Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Indicators
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind

Comparing the satellite image transformation techniques for

detecting and monitoring the continuous snow cover and glacier in
Cilo mountain chain Turkey
Onur Satir
Yuzuncu Yil (Centennial) University Department of Landscape Architecture, 65080 Van, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 11 December 2015
Received in revised form 18 April 2016
Accepted 19 April 2016
Available online 6 May 2016
Keywords:
NDSI
RASAT
Snow cover and glaciers
Landsat dataset
Cilo mountain Turkey
Glacier detection and monitoring
Index based methods

a b s t r a c t
In this paper, satellite image transformations (SIT) for detection and monitoring of the continuous snow
covers and glaciers (SCG) were evaluated using Landsat 5 TM (30 m), Landsat 8 OLI (30 m) and RASAT
(7.5 m) satellite images at a regional scale. The study was performed in two stages. Firstly, four potential
SCG detection indices were produced from the 23rd of August 2013 Landsat 8 image as a Normalized
Difference Snow Index (NDSI), a Normalized Difference Snow-Ice Index (NDSII), a Normalized Difference
Principle Component Snow Index (NDPCSI) and Tasseled Cap Wetness transformation (WET) as indicators
of the SCG. Continuous SCG amount was obtained classifying the August 2013 RASAT satellite image using
an object based classication technique as ground truth data. Kappa accuracy co-efciency of the NDSI,
NDSII, NDPCSI and WET were calculated to be 0.74, 0.76, 0.4 and 0.77 respectively. In the second stage,
WET SCG maps were produced from August 1984, 2000 and 2015 Landsat images. Changes in the two
time periods (19842000 and 20002015) showed that total SCG loss was 247 ha from August 1984 to
August 2015. Almost 47% of the SCG loss recorded in the region in 31 years. The highest loss was observed
in the 1st period (198 ha). However, only 49 ha SCG loss was detected in the 2nd period although the 5
year mean temperature changes were found to be similar both in the 1st and 2nd period. Because the
most sensitive SCG areas (regions that are located at a lower slope and thus receive more sunlight) had
melted in the 1st period. Finally, physical variables were more signicant than temperature in the 2nd
period for the stability of SCG in the study area.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Monitoring SCG levels are essential for understanding climate
dynamics and the effects of climate change. Since the 1990s, SCG
and its components have often been considered as indicators of
global warming, because of how temperature increase effects on
solid water resources (Armstrong and Brun, 2008). SCG also provides clean water resources for many parts of the world, where
people rely on snowmelt for irrigation of croplands and drinking
water. Quantities of the SCG has varied signicantly over time, due
to global and regional variations in climate (Zhen and Li, 1998).
Today, there are many SCG monitoring and detection studies
from a regional scale to a global scale by remote sensing (RS).
Earlier RS studies used NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) at a global scale (Robinson et al., 1993; Xu
et al., 1993). NOAA AVHRR mission series started in 1978 and

E-mail addresses: osatir@yyu.edu.tr, osatir@cu.edu.tr

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.04.032
1470-160X/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

continues to receive information on ocean and land dynamics.

Although AVHRR data has a very good archive, spatial resolution
(1.1 km) is not enough for detailed regional studies. Therefore, on
December 18, 1999, the Terra satellite was launched with a complement of ve instruments including the Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Many geophysical products
are derived from MODIS data, including global snow-cover products. MODIS snow cover products have been available through
the NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) Distributed
Active Archive Center (DAAC) since September 13, 2000 (Hall et al.,
2006). MODIS data has been increasingly used in SCG monitoring
and detection studies instead of the AVHRR dataset at a global scale
because of higher spatial resolution (500 m), various composite
and daily dataset options and better spectral and radiometric
resolutions (Hall et al., 2002; Shea et al., 2013; Fausto et al., 2015).
The Landsat dataset has recently become more prominent especially in regional studies. Landsat imageries have a great potential
for monitoring the amount of SCG because of 30 m spatial resolution, worldwide coverage, and records of more than 30 years and
SWIR wavebands (zyavuz et al., 2011; Rittger et al., 2013). The

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O. Satir / Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

Fig. 1. Location of the Cilo mountain chain glaciers with RASAT satellite imagery (7.5 m spatial resolution) a) Erinc glacier, b) Avaspi glacier and c) Uludoruk glacier.

