending upon
be hung in the loft once
either
or
passed on at
more,
may
the

usually

that

is

called,
if the

in

to

be

set-out,

it still contains

what

the

tanner

piece is doubled

(36

pinned,

or
a

great

deal

calls
over

it

as

the

old

of moisture;
"sammed"

will

manual
at

this

condition,

just barely exude

Bleaching

Oiling

Setting Out

Rolling

Brushing

moisture

of

the

at

exerted
the

the

The

leather

the

In

they

before
sides

that

namely

the

After

coloring
use

particular
grain

finishing

the

bellies

the

heads

/taken

up

(leather.

at

particulars:

surface

frequently

lost

by
raised

and

in

first, the

'Rolling

time

weak

the

flesh

is

the

by

used

stretched

brushing

the

various

them.

of

Thus,

sole-leather,

chrome

sole,

process

for
sole
to

and

the

and

differs

regain

second,
up

of

tennis

fluffy

be\

upper]
proof
water-

chiefly
some

fibres.

while

will

manufacture

chrome

astringents;
side

made

"Striking-

The]

purchaser.

chrome

with

neck.

machine

for

light

grain,

the

high-grade

The

exerting
the

by

or

same

be

by

about

the

ners
tan-

some

out

hand,

into

extensively

leather

which,

the

finisheo!_as

for

this

smooths

for

to

stock./

process

with

treatment

is

connection
is

After

by

ready

made

are

heel

into

finishing

on

this

with

wrinkles

precisely
what

on

lot

chromed

the

and

always

sole-leather
The

tennis-

dry,

to

machine,

either

polished,

not

length

greater

Chrome

man

"sized"

leather,

eliminate

inspected

is

finished

were

the

of

part

given

be

might

then
time.

striking-out

to

depending
of

bends

shoes.
two

it
are

hide,

the

the

rolls

allowed

is

second

the

the

small

usually

which

processes

of

parts
while

for

taken

being

after

buffer,

then

is

the

pulling

by

use.

again
It

penders"
"susis

'Sizing"

on

care

is

others,

the

done

as

in

moisture.

called

pressure

leather

between

was

much

leather,

point

In

development

next

this

everywhere

the

rolled

and

machine

extreme

the

little

very

the

Formerly

now

while

this

to

sides.

two

rounding,

of
case

any

through

form

to

time

rolling.

rolling,

matter,

center

In

over

brought

are

the

at

are

first

contains

it

The

the

of

machines

but

until

down

roller

weighted

heavily
court,

butt-bends

"handlers."

little

of

pairs

two

after

out

precisely

is

of

means

and

off,

pressure

squeezing

This

grease.

by

scraped

the

in

rolling.

first

its

separated

are

and
same,

cut

are

then

is

that

obvious

is

result

and

moisture

the

tanneries

some

the

for

will

accomplishes,

scud

ready

is

surplus

It

bent.

is

condition

machine

setting-out

rollers.

metal

by

it

this

in

formed

scum

what

where

point

leather

upon

of
nap

in

the
is

IX

CHAPTER

OTHER
There
the
Of

way

Sumached
and

Stuffed

manufacture

taken
them

of

hand

by
of

similar

cod-oil
but

only

power.

first of

are

all shaved

order

in

to

(The

of

tallow.

hot

air

than

Formerly
has

operation

called

machine
or

throughout.

manual

operation,

the

rolled, and

and

the

greases

to

widths

this

After

Finishing

the

into

the

drum,

once

done

was

by

it has

means

in modern

replaced
Through

stuffingdrum.

the

become

duction
intro-

possible

to

tallow.
the

surplus

is

grease

setting-out of sole-leather, and

dried

this
been

after

more,

which

removed

the

by

leather

it is cut

is

into

up

scudding,
then

the

dried,
desired

belting.

made
by
produce
an
yet
process
method
This
in
with
consists
together
pasting
equally strong product.
of flesh splits of hides.
similar
collodion
adhesive, a number
some
or
the belting produced
be used, and
of splits may
in this
Any number
with
manufacturers.
Chromed
fast
favor
is
gaining
belting has
way
that
material
it is not
the advantage over
so
vegetable-tanned
ible
susceptbut it has the disadvantage of being more
to water
likely
or
steam,

During

to

recent

which

large quantity
is cheaper, and

of

belting

has

is claimed

been
to

stretch.

tanning

separate

trade

of

years

different

The

Harness

Leather

butts

the

tan

thickness

steam

heavier

use

Belting

of

one

swob,

tanneries

Chrome

of

transmission

of

out

with

and

the

manner.

consider

shall

we

is one
shaving process
shall
become
familiar
which
in a subsequent chapter.)
with
we
more
drummed
sumach
and
in a strong
liquor, instead
They are then washed
bleached.
After
this they are
struck-out
and
of being seasoned
to
smooth
the grain, and
are
ready for "stuffing."
is now
pregnated
immake
In order
it pliable as well
to
as
strong the leather
make

of

Laminated

for

leathers,

different

lines as that of
belting proceeds along the same
After
the
sole-leather
far
the
tanning proper
as
finishing process.
as
is completed, belting is given a
designed to yield tensile
treatment,
used
for
strength rather than weight. As a rule only the butts are
of
sufficient
this purpose,
the shoulders
not
being
strength.
The

When
Shaved

industrial

as

in much

tanned

are

leather, but

large class, known

namely that used

one,

Belting

sole

as

LEATHERS

heavy leathers, which

finished in quite

so-called

several

are

same

HEAVY

sole

chief

use

and
in

and
is
saddlery leathers
currying of harness
the manufacture
itself,but does not vary enough from

and
in

belting
this

leathers

field.

to

justifyanalysis here.

Pig-skin

finds

its

Sorting

Paddle

Skins

Vats

CHAPTER

CALF
the

In

in

are

manufacture

many

There

two

shall

desire

In

tanned,

of

the

the

skins
In

we

have

all

of

Then,

fleshed;

following
the

in

the

days.

As

drum

soon

Some

second

of

be

of

the

skins

or

unevenness.

to

weigh

like

skin

is

even

as

are

grades
is

worked

and

by

number

sheets

as

point

of

in

the

to

work

thickness

calf

hand

the

over

this

is

the

skins,

done,

time

unhaired,
time

"cheeked"

which

that

so

the

After
to

be
to

at

the

moved
re-

ten

in

all

this

leather

the

fleshing,
short

any
in

the

thickest

second

remove

custom

look

to

six

before

which

by

performed

the

Fleshing

closely.

are

beam

and

times
some-

washed

are

or

usually

are

Liming
Unhairing

salt

leather

from

is

they

more

skins

it is

they
sole

as

first

are

traces

Soaking

dure
proce-

of

sufficiently loose

is
usual

possible.

as

the

skins

lime,

hung

operation
is

Sorting

hairs

tanneries

many

stage

much

very

rubber.

wet

of

tanning
out

of

machine

levelled, and

When

thin

Just
this

the

fleshed, this

again
This

been

have

skins

heavier

fleshing.

