OvervoltageandFlashovers

InsulatorsHome>BookReferenceInfo>OvervoltageandFlashovers
Informationfrom:
Diesendorf,W.InsulationCoordinationinHighvoltageElectricPowerSystems.London,England
(printedinHungary):Butterworth&Co(Publishers)Ltd.Copyright1974.ISBN0408704640,LOC
TK1005.D53.
Beck,Edward(Manager,LightningArresterEngineeringSection,WestinghouseElectricCorporation).
LightningProtectionforElectricSystems.NewYork,NY:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.Copyright
1954.LOCTK3248.B4.
Lewis,WalterWallace(FormerTransmissionEngineerforCentralStationEngineeringDivision,General
ElectricCompany).TheProtectionOfTransmissionSystemsAgainstLightning.NewYork,NY:John
Wiley&Sons,Inc.Copyright1950.LOCTK3248.L4.
Rdenberg,Reinhold.TransientPerformanceofElectricPowerSystems.Cambridge,Massachusetts:
TheM.I.T.Press(originallyMcGrawHill).Copyright1950.LOCTK3226.R8.
Cotton,H.(EmeritusProfessorofElectricalEngineering,UniversityofNottingham).TheTransmission
andDistributionofElectricalEnergy.London,GreatBritain:TheEnglishUniversitiesPress,Ltd.
Copyright1958.LOCTK3001.C65.
Willheim,R.Waters,M.NeutralGroundinginHighVoltageTransmission.NewYork,NY:Elsevier
PublishingCompany.Copyright1956.LOCTK3227.W5.
Thisinformationcomesfrom
Diesendorf,W.InsulationCoordinationinHighvoltageElectricPowerSystems.London,England
(printedinHungary):Butterworth&Co(Publishers)Ltd.Copyright1974.ISBN0408704640,LOC
TK1005.D53.
The'Preface'states:
Thisbookisconcernedwithoneimportantareainthelargerfieldofhighvoltageinsulation:the
insulation design and surge performance of highvoltage transmission lines and stations,
customarilyreferredtoas'insulationcoordination'.[...]
The'Acknowledgements'states:
Theseedsofthisbookweresownanumberofyearsagowhentheauthorlecturedoninsulation
coordination to a refresher school on Power System Engineering initiated by Professor C. E.
Moorhouse,HeadoftheDepartmentofElectricalEngineeringattheUniversityofMelbourne.In
repeat schools held at various Australian Universities, the section on insulation coordination
wascontributedtobyDrs.M.DarvenizaandT.M.Parnell,bothoftheUniversityofQueensland.
Buildingonthematerialsoaccumulated,thewriterenlargedandconsolidateditontheoccasion
ofaseminarheconductedatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute,encouragedbyDr.E.T.B.Gross,
ChairmanofElectricPowerEngineering,andaidedbystimulatingdiscussionswithDrs.M.Harry
Hesse and T. S. Lauber, both professors of Electric Power Engineering at Rensselaer. These
lectures were published in 1971 by Rensselaer Bookstore, Troy, N.Y., under the title
'Overvoltages on High Voltage Systems (Insulation Design of Transmission Lines and
Substations)'.[...]
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.

Introduction
Thereliabilityofsupplyprovidedbyanelectricpowersystem,asjudgedby the frequency and
duration of supply interruptions to customers, depends to a great extent on the surge
performanceofthesystem.Althoughtherearemanyothercausesofinterruptions,breakdown
of insulation is one of the most frequent. If the insulation were subjected only to the normal
operatingvoltagewhichvarieswithinquitenarrowlimits,therewouldbenoproblem.Inreality,
the insulation has to withstand a variety of overvoltages with a large range of shapes,
magnitudes,anddurations.[...]
It is soon found that it is not always possible to provide insulation which will withstand the

highest stresses that may occur. An economic limit intervenes well before the technical limit.
Theengineerplacesthislimitatthepointatwhichthecostofachievingafurtherimprovement
inreliabilitycannotbe justified by the savings the reduced number of breakdowns may bring,
which are at any rate difficult to assess in money terms. He deliberately accepts a certain
probabilityofbreakdowninthedesignofpowersystems.Inthisrespect his design philosophy
differs from that of a civil engineer who designs those structures whose failures could have
catastrophicconsequencestowithstandallforseeablestresses.[...]
Overvoltages
Overvoltagescanbeimpresseduponapowersystembyatmosphericdischarges,inwhichcase
they are called 'lightning overvoltages', or they can be generated within the system by the
connection or disconnection of circuit elements or the initiation or interruption of faults. The
lattertypeareclassifiedas'temporaryovervoltages'iftheyareofpowerorharmonicfrequency
andsustainedorweaklydamped,oras'switchingovervoltages'iftheyarehighlydampedandof
short duration. Because of their common origin, temporary overvoltages and switching surges
occur together, and their combined effect is relevant to insulation design. The probability of
coincidenceoflightningandswitchingsurges,ontheotherhand,issmall,andcanbeneglected.
The prospective magnitudes of lightning surges appearing on transmission lines are not much
affectedbylinedesignhencelightningperformancetendstoimprovewithincreasinginsulation
level, i.e. system voltage. The magnitudes of switching surges, on the other hand, are
substantiallyproportionaltooperating voltage. As a consequence, here is a system voltage at
whichtheemphasischangesfromlightningtoswitchingsurgedesignthispointisreachedat
approximately 300 kV. In the 'extrahigh voltage' range, up to the highest existing system
voltage of 765 kV, both lightning and switching overvoltages have to be considered. For the
'ultrahighvoltages'atpresentbeinginvestigated,switchingsurgeswillbethemain,thoughnot
thesole,criterioninsulatorpollution,inparticular,willremainanessentialdesignfactor.[...]
LightningSurges
[...]Thepotentialofthundercloudshasbeenestimatedtobeatleast100 million
volts.
A lightning stroke to earth usually appears to the eye as a single luminous
discharge, although sometimes rapid fluctuations of light intensity can be seen.
Photographs with rotatinglens cameras reveal that most strokes are followed by
repeat strokes which travel along the path established by the first discharge, at
intervalsof0.5500ms.[...]
Thecurrentatthepointofimpactcanbeconsideredeitherasanegativecurrent
flowing into the ground, or a positive current flowing out of it. For a small
proportionoflightningflashes,thedownwardcurrentispositive.Thecurrentinthe
returnstrokeisintherangefromafewkiloamperestoabout260kA.[...]
Ithasbeenestablishedthatmanymoredischargestakeplaceintracloudandfrom
cloud to cloud than between cloud and ground. The ratio of cloud flashes to
groundflashes varies between 1.5 3 in temperate zones, and 3 6 in tropical
climates.
Startinginthelate1920s,agreatnumberoffieldinvestigationswereconducted
toascertainthecharacteristicsoflightningwhichaffectoverheadtransmissionline
performance. Unfortunately, even today the available information is neither
definitenorcomplete.[...]
Lightningcurrentsaremeasuredeitherdirectlyonhightowersorbuildings,which
are not really typical of transmission lines, or on the four corner legs of
transmission towers, which is inaccurate because of the unequal division of leg
currentsandthepresenceofgroundwiresandadjacenttowers.[...]
The risk of lightning strikes to electrical installations is necessarily related to the
degreeofthunderstormactivity.Theonlyindicatorreadilyavailable from national
meteorological services throughout the world and the World Meteorological
OrganizationinGenevaisisokerauniclevel,orthunderdays,definedasthenumber
of days in a year or month when thunder is heard at any particular location.
Weaknessesofthismeasure,fromthetransmissionengineer'spointofview,are
that it does not distinguish between ground strokes and cloud strokes, and does

notrecognizethevaryingintensitiesanddurationsofthunderstorms.Asomewhat
bettermeasureisthunderhours,butthemostappropriatemeasureisgroundflash
density.Attemptsarebeingmadetoobtainsufficientstatisticaldata,andforthis
purposelightning flash counters have been developed. [...] Until more data from
this or similar devices becomes available, estimates of lightning intensity will
continuetobebasedonthunderdaylevel.
TemporaryOvervoltages
The significance of temporary overvoltages in respect to insulation coordination
lies in the requirement that surge diverters (lightning arresters) must be able to
resealagainstsustainedvoltages,orriskdestruction.Sincetheprotectivelevelof
anykindofsurgediverterisproportionaltotheresealvoltage,theinsulationlevel
and cost of equipment depends indirectly on the magnitudes of temporary
overvoltages. In the extra high voltage range, temporary overvoltages cum
switchingsurgesdeterminetheinsulationoftransmissionlinesandconsequently
theirdimensionsandcost.
The main causes of power frequency overvoltages are: sudden loss of load
disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads Ferranti effect
andunbalancedgroundfaults.[...]
Thedurationoftemporaryovervoltagesmayvaryfromafewcycles,ifintertripping
or voltagedependent relay protection is provided, or a few seconds, if reduction
depends on automatic voltage regulators, to much longer periods if human
interventionisreliedupon.[...]
Asinglelinetogroundfaultcausesariseinthevoltagestogroundofthehealthy
phases,whichdependsmainlyontheeffectivenessofneutralearthing.Forisolated
neutral or suppressed coil systems, the potentials of the healthy phases can
exceed the linetoline voltage for solidly grounded systems they will increase
above their normal values but remain below linetoline voltage. Double lineto
groundfaultsmayalsoproduceincreasesinlinetogroundvoltages.
Ameasureofthevoltagerisecausedbysinglelinetogroundfaultsisthe 'earth
faultfactor',definedastheratioofthehigherofthetwosoundphasevolragesto
the linetoneutral voltage at the same point of the system, with the fault
removed.[...]
SwitchingOvervoltages
It has already been pointed out that switching overvoltages are the criterion by
whichtheinsulationofextrahighvoltage(e.h.v.)systemshastobedesigned.The
reductionofswitchingsurgesisthereforeaneconomicnecessity.
Inthepast,circuitbreakerdesignwasdirectedtowardsreducingtheovervoltages
causedbytheinterruptionprocess.Astheseeffortsweresuccessful,itwasfound
that surges arising on energizing e.h.v. transmission lines became more critical,
andcircuitbreakersweredevelopedtocontroltheseclosingsurges.Indicationsare
thatinthefuture,overvoltagesaccompanyingtheinitiationofshortcircuits,which
areuncontrollable,mayestablishthenextlowerlimit.Thecontinuingreductionin
switchingsurgemagnitudesmayresultinlightningperformanceagainincreasing
inrelativeimportance.Theabsolutelowerlimit,asfarasinsulationexposedtothe
atmosphereisconcerned,willprobablybesetbyinsulatorpollution.
Thepeakmagnitudeofaphasetogroundswitchingovervoltagecanbeexpressed
in 'per unit', relating it to the peak voltage to ground. A phasetophase
overvoltageisalsoexpressedintermsofthehighestvoltagepeaktoground.Quite
oftentheterm'overvoltagefactor'isusedtoindicatetheratioof the overvoltage
tothepeakofthesystemvoltagepriortoorafterthetransient.Thisvoltagemay
ofcoursedifferconsiderablyfromthehighestvoltageforequipment,andtoavoid
misunderstandings,thereferencevoltageandtheconditionsofthecaseoughtto
beclearlystated.
Switching surges are of a great variety of shape, magnitude, and duration,
correspondingtothegreatvarietyofinitiatingevents.[...]

Techniquesareavailabletokeepswitchingovervoltagestovaluesoftheorder of 2 p.u. which

permiteconomicalinsulationdesignofsystemsupto765kV.Refinementsarepossibleandare
being developed for practical application, which should lower surge levels still further, as
demandedforfuturesystemsof1100kVandhigher.
DisruptiveDischargeandWithstandVoltages
[...]
EnvironmentalEffects
[...] Rain reduces the disruptive discharge voltage very considerably for power
frequencyandswitchingimpulses,butonlylittleforlightningimpulses.Thepower
frequency and switching impulse values for outdoor insulation are accordingly
measuredinwettests,whileforlightningimpulsesonlydrytestsaremade.Asan
indication of the magnitude of the rain effect, the power frequency CFO of a
verticalinsulatorstringinperunitofthedryvalueis0.8ataprecipitationrateof
1.5mm/min,and0.75forarateof3mm/min.
Contamination is caused by a large variety of agents (coal and cement dust, fly
ash, salt spray, fertilizer, etc.) which, when moistened by fog or light misty rain,
canreducethepowerfrequencyflashovervoltageofporcelaininsulationtohalfor
even to a quarter, depending on the type and deposition density of the
contaminant, and the frequency of washing rain. [...] An approximate guide to
insulationdesignforcontaminatedconditionsistheleakagedistanceperkVr.m.s.
ofthelinelineoperatingvoltageitvariesfrom15to30mmforlightandheavy
pollution,respectively.Forstandardcapandpinsuspensioninsulators,theleakage
distanceistwicethespacingforfogtype,afactorofthreeisachieveable.[...]
TestValues
A large amount of test information has been accumulated over the years. As
operating voltages increase, experimental results are added for ever longer gaps
andinsulatorstrings.Voltagelimitsimposedbythedimensionsofthelaboratoryor
the capacity of the test equipment are removed by the construction of new
laboratories and by openair testing. Wet tests suffer from the difficulty that
uniformartificialrainishardtoachieve,andrandomerrorsarethereforelarge.
Different insulation arrangements have different characteristics this adds
enormously to the test load. The most important arrangements required in
practice are: rodrod gaps, used as protective gaps (also applicable to phaseto
phase clearances rodplane gaps, representing a live conductor above ground
parallelgaps,airclearancebetweenphasesorphaseconductorsandgroundwires
insulator strings for transmission lines, vertical, horizontal, veestrings, disc and
longrod,fogtype,etc.[and]supportinsulatorsofvariousshapes.Fore.h.v.,the
proximity of grounder tower metal affects the flashover of insulator strings, and
hasbeenstudiedintestsofmodelrigswiththeobjectiveofobtainingtheoptimum
relationshipofstringlengthandtowerclearance.[...]
LightningImpulseTestCharacteristics

