The Cellular Basis of

Reproduction and
Inheritance

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CELL

DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION

Chapter 8

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.1 Like begets like, more or less

Living organisms reproduce by two methods
Asexual reproduction
Offspring are identical to the original cell or organism
Involves inheritance of all genes from one parent

Sexual reproduction
Offspring are similar to parents, but show variations in
traits
Involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two
parents

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8.2 Cells arise only from preexisting cells

Cell division is the reproduction of cells
Roles of cell division
Asexual reproduction
Reproduction of an entire single-celled organism
Growth of a multicellular organism
Repair and replacement of cells in an adult
Sexual reproduction
Sperm and egg production

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8.3 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission

Plasma
membrane

Prokaryotic
chromosome

Cell wall

Binary fission means dividing in half

Duplication of chromosome
and separation of copies

Continued elongation of the

cell and movement of copies

Occurs in prokaryotic cells

Two identical cells arise from one cell

Division into
two daughter cells

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8.4 The large, complex chromosomes of

eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE

AND MITOSIS

Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of

chromatin
Chromatin = DNA + proteins
To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes
highly compact, and the chromosomes are visible
with a microscope
Early in the division process, chromosomes duplicate
Each chromosome appears as two sister chromatids,
containing identical DNA molecules
Sister chromatids are joined at the centromere

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sister chromatids

Chromosome
duplication
Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Centromere

Chromosome
distribution
to
daughter
cells

8.5 The cell cycle multiplies cells

The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events
for cell division

INTERPHASE

S
(DNA synthesis)

G1

It consists of two stages

Interphase: duplication of cell contents
G1growth, increase in cytoplasm
Sduplication of chromosomes
G2growth, preparation for division

Mitotic phase: division

Mitosisdivision of the nucleus
Cytokinesisdivision of cytoplasm
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G2

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

Mitosis progresses through a series of stages

A mitotic spindle is required to divide the

chromosomes

Prophase

The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules

Prometaphase

It is produced by centrosomes, structures in the

cytoplasm that organize microtubule arrangement

Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase

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INTERPHASE
Chromatin
Centrosomes
(with centriole pairs)

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PROPHASE
Early mitotic Centrosome
spindle

PROMETAPHASE
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope

Centromere
Plasma
Nuclear
envelope membrane Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
Nucleolus

METAPHASE
Kinetochore

Spindle
microtubules

ANAPHASE
Metaphase
plate

Spindle

Daughter
chromosomes

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Nuclear
envelope
forming

Nucleolus
forming

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

Interphase

Prophase

In the cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic contents double
Two centrosomes form

In the nucleus
Chromosomes duplicate during the S phase
Nucleoli, sites of ribosome assembly, are visible

In the cytoplasm
Microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming the
spindle

In the nucleus
Chromosomes coil and become compact
Nucleoli disappear

Prometaphase
Spindle microtubules reach chromosomes, where they attach at
kinetochores on the centromeres of sister chromatids
The nuclear envelope disappears

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

8.6 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic

changes

Metaphase

Telophase

Chromosomes align at the cell equator (metaphase

plate)

Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate
Daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of
the cell

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Nuclear envelopes reform

Chromatin uncoils
Nucleoli reappear
The spindle disappears

Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm is divided into separate cells

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8.7 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells

Cytokinesis
Cleavage in animal cells
A cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of
microfilaments, interacting with myosin

Cleavage
furrow

The cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents

into two cells

Cytokinesis in plant cells

Cleavage furrow

A cell plate forms in the middle from vesicles containing

cell wall material

Contracting ring of
microfilaments

The cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing

the contents into two cells
Each cell has a plasma membrane and cell wall
Daughter cells
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Wall of
Cell plate Daughter
parent cell forming nucleus

8.8 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth

factors affect cell division
Factors that control cell division
Presence of essential nutrients
Growth factors, proteins that stimulate division

Cell wall

New cell wall

Presence of other cells causes density-dependent

inhibition
Contact with a solid surface; most cells show
anchorage dependence

Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

cell wall material
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Growth factor