portion
may

the

of

the

as

and

The

the

upon

Accordingly

from

all

into
not

hair

machine.

unhairing

tumbler,

the

until

lime-pits,

"

by

depends

The

remove

once

"

is

process.

difference
hides.

to

at

deal

monly
com-

leather

lots.

little

laid

are

less

upper

produced.

be

preparing

going

this, they

other

are

chrome

great
to

uniform

days

skins, split hides

some

the

by
a

very

three

of

While

and

leather, which

shoe

There

chiefly

materials,

skins, goat

leather

is
in

or

instead

pickle.

sheep

skins.

into

there

two

calf

of

followed

just
for

from

leather.

arising

raw

pliability. Upper

tanning,

sorted

processes,

soaked

is

for
kind

the

processes
sole

making

differences
of

produced

is

preparatory

in

substance

kangaroo.

as

the

carefully

are

first

and

skins

and

skins

the

and

fully 90%
calf

preparing

grade

very

such

materials

the

employed

lighter

hides,

LEATHER

important

first, is made

(side leather),

vegetable

those

softness

horse

SHOE

lighter leathers,
to

many

for

consider

used

the

first, the

causes;

the

second,
we

of

ways

UPPER

FOR

similar

however,

are,

from

SKINS

the

hides

for

heavy
lime

remaining

leather, it is necessary

from

the

skins, but

in

and

supple.

For

at

tion,
addi"Bating"

it
purpose

placing

is

essential

the
them

skins
in

to
are

render
now

solution

the

subjected
of

soft

material

animal

to

intense

dung.

Where

bacterial
calf

this

action,
skins

are

by
to

be

finished

hen
bag-leather,

into

pigeon dung is used, but where

desired,as
leather,a stronger agent
upper
is usually employed.
The
name
given to this

is
great pliability

such

dog

as

or

for boot

manure

its disagreeableness
has
"bating," and of recent
years
been
of artificial puers
such
considerably lessened by the use
as
"Oropon." At best, however, the process is far from pleasant,even
of the skins
test the condition
though one no longer sees the workmen
in
former
them,
as
by biting
days.
In order to remove
the puer
from
the skins before putting them
the
into
tanning solution,they are either scudded or washed in a drum
Scudding
Some
tumbler.
"drench"
of bran.
tanners
use
a
"Scudding" consists
the scum
in pressing and scraping out
and completes the preparation
of calf skins for the chrome
liquor.
Chrome
"tanning," which is really not a tannage, but a tawing Chrome

is

treatment

is effected in

process,

bath

methods.

skins

in

of two

one

known

ways,

the one-bath

as

and

two-

Both

of the
are
usually preceded by an immersion
calls it,
sulphuricsolution
pickle,as the tanner
which renders them more
salts.
to the effects of chrome
susceptible
In the one-bath method
the skins are
soaked
in a liquor containing
basic chromium
sulphateor chloride,obtained by a mixture of chrome
and
alum
soda
bichromate
of potash, or
common
or
by reducing
chromic
acid with glucose. The
one-bath
system usually employs a
drum
tumbler
the solution is gradually strengthened.
in which
The
two-bath
since a slighterror
in
requires more
care,
process
would
entirelyalter the character of the leather.
mixing the ingredients
In the first bath, the skins are
placed in a covered paddle-vat,or in a
and
drum-tumbler,
exposed to the action of chromic acid. The latter
is obtained
from
bichromate
of potash and muriatic
This soluacid.
tion
the skins to a lightorange
color and leaves them in a state
turns
which

is

between

alum

or

"

poisonous
the

the touch.

to

baths,

two

of the second

bath

reduce

in

soda

"

Some

order

in

is to

usually accomplished

to

"strike-out"

tanners

all wrinkles.

remove

the acid

to

drum-tumbler
acid.

the leather
The

object

oxide, and this is

containing a solution of

an

inert

This

produces a
process
Then, as
dirtybrown.
the chemical
action continues, the sulphur works
free,leavingthe skins
a
pale bluish color, which can be made completely white by adding

hypo-sulphiteof
sulphurous acid

and

and

turns

muriatic

the leather

to

dark

soda.

more

The

chrome

with

the

remembered,
and

Process

finds its

process

making

of

universal

most

calf,side,and

however, that it is used

beltingand

also of

recent

years

as

in

545

tion
applicationin conjunc-

be
leather. It must
upper
sole
the
manufacture
of
well in
kid

making glove and fancy leathers.

One-Bath
Method

Two-Bath
Method

Shaving

Row

Machine

of Fat-Liquoring Drums

As

soon

they
a

as

skins

are

taken

wooden

horses

to

drain.

on

similar

machine

the

the chromed

hung

are

that used

to

has

surplus moisture

skins

the

on

thus

for
been

the last

They

are

to

of

by Setting-out

lighter.When

it is usual

them

make

drum-tumbler,

then "set out"

sole leather, only

removed,

order

flesh side, in

from

to

shave

the

thickness

even

throughout.
Before
done
invented, this operation was
adequate machinery was
The modern
of wastage.
by hand and caused a large amount
shaving Shaving
machine
is a triumph of mechanical
precision,and deserves detailed
of space, we
devote to it
cannot
study,which unfortunatelyfor want
The principleis once
here.
that of the lawn-mower
more
a
rapidly
with sharp helical knives
the adjustment
revolvingcylinder armed
of great delicacy.
is a matter
of which
After a satisfactory
flesh surface has been obtained, the skins are
"

"

sorted into various

constitutes
and

the

Calf
is at

whom

to

this task

skins may
this point,after

is

of the many

one

sorting Sorting

gained by the tanner,

be highly trained.
delegatedmust

of different ways, and it

great number
mine
must
shaving,that the manufacturer
finallydeter-

be finished in

which

This

important factor in the results

very

man

in different shades.

lots,to be colored

finishes is

to

be

applied to

each

lot of

skins.
The

next

of these

is

process

three

and
usually referred to as "fat-liquoring,"
and oiling. All
coloring,filling

distinct features,
"

are

processes

combined

sometimes

into

one,

but

more

prises
com-

Coloring

three

"Fat-

often

Liquoring9

in different drums.

effected

Dyeing is done in many

ways,
used vary a great
even
drums, vats
by dipping.
dye-stuffs
Sumach
quently
deal and constitute a study in themselves.
or
gambier are freand
used in this process
both as
to give a
coloring agents
of
consists
supplementary vegetable tannage.
Fat-liquoringproper
the leather with soaps, oils,starch,china clay,tallow,egg yolk,
filling
The objectis to strengthenthe
of other materials.
or
a
great number
fibres and render the leather soft and pliable,
time giving
at the same
The process
it the desired color.
is usuallycarried out at high temperature
tumbler
in the drum
and changes the leather from
its bluish tint
they

are

to

The

and

in

black
The

or

skins
the

remove

smoothes
to

colors.

hung to dry, after which they

An
superfluousmatter.
operation known

out

dry

are

now

the wrinkles

the

in

until it reaches

shanks, and

"sammed"

laid in

the

"set-out"

are
as

leather

to

"shanking"
is then

condition,after which

lowed
alit is

damp sawdust until it is soft enough to be "staked."

similar to "setting-out."Its Staking
"Staking" is an operation somewhat
objectis to smooth the surfaces, remove
foreignmatter, and make the
leather supple, in fact,this one
treatment
changes the "crusty"skins
"

{47)

what

into

types

looks

of

material
machine

and
the

skins

knife

Each

skin
it in

chrome

is

all

let it

at

laid
the

on

process

is

in

and

the

blunt

the

grasp

another

and

surface
arm,

several
a

uninitiated

the
out

them;

are
over

type
curried

are

by

of which

action

of

is

leg. (See fig.)

wooden

that

regained.