LightningOvervoltagesonTransmissionLines
Introduction
Lightningsurgesontransmissionlinescanarisebyseveralmechanisms.Theleast
harmfularethevoltagesinducedbystrokestogroundinthevicinityof the line.
Lightningstrokestothephaseconductorsproducethehighestovervoltages for a
givenstrokecurrent.[...]
Circuitinterruptionsfollowingflashoverscanbeavoidedoratleastmitigatedbyarc
suppressioncoilsor'protectortubes',deviceswhichactindifferentwaystoachieve
the same objective, extinction of power follow arcs. On wood pole lines, a similar
resultcanbeachievedbydesignswhichutilizethearcquenchingpropertyofwood.
[...]
StrokestoNearbyGround
[...]Alightningdischargeinthevicinityofthelinewillcausethefield to collapse
andthechargesontheconductorstobereleased.[...]
The induced surges are equal on all three phases, have usually positive polarity,
and their wave front is typically 10 microseconds. Crest values depend on stroke
current,distancefromstroke,conductorheight,andtheprescenceorabsenceof
shield wires. As these overvoltages rarely exceed 200 kV, flashovers due to
electrostatic induction are unlikely on lines of 33 kV or higher operating voltage.
[...]
StrokestoTowers
Thelightningcurrentsinthestrokechannelandtowersflowatsubstantiallyright
anglestothoseingroundwiresandphaseconductors.[...]
Itisclearthatontowersofmoderateheight,alowtowerfootingresistancewillbe
veryeffectiveinreducingthetowertoppotential.[...]
Onverytalltowers,e.g.forrivercrossings,thepotentialmaywellbedetermined
by the terminating surge impedance, i.e. the combination of tower and ground
wiresurgeimpedance,ratherthanbythefootingresistance.[...]
StrokestoGroundWires

[...]Asinthecaseofastroketothetower,thisvoltageisdrasticallyreduced by
the arrival of a negative reflected wave from the tower base, provided the tower
footingresistanceislow.
Themaximumstressontowerinsulationisofthesameorderofmagnitudeas if
the tower had been hit directly. This goes to show that strokes to midspan can
resultintowerflashoverthoughnomidspanflashoverhasoccurred.[...]
TheLightningPerformanceofTransmissionLines
[...]
WoodPoleLines
Itiswellknownthatwoodcanaddconsiderablytotheimpulseinsulationstrength
of porcelain strings. Lusignan and Miller conducted a large number of laboratory
testsontheimpulsestrengthofvariouswood/porcelaincombinations.Theirresults
are represented in a set of curves, Figure 5.4, which, in conjunction with Figure
3.7,facilitatethedeterminationofthestrengthofthecombinationatvarioustime
lags,expressedasanequivalentnumberofstandardinsulators.[...]
Toextractthegreatestbenefitfromtheinsulatingpropertiesofwood,parallel air
and wood/porcelain flashover paths on a pole top must be carefully coordinated.
This requires better accuracy which can only be obtained by laboratory proving
tests.[...]

OutageRateandSustainedOutageRate
[...] As a rough indication of the outage rates normally expected and considered
acceptable,thefollowingfiguresarequoted:
1166kVrurallines:0.73outages/100kmyears
132kVlines,ingeneral:0.6outages/100kmyears
Veryimportant132kVandextrahighvoltagelines:00.3outages/100
kmyears
Sustainedoutageratesareaboutonetenthoftheabovefigureswhereautomatic
reclosingisemployed.
For steel tower lines with porcelain insulation only, the probability of a flashover
developingintoanoutageisapproximately0.85.[...]
Unshieldedlineshaveaveryhighoutagerate,butbytakingadvantageofthearc
quenching effect of wood, reinforced by automatic reclosing, even cheaply
constructed lines can achieve good reliability, comparable with that of shielded
lines.Areservationhastobemadeinrespecttolineswhicharesodesignedthat
they are likely to suffer interphase flashovers. For these lines, a much less
favourableperformancemustbeexpected.
Ifstructuresaredesignedtoutilisethearcquenchingpropertyofwood,theyarein
danger of the lightning current shattering the pole or crossarm. The impulse arc
penetratesintounseasonedwood,andlaboratorytestsshowthat surge currents
oflessthan10kAcanshatteracrossarmorpole.Inwellseasonedtimber,onthe
other hand, service experience and laboratory tests show that the arc hugs the

surface and the only damage is usually splinters of wood blown off. Pressure
impregnated poles seem to retain moisture for a longer time, and are therefore
moresusceptibletodamage.Fielddataindicatethat,apartfromnewlyconstructed
lines,theincidenceofpermanentdamageonwoodpolelinesislow.[...]
TheSwitchingSurgeDesignofTransmissionLines
General
For system voltages below approximately 300 kV, switching overvoltages are not
critical.Theexactvoltageatwhichswitchingsurgesbecomethemore important
criteriondependsonmanyfactorsbutmainlyontheswitchingsurgelevel.Forthis
reasonitisdesirabletoreducetheperunitswitchingsurgesforincreasingsystem
voltages.[...]
In the design of an economical tower, it is necessary to take account of the
proximity effect of grounded metal, which accentuates the already unfavourable
'saturation'characteristicoflargeairgaps.TheeffectisillustratedinFigure6.1for
thecentrephaseofa735kVtowerforouterphasesitis less severe. The main
problem is the coordination of string length and clearances to tower legs and
truss.[...]

TowerInsulationDesign
Formanynewandimportante.h.v.projects,thetowerdimensionsandwithstand
voltagesweredeterminedbyspecialtestsontowermockupsandfullscaletowers,
thetowerwindowbeingthemostcritical.[...]

ApplicationtoFutureUltraHighVoltages

Agreatamountoflaboratoryandtheoreticalworkisinprogressforthepurposeof
assessingthefeasibilityandeconomyofsystemvoltagesintherange from 1000
to2000kV,andforacquiringtherequireddesigndata.[...]
At 765 kV, a switching surge level of 2 p.u. requires a conductortotower
clearance of about 5.3 m at 1500 kV the corresponding figure is 19 m. if,
however,thesurgelevelisreducedto1.5p.u.,[...]aclearanceof11mwouldbe
sufficient. The clearance could be further reduced to 8 m at 1.35 p.u. maximum
surge. This very low surge level could probably be achieved for energising
transients, but fault initiating overvoltages and containment conditions may set
thelimitatabout1.5p.u.
Groundclearancewouldbeabout18.5m.Allowingforvehiclesandsafetymargins,
a crossarm height of about 48 m is required. With such huge tower dimensions,
every possible economy has to be explored. One way would be to ascertain, by
extendedanalysis,theexactshapeofalllikelyswitchingsurges,andtodesignfor
actualwaveshapesinsteadofthemostonerous.[...]
TheInsulationCoordinationofHighvoltageStations
Principles
Theinsulationdesignofhighvoltagestationsmustbebasedondifferentprinciples
from those applying to transmission lines. Firstly, stations generally contain
transformers and other valuable equipment with nonselfrestoring insulation,
which must be guarded most carefully against internal breakdowns. Secondly,
since they have vital functions to fulfill in the power system, even the risk of
flashoverinair,withtheaccompanyingdisturbancetonormaloperation,mustbe
kepttoaminimum.
In important stations, protection against lightning surges requires the
establishmentofaprotectivevoltagelevelbymeansofshuntconnectedprotective
devices.[...]
Belowabout300kVsystemvoltage,switchingsurgesareaslittleacriticalfactorin
stationsasontransmissionlines.IftheBIL[lightningimpulsewithstand level] is
chosencorrectlyrelativetotheprevailingprotectivelevel,theequipmentwillalso
haveadequateswitchingsurgestrength.[...]
OvervoltageProtectiveDevices
Only rod gaps and surge diverters (lightning arresters) will be considered,
disregardingdevicesofmoreorlesshistoricalinterest.[...]
Theidealrequirementsforshuntconnectedprotectivedevicescanbesummarised
asfollows:
1.Theymustnotsparkoverundertemporaryvoltagesunderanybutthe
mostexceptionalcircumstances.
2.Theirvolt/timecurvemustliebelowthewithstandleveloftheprotected
insulationinanytimeregioninwhichprotectionisneeded.Themargin
betweentwocurvesmustbeadequatetoallowfortheeffectsofdistance,
polarity,variationsinrelativeairdensity,humidity,ageingoftheinsulation,
andlikelychangesinthecharacteristicsoftheprotectivedevice.
3.Theymustbeabletodischargehighenergysurgeswithoutchangesintheir
protectivelevelordamagetothemselvesoradjacentequipment.
4.Afterdischargingasurge,theyshouldreseal(i.e.becomenonconducting)
inthepresenceoftemporaryovervoltages.(Surgediverterscanbe
destroyedbypowerfollowcurrent.)
Rodgapsaresimpleandcheap,butdonotmeetallrequirements,inparticularthat
of resealing. [...] Moreover, as no currentlimiting resistor is used, the impulse
voltage collapses on sparkover to zero if the gap is installed near a transformer,
thewindingcanbesubjectedtoaverylargestepimpulsewhichplacesdangerous
stressesontheturninsulation.
Nevertheless, rod gaps can provide reasonable protection where the isokeraunic

level is low and the front times of lightning surges are controlled by the use of
overheadgroundwiresandthepreventionofbackflashoversnearthestation.
The basic elements of a surge diverter are the sparkgap, which acts as a fast
switch, and the nonlinear resistor. [...] Preionization of the gap assists in
ensuringquickandconsistentsparkover.[...]
Thelighterdesignsofsurgedivertercannotcopewithsuchlongdurationcurrents
[of 2000 microseconds], and they must not be allowed to operate for line
discharges. Heavy duty surge diverters with 'assisted' or 'active' gaps are not so
restricted.
Avitalpropertyofthegapisitsabilitytointerruptpowerfollowcurrent.For any
gapdesign,thereisamaximumpowerfollowcurrent,of100300A,whichitcan
safelyinterruptwithoutspecialmeasures.[...]Fewerresistanceelementscouldbe
used it a higher current could be interrupted by the gap, thus achieving a lower
discharge voltage characteristic. This idea led to the development of 'active'
sparkgapswhichusethemagneticblowouteffectto increase the maximum gap
interruptingcurrent.[...]
Duringlightningdischarges,thehighcoilvoltageinducedbythesteepsurgesparks
auxiliarygaps,bypassingthecoils.Theauxiliarygapsextinguishassoonaspower
follow current starts to flow. The magnetic field, aided by the horn shape of the
maingapelectrodes,extendsthelengthofthearcanddrivesitintoanarccooling
chamber of refractory material the increasing arc voltage rapidly forces the
currenttozero.[...]
StationsWithProtectedZone
Anopenlinebreakerordisconnectswitchpresentstheproblemofguardingagainst
flashoveroftheopencontacts.Preferentialflashovertogroundonthelinesideis
desirable,buttoachieveitbydifferentialinsulationisexpensive.Theprovisionof
surge diverters on the line side, though ideal, is too costly a solution for the
relativelyrareoccasionswhenthelineisdisconnected.
Rodgapscanbeasatisfactorycompromiseifcarefullyadjustedsothatthere is a
small probability of sparkover. When the line is connected to the station, they
must not sparkover or they would vitiate surge diverter operation. With the line
disconnected,alineoutagewouldnotinterruptpower,butmaybeanoperational
inconvenience.Ifalineisoutofserviceforanylengthoftime,theproblemcanbe
solvedbygroundingtheline.[...]
StationsWithoutProtectedZone
The absence of a shielded and well earthed protected zone, as one might find in
distributionsystems,impliesthatforcloseinstrokesthecurrentlimitingeffectof
linesurgeimpedanceismissing,andthesteepnessoftheincomingvoltage wave
may be insufficiently attenuated. It is therefore essential that a surge diverter
should be located at the transformer terminals and the lead length eliminated in
order to suppress the distance effect. The choice of BIL should be based on the
higher discharge voltages expected for the higher diverter current and front
steepness. There is, however, an economic limit to the expenditure on surge
protection that can be justified. An efficient transformer exchange and repair
servicemayhelptokeepoverallcostsdown.[...]

Thisinformationcomesfrom
Beck,Edward(Manager,LightningArresterEngineeringSection,WestinghouseElectricCorporation).
LightningProtectionforElectricSystems.NewYork,NY:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.Copyright
1954.LOCTK3248.B4.
The'Preface'states:
Lightning, depending on the point of view, is awesome, terrifying, beautiful, micheievous,
destructive,anduncontrollable.Theengineerhasnoobjectiontosomeofthesecharacteristics,
buttoprotecthisownhandiworkhehashadtodosomethingaboutthelasttwo.Hehasnot

yetfoundwaysofpreventingtheformationofstrokes,orofmakingdefiniteareasstrokefree.
However,hehasdevisedmeansofcontrollingtheenergyreleasedinthestruckobject,andthus
isabletominimizeitsdestructiveeffectsbyapplyingprotectivemeasures.Itisthepurposeof
thistexttopresentthefundamentalconsiderationsinvolvedinlightningprotection,particularly
foralternatingcurrentsystemsandapparatus,andtodescribetheuses,functions,principlesof
operation,performance,andtypicalconstructionoflightningarresters.[...]
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.

TheNeedforLightningProtection
The objects of lightning protection are to allay fears and engender peace of mind, to prevent
annoying shutdowns of lights, radios, and movies during thunderstorms, to avoid costly
interruptions of manufacturing processes powered by electricity and expensive outages and
damageonelectricsystems,andtosavepropertyandlives.Itneedsnofurtherjustification.
Throughouttheworld,thereareontheaveragesome44,000lightningstormsaday,andabout
100 lightning strokes per second. To the land area of the United States, it is estimated that
thereare29.5millionstrokesinayear.IfyouarereadingthischapterduringJulyorAugust,
about910strokeswillhittheUnitedStateswhileyouarereadingit.Duringthewintermonths,
thefigurewouldbeabout140.[...]
Thepeoplewhopracticelightningprotectiontothehighestdegreearetheoperatorsofelectric
systems. Without lightning protection such as arresters and shielding, systems would be
subjected to frequent service outages and damaged equipment. If there were no lightning
arresters,theywouldhavetobeinventedquickly.Intheearlydaysofsystemoperation,before
adequate lightning arresters had been developed, much trouble occurred. In some cases,
systemswereshutdownwhenastormcameup.Thisstimulatedthedevelopmentofarresters
topreventinterferencewiththeservice.Thepurposeoflightningprotectiononelectricsystems
istoensure,asfaraspossible,themaintenanceofanuninterruptedsupplyofpowerstousers,
regardlessofthemischievousattemptsoflightningtodisturbit.[...]
In exposed, unprotected systems, lightning is one of the principal causes of outage. Outages
costthegoodwillofutilitycustomerstheyresultinseriouslossesintimeandmoneytopower
usersandtoutilitiesaswell,inrestoringserviceandthereplacingofdamagedequipment.[...]
For many years, a gradual process of interconnecting utility systems has gone on. The real
purpose of this is to reduce the amount of generating capacity that must be available for
emergencies. Interconnection permits the exchange of power during an emergency. During
WorldWarII,interconnectionwasstimulatedbytheparamountneedforreliablepowerandby
the difficulty of obtaining equipment for standby purposes. These interconnections, consisting
generallyof transmission lines, transformers, and switchgear, would be unreliable themselves
anduneconomicalwithoutlightningprotectiontoensurethatthemeansofpowertransferare
dependable.Withoutinterconnections,utilitieswouldhaveto install a great deal of spare, and
normally idle, capacity to take care of emergences and thus to provide the same reliability of
powersupplythatnowexists.
Statistical information on the relative performance of protected and unprotected systems has
beenaccumulatedbyexperienceandastheresultoflightningresearchinthefield.Oneutility
hasreportedthefollowingdataondistributiontransformerswithandwithoutlightningarrester
protection.

