Concepts of Energy

Introduction
Energy is involved in all life cycles, and it is essential in agriculture as much as in all other
productive activities. An elementary food chain already shows the need for energy: crops need
energy From solar radiation to grow, harvesting needs energy from the human body in work, and
cooking needs energy from biomass in a fire. The food, in its turn, provides the human body with
energy.
Forms of energy
Energy can exist in various forms. Examples are:
Radiation energy: the radiation from the sun contains energy, and also the radiation from a
light or a fire. More solar energy is available when the radiation is more intense and when
it is collected over a larger area. Light is the visible part of radiation;
Chemical energy: wood and oil contain energy in a chemical form. The same is true for all
other material that can burn. The content of chemical energy is larger the larger the
heating value (calorific value) of the material is and, of course, the more material we have.
Also animate energy (delivered by bodies of human beings and animals) is, in essence,
chemical energy. Furthermore, batteries contain chemical energy;
Potential energy: this is, for example, the energy of a water reservoir at a certain height.
The water has the potential to fall, and therefore contains a certain amount of energy.
More potential energy is available when there is more water and when it is at a higher
height;
Kinetic energy: this is energy of movement, as in wind or in a water stream. The faster the
stream flows and the more water it has, the more energy it can deliver. Similarly, more
wind energy is available at higher windspeeds, and more of it can be tapped by bigger
windmill rotors;
Thermal energy or heat: this is indicated by temperature. The higher the temperature, the
more energy is present in the form of heat. Also, a larger body contains more heat;
Mechanical energy, or rotational energy, also called shaft power: this is the energy
of a rotating shaft. The amount of energy available depends on the flywheel of the shaft,
i.e.:. on the power which makes the shaft rotate;
Electrical energy: a dynamo or generator and a battery can deliver electrical energy. The
higher the voltage and the current, the more electrical energy is made available.

Energy conversion
"Utilising" energy always means converting energy from one form into another. For instance, in
space heating, we utilise energy, that is, we convert chemical energy of wood into heat. Or, in lift
irrigation, a diesel engine converts chemical energy of oil into mechanical energy for powering
the shaft of a pump which, in its turn, converts shaft power into potential energy of water (i.e.
bringing the water to a higher height).
"Generating" energy also means converting energy from one form into another. We can say
that a diesel engine generates energy, which means that the engine converts chemical energy of
oil into mechanical energy. Also, a wind turbine generates energy, which means it converts
kinetic energy from wind into mechanical energy. And a solar photovoltaic cell generates energy
by converting radiation energy into electricity.

The generation of energy, in fact, deals with a source of energy, whereas the utilisation of energy
serves an end-use of energy. In between, the energy can flow through a number of conversion
steps. The words "generation" and "utilisation" are a little confusing because, in fact, no energy
can be created or destroyed. All we can do is transform or convert energy from one form into
another. In generating energy, we make energy available from a source, by converting it into
another form. In utilising energy, we also convert energy, often from some intermediate form into
a useful form. In all conversions, we find that part of the energy is lost. This does not mean that it
is destroyed, but rather that it is lost for our purposes, through dissipation in the form of heat or
otherwise

Energy and power

Energy and power are related but totally different concepts. A tank of petrol contains a certain
amount of energy. We can combust this petrol in a certain time period, that is, we convert the
energy of the petrol into mechanical energy, perhaps to power a car. The power is the energy
produced per unit of time. The combustion process can be fast or slow. In the case of faster
combustion, more power is produced. Obviously, the tank will be empty sooner in the case of
high power production than in the case of low power production. If power is energy per time unit,
then energy is power multiplied by time period. For Instance, if an oxen delivers a certain amount
of power, then after a certain time period it will have delivered a cerain amount of energy, i.e.
the power times the time period.

The same principle applies to all other energy conversions, whether for energy generation or for
energy utilisation. This implies that we characterise energy resources in units of energy (the
amount of energy they contain), and energy conversion devices in units of power (the amount of
power they can produce or consume).