There

pulled

reach

wooden

is

reminds

inclined

of

directions, so

board
of

some

Inasmuch

in

the

such

as

upper
weight, as in

as

way

caused

shrinkage

leather

is

to

by
sold

sole
by
of
considerable
is
tance.
impor"straining"
as
operation
removed
been
the skins have
When
dried, they are
sufficiently
the board
and usually given a second
from
"staking,"which, however,
the lighter skins.
with
is not
this, the rough
Following
necessary
and the grain is usually brushed.
off by hand
edges are trimmed
known
The
next
as
seasoning, is not like the seasoning of
process,
the same
sole leather, although it does
certain extent
to
serve
a
poses.
purseveral
between
is fed
leather
The
by a belt conveyor
those
in a similar
to
act
on
manner
a
rollers, which
printing press,
mixture
the
of
surface
with
shellac, and paint.
a
wax,
impregnating
The
color, finish, and smoothness.
Many
are
objects to be obtained
used
tanners
prefer to apply their seasoning by hand, and the mixture
As soon
finish to be produced.
varies a great deal with the ultimate
which
the last coat
is dry, the leather is ready for its final treatment,
as
of finishes.
of a number
consists of being given any
one
and

not

the

case

of

known

leather, this

Finishes

out
an

on

end

tacked

which

between

grasshopper's hind
now

leather.

leather

crocodile, which

slip

by superficialmeasurement,

Seasoning

the

some

contrivance,

are

fixed
of

stretch
the

in

jaws of

then

reminiscent

Straining

the

like finished

layman

mechanical

of

observer

blunt

the

staking machines:

edge by

to

in three general ways:

Calf-skin
is finished
first,the smooth
grain
grain finish, box and
finish, glace,gun-metal, etc.; second, boarded
There
and
suede.
are
willow; and third, flesh finish, ooze
many
"

"

"

variations

for

all three

methods,

and

all

are

used

both

for

colors

and

blacks.
1. Smooth
gram

polish by rubbing
Glazing consists of giving the leather a permanent
The
with
operation resembles
a
glass sleeker.
high pressure
difference
the chief
staking with a grasshopper type of machine,
der
being that the working tool, instead of a knife, is a small fixed cylinthan
manufacturers
of glass. Some
depending
glaze more
once,
the height of polish desired.
upon
duller surface
is to be obtained, glazing is supplanted by
Where
a
much
the leather in a contrivance
of
which
consists
"plating,"
pressing
his
customers'
tailor
like that in which
trousers.
an
up-to-date
presses
The
but not very
shiny, and is usually called
resultingfinish is smooth
"gun-metal."
fa at

"

a.

Glazing

"Gun-metal"
b.

Plating

Straining

Seasoning

and

Drying

finish" is obtained

so-called "mat

by dressingthe grain with olive

"draggy" quality desirable for boot
Such
leather
has
the
advantage of superior softness and comfort.
tops.
of
In some
shoes, notably in English brogans,the public has
types
shows
distinct grain marking.
become
accustomed
to a leather which
a
the
surface
This is achieved
with a cork board
by pressure on
grain
which
the
natural depressionsin the skin
brings out
("boarding"),
left by the roots
of the hair.
Boarding is usuallydone by hand, with
oil, thereby giving

tool which

leather

is known

The

"Box"

as

short

This

nap.

velvetysurface.
exceedinglypopular for
a

soft

Where

grain

by
it

on

piece of leather
grain, it is often, if
a

"snuffing."The
wheel

course,

leather is of

itself

armed

severe

after the

such

originator of

usuallyreferred

to

readilyto being raised in a

brushing,which produces

finishes,known

as

suede

or

ooze,

types of ladies' shoes.

the finishingstage with
reaches

with

not

submitted
flesh-finished,

latter consists
carborundum

very

lack

mysterious trade

2. "Boarded"

Grain

'Box"

and

'Willow"

low"
"Wil-

as

3. Flesh

Finish

are

in

to

smoothing

cloth,or

similar

an

an

down

perfect
im-

tion
opera-

the

abrasive,

be obtained,although
surface can
satisfactory
grain markings. Such "snuffed"
calf,under
secondarygrade and is sold as corrected-grain

of which

means

will, of

various

Such

is

finished black

"Mat-

finish"

certain

called

lends

accomplished by

is

When

calf, being named

flesh side of calf-skin

The

fore-arm.

finish in colors

same

c.

certain

the workman's

fits on

the process.
calf.

it

the natural

names.

(51)

4.

Snuffing

Mechanical

Foot

Counter

Sorting

and

Making

Bundles

CHAPTER
SIDE
truth

If the

PATENT

AND

known,

were

that

belief

XI

great

LEATHER
of

many

who

us,

clothed

fondly

the

cherish

calf-skin

our
pedal
are
uppers,
of the leather
known
the public
sadly disillusioned; for much
to
"calf"
in reality from
animal
which
has long forgotten its
comes
as
an
calf-hood.
known
finish
of calf-skin
has
been
tated
imiPractically every

extremities

in

would

be

more

the

then

hides

procedure
of

eye

the

of

shoe

that

state

"side

in

the

leather," and

detect

to

expert

an

this

is

public

trades

in

really only

is

in

cases

many

difference.

the

leather

and

full-grown

of

this

making

calf, which

and

weights

to

tinctly
It is dis-

this

that
country
deceived
where
it

"sides."

It

hide

scored

kind

of

is

ourselves

with

only
sorted

are

then
They
are
the
and
split down
follow
necessarily

shanks,
does

not

would

go

while

the

other

tanners

frequently

both

sides

fleshing

and

our

differences.

salient

trimmed

it

purposes

hide-cellar

into

around

various

the

heads,
_

into

spine
that

the

sections,

two

sides

two

side

one

or

"J^,

the

from

branded

be

might
liming then follow,
they go into lime.
place after the lime

Soaking and
fleshing before
unhairing take

not.

The

ture
manufac-

the

to

for

few

for

sort,

same

was

the

giving

some

More

the

into

so

the

in

than

similar

just discussed, that

hides

the

leather

more

thicknesses.

Nothing

several

into

qualities.

and

switches,

cattle, split
have

we

concern

with,

"side-leather?"

mysterious

of

is necessary
To
begin

or

of

itself.