Landsat dataset can be used alone for monitoring and detecting the
level of SCG (Bayrakdar et al., 2015) or it can be combined with other
spatial data sources such as MODIS satellite image or the SRTM DEM
dataset (Naeem et al., 2016).
There are three main approaches for mapping the SCG directly
from the passive remote sensing instruments which include optical
satellite images called; manual interpretation, classication based
and index based approaches (Yin et al., 2013). Manuel based methods are difcult, therefore the skills of experienced specialists are
required, although it is the most accurate approach (Raup et al.,
2007). Classication based approaches have good accuracy but they
are still require specialists to manually select training data for the
supervised methods (Gratton et al., 1990; Karimi et al., 2015) or
to combine clusters for the unsupervised methods (Salomonson
and Appel, 2006). Index-based methods are the most simplied
approach, on the other hand, a SCG detection threshold value must
be found to obtain a SCG result (Maher et al., 2012; Yin et al., 2013).
This process can be gured out using experimental or automated
threshold detection techniques (Yin et al., 2013).
In this study, the index based method was preferred due to the
time saving capability during its application stage. Four recently
popular indices; NDSI, NDSII, NDPCSI and WET, were tested because
of their SCG and water detection abilities. These indices and specications are discussed in the method section. The purpose of this
paper was to compare the SCG mapping ability of appropriate
indices, which were derived from the Landsat dataset, in the Cilo
Mountain Region and to show the continuous SCG changes periodically in two periods; from 1984 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2015.
Additionally, reasons of the change were assessed according to the
temperature dynamics and physical characteristics of the area such
as hill shade, slope and elevation. So that the most signicant topographical variables on SCG loss were dened.
2. Study area
Cilo Mountain Chain glaciers are located in South-Eastern
Turkey, and the region contains 3 glacier groups known as the Erinc

Glacier, the Avaspi Glacier and the Uludoruk Glacier. These three
sub-regions form the largest glacier valley of Turkey (Fig. 1). Resko
Hill (4168 m) is the highest place of the region. Continental climate
is dominant, but annual total mean precipitation and mean temperature of Hakkari climate station (nearest station to the study
area) between 1975 and 2014 was estimated to be about 744 mm
and 9.5 C because of alpine highland characteristics (TMSS 2014).
However, Hakkari climate station is located around 1700 m and
there is almost a 1000 m difference between the area studied and
the nearest climate station. According to the regional temperature
dynamics based on elevation, mean temperature is decreased 1 C
in each 100 m. Therefore, the mean temperature of the studied area
is around 0 C. There are 2 types of snow coverage in the area in
August time: snow covered glaciers, and the areas that are continuously covered by snow. Snow covered glaciers have soft and
hard snow layers on the top of the glaciers and when this layer
melts, water goes down and creates pure glaciers (no snow on top
in August). Areas continuously covered in snow do not change daily
due to the low temperature. The melting process takes a long time
in this region in August like the other highland alpine areas in the
world such as the Himalayan regions. Bobek (1940) recorded the
minimum elevation of the glaciers as 2600 m in 1937. Erinc (1952)
observed the glacier altitude to be 2900 m in 1948 from the same
view point as Bobek. Kurter (1991), detected the glacier altitude
to be 3000 m using manual RS detection techniques. According to
observations of the region, glacier cover has been melting for a
century (Ciner, 2003).
3. Data characteristics
Landsat and RASAT datasets were used to perform SCG detection and monitoring analysis (Table 1). Landsat imageries have a
great potential for monitoring the land-use/cover change because
of large time series database, in available spatial (30 m) and spectral
(VIS, NIR, SWIR and TIR) resolution (zyavuz et al., 2011). Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI datasets were used as main datasets
to produce SCG indices. The Landsat 5 TM mission started on the

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263

Table 1
Remote sensing data used in the study.
Data source

Date

Specicationsa

Purpose

Landsat TM

30 m multispectral spatial resolution

SCG monitoring

Landsat OLI

9th August 1984

21st August 2000
23rd August 2013

3 Visible, 1 near infrared and 2 shortwave

infrared sensors

RASAT

15th August 2015

7th August 2013

SCG index validation and threshold

detection
SCG monitoring
7.5 m pan-sharpened image used to
validate SCG indices and threshold
selection

15 m multispectral spatial resolution and

7.5 m panchromatic resolution

Specications are described only dataset used in this study.