Natureoftrouble

Troublesperyearper
100distributiontransformers
Withoutarrester

Witharrester

Primaryfuseblownonly

25.6

2.2

Transformersburnedout

2.4

0.3

Minordamage

1.6

0.22

Total

29.6

2.7

Typical costs of restoring service are: renewing blown fuse, $5 to $10 repairing or replacing

damageddistributiontransformers,$75to$90minordamage,$10to$15.
Thesedataindicatethebenefitstobederivedfromadequatelightningprotection.They do not
takeintoaccountthelossesandinconveniencetotheultimateconsumer.
Concerning substation equipment, data are not available in the same form. However,
measurements of lightning currents discharged through arresters in service in substations
provide information on what would have happened had lightning arresters been omitted.
Research of this kind in the field has shown that, in regions of average lightningstorm
frequency and intensity, such as in the general locality of Pittsburgh, lightning arresters in
exposedsubstationswilldischargeappreciablecurrentsontheaverageof1.5timesperyear.By
calculationbasedonthemagnitudeofthecurrentsmeasured,themagnitudeof surge voltage
that would have appeared at the arrester location if no arrester had been there can be
determined. It has been found that 80 per cent of the discharges mentioned above are the
resultofdisturbancessufficientlyseveretohavecausedflashoverordamageinthesubstation
hadnoarresterbeenprovided.Thusthesubstationmightsufferanoutageorbedamaged1.2
timesperyear,orsixtimesinfiveyears,ifnotprotected.
Consideringtransmissionlines,accumulateddataindicatethatinanyoneyear,thenumberof
serviceinterruptionsoroutagesonunprotectedlinesinlightningterritorymayvaryfromnone
to2.3permile,withanaverageof0.4.Onatransmissionline50mileslong,thiswouldmean
20outagesinayear,aseriousinterferencewiththetransferofpower.Linesprotectedbyshield
wires or expulsion arresters of the transmissionline type show much better performance.
Shieldwireprotectedhighvoltagelinesareinoperationinseverelightningterritory,withonly
zerotoonelightningoutageinseveralyears.
Lightning protection on electric systems prevents service outages and equipment damage.
Furthermore,thecontrolofthelightningvoltagesthatcanappearonsystemsandatapparatus
makespossibleeconomiesinequipmentinsulation.Protectionmakesthetaskofmaintainingan
electricsystemeasierandlessexpensive,becauseitdecreasestheneedforlineandapparatus
repair and replacement and reduces the necessity for service trips to restore power. These
factorssavemoneyandannoyancenotonlyfortheutilitiesbutalsofortheultimateconsumer.
Lightningprotectionpromoteshisgoodwillandhelpstokepetheratesforpowerlow.
Lightning
[...]Thegreatestimpetustothestudyoflightninganditseffectswasgivenbythebeginningof
electric transmission, commencing with Morse's telegraph line. Lightning waxed in importance
astheelectricalindustrygrew.Intensivestudyhascontinuedtothisday,andwillgoonfarinto
thefuture.[...]
Theonlyknownwaytocopewithlightningistohumoritbygivingitagoodpathtoground,its
ultimate goal. Strokes are too powerful to be resisted by any device within man's present
knowledge,and,asyet,nomeansareknowntopreventthem.
DirectStrokeShielding
[...]Ifthewirehasnodirectmetallicconnectiontoground,theflowoflightningcurrentintoit
will produce high voltages. Flashover to ground will probably occur. If the wire is grounded
frequentlyandwell,itisfeasibletopreventhighvoltage.Suchawirealsoprovidesaprotected
arewhichisthenatentlikezoneparalleltothewire.Anotherwirewithinthisshieldedzoneis
notlikelytobestruckdirectly.Thisistheprincipleoftheshieldoroverheadgroundwirewidely
used on transmission systems. The shielding angle that provides 0.1 per cent exposure is,
generally speaking, about 30 degrees, depending on the heights above ground. The shielding
angleistheanglebetweentheverticalandalinedrawnthroughtheshieldingandtheshielded
conductors,thelinelyinginaplaneperpendiculartotheconductors.ItisshowninFig.3.8as
theangle.

Asimplearrangementonwoodpolesofonelineconductorwithasingleshieldwireisshownin
Fig.3.8.Inthelefthandview,thegroundingconductorrunsdownthepole.Whentheshield
wireisstruck,currentsflowasindicatedinthefigure.Thegroundresistanceoftheconnections
toearth,andtheclearancesbetweenthelineconductorandthedownlead,areimportant.[...]
Figure3.8shouldberegardedasillustrative.Itwouldapplyonlytosinglephaseextensions of
threephase fourwire multigrounded neutral systems with the neutral wire at the top of the
pole. Such circuits are in operation. In the highervoltage transmission systems, where shield
wiresaremostprevalent,thecircuitsarethreephase,andtheremaybemorethanonecircuit
onthepolesortowers.Theremaybetwoshieldwires.Figure3.9isapictureofa smallscale
model of a high voltage line with two shield wires, such as is common in highvoltage
transmission.Itisbeingstruckbylaboratorylightningduringaninvestigationofthefactorsthat
enterintopropershielding.

[...] The purpose of shield wires on transmission lines is to prevent flashovers of the line
insulation.Thelineconductorswillstillbesubjectedtotransientvoltageswhich,althoughbelow
theflashovervalueofthelineinsulation,maybesufficientlyhightoendangertheinsulationof
connectedapparatus.Thisvoltagemayappearbycouplingwiththestruckshieldwireorfroma
backflash.Tosafeguardtheequipmenttiedtothesystem,somemeansoflimitingthevoltages
that can appear at the equipment must be provided. This is the principal field of lightning
arresters. Lightning arresters are used whether the lines are shielded or not. However, in
adequatelyshieldedsystems,thedutyonarrestersisless.
ImpulseVoltagesandInsulation
The danger to electric systems and apparatus comes from the potentials that lightning may
produce across insulation. This may be, for example, the air around an insulator supporting a
conductoronatowerorpole,atransformerorcircuitbreakerbushing,ortheliquidorthesolid
insulationinatransformerorbreakerorcable.Ifthepotentialcausedbylightningexceedsthe
strengthoftheinsulation,aflashoverorapunctureresults,causingashortcircuitandapower
outage.Ifapowerarcfollows,theremaybedisastrousresultsindamagetoequipmentwhose
repair may cost considerable time and money. The voltages ma be produced in either of two
ways: by direct contact of the stroke with a conductor, or by induction from a nearby stroke.
Directcontactinjectsthestrokecurrentintotheconductor,anditisobviousthathighvoltage
willappearinthesystemconductorssincetheyarenotgrounded,exceptpossiblythroughhigh
impedance.Ifastrokehitsnearalineconductorwithoutactuallymakingcontactwithit,itmay,
nevertheless,inducepotentialsin the system. As the stroke leader approaches the earth, the
elctrostatic and electromagnetic fields associated with the main stroke discharge may also
induce potential in nearby wires. Although the induced voltages may, under favorable
conditions,reachmagnitudestheoreticallyashighas1millionvolts, they are generally lower.
Thepotentialsusuallyassociatedwithdirectstrokecontactarehigher.Inhighvoltagesystems,
suchas69kvorhigher,theinsulationisgenerallysufficientnottobeendangeredbyinduced
voltages.Onlowvoltagesystems,inducedvoltagesareahazard.[...]

Five[suspension]insulatorsareusedverygenerallyon69kvtransmissionlines,andthecurves
show that this line insulation can be protected reliably against flashover by a 69kv expulsion
arrester.Thesparkoverofthe73kvvalvearrester,aratingcommonlyusedon69kvsystems,
isstilllowerandalsoflatter.[...]
One of the most widely used and most important pieces of apparatus on ac systems is the
transformer. The major proportion of lightning protection is devoted to the transformers, in
orderthattheymaybekeptintactandthatpowermaycontinuetoflowthroughoutthesystem
totheultimateconsumer.Atransformerisamorecomplicatedarrangementofwires,iron,and
insulation that a bushing or an insulator. Not only do lightning voltages impressed on
transformers subject the bushings to impulse voltage, but surge voltage penetrates into the
windingtocore insulation, and the insulation between windings. The complete transformer
should be able to withstand the voltages that may occur at its terminals when protected by
suitablelightningarresters.[...]
LightningArresters:General
Lightning protection by arresters involves taking care of the lightning currents when they get
intothesystem,withoutpermittingvoltagesthatendangerapparatus,andwithoutpermittinga
serviceoutage.[...]Iflightningstrikesacircuit,transientcurrentsflowinthesystem.[...]Ifthe
flowofthecurrentisnotobstructedbyimpedanceorinsulation,thevoltagesbetweenpointsin
the path that are electrically adjacent are moderate. However, if the flow is obstructed, very
highvoltagesmayappearbecausethelightningcurrentputsfortheveryefforttogettoground.
If the obstruction consists of insulation, the voltage developed across the insulation may be
sufficienttopunctureitorflasharoundit,thusprovidingameansforthelightningtogetonits
way,butalsoproducingashortcircuitandapoweroutageand,possibly,costlydamagetothe
insulation.Alightningarresterprovidesaneasypathforthelightningcurrenttogetaroundthe
insulationsothatthehighvoltagewillnotappear.Thebypass,however,mustbesuchthatit
doesnotinterferewiththesupplyofpowertotheuser.[...]
A lightning arrester may be looked upon as a very fast switch or circuit breaker connected
aroundtheinsulationtobeprotected.Itisabreakerthatisnormallyopen,butisabletoclose
immediatelywhenatransientvoltageofapredeterminedmagnitudeappears,andthenableto
reopen speedily after the transient has disappeared. The closing mechanism in a lightning
arresterisusuallyasparkgapofsomeform.Thisisnormallyinsulating,butbecomesconducting
bysparkingwhenthetransientvoltagereachesthesparkpotentialofthegap.Bythissparking,
thecircuitforthelightningcurrentismade.[...]Thepowerorsystemcurrentthatflowsinan
arresterorgap,oraroundaninsulator,afterithassparkediscalled'followcurrent'.Itisavery
importantquantityinthedesignandapplicationofarresters.[...]
Simple spark gaps, such as rod, needle, horn, or sphere gaps, are not lightning arresters.
Althoughtheycanbemadetoprovideacertaindegreeofprotectionagainstovervoltages,they
areunabletointerruptthefollowcurrent.Itiswellknownthat,eventhoughitmaytakeahigh
voltagetobreakdownaninsulating wall of air or any other gas, it takes very little voltage to
keep an arc going after it has once been started as it may be by a spark, for instance.
Consequently, the operation of plain gaps produces a short circuit that must be cleared by
operation of a circuit breaker or fuse somewhere else on the system. This means a service
outage. Thus there is a sharp distinction between plain gaps and arresters. The lightning
arrestertakescareofthefollowcurrentinterruptionwithinitself,withoutpermittinganoutage.
[...]
Simple spark gaps are used sometimes instead of lightning arresters, because they are less
expensive. [...] The simple spark gap cannot stand on its own feet, and is likely to promote
outagesratherthantopreventthem.Theattributethathasfromtimetotimeattractedusers
isitsrelativelylowcost.
Spark gaps will limit surge voltages and, if the gap spacing is chosen judiciously, will protect
apparatus against damage by overvoltage, although at the cost of system outages. In the
practicaluseofgaps,rodgapsaremostgenerallyused.Arodgapissimplyanairgapbetween
theendsoftwosquarerods,suitablysupportedoninsulators.(Fig.5.1).Variationsoftheseare
sometimes used, such as rings supported on pillar insulators, or at the ends of strings of
suspensioninsulators,orshortrodsattachedtobushings.

[...] Sphere gaps are not practical for this use because their spark potentials are altered
appreciably by rain. Therefore, they would have to be housed, which increases the cost.
Furthermore, the sphere gap very likely would be severely burned by the power arc
accompanying its first discharge, whereby its sparkover characteristics would also be altered.
Thus,protectivegapsaremoreorlessrestrictedtorodsorrings,whicharenotsosusceptibleto
weather conditions, and which can suffer a considerable amount of burning by arcs without
significantchangeinsparkovercharacteristics.[...]
Theexpulsionarresterislikeanexpulsionfusewiththefuselinkomitted.[...]
Thevalvearrestermustperformthesamefunctionsastheexpulsionarrester.It carries them
outinasimilarfashionbyasomewhatdifferentprocess.[...]
Basicinformationonanameplateforahighvoltagevalvearresterwouldbethemanufacturer's
name, the type, the voltage ratings, and catalogue number. A typical name plate is shown in
Fig. 5.6. The type indicates the surgecurrent capacity the type and voltage rating together
indicatetheperformancecharacteristics,usuallypublishedinthemanufacturer'sliteraturethe
voltageratinggivestheoperatinglimitfromthestandpointofpowerfrequencyvoltageandthe
cataloguenumberisthefinaldefiniteindentification.