What

same

successfully

credit

fairly

may

deceives

the

the

tax
to

one

less

or

it would

bath.
In

split,which
for

treatment

instead
a

of

later

manner

series

the

of

rollers

the

grain
out

the

fascinating
of

has

"splitting

stage

hides

the

tanneries

most

then

and

to

until

of

the

they

permitting

splits.

the

The

observe;

revolving band-knife, which

top, or grain split is of even

flesh

lime,"

when

of

advantage
and

process.

they

scudded

are

hides

In

sides

are

fed

exceedingly
slices through in such
thickness
throughout.
meet

an

$53}

sharp
a

at

in

operates

in, butt

The

tan"

of

out

machine

first, over
and

manner

exact

Splitting

however,

cases,

"split

are

splitting

lime

ent
entirely differ-

an

some

of

out

come

a
a

rapidly
that

the

thickness

Feed

End

of SplittingMachine

mm

Delivery

End

showing

two

Splits

regulated,and

be

can

all

multisection

roller.

Some

by

but

frequently,with largeheavy hides

is made

the hide

in

unevennesses

brass

for

in

compensated Splitting
are
splitonly once, Machine
the
particular, lower section
are

sides

several flesh

splits.
regularprocedure of bating,drenching,and scudding is now
resumed
and the splitsides are
in
chromed, colored and fat-liquored
the same
calf-skins.
much
in
as
Samming,
sawdust,
damping
way
follow in due course
until the finishing
staking,straining,and re-staking
into

The

reached.

operations are

be finished

Side
we

leather may
now
have seen
calf-skins

treated.

of the ways
in which
Finishing
is, of course,
not
fine,
as

in any

one

Its texture

the grain marking of calf leather,for which

reason
ever,
frequentlysnuffed and given a gun-metal finish. It is howperfectlyfeasible to produce in side leather a grain which only
detect as artificial. This is done by various methods
an
expert would
of embossing and printing.
One
important finish applied to side leather is the japanning
very
This treatment
which
varies
produces so-called patent-leather.
process,
in that the sides are
de-greasedin
considerablyfrom all other finishes,
in order
benzine solution after being fat-liquored.This is necessary
take
which
The
that the succeedingtreatment
effect.
sides,
may
proper
have been colored a dark purple,are then stretched on wooden
frames
of tacks along the back, and clips and stringsalong the
by means
shanks and belly. The leather is left on these frames until the entire
has been completed.
japanning treatment
itself consists of three coats, after the applicationof
The
process
and
each one
of which
the frames
are
placed on racks in huge ovens
it have

does

nor

it is

more

baked.

Some

country

all three

of

contains

last is

no

are

doubt

leather

It is well

shoes

here

japanned

excellence

to

large extent

and

acetate

certain

the reader

to

Horse-hides, and
par

and

entirelyto
placed in the

then

note

containingamyl
add

for dress
to

from

cattle.

more

familiar

used

is made

made

are

black

almost

given

the frames
is

coats

priming solution

second

japan the flesh side,but in this

applied on the grain. The first consists

manufacturers

German

lustre.
sun.

in the

and

Usually, where
result of this

The

not

Russian
particularly

and
for this purpose,
from
goat-skins.

55

our

from

the hides

patent

Baked

possible,
treatment

patent leather

colt-skins,
are

German

Three
Coats

the

smooth, glossy,black patent-

all of it is derived

Leather

oil, the

bags.

that,while the majority of

sides

banana

of varnish, and

amount

Patent

the

of
terial
ma-

leather

is

Setting out

Straining

Side

Side

Leather

Leather

XII

CHAPTER
GOAT-SKINS
The
of

famous

the

of

parts

glace kid upper

popular leathers

most

made

are

from
the

"Km"

AND

the

skins

world.

The

hard

pelt, and

generally considered the

Europe and Mexico

UPPER

LEATHER

leather, and
used

for

of

goats, which
small
Indian

these

skins, known

most

desirable.

dull

finished

kid

are

two

Both
high-grade footwear.
from
various
are
imported
has
grained
finea
particularly
goat
as

Patnas

Goat-skins

and
from

Behars, are
key,
China, Tur-

usually somewhat
larger and softer,and
in a slightlydifferent manner.
are,
Goat-skins
are
shipped green-salted,or dry, or pickled in barrels.
The
latter is the most
desirable method
of preservation from
the point
of view
of the tanner, but, because
of the expense,
is usually restricted
kid-skins to be used
for gloves. Some
to
India
skins
are
roughly
babool
tanned
with
known
India-tanned
by the natives, and are
as
this preliminary tannage has to be off-set to
as
goat-skins;inasmuch
certain
not
a
extent, these skins are
very popular, except with certain
are

therefore, treated

manufacturers

who

use

the

babool

tannage

as

basis

for

their subsequent

processes.

The

first step in the tannery

weights, after which, as the

and

carefully and
in

each

shanks

lot

and

as

put

into

uniform

switches

are

is the

assorting of bales

grades
opened, the skins are sorted
different lots,the aim
being to have the skins
to
kind, size, and weight, as possible. The
as
then trimmed, and
the skins are
weighed and
bales

into

are

numbered.
The

in which
the skins have
soaking process varies with the manner
and
is
sometimes
action.
preserved,
augmented by mechanical
the
is used
and
to
make
Very frequently a drum-tumbler
open
pores
the skins susceptibleto the lime.
kid tanners
Most
two
use
successively
stronger lime solutions, leaving the skins in each for a varying number
of days, according to the type of skins and the time of
year.
Unhairing, washing, and fleshingthen follow in this order, the hair
The
being separated into black and white, and carefullygathered up.
machines
used
are
similar, but of a lightertype than those used for
hides
and
calf -skins.
After
being fleshed, the skins are
gristly and

been

^58

tough, and
bating with

in

order

to

they

given

are

strong

Oropon. They are then scudded, (or

"slated,"to use strict goat terminology),washed, and gone over
by
hand, after which they are ready to leave the beam house.
Most
al- Chroming
goat-skinsare "tanned"
by the two-bath chrome
process
ready described in a previous chapter. Between the chrome bath and
almost
the "hypo" they are
all
invariably struck out to remove
After the second
bath they are
wrinkles.
horses
drain,
on
to
placed
and are
then ready to be shaved.
have a thin splittaken off the butt;
A few of the thickest goat-skins
the

dog-manure

alter this condition

majority, however,

are

or

shaved

for colors

until the skin is of

and

an

even

thickness.

Fatfat-liquoring
liquoring
After the skins have been
in fat-liquor,
room.
dyed and drummed
similar
This
down"
to
are
operation,
setting-out,
"brings
they
put-out.
The
surface.
leather is then well
the grain and produces a smooth
oiled on
the grain and hung up to dry for a certain length of time,
allowed
the skins are
after which
to "lie in crust" until they are
ready
and staked.
in sawdust
to be damped
Before seasoning, the edges are
trimmed, and the unshaved parts of
the flesh sides are buffed.
Seasoning is very important in this kind of Finishing
of combinations
used to lay a
leather,and there are an infinite number
foundation
for
If
dull
finish
be
is
to
a
produced the
good
glazing.
is
and
leather
either
much
the
is
lighter
plated or
seasoning
very
Dull
ironed by hand.
Kid leather is marked
by an unusually fine and characteristic grain,
which
looks particularly
well after it has been glazed. It is lighterin
than calfskin,but more
substance
closelyknit, and for these reasons
ideal
forms
for
shoes.
material
ladies'
Moreover, goat-skincan
an
different
shades
number
of
of color which
be dyed a great
not
are
ordinarilyused for calf or side leather.