G1 checkpoint

G0

Control
system

G1

Plasma membrane

G2

Receptor
protein

Relay
proteins

Signal
transduction
pathway

G1 checkpoint

Control
system

G1

G2

M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint

8.10 CONNECTION: Growing out of control,

cancer cells produce malignant tumors

8.11 Review: Mitosis provides for growth, cell

replacement, and asexual reproduction

Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle

Mitosis produces genetically identical cells for

Cancer cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of

growth factors
They spread to other tissues through the circulatory
system

Growth
Replacement
Asexual reproduction

Growth is not inhibited by other cells, and tumors

form
Benign tumors remain at the original site
Malignant tumors spread to other locations by
metastasis

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.12 Chromosomes are matched in homologous

pairs

MEIOSIS AND
CROSSING OVER

Somatic cells have pairs of homologous

chromosomes, receiving one member of each pair
from each parent
Homologous chromosomes are matched in
Length
Centromere position
Gene locations
A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene
Different versions of a gene may be found at the same
locus on maternal and paternal chromosomes

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8.12 Chromosomes are matched in homologous

pairs
The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in
size and genetic composition

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Homologous pair of
chromosomes

Pairs of autosomes have the same size and

genetic composition

Centromere

Sister chromatids

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One duplicated
chromosome

8.13 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes

Haploid gametes (n = 23)

n

Meiosis is a process that converts diploid nuclei to

haploid nuclei
Diploid cells have two homologous sets of
chromosomes

Egg cell
n

Sperm cell
Meiosis

Fertilization
Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46)

Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes

Meiosis occurs in the sex organs, producing
gametessperm and eggs

2n

Multicellular
diploid adults
(2n = 46)

Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg

The zygote has a diploid chromosome number, one
set from each parent

Mitosis and
development

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8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid

8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid

Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by interphase

Events in the nucleus during meiosis I

Chromosomes duplicate during the S phase

Unlike mitosis, meiosis has two divisions

During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate
The chromosome number is reduced by half

During meiosis II, sister chromatids separate

The chromosome number remains the same

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Prophase I
Chromosomes condense
Homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by
synapsis
Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a tetrad
Nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material by
crossing over

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8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid
Events in the nucleus during meiosis I
Metaphase I
Tetrads align at the cell equator

MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

INTERPHASE
Centrosomes
(with centriole
pairs)

PROPHASE I
Sites of crossing over
Spindle

Anaphase I

METAPHASE I

ANAPHASE I

Microtubules Metaphase Sister chromatids

attached to
remain attached
plate
kinetochore

Homologous pairs separate and move toward opposite poles

of the cell

Telophase I
Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles

Nuclear
envelope

Sister
Chromatin chromatids

Tetrad

Centromere
(with kinetochore)

Homologous
chromosomes separate

A nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes in some

species
Each nucleus has the haploid number of chromosomes
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8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid

8.14 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number

from diploid to haploid

Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome

duplication

Events in the nucleus during meiosis II

Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II

Events in the nucleus during meiosis II
Prophase II
Chromosomes condense

Metaphase II
Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator

Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move
toward opposite poles

Telophase II
Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell
A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes
With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.15 Mitosis and meiosis have important

similarities and differences
MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate
TELOPHASE I!
AND CYTOKINESIS

PROPHASE II

METAPHASE II

ANAPHASE II

TELOPHASE II!
AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Which characteristics are similar for mitosis and

meiosis?
One duplication of chromosomes

Which characteristics are unique to meiosis?

Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid daughter
cells forming

Two divisions of chromosomes

Pairing of homologous chromosomes
Exchange of genetic material by crossing over

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

8.15 Mitosis and meiosis have important

similarities and differences
What is the outcome of each process?
Mitosis: two genetically identical cells, with the same
chromosome number as the original cell
Meiosis: four genetically different cells, with half the
chromosome number of the original cell

MITOSIS

Site of
crossing over

MEIOSIS I

Prophase I

Prophase
Duplicated
chromosome
(two sister
chromatids)

Tetrad formed
by synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes

Chromosome
duplication

Chromosome
duplication
2n = 4

Chromosomes
align at the
metaphase plate

Metaphase

Anaphase
Telophase

Sister chromatids
separate during
anaphase

2n

2n
Daughter cells
of mitosis

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MEIOSIS
Parent cell
(before chromosome duplication)

Tetrads
align at the
metaphase plate

Homologous
chromosomes
separate
(anaphase I);
sister chromatids remain
together!
No further
chromosomal
duplication;
sister
chromatids
separate
(anaphase II)!