Energy sources
The following energy sources can be relevant for rural areas.
Biomass. We distinguish between: woody biomass (stems, branches, shrubs, hedges,
twigs), non-woody biomass (stalks, leaves, grass, etc.), and crop residues (bagasse, husks,
stalks, shells, cobs, etc.). The energy is converted through combustion (burning),
gasification (transformation into gas) or anaerobic digestion (biogas production).
Combustion and gasification ideally require dry biomass, whereas anaerobic digestion can

very well take wet biomass. Fuel preparations can include chopping, mixing, drying,
carbonising (i.e. charcoal making) and briqueting (i.e. densification of residues of crops
and other biomass).
Dung from animals, and human excreta. The energy is converted through direct
combustion or through anaerobic digestion.
Animate energy. This is the energy which can be delivered by human beings and animals
by doing work.
Solar radiation, i.e. energy from the sun. We distinguish between direct beam radiation
and diffuse (reflected) radiation. Direct radiation is only collected when the collector faces
the sun. Diffuse radiation is less intense, but comes from all directions, and is also present
on a cloudy day. Solar energy can be converted through thermal solar devices (generating
heat) or through photovoltaic cells (generating electricity). Direct beam solar devices
(whether thermal or photovoltaic) would need a tracking mechanism to have the device
continuously facing the sun.
Hydro resources, i.e. energy from water reservoirs and streams. We distinguish between:
lakes with storage dams, natural heads (waterfalls), weirs, and run-of-river systems. Hydro
energy can be converted by waterwheels or hydro turbines.
Wind energy, i.e. energy from wind. Wind machines can be designed either for electricity
generating or for water lifting (for irrigation and drinking water).
Fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas. Unlike the previous energy sources, the fossil
energy sources are non-renewable.
Geothermal energy, that is, the energy contained in the form of heat in the earth. A
distinction is made between tectonic plates (in volcanic areas) and geopressed reservoirs
(could be anywhere). Geothermal energy is, strictly speaking, non-renewable, but the
amount of heat in the earth is so large that for practical reasons geothermal energy is
generally ranked with the renewables. Geothermal energy can only be tapped at places
where high earth temperatures come close to the earth's surface.

This list only contains primary energy sources. These are the energy sources which are present in
our natural environment. Secondary energy sources, like batteries, are not included here.
We observe that the primary energy sources are not the ultimate sources of energy. For instance,
animate energy comes from biomass, whereas biomass energy ultimately comes from the sun.
Apart from geothermal and nuclear energy, all our so-called primary energy sources have
ultimately got their energy from the sun!

Some notes on energy terminology

Energy sources are sometimes classified according to characteristics like: renewable, traditional,
commercial, etc. The terminology is rather ambiguous, as the meaning of the words often
depends on the context. Some connotations are given below.

Renewable is generally contrasted with fossil. Renewable are biomass, animate, solar,
water and wind energy, as well as geothermal energy. Fossil energy is contained in coal, oil
and natural gas.

Traditional energy is often contrasted with non-traditional energy, and also with new
energy. However, what is considered as traditional depends on what one is used to. In
industrialised societies which are used to fossil fuels, renewable energies like biomass and
animate energy are often called traditional. At the same time, engineers working on "new"

energies like wind or solar energy often consider fossil fuels as traditional. Apparently,
what people call traditional are the forms they are actually notused to.

New and renewable energy sources are often put together. They exclude fossil and nuclear
energy.

Commercial energy is contrasted with non-commercial energy, and sometimes

with traditional energy. Commercial energy certainly includes energy from fossil fuels
which have been monetarized, but also some forms of new and renewable energies which
are part of the cash economy. Biomass and some other sources of renewable energy
(thermal solar energy) are sometimes considered non-commercial, because they are
thought to be freely available. However, in many areas, biomass fuels have to be paid for!

Energy units and dimensions

So far, we have discussed energy in qualitative terms. In order to proceed, we must discuss
energy quantitatively. That means, we need units for measuring quantities of energy and related
concepts. We use the International system of units (SI units), which is based on the dimensions
and basic units in Table 1.
Table 1. Basic SI units
dimension
length
mass
time
electric current
temperature

basic unit
meter
kilogram
Second
ampere
kelvin

symbol
m
kg
s
A
K

The unit of energy in this unit system is joule (J), and the unit of power is watt (W). These and
many other units can be derived from the basic SI units. The relationship between some derived
SI units and the basic SI units is represented in Table 2.
Table 2. Derived SI units
dimension
unit
area
square meter
volume
cubic meter
speed
meter per second
acceleration
meter per second
pressure
pascal
volume flow
cubic meter per second
mass flow
kilogram per second
density
kilogram per cubic meter
force
newton (*)
energy
joule (**)
power
watt
energy flux
watt per square meter
calorific value
joule per kilogram
specific heat
joule per kilogram kelvin
voltage
volt

symbol
m
m
m/s
m/s
Pa (=N/m)
m /s
kg/s
kg/m
N(=kg.m/s)
J(=N.m)
W (=J/s)
W/m
J/kg
J/kg.K
V (=W/A)

(*) The force exerted by a mass of 1 kg equals ca. 10 N.