ExpulsionArrestersfortheProtectionofTransmissionlineInsulation
[...] The transmissionline type of expulsion arrester consists of the arcing chamber and the
external series gap. The arcing chamber is a tube of gasevolving material, usually horn fiber.
Thearctakesplaceintheboreofthetube,betweenmetalelectrodesplacedineachendofthe
tube.AsectionalviewofacommercialarresterisshowninFig.6.1.

[...]Theseriesgapisusuallynotphysicallyanintegralpartofthistypeofarrester.Itisusually
madeatthetimeofinstallation,byspacingthelineendofthetubeaproperdistancefromthe
live line conductor, as in Fig. 6.2. The top of the tube may be provided with an arcing horn
suitablyshapedtoreachtowardthelineconductor,asinFig.6.3,ortomaintainaconstantgap
lengthinthecaseofconductorswing,asinFig.6.2.Theotherendofthetubeisconnectedto
ground.


Thesimplicityofthedeviceisapparentfromtheillustrations.Thisisanimportantfactorinits
construction, because it is essential that an arrester for transmissionline protection be
inexpensive.Practicallyspeaking,thelinetypeexpulsionarresteristheonlyonethatisusedfor
this purpose. Other types of arresters could be used, but they are too expensive. Cost is an
important consideration, because any device to prevent lightning flashovers on transmission
lines must compete with the overhead shield wire. The choice between shield wires and
arrestersisentirelyoneofeconomics.Ingeneral,itmaybesaidthat,ifanewtransmissionline
istobebuiltfromthegroundup,shieldwireswillbefoundtobethecheaper,oratleastnot
more expensive than expulsion arresters. In the case of an existing line that has no ground
wires, if it is desired to decrease the lightning outages, it is usually found that expulsion
arrestersarelessexpensivethanaddingadequateoverheadshieldwirestothealreadyexisting
line.Thesegeneralstatementsaresubjecttoqualifications,asisalwaysthecaseinengineering
problems. New highvoltage transmission lines have been built with expulsion arrester
protection in preference to ground wires. In some special cases, arresters are more effective
thanitisfeasibletomakeshieldwires,whenitisnotpossibletosecurelowresistancegrounds.
Insomecases,itmaybedesirabletoequipcertainpolesortowersonshieldwireprotectedlines
witharrestersalso.Oncertainmediumandlowvoltagelines,itmaybepossibletoobtaingood
performance with arresters at less cost than with shield wires. Where the cost and outage
performanceofthelinearecomparable,theoverheadshieldwireistobepreferred.
[...]Ifarrestersareinstalledonthesamepoleortowerwiththeinsulators,asinFig.6.18,so
that they are in parallel, the voltages across the insulators are limited very closely to the
voltages permitted by the arresters. [...] The ground connection plays no part in this voltage.
Even if the resistance of the earth connection is high and the tower or pole is raised many
kilovoltsabovetrueearthpotential,thepotentialaroundtheinsulatorsisstilldependententirely
on the arrester. In locations where it is difficult to obtain lowresistance grounds, the
transmissionlinearresterhasanadvantageovertheoverheadshieldwireforthisreason.The
groundresistanceobviouslyshouldnotbeso high that it reduces the follow current to values
below the minimum rated current of the arrester. Overhead shield wires, as in Fig. 6.18,
eliminatethatconsideration.

In some cases, the conventional line insulators may not have a sufficiently high impulse
flashovervoltagetobeprotectedbytheapplicableratingofexpulsion arrester. The addition of
wood in series with the line insulation will raise the impulse flashover voltage. This fact is
frequentlyusedtoadvantageintheconstructionoftransmissionlineswithorwithoutarrester
protection.

Wood, although a good structural material, is not a reliable insulator for continually applied
voltage. When wet, its resistance decreases, and appreciable leakage currents will flow, which
eventually produce carbonized paths and may cause fire and flashover. Therefore, porcelain
insulatorsareusedtoinsulatetheworkingorsystemvoltage.However,fortheshortdurations
of lightning surge voltage, wood even if wet possesses good insulating qualities. Considerable
studyhasbeendevotedtothissubject.[...]Forageneralruleofthumb,aconservativevalue
forthecriticalimpulseflashoverofwetwoodis50kvperfoot.Thismaybeaddeddirectlytothe
criticalflashoveroftheporcelaininsulationinserieswithit.If,forexample,thecriticalflashover
of a certain porcelain insulator is 200 kv, the addition of 2 feet of wood in series with the
insulatorwillgiveaconservativecriticalflashoverof300kvforthecombination.Thebenefitsto
begainedbytakingadvantageofimpulsestrengthofwoodareconsiderable.[...]
Steeltowerlineshavebeenbuiltwithwoodcrossarmstoraisetheimpulseleveloftheline,and,
in construction of modern woodpole lines, the use of metal crossarms and metal crossarm
braces is generally avoided. By using woodpole construction, lowvoltage lines can be given
impulsestrengthsasgreatas,orgreaterthan,highvoltagelinesonsteeltowers.[...]
Woodhasonedrawbackfromthestandpointofflashover.Ifitisstressedbyaseverelightning
discharge,itmaysplinterorshatterandrequirereplacement.However,withtheproperuseof
groundwiresorexpulsionarresters,thiscanbeavoidedandthefullbenefitsofwoodutilized.
Aneconomicaluseoflinetypeexpulsionarresterscanbemadeonwoodpolelinesofsocalled
ridgepin construction, shown in Fig. 6.20. The ridgepin appelation derives from placing one
conductor on a pin insulator fastened to the ridge of the pole. The other two conductors are
mounted at the ends of a crossarm. This gives a triangular conductor configuration. If the
shieldingangleofthetopconductoriscorrectforexample,iftheconductorswerespaced at
theverticesofanequilateraltrianglethetopconductorwillshield the other two from direct
lightning strokes. Expulsion arresters applied to the top conductor will discharge lightning
currentandwillthuspreventoutagesonit,whiletheshieldingprovidedbythetopconductor
preventslightningflashoverontheothertwoconductors.

[...] On transmission lines, all flashovers do not cause short circuits and consequent system
outages.Someflashoversarenotfollowedbysustainedsystemfaults.[...]
Inthecaseofhighvoltagesteeltowerlineslessthan100mileslong,about85percentofthe
lightningflashoversresultinpowerfollowandcircuitoutage.Onsuchlinesmorethan200miles
long,theratioisabout50percent.Thelowerratiointhecaseofthelongerlineresultsfrom
the lower rate of system voltage recovery. On highvoltage woodpole lines, [...] it is believed
thatfrom30to50percentwouldbeareasonableratioforoutagetoflashoveronsuchlines.
Dataonmediumvoltagewoodpolelinesindicareratiosof35to50percent.[...]
LightningArrestersforDistributionCircuitsandDistributioncircuitProtection
We now come to those arresters that are used for the protection of apparatus such as
transformers, circuit breakers, and the like. As already mentioned, the requirements which
these arresters must meet are more exacting than those for the transmissionline arresters.
[...]Mostdistributioncircuitsareoverhead and thus exposed to lightning. Therefore, lightning
protectionofeachtransformerisnecessaryifcontinuityofservicetotheultimateconsumeris
desired.Distributionarrestersembraceboththeexpulsionandvalvetypes.[...]
AtypicalexpulsionarresterfortheprotectionofdistributionapparatusisillustratedbyFig.7.1.
[...]

InFig.7.1,thecharacteristicelementorinterrupterisafibertubeinsideofwhichisarodon
whichiscutadeepspiralgroove.[...]
The series gap is an integral part of the arrester. It is shown at the top, in Fig. 7.1, visible
through the window in the bellshaped porcelain. The connection to the line conductor of the
systemismadeatthetop,thegroundconnectiontotheterminalonthebottom.
ThearrestershowninFig.7.1isatypicalone.Therearenumerousconstructionsof expulsion
arresters in successful use on distribution circuits. The greatest number of these have been
supplied as integral parts of selfprotecting transformers, such as the 'CSP' transformer
illustratedinFig.7.8.
Thereareseveralconstructionsofvalvetypedistributionarresters.Sucharrestersconsistofa
series spark gap and a valve element enclosed in a porcelain or glass housing. [...] The valve
elementsofallbutoneofthecommercialdistributionvalvearrestersconsistofsmallcrystalsof
siliconcarbide,eitherbondedtogetherorheldincompression.Theexceptionhasacharacteristic
elementmadeofsmallpelletsofoneoftheoxidesoflead.Itisappropriatelyknownasthepellet
arrester.
AcrosssectionofatypicalvalvearresterisshowninFig.7.2.Thephysicaldifferencesbetween
it and the expulsion arrester are apparent from a comparison of Figs. 7.1 and 7.2. The valve
arrester is completely enclosed. The series gap at the top consists of one or more short gaps
betweenrelativelyflatelectrodes.Thevalveelementinthearrestershownisacylindricalblock,
formed under considerable pressure, of silicon carbide and a binding material. Usually these
arresters have line and ground leads by which they are connected to the current, although
someconstructionshaveclamptypeterminals.

[...]Theexpulsionarresterhasbeeninuseinvariousformssinceabout1931.[...]
StationandLinetypeLightningArrestersforPowerApparatus
The designations station and linetype arrester have been in current use for many years to
identifytwoclassesofarrestersandarresterperformance.[...]Bothareusedinstations.'Line
type'doesnotconnotetheprotectionoflines,butthephrasewasorginallycoinedtodescribean
arrestersmallerandlessefficientthanthestationtype,foreconomicaluseinsmallsubstations
'outontheline',asdistinguishedfromlargestations.Amoredescriptivenomenclaturewouldbe
tocallthestationtypearrestera'heavydutystationarrester',andtodesignatethelinetypea

'lightdutystationarrester.[...]
Stationtype arresters are larger and more costly, they have greater surgecurrent withstand
strengthandbetterprotectivecharacteristics,andareusedonhighervoltagesystems.[...]
Arresterswithratingsof350kv,Fig.8.1,havebeenbuiltandinstalledonanexperimentalline
whichisenergizedfortestpurposesatvoltagesashighas500kv.

The linetype arresters are, as a matter of fact, small editions of the station types they are
lowerincost,withnotsogoodprotectivecharacteristicsasthestationtype,andlesscapacity
forsurgecurrent.Thestationtypearrestersareusedwherethehighestdegreeofprotectionis
desired,suchasonlargetransformerbanksorinlargesubstations.Thelinetypearrestersare
generally used to protect smaller substations or transformers where the user considers the
expenseofstationarrestersnotwarranted.
Station and line arresters are of the valve type. Expulsion arresters are not recommended for
theprotectionofapparatusoperatingatvoltageshigherthan15kv.[...]
Station and linetype arresters are, in principle, the same as the distributiontype valve
arrestersdescribed.[...]
Inconstruction,stationandlinetypearrestersaresimilarexceptinsize.Thevalveelementsof
linearrestersaresmallerindiameterandvolumethanthoseofstationarresters.Thisresultsin
smaller outside diameter and lighter weight. It is accompanied by higher voltages during
dischargeandlowersurgecurrentwithstandability.Stationtypearrestershavegreatermargins
of protection and are practically immune to damage by lightning. Very few cases are known
wheremodernstationarrestershavebeendamagedbylightningalone.[...]
To the best of the author's knowledge, there has been no case of insulation failure caused by
surgevoltagetoamoderntransformerprotectedbystationtypelightningarrestersofcurrent
designmountedonthetransformerasinFig.8.4.

[...]Boththestationandlinetypearrestersarebuiltinunitsofcertaindefinite ratings. Each

unitisinitselfacompletearrester,andmaybeusedassuch.Arrestersofratingshigherthan
the largest available single one are built up of two or more units stacked in series. One
manufacturer of stationtype arresters makes units rated 3, 6, 9, and 12 kv. Higherrated
arrestersconsistofmultiplesoftheseunits,preferablyofthe12kvunit.Thus,a15kvarrester
wouldconsistofa12anda3kvunitinseries.A121kvarresterconsistsoften12kvunitsin

series.Anothermanufacturermakesunitsrated3,6,9,12,15,20,25,30,and37kv.Forany
standard ratings up to and including 37 kv, the proper single unit is used. For higher ratings,
multiplesofunitsarestackedinseries.Thus,a73kvarresterconsistsoftwo37kvunits,anda
121kvarresterconsistsoftwo25kvandtwo37kvunits.
Theunitconstructionhasseveraladvantagesovertheformerlyusedtailormadearresters,both
tothemanufacturerandtotheuser.Itsimplifiesthemanufacturingandstocking,whichkeeps
down costs and prices. It speeds up deliveries. It simplifies erection and facilitates the user's
stockingandorderingproblems.Iftestingistobedone,itfacilitatesthetestprocedures.Italso
facilitatesthechangingofratingsinthefieldifthereisachangeinsystemvoltageorachange
insystemgroundingorifarrestersaremovedabout.
Allmanufacturersoflinetypearrestersbuildunitsrated20,25,30,and37kv.Insomecases,
unitsratedlessthan20kvhavebeenused.
Typical arrester installations of both types are illustrated in Figs. 8.4 and 8.5. Stationtype
arresters up to and including 121 kv of rating stand by themselves without any mechanical
bracing. Above these ratings, arresters may be built in several ways. The arrester may be a
straightcolumnofunitssupportedonafoundation.Insuchacase,145kvarrestersandlarger
require mechanical bracing, because heavy wind pressures may produce moments at the
bottom of the column that exceed the cantiliver strength of the porcelain housing and
hardware. This support should be at the top of the arrester, in order not to disturb the
electrostaticfieldaroundtheseriesgapsofthearrester.

Anotherconstructionwhichhasfoundfavorforhighvoltagearrestersisthesuspendedarrester
shownintheforegroundofFig.8.1.Thearresterunitsarehungbetweenstringsofsuspension
insulatorssupportedfromsteelwork.When steel to support the arrester is available, this is a
compactconstruction,easytoerect.Suspendedarrestersofthisgeneraltypehavebeenused
widelyinregionswhereearthquakesoccur,becausethedesignisaloosejointedone that will
givewhenforcesareappliedtoit.
The threelegged structure in the right background of Fig. 8.1 is another construction. It is a
selfsupporting structure in which certain of the porcelain sections are insulators, and others
arresters.Thearresterunitsareconnectedtogetherbythesteelpipesshownbetweenthethree
legs.AnotherselfsupportingconstructionofhighvoltagearresterisshowninFig.8.6.

