4 BW Astronomic Geodesy

9/6/2011
Geodetic Astronomy
Celestial Sphere and Its
Coordinate Systems
Department of Geodetic Engineering

Training Center for Applied Geodesy and Photogrammetry
GE 12 General Surveying II
Objectives
Visualize the different parts of the celestial sphere.
Differentiate the celestial coordinates systems.
Carry out simple celestial coordinates system
transformations using astronomic triangles.
Distinguish different special star positions.
Apply significant corrections to errors in astronomic
observations.
Identify various methods of astronomic observations,
particularly in azimuth determination.
9/6/2011
Outline
Geodetic Astronomy
Celestial Sphere
Celestial Coordinate System
Astronomic Triangle
Special Star Positions
Astronomic Observations
Azimuth Determination
Errors and Corrections

Geodetic Astronomy
Observation/measurement on natural celestial bodies:

A. to determine azimuths of lines of survey.
B. to determine latitude and longitude of points of reference
which have not been connected to other points of known
geographic coordinates.
C. to determine error in the time shown in watches or
chronometer.
D. to provide a check for the geographic position of points.

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The Celestial Sphere

An imaginary surface whose
center is the earth, where all
celestial bodies are contained.
A pair of coordinates referred

from celestial objects define a
position.
The speed of rotation of the
celestial sphere is 360 59.14 per
24 hours, slightly more than one
revolution per day.
The Celestial Sphere

North Celestial
Pole (NCP)
In this framework, the sphere

rotates around its axis on an
east-to-west direction (CCW
from N).
The points of intersection of
the axis of rotation of the earth
and the sphere are known to be
the celestial poles.
Perpendicular to this axis is a
great circle called the celestial
equator.
South Celestial
Pole (SCP)
Celestial Equator
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Spherical Coordinates
Fixed by angular measurements from two (2) planes of

reference at right angles to each other passing thru the
center of the sphere.
EPHEMERIS an astronomic
almanac containing tables
giving the computed
positions of the sun, the
planets, and various stars
for everyday of a given
period (i.e. Almanac for
Geodetic Engineers of
PAGASA).

Observers Location on Earth

Prime Meridian
Parallels of
Latitude
Meridian Circle
Reference Planes used:

1. Equator for measuring
latitude
2. Primary Meridian for
measuring longitude

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Star
Position of celestial bodies, such as

stars, may be defined by its celestial
coordinates under the following
systems:
1. Horizon System (HS)
2. Hour Angle System (HAS)
3. Right Ascension System (RAS)
4. Ecliptic System (ES)
Equator Systems
The Horizon System

Zenith
60
Observers Celestial
Meridian
NCP
Almucantar/
Parallel of Altitude
Stars
Vertical
Circle
West
Point
30
Stars Path
270
South
Point 180
Altitude
(H)
Azimuth,
(A)
0 North
Point
90
East
Point
Go to Summary Table

Celestial
Horizon
Nadir
Vertical
Circle
Definition of Terms
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The Horizon System

ALTITUDE (H or a) - the angular distance of the body from the
horizon as measured along the vertical circle; complement of
zenith distance
AZIMUTH (Z or A) - the angle, measured clockwise along the
celestial horizon, from the north or south point to the vertical
circle of the star
ZENITH DISTANCE (z) the angular distance between

the pole and the celestial body measured along the
vertical circle through the body.
Definition of Terms
Go to Summary Table

The Hour Angle System

Zenith
Stars
Hour
Circle
Celestial
Parallel
NCP
Observers Celestial
Meridian
60N
24h
Stars Path
Declination,
()
30N
18h
Hour
Circle
6h
0
12h
SCP
30S
Definition of Terms
Go to Summary Table
60S