(**) The energy required to lift 1 kg by 1 meter. Note that = W.s.

The powers of ten are often abbreviated by writing prefixes before the unit. For instance, the symbol G stands
for giga, which means 10 to the power 9, i.e. a billion. One billion W is then written as 1 GW (one giga Watt).
Common prefixes are given in Table 4.
Table 4. SI prefixes
prefix
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

symbol
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
u
n
P
f
a

multiplier
1018
1015
1012
109 (= 1,000,000,000)
106 (= million)
103 (= thousand)
102 (= hundred)
101 (= ten)
10-1 (= a tenth)
10 (= a hundredth)
10-3 etc....
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

Magnitudes of energy forms

Now we have Introduced units for measuring energy, we can make quantitative comparisons and
calculations. The following results give us some feeling of magnitudes of energy, as represented
in different energy forms.
The examples are all equivalent to about 100 kJ;
- radiation from the sun on the roof of a house (of ca. 40 m) in 2.5 s
- energy released in burning 3.5 g coal or 2.9 g petrol; or the energy stored in 1/4 slice of bread
- a large object (1,000 kg) at a height of 10 m
- energy produced by a windmill of 3 m diameter in a wind speed of 5 m/s (a breeze) during 20
minutes; or the energy stored in the mass of a car (1,000 kg) moving at 50 km/h heat emanated
in cooling three cups of coffee (0.4 kg) from 80C to 20 C; or the energy needed to melt 0.3 kg
ice
- an iron flywheel of 0.6 m diameter and 70 mm thick, rotating at 1,500 revolutions per second
- energy consumed by a 100 W electric light bulb in 17 minutes

Energy losses and efficiency

As has been stated in Section 3, energy conversions always imply energy losses. This leads us to
the concept of efficiency, as follows. A quantity of energy in a certain form is put into a machine

or device, for conversion into another form of energy. The output energy in the desired form is
only a part of the Input energy. The balance is the energy loss (usually in the form of diffused
heat). It means the converter has less than 100% efficiency.
The efficiency of an energy converter is now defined as the quantity of energy in the desired
form (the output energy) divided by the quantity of energy put in for conversion (the input
energy). The efficiency is usually expressed by the Greek letter h .

Hence:
Table 5 gives some typical efficiencies of energy converters.
Table 5. Some typical efficiencies of energy converters
Converter

form of input energy

form of output energy

efficiency %

petrol engine

chemical

mechanical

20 - 25

diesel engine

chemical

mechanical

30 - 45

electric motor

electrical

mechanical

80 - 95

boiler & turbine

thermal

mechanical

7-40

hydraulic pump

mechanical

potential

40 - 80

hydro turbine

potential

mechanical

70 - 99

hydro turbine

kinetic

mechanical

30 - 70

mechanical

electrical

80 - 95

battery

chemical

electrical

80 - 90

solar cell

radiation

electrical

8-15

solar collector

radiation

thermal

25 - 65

electric lamp

electrical

light

ca. 5

mechanical

potential

ca. 60

water heater

electrical

thermal

90 - 92

gas stove

chemical

thermal

24 30

generator

waterpump

In some of these converters, intermediate forms of energy occur between the form of the input
energy and the form of the output energy. For instance, with diesel engines, the intermediate
form is thermal energy.
When thermal energy is Involved either as the input or as an intermediate form, the efficiency is
generally low.
The energy converter can be a device, or a process, or a whole system. An example of the
efficiency of an energy conversion system is given in Table 6. The overall efficiency equals the
product of the efficiencies of the various components of the system. We see that it can be very
low indeed.