They

are

then

sorted

or

blacks

159

sent

to

the

CHAPTER
UPPER

OTHER
The

great

goat,

side

or

majority

of

leather.

Before

other

of

less

It has
the

in

noted

manufacture

of
the

to

many

which

"

point

superior

prized
rather
the
in

of

short

time

of

skins

made

leather

products
the
of
how
are

the

are

different

kinds
of

concerned

making

the

facture
manu-

hardness

one

as

pelt
of

the

from

from

which

leather.

other
with

leathers
the

In
are

has

and

have

reason

calf -skin,

and

the

almost

are

yield

fact

that

invariably

cut

are

to

from

sheep.

but
the

certain

also,
much

pelts

which
Besides

made

fine, soft, light

very

used

from

animal

skin,

hide

they were
remains
today the
its
disadvantages are

two

deer-skin,

made

is

crup,

its

advantageous
thicker

are

Occasionally,

of

its

or

leather.

the

shoes.

real

through

which

its

to

kangaroo

kinds

"shells,"

which

leather

shoes

calf-skin, and

best

no

hide, for

of

finished

are

the

consider

Cordovan

contrast

hides

from

shells

for

entirely

perspires

The

cordovan

"buck-skin"

only
of

in

of

obtained

sheep yields

some

materials
the

however,

and, therefore,

"

leathers;

Australian

probably

not,

the

of

upper

various

as

is

the

the

horse

times.

high-grade

of

known

There

to

for

country

uppers

and

employed

particularly

manufacturers

rest

the

the

leather, similar
this

the
in

are

Horse

material

ventilation.

seams

by

only
do

many

quality

the

of

the

cattle

of

the

all

stiff

heavy

The

of

is not,

use

finish.

one

made.

be

can

to

Their

of this

mediaeval

in

even

threads
a

to

view

grain

durable

most

of

colt-skins

and

side-leather, and

butt, constitute

leather,

the

calf,

ation
consider-

gloves, bags,

few

from

brief

important,

very

leather.

patent

sheep, goats, and

quality which

porous

from

to

for

mention

to

hides

horse

production

the

cordovan

or

least

nevertheless

that

similar

ways

of

quarters

used

those

as

made

are

uppers

shoes.

been

restricted

shoe

proceeding, however,
at

but

used,

LEATHER

and

such

it is necessary

commonly
of

boot

light leathers,

book-binding,

XIII

one

of
of

in

extent
sees

boot

the

white

sheep.

such
mutton

variety
and

of

wool,

extraordinary number
shall
following chapters we
see
produced, but for the moment
we

are

an

the

manufacture

shoes.

60]

of

leather

which

goes

into

Sheep-skinsusually come
wooled

at

often

by

the

pullery.

such

after

tanner

done

is sometimes

depilatoryagent

the

to

This

as

lime

or

by

they

sweating,but

sodium

demore

sulphate and

Nevertheless,a secondary liming is given

sulphuricacid.

been

have

at

the

Beam
"ouse

nery
tan-

that the short fibres may

be completely removed.
The
latter operation, known
as
"cobbing," is similar to unhairing and is
in

order

followed
From
kind

by fleshing.
this

point the

of leather

splitinto

"skivers"

then

may
same

as

be
calf

goat

and

The

thinner

The

finished

skins.

oscillatingknife, which

an

to

of the skins varies, according to the "Skivers"

The thickest skins are
usually and

make.

(grainsplits)and "linings"(fleshsplits)
; skivers

tanned
or

treatment

it is desired

The
varies

for

upper

shoe

leather,much

is done on
splitting
considerablyfrom

machine

the hide

often finished for upper

leather without
are
of sheep-skinis soft and particularly
adapted to

skins

"Linings"

the
with

splitter.
splitting.

printing Artificial
grain
embossing. Skivers are, therefore,the best possiblematerial for Grains
of imitation
artificial graining, and there are
a
grains
great number

or

to the
produced on sheep-skin,which bear a very close resemblance
suedes
of
made
also
are
original. Cheaper grades
by finishingsheep
leather on
the flesh side. The flesh-splits
not
are
extensivelyused in
making shoes, except for shoe liningsand backings. We shall see in
ihe next
chapter,however, that they are used for a variety of other

purposes.

Boarding

the Grain

XIV

CHAPTER
OIL

Many
leather

an

whose

skin
the

extinct, and

The

lime.
of

best

very

the

The

of

where

chamois

the

thorough

kneading

the

linings
in

order

sammed
The

from

"lining"

the

oil

is

in

are

used

For

the

which

of

means

linings
the

sometimes

obtained

violent

machine,
The

grades
frized.
and

bath

severe

The

treatment.

by

of

means

known

drain

to

remove

given

are

until

faller-

the

as

linings, having

hung

now

acid

the

to

to

being

an

oil

to

consists

cheaper
of

of

out

similar

often

is

glove

or

coming

machine

split.

by

wash

concerned,

are

susceptible

tanneries.

most

softened,

after

re-split,instead

after
them

particularly

and

oils

then
are

for

total

the

tanner's

oxidation

leather,

is

now

of

number

the

brought

oxidize.
used

been

oughly
thor-

reach

they

they

Next
of

they

are

and

whale,

country.
is

poured

oiled

again

lining
each.

over
so

as

and

shark,
The

"stocked"

again

are

oilings

oil

with

material

raw

Cod,
this

in

and

time,

time

thoroughly.

re-stocked, the
individual

at

one

the

impregnating

it to

commonly

most

vat,

thus

penetrate

in

allowing

the

flat in

remaining

may

consists

tannage
and

placed

The

be

to

sometimes

water,

split
by

parchment,

into
for

"frizing"

thin

made

either

linings

matter

as

action

but

actual

menhaden

Oxidation

Alpine goat
practically

condition.

animal

After

were

the

as

too

are

mechanical

beaten

is

used

skins

far

so

make

to

stocks, is installed

oil

is

has

wash

the

to

of

derived

is made

usually accomplished

rinsing
in

drum-tumbler,

are

applied
species

usually

are

and

the

known

skin

is then

linings

gelatinous

excess

treatment,

grain

necessary

Oiling

"chamois"

as

how

noted

the

This

De-liming
'Stocking"

The

"Chamois"

term

originally

oil-tanned

are

operation,

next

removing

of

quality

have

We

flesher.
the

the
when

name.

was

know

we

majority

vast

leather.
nzmg

leather

article

that

sheep-skin.

but

this

at

LEATHER

least

realize

not

meaning,
by that

known

commonly

from

of

historical

"CHAMOIS"

OF

do

today

people
but

nothing

TANNAGE

that

the

before, and

stockings depending

upon

ideas.

oil, and
about

incidentally

by spontaneous

(62}

the

real

heat,

the

tanning of the
linings being

placed
complete

when

and
in

the

sawdust

smoothed

further

no

in

leather
and
with

and

carefully

heat

is

leather

wash

Finishing
drumming

boxes

covered

in

fresh
is

water.

hung

staking
pumice

first

consists

The
to

then
on

dry.

of

The

oil

familiar
after

sides,

and

drying.