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The Hour Angle System

HOUR ANGLE (t or h) - the angle, measured clockwise
along the equatorial plane, from the zenith side of the
celestial meridian (t = 0) to the hour circle of the star
DECLINATION ( or D) - the angular distance, north or
south of the equator, measured along the hour circle from
the equator to the body; complement of polar distance
POLAR DISTANCE (P) - the angular distance between
the pole and the celestial body measured along the hour
circle through the body
Definition of Terms
Go to Summary Table

The Right Ascension System

Stars
Hour
Circle
Equinoctial
Colure
NCP
60N
Autumnal
Equinox
Celestial
Parallel
12h
Stars Path
18h
Declination,
()
30N
Right
Ascension,
()
Winter
Solstice
Summer
Solstice
Ecliptic
6h
0
24h
Vernal
Equinox
SCP
30S
Definition of Terms
Go to Summary Table
60S

9/6/2011

Equinoctial
Colure
NCP
(Sept. 21)
60N
Autumnal
Equinox
12h
18h
30N
Right
Ascension,
()
Winter
(Dec. 21) Solstice
Summer
Solstice
(June 21)
Ecliptic
6h
0
24h
Vernal
Equinox
(March 21)
SCP
30S
Definition of Terms
Go to Summary Table
60S


RIGHT ASCENSION () - the angle between the
equinoctial colure and the hour circle of the star,
measured from the vernal equinox , in the plane of the
celestial equator
DECLINATION ( or D) - the angular distance, north or
south of the equator, measured along the hour circle from
the equator to the body complement of polar distance
Go to Summary Table

Definition of Terms
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The Ecliptic System

60
NEP
NCP
Autumnal
Equinox
Ecliptic
Parallel
Ecliptic
Meridian
30
180
Winter
Solstice
Ecliptic
Longitude,
Ecliptic
Latitude,
()
()
270
90
0
Summer
Solstice
0
Vernal
Equinox
Go to Summary Table
Obliquity
of the
Ecliptic
SEP
Definition of Terms
Ecliptic Meridian of
the Vernal Equinox

The Ecliptic System

ECLIPTIC LATITUDE () - the angular distance, measured along
the ecliptic meridian of the vernal equinox, between the ecliptic
and the direction of the star
ECLIPTIC LONGITUDE () - the angle measured

counterclockwise along the ecliptic, measured from the
vernal equinox , to the ecliptic meridian of the star
ECLIPTIC POLAR DISTANCE - the complement of the
ecliptic latitude
Go to Summary Table

Definition of Terms
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Definition of Terms
Celestial Horizon the intersection of the observers
horizon/horizontal plane and the celestial sphere.
Celestial Meridian the great circle passing through the zenith and
the poles.
Observers Celestial Meridian the celestial meridian that passes
through the zenith and the nadir.
Vertical Circles great circles of the celestial sphere that passes
through the zenith and the nadir.
Prime Vertical Circle vertical circle that is perpendicular to the
observers celestial meridian.
Almucantars parallels of altitude, intersection of any plane
parallel to the celestial horizon and the celestial sphere.

Definition of Terms
Celestial Pole the apparent axis of rotation of the earth.
Zenith the point of intersection (at the top) of the observers
vertical line and the celestial sphere.
Nadir the point of intersection (at the top) of the observers
vertical line and the celestial sphere.
North Point the point of intersection of the celestial horizon
and observers celestial meridian nearest to the North Celestial
Pole (NCP).
South Point the point of intersection of the celestial horizon
and observers celestial meridian nearest to the South Celestial
Pole (SCP).
East and West Point points of intersection of the prime
vertical circle and the celestial horizon.
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Definition of Terms
Celestial Equator a great circle in the celestial sphere
perpendicular to its axis of rotation.
Hour Circle any great circle in the celestial sphere that passes
through the north and south celestial poles.
6th Hour Circle hour circle perpendicular to the meridian.
Celestial Parallel the intersection of any plane parallel to the
celestial equator and the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic the intersection of the plane of the earths orbit
around the sun and the celestial sphere.