Table 6
energy form

energy converter

efficiency

diesel engine

30%

generator

80%

electric motor

80%

waterpump

60%

chemical energy

mechanical energy

electricity

mechanical energy

potential energy
efficiency of the system = 30% x 80% x 80%x 60% = 12%

Efficiency of an energy conversion system:

An example
Where energy is a scarce resource, we want the efficiency of conversion to be high, in order to
save energy. But higher efficiency often implies higher costs for better equipment. Optimisation
with respect to, on the one hand, the costs of energy and, on the other hand, the costs of
equipment, is a major task in energy planning. The problem of optimization is different when
energy sources are free (like with wind, solar and some hydro sources). Energy efficiency has
then a limited meaning, and the choice of technology will be guided by the cost effectiveness of
the equipment.

A very high system efficiency can be obtained when heat losses from one converter are utilised
as energy inputs in another. We call this waste heat utilisation. It is applicable, for instance, in
agro-processing where heat from Industrial converters is utilised for drying of products.
Cogeneration is another example, i.e. the utilisation of "waste" heat from electricity production,
for purposes of process heat in Industry.

Equivalence and replacement of energy forms

In principle, the energy content of a fuel is known when the fuel Is specified. For chemical energy, the energy
content is given as the calorific value, or heating value, of the fuel. The unit can be MJ/kg. And so we can
compare different fuels with different energy contents. We can work out how much of one fuel is equivalent to a
quantity of another fuel. For quantifying energy resources, we sometimes use coal as a reference, and the unit
for comparison is then ton-of-coal-equivalent (tee). A certain amount of an energy resource is then
characterised by its tee. That is, the resource has an energy content equivalent to so many tee.
Alternatively, we can express the energy equivalent of a resource in units of ton-of-oil-equivalent (toe), or in
barrels-of-oil-equivalent (boe). Table 7 gives the equivalent values of some fuels.
Table 7. Energy equivalent values of some fuels

fuel

unit

tonnes of coal
equivalent

tonnes of oil
equivalent

barrels of oil
equivalent

GJ
(*)

coal

tonne

1.00

0.70

5.05

29.3

firewood (**)
(airdried)

tonne

0.46

0.32

2.34

13.6

kerosine (jet fuel)

tonne

1.47

1.03

7.43

43.1

natural gas

1000
m3

1.19

0.83

6.00

34.8

gasoline

barrel

0.18

0.12

0.90

5.2

gasoil/diesel

barrel

0.20

0.14

1.00

5.7

(*) Note that GJ/tonne is the same as MJ/kg.

(**) Note that the energy equivalent of wood can vary a factor 3 depending on the moisture
content of the wood.

However, what we can achieve with an amount of energy depends very much on how the energy
is utilised, that is, on the efficiencies of the energy converters applied. Efficiencies can vary
enormously for different converters, as we have seen in Section 9. The energy equivalent is then
of limited use to us. In practice, when comparing sources of energy, we are more interested in
the replacement value of the energy form. The latter Indicates how much of that energy form is
required to do the same job (i.e. serve the same use) as another energy form or fuel. Again, as a
reference, coal is sometimes used. The replacement value of an energy form is, then again,
expressed in tee. However, this value will be different from the equivalent value of that energy
form.
An easy way of comparing replacement values of different energy forms is by indicating how
many units of the energy form (or fuel) can replace one kg of coal. We call this the replacement
ratio of the fuel. Replacement ratios of some household energy forms compared with coal are
given in Table 8, as taken from a particular survey. (Alternatively, a similar table could be made
with oil as a reference.) It should be noted that the figures serve as an example only, as they
depend on the actual efficiencies of the conversion techniques applied.
Table 8. Coal replacement ratio of some forms of energy

energy form or fuel

unit

coal replacement ratio (kg coal per unit)

dung cake

kg

0.30

vegetable waste

kg

0.60

firewood

kg

0.70 - 0.95

soft coke

kg

1.50

charcoal

kg

1.80

kerosire (lamp)

2.10

kerosine (stove)

5.20 - 7.00

kWh

0.70

electricity

(The coal replacement ratio is the number of kg of coal which is required to effectively replace 1 unit of the
energy form or fuel, under certain assumptions.)
Good examples of coal replacement are a kerosine lamp and a kerosine stove. The coal equivalent of kerosine
was 1.47, which means that the heating value of 1 kg kerosine equals that of 1.47 kg coal. However, the coal

replacement ratio for a kerosine lamp is 2.10, which means that 2.10 kg coal would be required to get as much
light as from 1 kg kerosine. And the coal replacement ratio of a kerosine stove is around 6, which means that 6
kg coal is required to get as much heat in a pot as from 1 kg kerosine.