Pressing

The

thorough

uncombined

follow,
both

watched.

oxidation

is

generated.

Sheep

Skins

which

is

pressed
of

processes

the

stretched

and

cleansing
then

leather
out

for

out,

damping
is

pared,

its

final

Finishing

CHAPTER
TAWING

XV

GLOVE

LEATHER

flesh splitsare
used for making
leather, or thin chromed
but
while
these,
exceedingly popular, are easily soiled
gloves,

Chamois
Suede

suede
and

by

difficult

very

different

than
Preparation

for

Grain

Leather

process

have

innovations

to

clean.
and

made

of

Most

is finished

the

ooze

or

the
on

glove

the

suede

leather

used

is made

grain side, although

leather

far

more

recent

practicable

formerly.
and

kid

the favorite
material
of the glove
raw
also extensively
light goat-skins and skivers are
best
used.
and
furnish
the
skins,
India,
Turkey
Europe,
After
being shipped pickled in barrels.
quite a few of which are now
and
them
the
skins
to
tanners
salt, most
remove
soaking
assorting
apply a paste of lime and red arsenic to the flesh side. By this means
Lamb

leather

skins

are

manufacturer, but

the lamb's

and

wool

kid

hair, both

of which

are

valuable, are

loosened

and

either by machine
The skins are
then
or
by hand.
easilyremoved
usually soaked in lime liquor,fleshed,washed, trimmed, and severely
bated.
After they are
taken out of the puer
in bran
they are drenched
solution
and
scudded, before they are
finallyready for the tawing
process,

Tawing

which

converts

them

almost

the

or

all

all respects.

in

as
shaving, follow, much
leather
the
staked
being
several weeks.
and allowed
to "age" for
high temperature
is a very important feature characteristic
of this particular

Drying, damping, staking,and

Ageing

leather.

to

formaldehyde are
astringents which form the basis of
much
used
mixture
tawing liquors,a
being composed of:
and
salt
The
is usually carried
alum, egg-yolk,flour,
water.
process
in a drum.
alum
A pure
out
tannage results in stretchyleather which
does not hold its shape and is not very warm,
while formaldehyde will
leather which
lacks substance.
Various
produce a soft,white, washable
combinations
which
therefore
used to obtain a material
will satisfy
are
Alum

in the manufacture
is dried

The

at

latter

of chromed

sometimes

leather.

After

industry.
The

consist of dyeing, and fat-liquoring

next
or
re-tawing,
processes
glove leather, notably that tawed with formaldehyde, requires
considerable
After
fillingin the fat-liquoringprocess.
staking,the
grain is brushed, seasoned, glazed, and ironed, while the flesh side is
different methods
of dyeing,
pared and fluffed. There are a great many
which
be touched
are
here, and
highly interesting,but cannot
upon
there are
almost
finishes
there
leather
are
as
as
tanners.
glove
many
Some

Finishing

(64

CHAPTER

BAG,

BOOK,
Side
the

splits and

leather

and

best-known

"Morocco."
"Morocco'

and

Ages,
of

The

tanning"
opening

first

be

goat-skins

in

in

by

embossing
tanned

in

it

fillingit

modern

various

leather, but

book

making
binding

that

is

before

in

skin

into

with

the

when

liquor, but

so

an

been

now

drums.

and

and

crushing
be

can

inferior

an

"bottle

leaving

goat-skins

treated, yield

process

of

out,

by

as

Middle

same

this has

obtained

tanned

known
the

paddle-vats

as

is

India

inside

bag

such

Morocco

ways.

and

made

devices
of

"grain"

sumach,

in

the

sewing

more

characteristic

for

leather

Spain
produced now
by essentially the
sumach
old
method
liquor. The

was

to

LEATHER

used

are

popular

the neck, and

supplanted
The

skivers

latter

consisted
at

UPHOLSTERY

AND

most

continues

tanning

XVI

re-

of

grade

Morocco.
of

Most

Upholstery

used

for

which

"

The

the

made

is

the
of

finest

Light
Leather

Some

Bag
is

for

still

recent

of

made

are

into

leather

for

medium

field

of
the

and

of

of

which
various

substances

are

purses,

various

grain

is that

other

splits

grain
while

and

are

for

the

and

artificial

rare

sheep-skins.
has

than

of
the

made

Moreover,

invaded

been

kinds

made

graining.

are

the

substitutes
skins

of

66

upholstery,

most

and
animals.

importance.
into

go

flesh

various

low-priced

frequently

leathers

extensively

automobile

of

of considerable

item

an

the

also

the

holstery
up-

splits are

cars.

from
A

but
as

most

those

of

it

used

skivers, which

great

by embossing
the

ture
furni-

of

upholstery

latter

grades

high-priced automobiles,

particularly adapted

on

from

and

bags
The

various

become

has

years

heavier

hides.

"spready"

grades

pocket-books

are

for

bag leather is produced by the chrome

process,
vegetable-tanned. The
lighter bag leathers, such

imitations

of

used

manufacture

of
finished

leather
from

of

number
and

ing
printbag and book-leather
successfully by manufacturers

imitation

leathers

made

PART

THE

FOUR

DISTRIBUTION

ECONOMIC

OF

THE

INDUSTRY

Serial

Table

Unhairing

Machine

XVII

CHAPTER

available

The
world

are

so

approximately

were

and
fact
the

idea

the

to

of

the
that

goats;

population of the
that it is possible
World's
its
total supply and
Animal
beginning of the War
Population

animal

the

War,

world's
the

at

cattle

517,000,000
and

MATERIAL

and

calves; 520,000,000

(including

horses

126,000,000
These

far

mules

from

countries).
accurate,
some
figures
asses
too
low, owing to the
particularlythat for goats is probably much
is unknown.
that the supply in China
During the last year before
consumed
the world
War
roughly 3,400,000,000 pounds of hides

and

in

skins, of which

stock

in

stock

producing
the

since

world's

outbreak
of

are

of domestic

consumption

was

thirds

two

was

exported

by

the

manufacturing countries.
States
United
Department

of

the

War

from

raw
raw

to

tend

cattle,sheep, and

undoubtedly

has

War

third

one

countries

made

supply

about

countries, while

various

Estimates

The

regard

estimated

been

sheep; 155,000,000
and

rough

very

It has

distribution.
there

statistics in

RAW

OF

defective,particularlysince

only

obtain

to

SUPPLY

WORLD'S

THE

caused

toward

goats

great

the
is

more

wastage,

of

Agriculture

conclusion

that

the

Distribution

less

stationary.
but experience in the
or

population of countries ravaged by

past
that the
has
warfare
recuperated remarkably fast. It would
appear
since 1907, while
production of sheep has been falling off somewhat
and the supply of goats
cattle have remained
approximately the same,
After-the-War
factor.
unknown
estimates
bers
is really an
place the numfollows:
of the leading producing countries
of cattle in some
as
has

shown

that

India
U.

the

animal

129

Russia

38

Brazil

37

Argentine
Germany

25

France

13

U.