1st of March 1984 and operational imaging ended in November

2011. Multispectral wavebands from the visible to the shortwave
infrared regions were used in this study. It has a 30 m spatial resolution and can be used effectively in various terrestrial and aquatic
studies from a regional to a global scale during its working time
(USGS, 2015). Landsat 8 OLI has been launched in February 2013. It
has 30 m spatial resolution in the multispectral range and 15 m at
the panchromatic band. The same spectral and spatial range of the
Landsat 8 OLI data was used with the Landsat 5 TM data.
The RASAT satellite was the second step of a program developed by TUBITAK-SPACE to establish and develop small satellite
technologies in Turkey. The RASAT sensor has a push-broom type
detector that acquires a 32-frame strip with a width of 30 km and
a total length of 960 km. The satellites payload has 7.5 m spatial
resolution at the panchromatic band and has 15 m spatial resolution at the multispectral band. Pan-sharpened 7th August 2013
RASAT data was used to classify SCG of the CMC by an object
based classication technique as a validation image to nd the
accuracy of indices and threshold values for SCG mapping. RASAT
(7.5 7.5 m) spatial resolution is 16 times better than the Landsat dataset (30 30 m), thus RASAT was used for validation. In
addition, all Landsat and RASAT images can be obtained freely for
non-commercial scientic researches.

4. Method
The study was performed in two stages; i) Cross-checking of
the indices for SCG detection and ii) SCG monitoring using the
appropriate index. In the rst stage, all the indices for SCG detection were produced from the 23rd August 2013 Landsat dataset

after the application of geometric and atmospheric correction. The

most accurate SCG detection index was derived, compared with the
object based classied 7th August 2013 RASAT image. In the second
stage, the appropriate index was applied to the August 1984, 2000
and 2015 Landsat datasets and SCG loss was detected between the
periods (Fig. 2).

4.1. Image pre-processing

Geometric and atmospheric corrections were applied to the
Landsat and RASAT images. The Landsat image dataset was already
geometrically corrected by the (United States Geological Survey)
USGS. Universal Transfer Mercator (UTM), WGS 84 zone 38 was
used as a base coordinate system. RASAT image was registered
according to the base projection system with the Landsat 8 dataset.
The ATCOR module was used to reduce haze effect and atmospheric correction of the Landsat dataset. ATCOR is available as
an extension of standard remote sensing software, like ERDAS
IMAGINE or PCI Geomatica. ATCOR was originally developed by
Dr. Rudolf Richter [German Aerospace Center, Wessling, Germany,
www.op.dlr.de/atcor; (Richter, 1996; Rihcter and Schlapfer, 2016)].
The company Geosystems (Germering, Germany, www.atcor.de;
Geosystems 2004) adapted the algorithms to an ERDAS IMAGINE
add-on module, but the software is available for PCI Geomatica, and
additionally as a stand-alone software based on IDL. To calculate
the reectance values, ATCOR needs parameters to be allocated.
Sensor type, date of the image, geographic coordinates of the image
center and areal visibility are the necessary parameters. Image
date and coordinates were used to calculate the sun azimuth angle.
Sensor type is used for calibration and ATCOR contains automatic

Fig. 2. Flow diagram of the methodology for SCG detection and monitoring.