Energy balance
An energy balance of a region (or country) is a set of relationships accounting for all energy
which is produced, transformed and consumed in a certain period. This basic equation of an
energy balance is:
source + import = export + variation of stock + use + loss
Consider a primary energy balance.
Sources are the local (or national) primary energy sources, like coal, hydro, biomass, animate,
etc.
Imports are energy sources which come from outside the region (or country).
Exports go to other regions (or countries).
Variations of stock are reductions of stocks (like of forests, coal, etc.), and storage.
Use can be specified sectoral, or by energy form, or by end-use, etc., as required.
Losses are technical losses and administrative losses:
technical losses are due to conversions and transport or transmission
administrative losses are due to non-registered consumptions.
An energy balance usually refers to a year, and can be made for consecutive years to show time
variations.
Energy balances can be aggregate, or very detailed, depending on their functions. They can also
be elaborate, showing all sorts of structural relationships between energy production and
consumption, and specifying various Intermediate forms of energy.
An energy balance can also be set up for a village, a household, a farm, or an agricultural unit. It
will show the inputs of energy in various forms, the end-use energy, and the losses. Specific for
energy balances of agricultural systems is the fact that parts of the outputs of the system are, at
the same time, energy Inputs into the system (agricultural residues, dung).
Energy balances have to be built up from surveys of what is actually going on. This requires
energy resource surveys, and energy consumption surveys, as well as more technical energy
audits. Section 12 goes into some aspects of energy auditing.

Energy balances provide overviews, which serve as tools for analysing current and projected
energy positions. The overviews can he useful for purposes of resource management, or for
indicating options in energy saving, or for policies of energy redistribution, etc. However, care
must be taken not to single out energy from other economic goods. That means that an energy
balance should not be taken as our ultimate guide for action. Energy data are to be translated
into economic terms, for a further analysis of options for action. And, of course, socio-cultural
and environmental aspects are equally important.

Process energy requirements and gross energy requirements

Energy use in agriculture, or in any other productive system, can be analysed at different levels.
1. The direct energy input in the production process and related transport requirements is
considered.
2. The same as 1., but, in addition, the energy embodied in the materials (e.g. fertiliser) for the
production process and related transport is considered.
3. The same as 2., but, in addition, the energy required by the machines to produce these
materials is considered'.
4. The same as 3., but, in addition, the energy required by the machine Cools is considered.
Etc....
Which level of analysis is relevant for whom?
Let us first distinguish:
GER = Gross Energy Requirement is the total amount of energy required for a product.
e.g. the GER of milk is 5.2 MJ/pint in the U.K.
This includes the energy Co produce fertiliser, grow the grass, feed the cows, process the milk in
the dairy, and energy for transport.
PER = Process Energy Requirement is the energy required for processing the product.
e.g. the PER of milk is 0.38 MJ/pint in the U.K.
This is the energy required to process the milk in the dairy itself.
Generally, when the PER can be lowered, as a result the GER will also be lowered. However, this
will not always be the case, and it can also be the reverse. For instance, energy economies of
scale can sometimes be achieved at farm level, at the expense of energy requiring investments
in Infrastructure or transport facilities.
The answer to the question as to which level of analysis is relevant obviously depends oh which
policy or management level is involved.
For instance, for management at the farm level, it is the PER which matters, and so the first level
of analysis is the relevant one.
For regional policy makers, however, level 2 is relevant when regional materials and resources
are involved. Furthermore, the linkages between the agricultural sector and other sectors will be
a concern. For instance, large scale biogas digesters can be an energy efficient option for agroprocessing plants, but they may compete with alternative utilisation of the inputs (e.g. dung for
poor peoples' household fuel).
For national policy makers, level 2 or 3 may be relevant. For instance, the establishment of
plants for energy intensive goods can be attractive when cheap energy is available (e.g. fertilizer
production).

The analyses of PER and GER provide data for energy balances. However, these data do not give
information on the forms of energy, or time variations (seasonality) in the energy flows, etc. Such
information has to be added, as required.
PER and GER are part of what is often called energy auditing. This is the monitoring of energy
use in productive systems. The analogue in consumption systems is energy end-use analysis. In
subsistence agriculture, productive and consumption systems are intertwined, and the two
approaches have to be combined in energy surveys.
Examples of calculations of energy conversions
The following examples aim to illustrate methods of calculations, rather than to arrive at
accurate numbers. For convenience, the calculations are made in round figures. More exact
figures would, anyway, depend on the accuracy of the input data.