K.

of G.

million

head

66

S. A.

Cattle

35

B.

12

355

leaving

for.

{69)

about

150

million

unaccounted

"

impossibleto attempt to show

be
to
largestquantitiesare known
Mexico.
As
and
to
a
sheep, rough
Turkey,

Sheep and
Goats

the distribution

be

It would

but

in

the

distribution about

of goats,

India, China, Russia,

place the

would

estimate

follows:

as

150

Europe
Australasia

97

Asia
South

America

72

America

52

53

Africa
North

millions

98

522
U

and

Sheep

cattle an^

^e

Cattle

shows
and

an
a

increase

half million

sheep population of
of five million

States

United

of cattle and

since

decrease of

1910
seven

sheep.

1910
1911-15

head

the

avge.

1916
1917

1918
1919

1920
1921

Cattle

Sheep

61,7 millions
58,0
62,0
64,5
67,5
68,4
68,3
66,1

52,4 millions
51,4
48,6
47,6
48,6
48,8
47,1
45,0

hides

skins

yieldsenough to supply
55% of its cattle hides, 48% of its
and practically
none
of its goat-skins.
calf-skins,
30% of its sheep-skins,
obtain a large proIt is therefore quite evident that our
tanners
must
portion
from
material
such foreign countries as have a
of their raw
surplus for export.
The

our

domestic

leather

productionof

industrywith

about

$70

and

XVIII

CHAPTER
IMPORTS
Before

taking

the

up

RAW

OF

MATERIAL

INTO

imports of hides

U.

THE

and

skins

S.

from

statistical

be of interest to note
few particularsas
a
point of view, it may
obtain
their
methods
American
materials
from
tanners
whereby

the

to

foreign

sources.

far

By

largest bulk

the

derived

are

from

South

of

hides

cattle

American

imported

countries,

as

this

into

country

noted

be

may

from

figures at the end of this chapter. The majority of these hides Frigorificos
which
are
imported in a wet salted condition, chiefly
are
"frigorificos"
from
Several
Brazil.
large
Argentina, Uruguay, and recently from
their own
of heavy leather
have
South
in
tanners
purchasing agents
of
America, who
buy direct from the freezing plants,quite a number
controlled
which
American
Some
of
these
interests.
are
by
tatives
representhe

act

as

agents

brokerage houses
largestArgentine
York

New

Other
as

well

native

and

South
as

dried

concerns,

for

several

which
hide

brokers,
and

Boston

hides,

although "saladeros"

the

sell direct

other
the

to
as

also
of

account

on

hides, such

American

from

for

buy

and

tanners,

there

are

various

tanners.

hand, maintain
American

"saladeros"

American
The

offices in

manufacturers.
and

"mataderos,"

collected

throughout the country by large

whom
the American
his purchases,
buyer makes
also bought direct by Amerand "mataderos"
ican
are
are

Other
South

Amer.

Hides

brokers.

buyers do not
hides, mostly dry, are
and sold by them
to

American
Asiatic
traders
hide

merchants.

Indian

and

as

rule

collected
consumers

Javanese

travel

by

through

various

native

in this country,

water-buffalo

or

hides

the

Far

and

European

Oriental

American

Hides

to
are

East.

becoming

in making cheap chrome

sole.
quite a large item for use
chief foreign source
of supply for calfskins,
Europe has always been our
the best grades coming
from
and
France
Scandinavia
and
the
The
from
Russia.
latter
has
been
source
largestquantity
practically Calf-skins
since
unavailable
the War, but imports from
the rest
of Europe are

India
slowly getting back to normal.
supplies large quantities of
of
calf
-skins
and
which
can
are
cheaper grades
kips,
purchased by Ameritanners
through European or native merchants.

S7U

Sheep-skins

the

Before

the

War

through London,
suppliesin

that

market.

sheep-skinbusiness was
buyers used to contract
this trade

of

Most

is

Australia

to

proportion of

considerable

is controlled

by

large number

very

the South

owned

American

of native,

American

handled
for

moving

now

this country, and there are

quite a number
Zealand
both
for
and
in
New
tanners
buyers purchasing

from

Australasian
American

and

large
direct

of American
Australia.

sheep-skinbusiness

but
packing-plants,

French, British,and

there

German

are

also

houses

in

that market.
Goat-skins

of American
are
comparativelygreat number
goat tanners
sented
repreby purchasing agents in India and China, one agent frequently
acting for several principals. The large importers of skins usually
have their exclusive buyers.
merce
The
following figures,abstracted from the Department of Comtrade reports will perhaps give a more
complete view of the
A

hide

and

skin

imports.
(in

TOTAL

361,891

thousands)

even

744,836

$108,044

$306,510

509,983

$243,934

568,411

$117,387

interestingto note from these figureshow the first year after

than
the War
the imports in pounds more
doubled, and in dollars
A
almost
trebled, fallingoff both in pounds and dollars in 1920.
from
difference
still
shows
the
with
1913
existing
comparison
pre-war
It is

The

times.

of the

bulk

imports

of about

Out

Calf-skins

followingtables

will

come

were

imported in

rest

British

India

Canada, Dutch

East

Indies, and

the

rest

of

idea

of where

the

the

world

1920:

Argentine, (each
8,100,000 pounds

roughly 2,700,000)
the

an

8,201,685 pounds
7,500,000 pounds
4,980,902 pounds

supplied exactly
of Europe, roughly

France

And

reader

4,285,000 calf-skins weighing 35,132,286 pounds, and

costing $19,250,661.00 which

The

give the

from.

7,000,000 pounds

about

72

XIX

CHAPTER
EXPORTS
Whereas
world

of

the

is

reversed

this

for

War

that

we

is

become

to

leather

item,

but

United

was

that

the

and

that

hemlock

for

Although
the

grade

such

patent
almost
last

as

sole

hemlock

to

than

our

imports

of

and

leather,
the

unable

were

opportunity
in
as

dominates

entirely

depends

not

the

so

much

was

pre-war

producers

arose

Europe,
well.

the

for

American

but

to

With

world's

product.

American

an

leather

upon

the

up

their

How

great

long

recuperation

of

high-

only

not

foreign

glazed
this

by

of

production.

eliminated,
and

the

stimulated

tanners

Germany
market,

only

off.

normal

capture

us

that

country

keep

and

us,

of

comprehensible
fallen

Leather

during

against

of

greatest

than

supply

to

buying

is

Sole

Canada,

better

has

to

Europe

to

and

able

exchange

sole

export
reason

undertaken

expansion

easily

is

it
this

leather

been

Europe

amounts.