Figures 8.7 and 8.8 show representative stationtype units. The operating elements are
enclosed in porcelain weather casings. To these are attached metal end fittings for mounting

and assembly purposes. The series gap elements are usually enclosed in a separate porcelain
tubewhichistightlysealed,toexcludeanypossibilityofmoistureaccumulatinginthegaps.[...]

The valve elements are usually made in the form of cylindrical blocks or discs. Their number
increaseswiththearresterrating.Thenumberofseriesgap elements also increases with the
voltagerating.Thevalveblocksaremadeofamixtureofcrystalsofsiliconcarbideandasuitable
binder.Theyareformedinmoldsunderhighpressure,thenbakedorfired.Theendsarecovered
with a metallic coating to provide good electrical contact, and the sides are coated with an
insulatingmaterialtopreventsurfaceflashovers.[...]
Linetypearresterunitsarebasicallysimilartothestationtypearresters.Theseriesgapsagain
consist of a number of short gaps separated by highresistance spacers. The valve blocks are
madeofmaterialsimilartothoseusedinthestationarresters,buttheyaresmallerindiameter.
Becauseofthesmallercrosssectionoftheelements,theentirearresterunitisoflessdiameter
andlessweightthanthestationtype,withattendantlowercostandlessprotective efficiency.
RepresentativelinetypearrestersareshowninFigs.8.9and8.10.

[...]
WhatDoesanArresterFear?
[...]Thereare,ingeneral,fourpossiblecausesofdamagetolightningarrestersinservice.They
arelightningofgreatseverity,apowerfrequencyorsustainedvoltageinexcessofthearrester
rating,mishandlinginservice,oradefectinthearrester.[...]
Examples of maltreatment are hosing highvoltage arresters while energized, which may
depress the 60cycle sparkover considerably omitting mechanical bracing from arresters that
require it not observing the manufacturer's recommendations for clearances installation of
sealevel arresters at high altitudes or of standard constructions in very dirty or wet
surroundings.[...]
The principal cause of damage to arresters in the field is a systemvoltage condition that
subjectsthearrestertoapowerfrequencyorsustainedvoltageinexcessofitsvoltagerating.In
manycases,theconditionsthataredangeroustolightningarrestersareconditionsthatarenot
goodforthesystemasawhole,forreasonsotherthanthehazardtoarresters.Somearrester
failureshavedisclosedconditionsthatwerenotknowntoexist,andhaveledtoimprovementin
systemoperation.[...]

LocationandApplicationofLightningArresters
[...]Instationsthatarenotshieldedandwhoseincominglinesarealsonotshielded,thebest
practice is to locate the arresters as close as possible to the transformer because, in such
stations, the likelihood of steep front surges is real. This protects the transformer. The risk of
trouble on switching equipment must then be run if economics prevent the installation of
arresters there also. This is usually not so serious as it may appear. Oilfilled breakers and
disconnectingswitchesaresobuiltthattheinternalimpulseinsulationstrengthortheflashover
distanceoveropenswitchesisgreaterthanthattogroundfromtheterminal.Thus,asurgein
excessoftheinsulationstrengthis likely to flash to ground without damaging the apparatus.
Thismaycauseanoutage,buttheprobabilityofthismaybesmallandtheriskwarranted.[...]
Insomecases,valvearrestershavebeeninstalledatthetransformers,and transmissionline
type expulsion arresters at the line entrances, even though those arresters may not give
complete protection against all surges. In shielded stations with shielded incoming lines,
conditions are somewhat different, because the shielding reduces the probability of steep and
highsurges. Most highvoltage stations and lines are shielded, and the practice of shielding is
being extended to 34.5 and 23kv systems. The medium and lowervoltage substations are
often not of great extent, and troublefree service may be experienced with stationtype
arresterslocatedonlyatthetransformer.[...]
ProtectionforSecondaryandOtherLowVoltageCircuits
Secondarycircuitshavebeendefinedasthosecircuitswhichdistributepowertothemachinesor
devicesorappliancesthatutilizeit,suchaslights,modors,andradios.Thesecircuitsareusually
120/240, 440, 550, or in some cases 660 volts. In this chapter will be considered circuits
operating at less than 750 volts. They may be single or threephase. The 440 and higher
voltage circuits are usually threephase. There are also coming into increasing use, 208volt
threephasecircuitsforthreephasepower,giving120voltsto neutral for lighting. The power
forsecondarycircuitsisusuallyobtainedfrom a stepdown transformer fed from a distribution
system.
Dwellings are almost universally supplised by 120volt twowire or 120/240volt threewire
singlephasecircuitswiththeneutralwiregroundedintheconsumer'spremisesand,frequently,
also at the distribution transformer. [...] If the secondary circuits to the user's premises are
overhead and long, say 500 feet or more, they will very likely pick up lightning voltages by
inductionandsometimesmaybestruck.Also,surgevoltagesmayenterthesecondarycircuits
from the primary by way of the transformer, whether the transformer has protection on the
primaryornot.Sincetheinsulationinthecustomer'spremisesforexample,switches,outlets,
appliances,andinpartsofthewatthourmeterisrelativelylow,someflashoversandpunctures
mayoccur.Thesewillbeinfrequentunlessthesecondaryishighlyexposed.Becauseflashovers
and punctures are infrequent and rarely cause permanent damage, the house circuits are
usuallynotprotectedagainstlightning.Inahouse,therearemanyairgapswithlowflashover
inthecircuits,suchasinoutlets,lampsockets,andinthemeter.Theflashovervoltageofthese
maybeoftheorderof4,000to6,000voltsonly.Thiswillprotectmostofthesolidinsulation.
The voltage to ground or neutral being only 120 and the shortcircuit currents usually being
limitedinmagnitude,anarcwillseldombesustained.Itisnotunusualtohearasparkjumpin
anoutletwhenastrokehitsnearby.Repeatedflashoversinthesameplacewilleventuallycause
carbonization of the insulation and a permanent short and blown fure or open breaker and
replacementofthedamagedpart.[...]
Occasionally,watthourmetersaredamagedbylightning.Thecostofanadequatearresterisan
appreciablepartofthecostofameter,and,asaresultofthis,itisapparentlynoteconomicalto
protectallmetersonasystem.Itismorepracticaltogambleonthelowprobabilityofameter
being damaged, and to replace a meter if it is damaged. Where damage is frequent in certain
locations,arresterprotectionshouldbeapplied.[...]
Therearenumerousoverhead440voltcircuitsthatfeedpowertovariousutilizationpointsfor
example,intheoilfields.Therearealsosomethatsupplypowertorailwaysignals.Theymaybe
ofconsiderableextent.Usuallytheyareonwoodpoles,thereforehighlyinsulatedandcapableof
sustainingquitehighlightningvoltages.Suchcircuitsshouldbetreatedasdistributioncircuits,
and the static equipment connected to them should have protection as used on distribution
transformers.[...]
Railwaysignalsystemsinvolveanumberofcircuits,operatingatdifferentvoltages.Thosethat
operatethesignalsarelowvoltage,eitheralternatingordirectcurrent,obtainedfrombatteries

that are usually kept charged by rectifiers. They are controlled by relays which, in the
conventional block signal or track circuit systems, are actuated by voltage or lack of voltage
betweentherails.Theremayalsoberelaycircuitsthatrunforsomedistanceoverpoles,andin
the CTC, or centralized trafficcontrol system, there may be long circuits to a central control
station. Power for the circuits and for battery charging is supplied from a transformer located
usuallyintherelayhouseorbox.This,inturn,isfedfromthesecondaryofatransformerona
pole,likeadistributiontransformer,exceptthatthesecondaryvoltageisusually115voltsand
thesecondaryisnotgrounded.Thepoletoptransformerisenergizedfromatransmissionline
operating at one of the preferred voltages from 440 to 13,800. A common voltage for long
signalpowertransmissionlinesof30to40milesectionsis4,600volts.Theselinesareusually
singlephaseungrounded.Occasionallythreephaselinesareused.
Allthesecircuitsmaybesubjecttolightningvoltages.Lightningdamagetoarelayorthefailure
of power as the result of a lightning disturbance may stop trains unnecessarily and interfere
with traffic. The signals are the nerve system of the railroad, and lightning protection is used
throughoutittokeepitinworkingorder.[...]
Iftherearelongsignalinglinesexposedtoinductionfromparallelingacpowerlinesortrolleys,
theprobabilitiesofhighvoltagebeinginducedduringfaultsontheparallelingpowerlinesshould
beevaluatedandlinestreatedaccordingly.[...]

Thisinformationcomesfrom
Lewis,WalterWallace(FormerTransmissionEngineerforCentralStationEngineeringDivision,General
ElectricCompany).TheProtectionOfTransmissionSystemsAgainstLightning.NewYork,NY:John
Wiley&Sons,Inc.Copyright1950.LOCTK3248.L4.
The'Preface'states:
The literature on the subject of lightning is voluminous. In 1937, the American Institute of
ElectricalEngineersissuedtheLightningReferenceBook,comprisingabout1500pagesthesize
oftheTransactionsandcontainingabouthalftheavailablepaperswhichappearedinAmerican
technical periodicals between the years 1918 and 1935. An index of a similarsize volume of
paperspublishedfrom1936to1949isnowinpreparation.Therehaslongbeenneedforabook
inwhichthemostimportantinformationonlightningisassembledandappliedinapracticalway
to the design and protection of transmission lines and stations. That is the purpose of the
present book. [...] It is believed that the book will appeal to operating men and engineers of
power utilities, men in the manufacturing companies who deal with power systems, people
interested in atmospheric electricity, and teachers and students of power courses in college,
bothgraduateandundergraduate.Inwritingthebook,Ihavedrawnonmyownexperienceof
about 25 years in lightning investigation, as recorded in the group of papers of which I am
author or coauthor, and have also drawn heavily on the experience and finding of others as
recordedinnumerouspapers.[...]
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.

Introduction
Engineersandoperatingmenofelectricpowerutilitiesappreciatethepartthatlightningplaysin
thedesignandoperationoftheirsystesm.Interritorywherelightningisprevalent,itisprobably
themostusualcauseofoutagesanddamage.
In 1924, I had occasion to investigate the failure of a transformer on a power system in
Pennsylvania,andfoundthattherewerenolightningarresters,thatthetransmissionlinehad
nooverheadgroundwires,andfuthermorethatithadveryhighinsulationcomparedwiththat
ofthetransformer.[...]
Thefirsttwo220kvlineshadbeeninoperationinCaliforniaforayearortwo,andtherewere
plansforoneintheEast.
In 1926, the WallenpaupackSiegfried 220kv line in northeastern Pennsylvania was put into
operation without overhead ground wires and without lightning arresters at the terminals. A
cooperativelightninginvestigationwasbegunwith a small number of surgevoltage recorders.
FromApriltoAugust,thelineoperatedat220kvthenlightningcamealongandbrokedown

some of the transformers, necessitating changing over to 66 kv. Next year, the investigation
was enlarged and spread to other systems: the Ohio Power Company, the Consumers Power
Company,theNewEnglandPowerCompany,theAlabamaPowerCompany,theNewYorkPower
andLightCompany,andanumberofElectricBondandShareCompanyaffiliates.[...]
In1930thefirst,andsofarasIknowtheonly,oscillogramofthevoltageduetoadirectstroke
wsobtainedatCherryValleyontheWallenpaupackSiegfriedline.[...]
The investigation practically ceased during World War II, except that it was kept going on a
minor scale on the Consumers Power Company system in Michigan, and on the Appalachian
ElectricPowerCompanysysteminVirginia.TheConsumersPowerCompany,AppalachianPower
Company,andOhioPowerCompanyinvestigationsarestillgoingonin1949toclearupafew
details,andtheEmpireStateBuildinginvestigationhasbeenresumed.[...]
VoltageCausedbyLightningandSwitching
[...] During the years 1925 to 1930, investigations were carried out on numerous power
systemsinallvoltageclasses,bymeansoftheklyndonographandsurgevoltagerecorder.
The instruments were coupled to the line by means of capacitance potentiometers or voltage
dividers,formedeitherbytwosetsofpipessupportedoninsulators,onesetatlinepotentialand
one set near ground potential, or by two sets of rings supported on insulator strings. One
arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.14 (a). The bottom ring is supported by special hardware
between the second and third insulator units, the hardware of the unit above the supporting
unitalsobeinggrounded.Therecorderisconnectedbetweenthebottomringandground.

[...]ThenumberofinsulatorsNisabovethegroundedunitischangedforvariouslinevoltages,
asshowninTable3.1,givingthevoltagedividerratiosindicated.Aviewofafieldinstallationon
a 220kv line is shown in Fig. 3.14 (b). Here there are nineteen insulator units above the
bottomringandonebelowit.Thevoltageratioisapproximately80to1.Themetalboxatthe
topofthewoodpolecontainsthesurgevoltagerecorder.
Table3.1InsulatorString
VoltageDividerRatios
Rating
Numberof Voltage
ofLine,
Insulator Divider
kv,Phase
Units,N
Ratio
toPhase
33

15

44

20

66

26

88

10

36

110

12

45

132

14

60

Forlowervoltagelines,variouscombinationsofsuspensioninsulatororbustypeinsulatorunits
have been used, sometimes with and sometimes without auxiliary metal rings or discs,
dependingonwhethertheinstallationwasindoorsoroutdoors.[...]Figure3.15(a)isadiagram
ofapotentiometerarrangementfor13.2kvbyusingstandardsuspensioninsulators,andFig.
3.15 (b) an alternative arrangement using bus insulators. Both arrangements are for indoor
use,andhaveanapproximateratioof5to1.