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O. Satir / Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

Table 2
Characteristics of the SCG indices.
Index

Equation

Source

NDSI
NDSII
NDPCSI
Landsat 5 WET
Landsat 8 WET

TM2 TM5/TM2 + TM5

TM3 TM5/TM3 + TM5
1st PC 2nd PC/1st PC + 2nd PC
0.1509 TM1 + 0.1793 TM2 + 0.3299 TM3 + 0.3406 TM4 0.7112 TM5 0.4572 TM7
0.1511 OLI2 + 0.1973 OLI3 + 0.3283 OLI4 + 0.3407 OLI5 07117 OLI6 0.4559 OLI7

Riggs et al., 1994

Xiao et al., 2001
Sibandze et al., 2014
Crist, 1985
Baig et al., 2014

TM refers Landsat 5 wavebands, OLI refers Landsat 8 wavebands, PC refers Principle Component.

calibration data les for all Landsat datasets. Areal visibility can
be obtained from the meteorological stations that was recorded at
the same time as the satellite images.
4.2. Object based classication
Many complex land covers exhibit similar spectral characteristics making separation in feature space by simple per-pixel
classiers difcult, leading to inaccurate classication. Therefore,
an object-based classication is a potential solution for the classication of such regions. The specic benet of this method is an
increase in accuracy (Satr and Berberoglu, 2012), which helps to
eliminate in-eld spectral mixing (Berberoglu et al., 2000). Basically, there are three steps in object based classication which are
segmentation, classication and per eld integration. The image
was divided into segments which were dependent on pixel spectral
similarities, structure of the image and surface texture characteristics. This progress is determined by variables like the scaling factor,
smoothness vs. compactness and the shape factors. These factors
may be dened experimentally by the user as there are no standards
due to the variable image specications such as spatial resolution
(Satr and Berberoglu, 2012). Object based classication was used to
obtain a reference SCG image from RASAT data for threshold detection and accuracy analysis while eCognition interface was used
for object based classication, as this interface is utilized for manual segment editing after classication to improve the accuracy of
classication.
4.3. Snow cover and glacier detection indices
Indices for the SCG detection were selected according to literature reviews. NDSI outshined as the most popular index (Riggs et al.,
1994; Hall et al., 1998; Maher et al., 2012). NDSI is not only used for
snow cover detection, but also applied to glacier cover detection
studies (Silvero and Jaquet, 2005; Erdenetuya et al., 2006). Even
though NDSI is the most popular index, some of the SCG indices
have very good potential in regional and global scale studies after
the 2000s. Xiao et al. (2001) suggested NDSII for SCG detection
could be utilized as an alternative to NDSI and they claimed that
NDSII may be used for SCG detection from a regional to a global
scale. They tested NDSII and NDSI SCG detection ability in Qilian
mountain range in the QinghaiXizang (Tibetan) plateau of China.
This region has terrestrial glacier covers and located in a highland
alpine area like our study area. Sibandze et al. (2014) tested another
index based approach on principle component (PC) of Landsat
wavebands called NDPCSI to map snow cover in regional scale. NDSI
and NDPCSI comparisons were evaluated in research and NDPCSI
was identied to be a little more accurate then NDSI for snow cover
detection. This index was also adapted to this study for the detection of SCG, because fresh snow and glacier spectral pick points
were almost similar, but reectance values of the glacier cover
was less than the fresh snow covered areas (Qunzhu et al., 1984).
Threshold values of the indices are signicant for detecting snow,
glacier and water at this point (Sibandze et al., 2014). The last index
was selected to be tasseled cap wetness transformation (WET). This
data directly related with surface and vegetation moisture content