The

hob-nails

it

figures

important

country

has

with
that

nature

Germany,

America

South
leather

from

leathers

upper

the

these
dollar

the

sole

hold

will

of

of

leather.

this

in

England

War

production

European

upper

their

in

unsettled
of

as

upper

only

leather

necessity,

utmost

Accordingly
sell

so

exports

most

much

so

Furthermore,

such

the

and

found

because

leather

of

France

War,

export

the

hostilities.

the

of

patent

well

as

far

by

to

sole

Since

conditions

demand

to

off

our

significance

figures

to

is

tree

tanned

sole
of

full

the

quantity

used

hemlock

with

period

of

both

States

kind.

other

things

rates,

larger proportion

much

but

business

due

largely

War

time

fallen

world's

the

exchange

by

the

for

have

to

rest

situation

trade,

leather

jumped

of

however,

constituted

yielded

has

the

general

the

formerly

that

the

third

one

year,

aware

study

to

necessary

Sole

herself

about

world's

to

this

Before

product.
have

the

upon

skins,

believed

it is

time

and

the

of

S.

dependent

hides

finished

evidenced
in

is

U.

skins.

order

any

off

fallen

have
and

States
its

25%

past
as

THE

estimated

is

do

to

the

Europe

in

leather

In

present

During

conditions

hides

figure

the
said

be

may

leather.

about

this
At

70%.

of

the

to

comes

controlled

the

during

it

fifths

two

FROM

United

the

seen

about

when

country

about

have

we

as

LEATHER

OF

to

fields

American
kid

also

condition

Europe

as

Upper
Leather

is

will
upon

with
the energy
and intelligence
their newly-won foreigntrade.
One

Glove

branch

the American

tanners

cater

to

most
interestingresults of the War, so far as our leather
the surprisinggrowth of the glove leather
concerned, was

of the

industryis
Leather

which

in this country.

Before

the War

imported, mostly from

almost

all

our

glove leather

Germany, imports
amounting to
$2,384,667. In spiteof much higher pricesper foot,the 1919 imports
were
only $789,098 and last year we actuallyexported $2,198,759.
was

in

J76J

1913

CHAPTER

XX

MARKETING

Having
various
the

obtained

now

of

processes

United

States

manner

the

what
how

the

as

American

buyers

or

merchants

who

Domestic

calf

the

the

material,

raw

position of

relative

only to show
bought and

briefly

in

sold, and

from

to

and

sell

turn

are

Many

they

the

to

of

users

South

and

packers

sell

their

hides

send

Hides

Aires.

are

Marketing

hides

Hides

their
than

other

collected

frequently

more

North

these

which

Buenos

to

even

the
of

hide

by

tanners.

frequently sold direct by the killer

imported calf, goat and sheep-skins are often brought
tanner,
the country
and
The
brokers.
howby merchants
largest tanners,
send
their own
out
buyers to foreign countries.

the

into

tanneries

"Frigorificos"
in

are

large independent

many

Chicago

to

"Packers"

ever,

establishments.

leather

great

products
primarily

come

seen,

sole

it remains

finished

the

of

lastly of

fluctuate.

meat-packing

direct, and

and

industry,

and

have

we

affiliated with

to

this

raw

prices of both

Hides,

superficial view

manufacture,

in

PRICES

AND

Sole
cents

and

sheep-skins

are

but

leather
per

leather,

sold,

while

according

as

have

we

to

trimmed,

is

it

shoe-manufacturers
close.

Sole
the

to

its way
There
from

into
is

the

while

to

the

certain

distinct

slow

concentrate

opposite

price

of
per

and
the

through
of

of

this business
conditions

light
foot

in

have

leathers.
for

the

the

each

the

Moreover,
and

sole

the

bends

for

The

comparatively

leather

of

leather

few

upper

finish,

large

leather
no

is

trades
vestment
in-

have
concerns,

distribution

greater

finds

heavy

manufacturer
a

ization
organ-

dealers.

and

upper

Leather

cropped

are

leather

Sole

(backs,

own

sole

hands

caused

$77

trim

union,
how

upon

repair trade

of

sole

grade

to

of

Sole

selling
sole-cutters, although some

organization.

turn-over

of

it consists

depends

tanner's

hands

between

contrast

the

the

basis

foot.

square

instance,

for

on

(oak, hemlock,

deal

for

by

per

hide

the

great

those
sold

shoe-manufacturers

point of view

manufacture

are

tannage

of

custom,

usually

consumption
a

and
tended

being

is

to

section

wide, while

leather

prices

according

what

bends, shoulders, bellies, heads).

leather

previously noted,

leather

upper

sold

is

moreover,

and

etc.),

is

pound,

sold

difference

in

the
at

being

for different sections of the skin.

made

of small

number
should

pass

it is natural

tanners

Since

that much

there

are

more

of dealers and commission

through the hands

considerable

of their

product
before

houses

reaching the manufacturer.

field for study,
interesting
particularlyduring the last five years, but it is not possible,within
the confines of this booklet,to do more
than indicate what the general
trend has been.
The
of hide
accompanying graphs show the course
The

Prices

and

fluctuation

sole leather

the end

of 1920.

of

pricespresents

prices,and
Comment

calf-skin
them

upon

that the first quarter of 1921 has

which
would
bring all four curves

out

their levels

at

dangerous,but
distant.
that

of

the

beginning

Whether

most

and

calf leather

is unnecessary
witnessed an even

from

except
further

1913
to

to

point

decline

down
below
to
or
substantially
1913.
Prognosticationsare always

of

be far
recovery cannot
say that a moderate
the level of stabilization will be substantially
above

it is safe

1913-1914

is

things pertainingto
Europe.

to

the

matter

of

economic

J78

conjecture, depending, as do all

the adjustment in
future, upon

Price

Fluctuation

SIX

SALIENT

FIRST

THE

POINTS

NATIONAL

BANK
AND

SHOE

The

AND

Five

2.

and

Skins

of

Boston.
of

6%

all
in

the

National

First

Out

of about

4.

Out

are

10%

are

5.

48%

are

10%

are

6.

The

Besides

their

Shoe

1300

the

into

of

Acceptances

without

financed

by

taking
this

count
ac-

bank

tanners.

Manufacturers

in the

country

of

The

First

National

Bank

Manufacturers

in the

country

Massachusetts

in

Customers

of

The

First

Bank

National

Boston.

leather-working

used

in

this there

leather
accounts

the

National

First

jobbers, brokers,
and

Bank

Boston.

machinery
of

Hides

National

by

and

Raw

England

Customers

of all the

85 %

New

of

Imported

of Boston,

Leather

in

of about

of

Skins

importers

to

First

financed

Bank

750

24%

of

The

imports indirectly
loans

through

and

were

1920

Producers

of

Hides

country

of

3.

the

BOSTON

INDUSTRIES

Domestic

customers

are

OF

THE

LEATHER

Largest

ABOUT

or

are

is made

Bank

Boston.

of

by

of merchants,

hundreds

wholesalers,

this

shoe-manufacturing

country

manufacturing
at

and

and

retailers

supplies, who

institution.

customers

dealers,
of

shoes

maintain