[...]
ShieldingbyOverheadGroundWiresandMasts
Onhighlyinsulatedlineswithoutoverheadgroundwires,thelightningvoltagecouldbuildupto
enormousvalues.Voltagesof4500and5000kvwererecordedona132kvwoodpoleline,and
approximately 3000 kv on a 220kv steeltower line. The voltage depends on the current
involvedandtheimpedanceofthecircuitthroughwhichthecurrenttravels,andtheinsulation
flashover depends on the steepness of the voltage wave. If the conductor is struck, a
comparatively small current acting through the conductor surge impedance will build up a
voltagethatwillflashoverthelineinsulation.Forexample,7500amperesactingthrough400
ohmssurgeimpedancewillbuildupthe3,000,000voltsrecordedonthe220kvline.
If the line is equipped with overhead ground wires, and a ground wire is struck, then the
impedancethroughwhichthecurrentactsisverymuchreduced,andacorespondinglyhigher
current is required to cause flashover. If the impedance is reduced to say 25 ohms, then
approximately120,000ampereswouldberequiredtoproducethesame3,000,000volts.
Theoverheadgroundwireperformstwomainfunctions:Itinterceptsthedirectstroke,keeping
itofftheconductoranditdistributesthecurrentintwoormorepathsandtherebyreducesthe
voltage drop. If the ground wire is struck in midspan, current divides and flows toward both
towers,andatthetowerthecurrentdividesagainbetweenthetowerandtheoutgoingground
wire.Ifthetowerisstruckandthereisoneoverheadgroundwire,thecurrentdividesintothree
paths, one in the tower and two in the branches of the ground wire. A third function of the
overheadgroundwire,ofaminornature,istoreducevoltageinducedontheconductorsfrom
nearbystrokes.[...]
When a lightning stroke builds up from a tower top with no ground wire present, the entire
current feeding into the extending streamer tip, proceeding at approximately 150 feet to 200
feet per microsecond, flows from the ground into the tower base and up through the tower
structure.[...]
Avoltageinstantaneouslyequaltostrokecurrenttimestowerfootingresistancebuildsupacross
each insulator assembly. This potential, combined with the normal excitation voltage of each

conductor, gives the total insulator assembly stress. [...] One assembly flashover reduces the
towerpotentialjustasmuchasconnectingonehalftheconductorsurgeimpedanceacrossthe
tower footing resistance would. This reduction in tower potential may be sufficient to prevent
otherinsulatorassembliesflashingover,andifso,onlyasinglephaseflashoveris obtained. It
thestrokecurrent,however,issufficientlyhighagaintoincreasethetowerpotentialinspiteof
theloweredimpedancetoground,additionalassemblieswillflashover.Insulatorflashovermay
occuratadjacenttowersifthepotentialcarriedalongtheflashedconductorsissufficientlyhigh.
A specimen field record of such an occurrence [was] obtained on the WallenpaupackSiegfried
220kvlinewithhorizontalconductors(Fig.6.15)duringtheseason1933.

[...]Adirectstroketoatowerofalineequippedwithoverheadgroundwiresisverymuchthe
sameaswithoutgroundwires,especiallywhentowerfootingresistancesarelow.Thecurrent
flowing into the stroke feeds in through the ground wire from both directions as well as up
through the tower structure. As a result, the resistance voltage drop at the tower footing is
reducedinproportiontothisdecreaseintowerfootingcurrent.[...]
Aspecimenfieldrecord[was]obtainedduring1934fromtheGlenlynRoanoke132kv double
circuitline(Fig.6.16)pertainingtothiscase.

[...]Iftheoutermostconductorsarethetopconductors,thenthegroundwireswouldbemoved
outwardandpossiblyupward,inordertoavoidhavingthegroundwiresandconductorscome
togetherincasethewireswereloadedwithsnoworiceandtheloweroneunloadedandswung
upward.
Onthebasisoftheseprinciples,Schwaigershowstheprotectivezonesofone,two,andthree
overheadgroundwires,asinFig.6.22.

[...]Onthebasisofastudyofoperatingexperience,Lewisproposedthefollowingcriteriaforthe
location of overhead ground wires: On doublecircuit lines with conductors vertically arranged,
twogroundwires,oneovereachoutermostconductor,usuallythemiddleconductors,andina
plane above the plane of the top conductors a distance equal to the vertical spacing between
conductors.Onsinglecircuitlineswithconductorsarrangedhorizontally,twogroundwiresina
plane above the plane of the conductors at a height equal to twothirds the spacing between
conductors and a distance apart equal to the spacing between conductors, that is, above the
towerlegsorabovethepolesinawoodHframearrangement(Fig.6.23).

[...] Another interesting comparison is afforded by the 230kv line of the Metropolitan Water
DistrictofSouthernCalifornia.ThislineextendsfromHooverDamtoHayfieldandParkerDam,a
distanceofabout237miles.The3conductorsarespacedhorizontally22.3feet,andinsulated
with 13 discs spaced 5 3/4 inches. The line was placed inservice in November 1938 without
overheadgroundwires.Duringthe4yearsfrom1939to1942inclusive,systemoutagesdueto
lightningtotalled118,anaverageofabout29peryear.In1943,twohalfinchsteeloverhead
ground wires were added on brackets extending upward from the tower bridge. The ground
wiresareapproximately32feetapart,andare16.5feetabovetheconductors.Inthe6years
from1943to1948inclusive,only3systemoutagesduetolightninghavebeenexperienced,an
averageof0.5peryear.
THePhiladelphiaChester14.1mile66kvlineoperatedfrom1917until1932beforehavingits
first tripout. At this time, a flashover took place at a tower having a footing resistance of 2.5
ohms, which tripped the lineout. A second flashover took place in 1937 at a tower having a
footing resistance of 20 ohms. No additional tripouts had taken place up to the end of 1947.
Thustherewereonly2tripoutsin30years,anaverageof0.47tripoutsper100milesperyear.
In 1935, a stroke took place to tower 16 on this line, with an indicated tower current of
132,000amperes.However,noflashoverwasassociatedwiththisoccurrence.
This line is double circuit, with the two circuits in vertical arrangement. The vertical distance
betweenconductorsis7.5feet,withtwogroundwires72/3feetabovethetopconductorsat
thetower.Themiddlephasewiresareoffset2.5feetbeyondthetopandbottomwires,making
them 16 feet apart. The overhead ground wires are also 16 feet apart, and directly over the
middleconductors.
Atsuspensiontowers,theconductorsareinsulatedwith8discsspaced5inchesapart,havinga
flashoveronthepositive1.5x40waveofapproximately700 kv. The average span length of
the line is 480 feet, and the tower footing resistance is naturally low, probably in most cases
under5ohms.[...]

ZubairanalyzedtheperformanceoftheVictoriaFallsandTransvaalPowerCompany's63.5mile,
132kvline.Thelineisdoublecircuitwith12feetofverticalspacingbetweenconductors,anda
horizontal distance between the circuits of 23 feet. There is one ground wire about 13.9 feet
abovetheplaneofthetopconductors.Theprevailinginsulationis9discs,havingadry60cycle
flashoverof350kvruns.[...]
InsulationandSpacingofConductors
[...]Basicimpulseinsulationlevelshavebeensetupforapparatus,andpracticallyallapparatus
such as transformers, circuitbreakers, and disconnecting switches receive a withstand test
equaltothisvalue(Table8.1).
The highest system voltage at present in use is 287 kv, but the Joint Committee on
CoordinationofInsulationvisualized345kvasthenextstep,andincludedthisvalueinTable
8.1.Morerecently,theJointEEINEMACommitteeonPreferredVoltageRatingsforACSystems
andEquipmenthasbeengivingconsiderationto360kvasanalternative,sodataonthisvalue
havebeenincludedinTable8.1andsubsequenttables.

[...]Table8.2allowsreadyconversionof10inchdiameterinsulatorsfrom43/4and51/8inch
spacings,to53/4inchspacing.

[...] In Table 8.8, column 2, are given for the standard insulation classes the number of
insulatordiscs,spaced53/4inchesapart,whosewet60cycleflashoverwillequalorexceed3.5
times linetoneutral voltage. This is the smallest number of insulators which will have an
impulseflashoverequaltoorgreaterthanthebasicimpulseinsulationlevel.
Also given in Table 8.8 are the numbers of discs whose wet 60cycle flashover will equal or
exceed4,4.5,and5timesthelinetoneutralvoltage.Incolumn6,forcomparison,aregiven
thenumbersofdiscsrepresentingaveragepractice.

[...]Witheachlevelofinsulation,thereisaproperspacingbetweenconductorsandtothesteel
structure,todevelopthefullstrengthoftheinsulatorstringselected.Letustaketheminimum
spacing to the steel structure A (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7) as a spacing that will have an impulse
flashover10percentgreaterthantheimpulseflashoveroftheinsulatorstring.
Spacing B (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7), the horizontal distance from conductor to tower when the
conductor is hanging vertically, will be such that when the conductor is swung to 30 degrees
fromthevertical,theimpulseflashoverfromconductortotower(spacingA)willbe10percent
greaterthantheinsulatorstringflashover.Itisassumedthatduringthesummerseason,when
lightningprevailsandthereisnoiceorsnow,30degreesisampletoconsiderfortheconductor
swing.
WhenspacingBfromconductortotowerhasbeendetermined,spacingDbetweenconductors
for the horizontal arrangement (Fig. 8.6) becomes 2 times spacing B, plus the width of the
towerlegs.
For the vertical arrangement (Fig. 8.7), the spacing between horizontal planes through the
conductors,spacingC,isaminimumof2timesspacingA,sincetheinsulatorstringitselfhasa
lengthapproximatelyequaltospacingA.OnthetowerillustratedinFig.8.7,onaccountofthe
slopeofthecrossarmbracing,thespacingbetweenconductorplanesnaturallywillbesomewhat
greaterthan2A.Inothertypesoftowerswithoutcrossarmbracing,thismaynotbethecase,
andtheminimumspacing2Acanbeused.
It was found that in order fully to shield the conductors from direct strokes, two overhead
ground wires are desirable, for either horizontal or vertical arrangements of conductors. If the
twogroundwiresareplacedclosetogether,theyblanketeachotherandthefullbenefitofthe
twowiresisnotsecured.[...]
Forasinglecircuitlineoftheusualdesign,withtheconductorshorizontallyarranged(Fig.8.6),
itworksoutwellmechanicallytoplacethegroundwiresabovethetowerlegsorabovethepoles
inawoodenHframearrangementthatis,onaverticalplaneaboutmidwaybetweenthetwo
conductors.Frequentlyinpracticethegroundwiresaresupportedonbracketsextendingupward
fromthetowerbridge.
Inthedoublecircuitverticalarrangement(Fig.8.7),thegroundwiresarewellcoupledwiththe
topconductors,butaremoreremotefromthemiddleandespeciallythebottomconductors,so
that the coupling factor is rather low. To offset this loss of coupling factor, the ground wires
shouldbespreadfurtherapart.Agoodpositioninpracticehasbeenfoundtobeaboutdirectly
abovetheoutermostconductors,whichareusuallythemiddleconductors.
The ground wires should be high enough above the conductors to avoid flashover between
conductors and ground wires at midspan. However, if the ground wires are too high, the
couplingwiththeconductorswillbesmall,andifthetowervoltagesisraisedabovegroundby
lightning current in the tower, the voltage across the insulator string will be greater than it
wouldhavebeenwiththegroundwiresclosertotheconductors.
Ithasbeenfoundbyexperiencethataheightofapproximatelytwothirdsthespacingbetween
conductorsfortheverticalarrangementisaboutrighttogivegoodcouplingtotheconductors,
and at the same time avoid midspan flashover. Spacing C = 2A follows these criteria (Table
8.10).

In regions where snow, ice, or sleet is likely to accumulate on the conductors, it happens
occasionallyonverticalarrangements(Fig.8.7)thatthebottomconductorunloadsitssnowand
iceandswingsuplevelwithorabovethemiddleconductor.Also,incaseofacoatingoficeor
sleet and a light wind in the proper direction, dancing or galloping sometimes occurs, the
conductorswinginginanellipticalloop,withthelongeraxisoftheloopvertical.Lightningisnot
likelytobepresentundertheseconditions.Nevertheless,thespacingbetweenconductorswhen
intheirclosestpositionshouldbeamplysafe,sothatthedynamicvoltageorovervoltageswill
notcauseflashover.[...]
Theimpulseflashoveroftwoinsulatordiscs10inchesindiameterandspaced53/4inchesapart
isapproximatelyequaltotheflashoverof12inchesofstandardrodgap,andthisrelationholds
roughlyformultiplesoftwodiscsand12inchesofrodgap.Thisfortunaterelationshipenables
us to write an equation between the number of insulator discs of this size and spacing A as
giveninTable8.10:
SpacingA(feet)=(Numberofdiscs+1)/2
Then
SpacingBequals1.5A
SpacingCequals2A
SpacingDequals3A
SpacingEequals0.5Ato1.5A.
Thus, all the important conductor and conductortotower spacings may be found from the
numberofinsulatordiscsbyasimplementalcalculation.[...]
Table8.11givesflashovervaluesofpintypeinsulatorsfromthecatalogsoftwomanufacturers.
[...]Pintypeinsulatorsarecommonlyusedonlinesuptoandincluding33kv,andsometimes
at44and66kv.Theirselectionforaparticularlineisbasednotonlyonflashovervoltage,but
alsoonabilitytoretaintheirflashovervalueinregionswherethesurfaceoftheinsulatormay
become contaminated by exposure to dust, chemical fumes, salt spray, etc. The same
observationapplies,ofcourse,tosomeextenttotheselectionofsuspensioninsulators.

Onlineswithpintypeinsulators,therewillbenoswingoftheconductorsatthestructure,so
thatspacingAcouldbeusedbetweenconductoranddownleadasfarastheelctricclearances
are concerned. However, mechanical considerations may call for larger spacing, and spacing B
wouldbeapplicable.[...]
Onaccountofthepossibilityofwoodpolesandcrossarmssplittingfromthelightningflashover,

itisdesirabletohavetheflashovergofromtheconductortothedownleadthroughair,rather
thanviatheinsulatorstringandcrossarmorpole.Iftheimpulseflashoverthroughairismade
about the same as the insulator flashover, the added insulation of wood in series with the
insulatorwillensurethatflashoverwilltakeplacethroughairtothedownlead.Inthehigher
voltages, it is very common to build woodpole lines of the Hframe arrangement, with two
overheadgroundwiresandgroundleadsdownthepoles(Fig.8.22).

[...]AnexpidenttoincreasethelengthofwoodinserieswiththeporcelainisillustratedinFig.
8.23.Herethedownleadistappedoffthegroundwireafewfeetawayfromthepole,andthe
leadswingsdownandcontactsthepolesomedistancebelowthecrossarm.