and some of the studies showed that WET might be related with
SCG (Takao, 2003; Kasurak et al., 2011). Also, Sidjak (1999) crosschecked some Landsat TM based glacier detection indices using
band combinations (TM3, TM4, TM5), band ratios (TM4/TM5 and
NDSI) and PCA values of the wavebands. In our study, new indices
like NDSII and NDPCSI were crosschecked with NDSI which was
one of the most popular SCG indices. Additionally WET transformation was used because of its ability to detect liquid or solid
water surfaces. Equation of the indices and sources are described in
Table 2.
5. Results
Firstly, Landsat dataset and RASAT images were geometrically
corrected and registered according to the UTM WGS 84 projection
system. Re-sampling was performed using a nearest neighbor algorithm. The transformation had a root mean square (RMS) error of
a maximum of 0.003 pixels indicating that the image was accurate
to within half a pixel.
Study results were achieved in two stages: detection and monitoring. The best threshold value and index was dened in the rst
stage for SCG detection. In the second stage, SCG changes in each
period (August 19842000 and 20002015) were detected using
the most accurate index.
5.1. Index and threshold value denitions for SCG detection
The August 2013 Landsat 8 OLI and August RASAT satellite
images were used for threshold value applications and accuracy
assessments. Because both images must be recorded at reasonable
temporal proximity and in cloud free weather conditions. The most
suitable time was August 2013 for the analysis. RASAT image have
7.5 m spatial resolution and this shows that RASAT is 16 times more
sensitive than Landsat spatially and it can be used to validate the
SCG results.
NDSI, NDSII, NDPCSI and WET indices were produced from the
August 2013 Landsat dataset. The most suitable threshold value
was detected using higher spatial resolution SCG derived from the
RASAT image. Each satellite image transformation was tested based
on the kappa accuracy value experimentally. Different threshold
values were tried as 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 and 0.25. Other threshold values
were not applied because all accuracies were going down after 0.25
and before 0.1 (Table 3).
The highest accuracy detected in the tasseled cap wetness (WET)
index in the 0.15 threshold value application was 0.77. NDSII and
NDSI indices also had very close accuracies to WET as 0.76 and 0.74
Table 3
Kappa accuracies of the indices in various thresholds (the highest kappa value in bold).
Threshold
value

NDSI
accuracy

NDSII
accuracy

NDPCSI
accuracy

WETa
accuracy

0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25

0.72
0.73
0.74
0.73

0.73
0.75
0.76
0.73

0.4
0.37
0.3
0.25

0.75
0.77
0.76
0.73

WET image values standardized dividing by the data maximum.

O. Satir / Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

265

Fig. 3. Ideal threshold value applied SITs and reference SCG derived from RASAT image.

respectively by applying a 0.2 threshold value. However, NDPCSI

could not manage to map SCG as expected and the maximum kappa
accuracy value was obtained to be 0.4. According to the visual comparison of the threshold applied indices; NDSI, NDSII and WET gave
similar results. Whereas, NDPCSI was clearly different from the
others (Fig. 3).

5.2. Continuous SCG monitoring of the CMC

The highest accuracy was obtained in WET according to the
cross-checks in the CMC region for SCG detection. The WET index
was produced from the August 1984, August 2000 and August
2015 Landsat datasets. WET indices were divided by the maximum

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O. Satir / Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

Fig. 4. Periodic continuous SCG changes of the Cilo mountain chain.

values in the data to obtain standardized values between 1 and 1.

The most appropriate threshold value (0.15) that was detected was
applied to all WET images. Results showed that 247 ha SCG had
melted in 31 years. While total SCG was 529 ha in August 1984, it
was reduced to 282 ha in August 2015. Almost 47% of the SCG loss
was detected during the 31 years. Most of the SCG melted in the
1st period between 1984 and 2000. Only 49 ha melted between
2000 and 2015 (Fig. 4).

5.3. Topography and temperature effects on SCG change

Topographic variability of melted areas in the 31 years were
evaluated to understand the effects of topography on SCG loss. In
this extent, hillshade, slope and elevation of the melted areas were
reclassied into 5 categories according to the data ranges from low
values to high values, and SCG loss was detected according to these
categories (Table 4).

Fig. 5. Relationships between topographic variables and SCG change (19842015).

O. Satir / Ecological Indicators 69 (2016) 261268

267

Table 4
Topographic effects on melted areas (19842015).
Slope

Melted
area (ha)

Areal
coverage
(%)

Sun effect
(hillshade)

Melted
area (ha)

Areal
coverage
(%)

Elevationa
(m)

Melted
area (ha)

Areal
coverage
(%)

Very low
Low
Middle
High
Very high

86
87
49
23
8

34
34
19
9
4

Very low
Low
Middle
High
Very high

37
26
48
75
66

15
10
19
30
26

27002950
29503200
32003450
34503700
37003950

18
64
80
80
11

7
25
32
32
4

a
Slope and hillshade data range is covered global minimum and maximum so these data categorized from very low to very high, but elevation is started from 2700 m, so
intervals of the categories were given.

Fig. 6. Mean temperature (5 year periods) and SCG relationship.