13.1 How much heat is produced by a human body?

A man doing no or very little physical work needs about 2,000 kcal (or less) of energy in his daily
food. The body converts this energy almost entirely into heat.
1 day = 24 x 60 x 60 s = 86,400 s 1 cal = 4.2 J
Hence

We see that a human body doing no work is equivalent to a heat source of about 100 W - the
equivalent of a good bulb.
13.2 The power of oil
It was said that two teaspoons of diesel oil are equivalent to the work done by a man in a day.
Can that be correct?
Assume that the power which can be delivered by a man in a day's work is 60 W (cf. example
13.3), and that he can do that for 4 hours per day. So, per day, he delivers:
60 W x 4 h = 240 Wh = 240 x 3,600 Ws = 860 kWs = 860 kJ (1)
Note: the power of ca. 60 W delivered by doing work is on top of the 100 W produced by the
body as heat (cf. example 13.1). The additional power requires additional kcal in the food!
We estimate that two teaspoons are equal to 1/50 litre.
Diesel oil has an energy content of 42 MJ/kg.
For simplicity, we assume that 1 litre of oil weighs 1 kg.
Then, 1 litre of oil contains 42 MJ, and 2 teaspoons contain:

1/50 x 42 MJ =840 kJ (2)

Note: the power delivered by a man can be compared with the power which can be delivered by
an oxen, which is:
0.3 to 1.3 hp = 220 to 960 W.
We see that the figures (1) and (2) are approximately the same. So - the comparison was correct!
13.3 How can we check that a human body can deliver 60 W during a few hours per day?
The actual value could be measured, and it will vary a lot, depending on many factors. One way
of checking the order of magnitude is the following.
Mountaineers know that a man can climb about 300 metres per hour. Assume that his weight is
75 kg. The gravitational force he is counteracting is then:
75 x 9.8 Newton = 750 N The energy delivered by the man in an hour is:
300 m x 750 N = 225 kNm = 225 kJ.
The power delivered is:

13.4 How can we compare the power from oxen with the energy from wood?
We cannot compare power and energy. We can make a comparison only if we specify a time
period, so as to relate power to energy. For instance, the time period that oxen work.
An oxen can deliver typically 0.8 hp. With Table 3 on the conversion of non-SI units, we see that
this equals about 740 x 0.8 = 600 W. The amount of energy delivered in one year by this oxen
can be calculated if we know how many hours the oxen works in a year. Assume this is 4 hours a
day during 300 days, i.e. 1,200 hours per year. One hour is 3,600 s.
Hence, the energy from one oxen in a year is:
600 x 1,200 x 3,600 Ws = 2,600,000,000 = 2.6 GJ
Thus, 4 oxen would deliver about 10 J in one year. From Table 3 it is seen that this equals roughly
the amount of energy in one ton of (wet) wood.
13.5 Do we really need more energy under the pot than in the pot?
We have seen that a person needs in his food ca. 2,000 kcal per day (cf. example 13.1). This is
8.4 MJ/day for one person. We assume that the food mainly consists of crop products, i.e.
biomass.
Dry biomass, whether edible or not, has an energy content of typically 18 MJ/kg.
The daily energy of 8.4 MJ can thus be delivered by:

On a yearly basis, the biomass for food per person is:

365 days x 0.5 kg/day = 180 kg/year
We can compare this amount with the amount of biomass required as fuel by a household. From
surveys, we know that a typical household fuel need for cooking purposes is 500 kg/year of dry
biomass per person. Hence

This means that roughly 3 times more energy is required under the pot than in the pot!
13.6 On the price of rural electricity
A consumer in a town centre is charged Rs 0.75 per kWh for his electricity from the national grid.
In a rural area, a consumer has a lamp connected to the local micro hydro unit at a cost of Rs 1
per day. Which consumer pays more for his electricity?
Assume that the lamp in the village consumes a power of 40 W and Chat It is switched on for an
average of 4 hours per day. This implies an energy consumption of:
4 h x 40 W = 160 Wh = 0.16 KWh for 1Rs.
The consumer in the town pays for this amount of energy:
0.16 x Rs 0.75 = Rs 0.12
We see that the villager pays about 8 times more for his electricity than the consumer in the
town.