[...] Andrews had the idea that sufficient wood and air insulation could be introduced, so that
eveniflightningglashovertookplace,powerfrequencywouldnotfollow.Hisstandard33kvline
consutrctionconsistedofwoodpoleswitha10footwoodcrossarmsupportedbyasteelangle
iron brace. Two conductors were mounted on one side of the pole, and one conductor on the
other.Thisdesignhemodifiedbydroppingdownthecrossarmandplacingoneinsulatoronthe
ridgeofthepole,approximately53/4feetabovethecrossarm.Theothertwoconductorswere
supportedbyinsulatorsattheendsofthe10footcrossarm.Woodcrossarmbraceswereused,
andwoodinsulatorsinguywires(Fig.8.24(a)).Wheretherewasnotsufficientspaceonthe
poletopermitloweringthecrossarm,oneconductorwasmountedontopofthepole,andwood
crossarmbraceswereinstalled(Fig.8.24(b)).

A marked improvement in the number of flashovers was noted in 9 months' operation on a

smalllengthoflinewiththeimprovedinsulation,buttherewasaboutthesamepercentageof
poleandcrossarmdamageaswiththeoriginaldesign.
Andrews and McCain reported for a 3year period on 4 lines similar to those described ( Fig.
8.25(a) ), but including some corner poles with porcelain guy insulators and minimum wood

insulation ( Fig. 8.25(b) ). Thirteen per cent of the standard poles without guy wires which
flashed over showed power followup also, 42 per cent of the standard poles with insulated
guysand90percentofthecornerpoles.Tripoutsvariedfrom13to80per100milesperyear,
withanaverageof31per100milesperyear.

[...]Thestrengthofwoodinserieswiththeporcelaininsulatorsmaybeevaluatedatabout50
kvperfootonanimpulsebasis,oronehalfdiscinsulatorforeachfootofwood.Thisshouldbe
comparedwiththestrengthofairgaps,inwhich1footofairgapisequivalenttoapproximately
twoinsulatordiscs.[...]
AlternativeMethodsofProtectingTransmissionLines
A large number of existing lines have been built without overhead ground wires or means for
retucing the footing resistance, such as driven rods or counterpoise wires. New lines will
continue to be built in this manner where the design adopted does not lend itself to the
installationofoverheadgroundwires,wherethelineisnotsufficientlyimportanttojustifythe
expenseofoverheadgroundwires,whereduplicatelinesseemtoassureadequateservice,orfor
otherreasons.
Alternative methods of affording a certain degree of protection to these lines are available
amongtheseareprotectortubes,groundfaultneutralizers,andautomaticreclosing.
Protector tubes are sometimes called "expulsion protector tubes", "expulsion protective gaps",
"deiontubes",and"linetype expulsion arresters". The essential elements of such a tube are
illustratedinFig.9.1.

[...]VariouswaysofmountingprotectortubesonlinesareshowninFigs.9.2,9.3,and9.4.

[...] Wisco and Monteith report the experience on a 54mile, 66kv, singlecircuit, steeltower
line of the Interstate Power Company. The line was equipped with four insulator discs and no
overheadgroundwires.In6years'operationbeforeprotectortubeswereinstalled,theoutages
averaged46.1peryear.Protectortubes were mounted on a light steel crossarm beneath the
horizontalconductors.Inthefollowing6years,theoutageswerereducedtoanaverageof3.1
peryear,areductionofabout93percent.[...]
ThesuggestedarrangementforadoublecircuitlineisshowninFig.9.10.

[...]Rivercrossingtowersareoftenhighandthespanslong,makingitdifficultandexpensiveto
supportoverheadgroundwires.Evenifgroundwireswerepresent,adirectstroketooneofthe
crossing towers might result in sufficient resistance drop in the tower to flash over the
insulators. The ground wires have therefore in some cases been omitted, and protector tubes
successfully relied on to prevent insulator flashover at the two ends of the span. Lightning
arrestershavealsobeenusedforthepurpose.
Thegroundfaultneutralizer,alsoknownasthePetersencoil,wasdevisedbyDr.W.Petersen.
The groundfault neutralizer, in its most common form, is a reactance coil placed between
neutralandgroundandspeciallyproportionedinrelationtothechargingcurrentofthesystem.
Incaseofagroundfaultonthesystem,acurrentflowsthroughthecoilwhichissubstantially
equaltoand180degreesoutofphasefromthegroundfaultcurrent,therebyneutralizingthe
groundfault current. Another form, not so commonly used, consists of a Ydelta transformer
bankwiththeYwindingconnectedtothethreephasesof the system to be protected and its
neutralgroundedithasanadjustablereactorconnectedinacornerofthedelta,thedeltabeing
otherwiseunloaded.
On account of the prevalent use of the isolated neutral system in Europe, the Petersen coil
foundreadyacceptanceasameansofimprovingtheserviceoflinesofallvoltagesfrom5000to
220,000 volts. In this country, the solidly grounded neutral system has become firmly
established,andthereforetheneutralizerandothergroundingdeviceshavenotreceivedsuch
wide acceptance. Nevertheless, the neutralizer has a distinct application on certain types of
systems, and its use has been gradually increasing. Neutralizers have been installed in this
countryonsystemsrangingfrom2.4to230kv.[...]
Figure9.13showsaninteriorviewofagroundfaultneutralizerwithabuiltinshuntingresistor,
fora100kvsystem.Figure9.14showsanexteriorviewofaneutralizerfora140kvsystem
withanearlyremotecontroltapchangingmechanism.Figures9.15and9.16showinteriorand
exteriorviewsrespectivelyofamodernneutralizerfora34.5kvsystem,withexternallightning
arresterandwithanelectricallyoperatedtapchangingswitch.Figure9.17showsanadjustable
coil neutralizer of 4 to 1 reactance ratio for a 6600volt system. Figure 9.18 is a view of the
disconnectingandbypassswitchesandtheircontrolmechanism.

[...]Enteringintothecalculationsofthecapacitancetogroundaretheheightoftheconductors
aboveground,thespacingandsizeofconductors,andthespacingandsizeofgroundwires,if
any.Itisgenerallyassumedthatthegruegroundplaneisatthegroundsurface,althoughthis
is not at all certain, especially if the currents involved are large. The height above ground is
usually assumed as the height of the tower, but it may be less in the span or at times
considerablygreater,aswhencrossinggulleysandvalleys.Anaccuratecalculationwouldrequire
that the line profile be planimetered. If corona is present, the apparent conductor size is
increasedandthecapacitancebecomessomewhatlargerthancalledforbytheactualconductor
size.Ifthelineisonarightofwayborderedbytrees,thepresenceofthesetreesmaychange
thecapacitancetoground,especiallywhenitisraining.[...]
The Public Service Company of Colorado installed a combination grounding transformer and
groundfault neutralizer in 1944 on their 13.8kv system in Denver. The system consisted of
about400milesofoverheadlineandabout8milesofundergroundcable,ortheequivalentof
about 630 miles of overhead line. THe coil was rated 122 to 263 ohms and 61.3 to 29.4
amperes.Asecondduplicatecoilwasinstalledin1947.
Therecordoftheseneutralizersshowsoperationsforthe4yearsfrom1944to1947inclusive
asfollows:914,886,963,and770.
In1946,ofthe963operations,55percentwereassociatedwithbadweatherand45percent
withforeignobjects,equipmentfailures,orunknowncauses.Nofeederoutageswereassociated
with83percentofthetotaloperations,butfeederoutageswereassociatedwiththeremaining
17percent,resultingin48tripoutsand4lockouts.[...]
Beforetheinstallationofthecoils,faultsononepartofthesystemcausedsecondaryfaultson
otherandremotepartsofthesystem.Installationofthecoilshasstoppedtheseoccurrences.
The Metropolitan Edison Company installed three groundfault neutralizers on their 66kv
system in 1937. On tuning the coils, each with its proper proportion of the system, the coil
current was found excessively high without fault on the system, in some cases far exceeding
thecontinuousratingofthecoils(about30percentoffullcurrentrating).Certainlineswere
wholly or partly transposed, so that the coil currents were reduced to a point considered
acceptable.
On the lines of fairly modern construction, with ample insulation and clearance, the
improvement was marked, the first year's operations showing a reduction of 88 per cent in

interruptionsascomparedwiththeprevious5years.Theolderlineswithpintypeinsulatorsand
smallclearancesshowedabouta30percentreduction.
In 1939, three groundfault neutralizers (Fig. 9.26) were placed in service on the 230kv
Boulder DamBarreChino line of the Southern California Edison Company, consisting of 234
miles from Boulder to Chino, and 26 miles from Chino to Barre. The Boulder Dam neutralizer
had a double winding mounted on a single magnetic core, each winding designed to operate
either singularly or in multiple with the other, and to compensate for a third of the total line
length. The doublewinding feature was to permit retuning in case either the Chino or Barre
transformerwasoutofservice.

[...] After several years' operation of these neutralizers, the line was connected into an
extensive230kvsolidlygroundedsystem,andtheuseoftheneutralizerswasdiscontinued.
In the practice of automatic reclosing, the fault is tripped off by the circuit breaker in the
ordinarymanner,andthenafterareasonableintervalthecircuitisclosedautomatically.Ifthe
faultisstillonthesystem,thebreakeropensasecondtimeandthenrecloses.Afterthethird
openingandclosure,thebreakerlocksout.[...]
Intheearlydaysofhightensiontransmission,insulatordiscswerefrequentlycracked by heat
fromthenormalfrequencycurrentwhichfollowedalightningflashover,andburningtookplace
ontheconductorsandinsulatorhardwarewherethearcterminated.Thisdamagecameabout
becauseoftherelativelylongtime(30to60cyclesormore)requiredbytherelaysandcircuit
breakerstoopenthecircuit.
Various devices were used to minimize the effect of this arcing, such as plain horns, spoon
horns, spheretipped horns, insulatortipped horns, combinations of horns and spheres, and
rings or shields. The early literature is filled with discussion regarding the merits of these
devices.
Althoughthevarioustypesofhornsweremoreorlesssuccessfulinkeepingthearcawayfrom
theconductorandinsulatorhardware,theywerenottoosuccessfulinpreventingthearcfrom
travelinguptheinsulatorstringanddamagingtheporcelain.Inthisrespectthegradingringsor
shieldsseemedtobemuchbetter,astheylargelykeptthearcsentirelyclearoftheporcelain.
[...]
Shieldingbygradingringswasusedandisstillusedextensivelyonlinesfrom115kvto230kv.
Theoreticallyonlytheringatthelineendisnecessaryforgradin,andmanylineswereequipped
with rings at the line end and horns at the ground end (Fig. 9.32). However, it was found,
especiallyonlonginsulatorstrings,thatgradingwashelpedbyaringatthegroundendaswell
as at the line end. Also it was found for strings, short and long, that the second ring helped
materiallyinkeepingthearcawayfromthehardwarealongthestring,thussavingdamageto
thehardwareandporcelain.A110kvlineequippedwithgradingringstopandbottomisshown
inFig.9.33.


[...]Withthegradualappearanceoffasterrelayandbreakeroperation(6to12cyclesoverall),
thedamagetoinsulatorporcelainandhardware,duetotheshortcircuitcurrentarc,hasgreatly
diminished, and the necessity for rings and other devices has practically disappeared. Modern
lines are therefore usually built without such devices. In some cases of extralong insulator
stringsoperatingathighvoltage,ringsarestillusedtokeepthearcawayfromtheinsulators
andconductors,andtopreventcoronaformationonthelinehardwareatoperatingvoltage.[...]
ProtectionofStationsandRotatingMachines
The station on an overhead line usually involves incoming and outgoing lines station buses
disconnecting switches and circuit breakers power, current, and potential transformers and
sometimesauxiliaryequipmentsuchascarriercurrentcapacitors.
The station structure itself is commonly built of steel members on which lines terminate and
whichsupportthebuses,disconnectingswitches,etc.(Fig.10.1).Thepowertransformersand
breakersusuallyrestonconcretepadsontheground.

Theproblemoftheprotectionofsuchastationresolvesitselfintotwoparts:theprotectionfrom
directstrokes,andtheprotectionfromtravelingwavescominginoverthelines.
Theprotectionfromdirectstrokesinvolvesshieldingbyoverheadgroundwires,masts,orrods.
Ifsupportsareavailableforoverheadgroundwires,thesemayberunoverthestationinsucha
waythatthestationandallapparatuswilllieintheprotectedzone.[...]
Ifitisnotfeasibletorungroundwiresoverthestation,thenitmaybepossibletoerectmasts
orrodsatthecornersoroververticalcolumns,sothatthebusesandapparatusinthestation
willfallwithintheconeofprotectionofthemastsorrods.Suchaconemaybeassumedtohave
abaseradiusequaltotwicetheheightofthemast.[...]Fig.10.5isaviewofasmallstation
protectedinthismanner.

Ifthestationisshieldedfromdirectstrokesandhaslowgroundresistance,theonlyremaining
source of lightning voltage is from traveling waves coming in on the conductors. If the line
conductors in turn are adequately shielded from direct strokes, then the source of traveling
wavesisusuallyaflashoveroftheinsulatorsandthevoltageislimitedtotheinsulatorflashover
value.[...]
SpornandMonteith,lookingaheadtotheneedforvoltageshigherthan287kv,havesuggested
345, 402, and 460 kv as possible steps. They proposed insulation levels for the range 230 to
460kv,asgiveninTable10.7,andhavealsosuggestedlineinsulationsasgiveninthetable.

[...]Withtransformerbanksguardedonlybytheflashoverofthebusinsulationortransformer
bushings,theinsulationtogroundofthemajorityofrotatingmachinesisindangerwhenthey
are connected to the transmission system through transformers with relatively high
transformationratio.
Alightningarresteronthehighsidecapableofreducingtheincominglightningvoltagetosome
70 per cent of the bushing flashover would remove the danger to the insulation to ground in
mostcases,withtheexceptionofYYgroundedneutraltransformersorautotransformerbanks.
Inthelattercase,groundedneutrallightningarresterscanbeused,andiftheyarecapableof
reducing voltages to some 56 per cent of the bushing flashover level, they will protect the
insulationtogroundofmanygenerators.[...]