Metaphase I

Anaphase I!
Telophase I!
Haploid
n = 2!
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I!
MEIOSIS II

n
n
n
n
Daughter cells of meiosis II!

8.16 Independent orientation of chromosomes in

meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring

Possibility 1

Possibility 2
Two equally probable
arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Independent orientation at metaphase I

Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at
the cell equator
There is an equal probability of the maternal or
paternal chromosome facing a given pole
The number of combinations for chromosomes
packaged into gametes is 2n where n = haploid
number of chromosomes

Metaphase II

Random fertilization
The combination of each unique sperm with each
unique egg increases genetic variability

Gametes
Combination 1 Combination 2

Combination 3 Combination 4

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8.17 Homologous chromosomes can carry

different versions of genes
Separation of homologous chromosomes during
meiosis can lead to genetic differences between
gametes
Homologous chromosomes may have different
versions of a gene at the same locus
One version was inherited from the mother;
the other, from the father
Since homologues move to opposite poles during
anaphase I, gametes will receive either the maternal
or paternal version of the gene

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Coat-color
genes

Eye-color
genes

Brown

Black

c
White

e
Pink

Tetrad in parent cell

(homologous pair of
duplicated chromosomes)

Meiosis

Chromosomes of
the four gametes

8.18 Crossing over further increases genetic

variability

Coat-color
genes
C

Eye-color
genes
E

Genetic recombination is the production of new

combinations of genes due to crossing over

Crossing over involves exchange of genetic

material between homologous chromosomes

Breakage of homologous chromatids

e
2

Tetrad
(homologous pair of
chromosomes in synapsis)

Joining of homologous chromatids

E
Chiasma

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E
Chiasma
e

c
3

Separation of homologous
chromosomes at anaphase I

c
4

ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME
NUMBER AND STRUCTURE

e
Separation of chromatids at
anaphase II and
completion of meiosis
E
Parental type of chromosome

Recombinant chromosome
Recombinant chromosome
Parental type of chromosome

Gametes of four genetic types

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8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of

an individual s chromosomes
A karyotype shows stained and magnified
versions of chromosomes

Centromere
Sister
chromatids

Karyotypes are produced from dividing white blood

cells, stopped at metaphase

Pair of homologous
chromosomes

Karyotypes allow observation of

Homologous chromosome pairs
Chromosome number
Chromosome structure

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Trisomy 21 involves the inheritance of three

copies of chromosome 21
Trisomy 21 is the most common human chromosome
abnormality
An imbalance in chromosome number causes Down
syndrome, which is characterized by
Characteristic facial features
Susceptibility to disease
Shortened life span
Mental retardation

The incidence increases with the age of the mother

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Infants with Down syndrome

(per 1,000 births)

8.20 CONNECTION: An extra copy of

chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

20

25

40
30
35
Age of mother

45

50

8.21 Accidents during meiosis can alter

chromosome number
Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or
chromatids to separate during meiosis

Nondisjunction
in meiosis I

During Meiosis I
Both members of a homologous pair go to one pole

During Meiosis II

Normal
meiosis II

Both sister chromatids go to one pole

Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes

with altered numbers of chromosomes

Gametes
n+1

n+1

n1

n1

Number of chromosomes
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Normal
meiosis I

Nondisjunction
in meiosis II

Gametes
n+1

n1

Number of chromosomes

8.24 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome

structure can cause birth defects and cancer
Deletion

Structure changes result from breakage and

rejoining of chromosome segments
Deletion is the loss of a chromosome segment
Duplication is the repeat of a chromosome
segment
Inversion is the reversal of a chromosome segment
Translocation is the attachment of a segment to a
nonhomologous chromosome; can be reciprocal

Altered chromosomes carried by gametes cause

birth defects
Chromosomal alterations in somatic cells can
cause cancer

Duplication
Homologous
chromosomes
Inversion

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Chromosome 9

Reciprocal
translocation

Chromosome 22

Reciprocal
translocation

Nonhomologous
chromosomes
Philadelphia chromosome
Activated cancer-causing gene (chronic myelogenous leukemia)