As a result of the melted area distribution in the categories,

slope and hillshade were very signicant (P < 0.01) on SCG change
in time, and determination co-efciencies (R2 ) were dened as 0.94
and 0.72 respectively. However, even the lowest melted areas were
dened at high elevation, where the R2 value was dened as 0.006.
So elevation was insignicant for melting in this region alone. The
relationship of the categories and topographic variables are shown
in Fig. 5.
Temperature and total SCG change were found to be related to
each other. Mean temperature data of the nearest climate station
was calculated during a 5 year period including research time, as
a one year period may be unsuitable for a scientic result, and
the melting progress takes time. Five year periods mean temperatures (19801984, 19962000, 20112015) were obtained and
related with SCG. Although temperature rise in research periods
were almost the same, SCG loss decreased in the 2nd period (Fig. 6).
6. Discussion and conclusions
This study was presented as an example of an index based
approach on SCG detection and monitoring. Index based methods
were selected because of their fast applicability and high accuracies (0.70<) as opposed to other techniques. Landsat satellite images
were used on account of their huge archives, ideal spatial and spectral resolution for regional SCG detection and free availability. Four
ideal indices were cross-checked as NDSI, NDSII, NDPCSI and WET
for SCG detection. The most effective index is still a question according to previous index based studies that were applied using Landsat
imageries in SCG detection. Whereas the common conclusion in
most of the studies was that NDSI has great potential for SCG detection and monitoring (Maher et al., 2012; Kour et al., 2015). Even if
WET index was dened as the most accurate technique in this study,
accuracy difference between WET and NDSI was only 3%.
On the other hand Sibandze et al. (2014) found that NDPCSI
had better accuracy than NDSI in snow cover detection. However,
NDPCSI accuracy was detected as 0.4 in this study. This situation

may be caused by the regional differences, reference data type or

glaciers. Ground truth data covered pure SCG and dirty SCG areas
in this study and all snow and glacier covered areas were classied. Other studies may have used only pure areas as reference,
and NDPCSI can dene only snow cover accurately. However, this
index was unsuccessful in detecting both snow and glacier cover
collectively.
SCG areas were monitored in two stages. Mean temperature and
total mean precipitation were observed from the nearest climate
station to the study area, in Hakkari province. Mean temperature
and total mean precipitation was observed to be 9 C and 700 mm
in the rst period. Same climate variables were observed to be
9.91 C and 744 mm in the second period. SCG loss was not matched
linearly with temperature or precipitation change. Therefore, physical geography was more signicant on SCG loss in the second
period. While air temperature is a crucial parameter for the melting of snow, precipitation and radiation are also important. Further
physical and geo-physical properties such as snow grain size, the
amount of absorbed impurities, slope and aspect, have affected
SCG (Jacobi, 2012; Zhao et al., 2015). In this study, particularly
slope and hillshade effects on SCG loss, were very signicant. The
melting process was faster in at elds because those areas were
uniformly exposed to sun light from all directions. On the other
hand, steep elds melted slower compared to at elds. Hillshade
effects were calculated according to the azimuth to obtain sun and
shadow effects. The analysis results showed that more sun caused
more SCG loss in conjunction with the steepness of the terrain. Surprisingly elevation did not affect the melting progress as expected.
SCG in lower regions was already too little. This means that not
only elevation but also the mass of the SCG effects SCG loss in a
region.
In conclusion, the WET index is a good indicator for SCG and it
can be applied to detect SCG accurately as an alternative to NDSI and
NDSII. WET, NDSI and NDSII indices can be used in snow and glacier
cover detection studies without wasting too much time. In addition,
the Landsat dataset has great potential for SCG detection studies, however index based techniques are needed for the threshold
detection process using higher resolution data or a detailed ground
truth dataset. In this study two different freely available satellite
data were used as Landsat and RASAT to reduce the cost. Index
based techniques can be applied to the analysis of large areas or
multiple smaller areas and can take shorter time compared to other
methods. According to the IPCC A2 scenario, the winter season temperature in Eastern Turkey will rise 46 C until 2071 (Demir et al.,
2008), thus SCG loss of the Cilo Mountain chain will continue in the
future.
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