Thisinformationcomesfrom
Rdenberg,Reinhold.TransientPerformanceofElectricPowerSystems.Cambridge,Massachusetts:
TheM.I.T.Press(originallyMcGrawHill).Copyright1950.LOCTK3226.R8.
The'Preface'states:
Thefieldoftransientelectricphenomenahasdevelopedthroughthedecadesintoanimportant
foundation of electrical engineering. For the design and operation of electrical systems it has
assumed, in general, the same significance as the regular performance in the steady state.
Moreover, some of the accidental transient phenomena, like short circuits in a network,
instabilityofthegeneratingmachinery,andlightningdisturbancesontransmissionlines,have
become of such outstanding importance that the layout of modern power systems is
predominantly determined by their conditions. [...] This book deals with the transient
performance of power circuits with lumped properties. [...] In part, this book corresponds to a
Germantreatisebytheauthor,onthesamegeneralsubject,thethirdedition(1933)ofwhich
isoutofprint.ThecontentsofthisfirstEnglisheditionaregreatlyenlarged,inordertocomprise
alsothenewdevelopmentsinthefield.[...]
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.

Introduction
In the early years of electrical engineering, power systems were designed according to the
requirements of regular sustained operation. By thorough investigation of the materials used
and by study of the properties of the machines, apparatus, and lines in steady operation,
remarkablesuccesswasattainedwithrespecttothemagnitudeofthepower,thelevelofthe
voltage, and the distance through which the electric energy was transmitted. However,
experienceshowedthatwithswitchingprocessesinthecircuits,andundersimilarintentionalor
accidental conditions, peculiar phenomena appeared which could greatly disturb the regular
operation of the system. Since then, numerous investigations have endeavored to clarify
scientificallythesephenomena,andtodevisemethodstopreventdamageinthenetworks.[...]
MechanicalandThermalShortCircuitEffects
Two effects determine predominantly any destructions by shortcircuit currents namely, the
mechanicalforcesofattractionorrepulsiononthecurrentcarryingconductors,andthethermal
effects of the currents in the conductors. Both these effects usually set in suddenly and with
extraordinaryintensity,andsometimesdisplaypeculiarforms.Figure1showstheremainsofa
threephasecircuit breaker after a disastrous short circuit initiated by a flashover between its
insulators. Such flashovers may occur by contacts insufficient in area or too loosely screwed,
whichmayproducefarflyingsparkswhensufferingshortcircuitcurrents.

Figure2picturesatransformercoil,completelydeformedundertheinfluenceofashortcircuit
current flowing in the coil within the leakage field of the transformer. Figure 3 presents an
instrumenttransformer,theinsulatorof which has been burst by shortcircuit effects. Finally,
Fig.4shows,asanextremeexample,theeffectswhichwereproducedbyrepeatedreclosingof
an oil circuit breaker under remote control on a metallically shortcircuited line. The circuit
breaker,togetherwiththeswitchingstation,wasblownup.

[...]
GroundedNeutralinThreePhaseSystems
[...]Figure10showsthegroundingarcofaninsulated100kvsystemof60amp capacitance
current, as it develops after ignition by a thin copper wire bridging an insulator. Figure 11
indicatesthesameevent,however,afterinductivegroundingoftheneutral,andtheveryslight
sparkwhichoccursisenlargedintheinset.

[...]

Thisinformationcomesfrom
Cotton,H.(EmeritusProfessorofElectricalEngineering,UniversityofNottingham).TheTransmission
andDistributionofElectricalEnergy.London,GreatBritain:TheEnglishUniversitiesPress,Ltd.
Copyright1958.LOCTK3001.C65.
(AdditionalinformationfromthisbookislocatedonthePowerSystemspage,theInterferenceBetweenPower
andTelecomLinespage,thePolesandTowerspage,andtheInsulatorUsagepage.)
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.
[...]
Corona
Ifanalternatingpotentialdifferenceisappliedtotwowireswhosespacingislargeincomparison
with the diameter, and the potential difference is gradually increased, a point will be reached
whenafaintluminousglowofvioletcolourwillmakeitsappareance,andatthesametimea
hissingnoisewill be heard. This phenomenon is accompanied by the formation of ozone, as is
indicatedbythecharacteristicodourofthisgas.Ifthepotentialdifferenceisraisedstillfarther,
theglowandthenoisewillincreaseinintensityuntileventuallyasparkoverwilltakeplace.If
thewiresareperfectlyuniformandsmooth,theglowwillbeuniformalongtheirlength,butif
thereareanyroughnesses,thesewillbepickedoutbybrighterillumination.Withwires only a
shortdistanceapartincomparisonwiththeirdiameter,sparkovermaytakeplacebeforethereis
anyluminousglow.
Iftheappliedpotentialdifferenceisdirectinsteadofalternating,thetwowiresnolongerhave
the same appearance the positive wire having a uniform glow, while the negative wire has a
more patchy glow, often accompanied by streamers if there are any rough places. It thus
appears at first sight that the phenomenon is different for the two types of applied potential
difference,butifwithanalternatingpotentialdifferencethewiresareexaminedstroboscopically,
itwillbefoundthattheappearanceisnowsimilartothatwithadirectpotentialdifference.
Theabovephenomenaaretermedcorona,andanimportantpointinconnectionwithcoronais
thatitisaccompaniedbyalossofpower,andthismeansthatthereisaflowofcurrenttothe
wire.[...]
Under normal conditions, the loss of power due to corona is of no great importance, and
consequentlycoronacalculationsdonotenterdirectlyintotransmissionlinedesign.Thebasisof
suchdesignisessentiallyfinancial,themosteconomicallinebeingthemostacceptable.Ifsuch
a line has a critical voltage under normal weather conditions of about 10 per cent. above the

operating conditions, then it will be quite satisfactory, although Woodruff suggests that "in a
regionwherethereareonlyafewstormseachyearontheaverage,itmightbewisetoallow
considerablecoronalossontheserareoccasions,soastoenjoythecontinuousbenefitofthe
highervoltagewithoutincreasingtoomuchthecostoflineconstruction".Ifalinedesignedon
economicalconsiderationshasanoperatingvoltagenearto,orgreaterthan,thecriticalvoltage
for corona, then either the size of the conductors must be increased, or the spacing must be
increased,thusentailingheaviertowers.Eitherremedywill,ofcourse,increasethecostofthe
line.Alternatively,thelineasdesignedcanbeoperatedatalowervoltagethananticipated,but
thesmallchoiceofvoltageduetostandardizationmaymakethisimpossible.Ifsuchareduced
voltageisadopted,thekVA.capacitywillbereducedinproportion.Hence,asarule,oneofthe
otherremedieswillbepreferable.Withimportanttransmissionlinesinwhichalargeconductor
is required, a stranded conductor of aluminium, possibly with a steel core, will be of such
diameterthatcoronalosswillbeavoided,exceptpossiblyunderstormconditions.
An advantage of corona is that it reduces transients, since charges induced on the line by
lightning or other causes will be partially dissipated as a corona loss. In this way it acts as a
safetyvalve,andinoneortwocases,lineshavebeenpurposelydesignedtohaveanoperating
voltageneartothecriticalvoltageinordertodoawaywiththenecessityfor,andtheexpense
of,lightningarrestergear.Anobjectiontothisschemeisthatthecriticalvoltageisnotfixedfor
agivenline,butmayvaryconsiderablywithchangesintheweather.
The disadvantages of corona are firstly, there is a definite loss of power, although this is not
importantexceptunderabnormalweatherconditionsandsecondly,thenonsinusoidalcorona
current causes a nonsinusoidal drop of volts, and these may cause some interference with
neighbouringcommunicationcircuitsduetoelectromagneticandelectrostaticinduction.[...]
CircuitBreakers
[...]Thegeneralarrangement[ofinterruptingheadsonahighpowercircuitbreaker] is shown
inFig.15.16.

[...]Thelivetankarrangementlendsitselfparticularlytothemultibreakconstruction,sincethe
interruptingchamberscanbemountedoneabovetheother,orinVeeformationasinthe380
kV.breakerofFig.15.26foranairblastunit.

[...] For the largest ratings, outdoor installation is usual in order to avoid building costs. Figs.
15.31 and 15.32 show substations containing outdoor bulkoil, low oilcontent, and airblast
circuitbreakers.


[...]
PrinciplesofFeederProtection
[...][Carriercurrentsystems]areessentiallylockinsystemsinwhichahighfrequencycurrent
isusedforthesendingofthelockingsignal[topreventtheinadvertentopeningofoneofthe
circuitbreakers]. This signal can be injected into the line wires, pilot wires being thereby
eliminated.The coupling of the signal circuits to the power lines is effected by means of large
capacitors in the form of porcelain insulators [...] [which] then take the place of the ordinary
potentialtransformer.LinecouplersofthistypeareillustratedinFig.16.40.

[...]
ProtectionAgainstOvervoltages
[...]Inthecaseofinsulatorstrings,destructionofthestringcanbepreventedbytheprovision
ofarcinghornsandrings,whileinthecaseoftransformers,rodgaps,calledcoordinatinggaps,
canbeinstalledtoprotecttheapparatus(Fig.18.25).

[...]

Thisinformationcomesfrom

Willheim,R.Waters,M.NeutralGroundinginHighVoltageTransmission.NewYork,NY:Elsevier
PublishingCompany.Copyright1956.LOCTK3227.W5.
The 'Introduction' (by R. Rdenberg, Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering at Harvard University)
states:
Throughout the last half century, the practice of design and operation of large electric power
systemsinmostrespectshasdevelopedalongsimilarlinesinAmericaandEurope,basedonthe
fact that the underlying laws of nature are the same everywhere. One singular problem,
however,hasevolvedin different ways: namely, the protection of the electric system against
occasionalbreakdown,causedeitherbynaturaleventshitherounpredictablelikelightning,orby
accidentalfailuresduetotherandombehaviorofelectricinsulation.[...]Soitcameabout,that
in the United States preponderantly the solid grounding of the neutral point of large electric
powersystemswaspreferredandhasbeentechnicallydevelopedwithallitsramificationsasto
emergencyswitchingoperationsofvariouskinds.InEurope,ontheotherhand,theinductive
grounding by resonant reactors was invented and utilized, which from the outset provided
neutralizationofgroundfaultcurrentsandgaveprotectiontopoweraswellascommunication
systemswithouttheneedofnovelswitchingprocedures.[...]
Thefollowinginformationisexcerptedfromthisbook.
[...]
HighVoltageSystemsunderNormalandGroundFaultConditions
[...]
SteadyStateVoltagesDuringGroundFaults
[...] The relative frequency of occurrence of sustained ground faults is suitably
demonstrated by the operational experience of systems with resonant grounded
neutral. The great majority of all singlephase ground faults is found to be
transient,i.e.selfclearingwithinafewcyclesorperhapsseconds.Thisisevidenced
byTable6:
Table6
Nameofsystem

Voltage
kV

Percentagetransientsingle
phasegroundfaults

PublicServiceCompanyofColorado

13.8

80.5

Badenwerk,Germany

20

86to90

North Moravian Elec. Supply Co.,

22
C.S.R.

96

SwedishStatePowerBoard

22

85.5

WisconsinMichiganPowerCo.

34.5

83.3

SwedishStatePowerBoard

44

91

SwedishStatePowerBoard

77

95

VictoriaFallsPowerCo.

88

97

PublicServiceCompanyofColorado

100

97

AustrianInterconnectingSystem

110

90

Badenwerk,Germany

110

87

Bayernwerk,Germany

110

81

SwedishStatePowerBoard

132

93.5

ConsumersPowerCo.

140

85to94

[...]Thetendencytocarryonwithasustainedgroundfaultisverypronouncedat
voltagesupto34.5kV.[...]
TransientPhenomenainThreePhaseSystems
[...]
InitiationandDevelopmentofGroundFaults
[...] The great number of insulators and immediate exposure to lightning surges
areonlytwoofthemanyreasonswhyoverheadlinesplaysuchanimportantrole
inthegroundfaultstatisticsofpowertransmissionsystems.Birdstrytoperchon
or near pin insulators, thereby reducing the insulation clearance and causing
flashovers (Fig. 74). During the migration season, this type of fault is quite
epidemic.Mostseasonshavetheirpeculiartypeofgroundfaulttrouble.Duringthe
harvest, the wind drives stalks on to the line insulators. Ropes, kites, blasting,
[and]attemptsatsuicide,areother,lessseasonalcauses.Ifthelinepassesnear
treeswithoutsufficientmargin,windmaybendbrancesandmaketwigstouchone
oftheconductors.Icingcausesdeepsaggingofthewires,sometimesrightdownto
the ground, sometimes to a lesser extent, but then the load may fall off along
whole spans, causing the wire to dance and perhaps touch the ground wire. In
coastaldistricts,saltisdepositedontheinsulatorsurfaceinindustrialareas,the
porcelainsmaybecoveredbythicklayersofdirtorcoaldust,alongwhichinfoggy
weather discharges may develop into flashovers. A surprising fact is the regular
occurrenceofgroundfaultsatsunrise.

[...]
TheGroundFaultNeutralizer(ArcSuppressionCoil)GeneralTheory
[...]
TheExtinctionofGroundFaultArcsinSystemswithGroundFaultNeutralizers
[...]

[...]
ResonantGroundingversusDissonantGrounding
[...] The first ground fault neutralizer ever used was installed in 1917 in the
German power station at Pleidelsheim where it was connected to the alternator
neutral.Itwasairinsulated(Fig.160and161).Thearrangementwas otherwise
thesameasnowingeneraluse,thusbeingcharacterizedbyasaturablecorewith
airgapsandatappedwinding.

[...]
ReviewofResonantGroundedSystemPerformance
[...]
ComparisonwithOtherMethodsofReducingtheFaultRate
[...] A theory has been presented by L. V. Bewley on the basis of which the
operational performance of various types of transmission lines can be compared.
Table 40 is taken from his statistical and analytical investigation of 132 kV lines
insulatedwith9standarddiscs,lengthofspan750ft.,towerfootingresistance30
ohms.
Table40
Flashoversexpressedas%of
Ground total[lightning]strokes
Wires
1
2
3
Both

TypeofLine

Wood
Pole,
crossarms.

wood

Steel Tower,
circuit.

single

phase

phase

phase

Circuits

.33

79

72

18

8.3

6.8

Steel Tower,
circuit.

single 1

Steel Tower,
circuit.

double

Steel Tower,
circuit.

double

6.8

76.3

19.7

2.7

20.3

8.8

0.17

2.2

[...]
Design,Testing,andCommissioningofGroundFaultNeutralizers
DesignofGroundFaultNeutralizers
[...]

[...]

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