Definition of Terms
Vernal Equinox the point of intersection of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic (when the suns declination is 0)
following the winter season.
Autumnal Equinox the point of intersection of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic (when the suns declination is 0)
following the summer season.
Winter/Summer Solstice point on the ecliptic defined when
the suns declination is greatest.
Equinoctial Colure a great circle in the celestial sphere
passing through the celestial poles and the equinoxes.
Solsticial Colure - a great circle in the celestial sphere passing
through the celestial poles and the solstices.
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Definition of Terms
Ecliptic Poles points of intersection of the line perpendicular to
the ecliptic and the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic Parallel intersection of any plane parallel to the ecliptic
and the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic Meridian great circle in the celestial sphere that passes
through the ecliptic poles.
Obliquity of the Ecliptic () the acute angle between the plane
of the ecliptic and the plane of the equator (23.5).

Summary of Celestial Coordinate Systems

Reference Plane
System
Primary
Secondary
Parameters Measured from

the Reference Plane
Primary
Secondary
Horizon System
Celestial Horizon
Observers Celestial
Meridian (half
containing the North
point)
Hour Angle System
Celestial Equator
Observers Celestial
Meridian (half
containing the zenith)
Declination, ()
-90 +90
(+toward north)
Hour Angle, (h)

0h h 24h
(+clockwise)
Right Ascension
System
Celestial Equator
Equinoctial Colure
(half containing the
vernal equinox)
Declination, ()
-90 +90
(+toward north)
Right Ascension, ()
0h 24h
(+counterclockwise)
Ecliptic System
Ecliptic
Ecliptic Meridian of
the V ernal Equinox
(half containing the
vernal equinox)
Ecliptic Latitude, ()
-90 +90
(+toward north)
Ecliptic Longitude, ()
0 360
(+counterclockwise)

Altitude, (a)
-90a +90
(+toward zenith)
Azimuth, (A)
0 A 360
(+clockwise)
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Transformation Methods
Transformation of celestial coordinates can be

done from one system to another through a
certain flow.
The transformation can be done using spherical

trigonometry or matrix method.
Transformation using spherical trigonometry

utilizes celestial or astronomic triangles to
derive the transformation expressions.
Transformation by matrix method use matrix

algebra utilizing the general cartesian
coordinates of the celestial body (through
conversion of the celestial coordinates) .

Horizon System
(a, A)
Hour Angle
(, h)
Right Ascension
(, )
Ecliptic
(a, A)
The Celestial/Astronomic Triangles

In surveying, our interest in astronomy is basically with
respect to the sides and angles of spherical triangles on the
celestial sphere.
Concerned on the determination of angular relations,
measured on earth between celestial bodies or between
points on earth and the celestial body being observed.
Since any problem involving angular distances between points
and angles between planes at the center of the sphere may
be readily determined by spherical trigonometry, the celestial
sphere has been adopted.
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The Celestial/Astronomic Triangles

Zenit
h
NCP
Celestial or Astronomic
triangles are formed by
combining two celestial
coordinate systems.
The PZS
Triangle
There are two celestial

triangles that can be formed
in the celestial sphere:
The PES
1. The PZS triangle
Triangle
2. The PES triangle
NEP
Nadir
NCP
SEP

The PZS Triangle: Conversion Between the

Horizon and the Hour Angle System
Zenith
Z
NCP
Azimuth, (A)
P
24h-h
Nadir
PARALLACTIC ANGLE (p or ) - the

angle between the vertical circle and
hour circle of the star.
S
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Review: Sine Law for Spherical Triangles

_sin a_ = _sin b_ = _sin c_
sin A
sin B
sin C
A, B, C are the interior angles of
the spherical triangle.
a, b, c are the sides of the

spherical triangle.
A
B

Review: Cosine Law for the Angles of Spherical

Triangles
cos A = -(cos B)(cos C) + (sin B)(sin C)(cos a)
cos B = -(cos A)(cos C) + (sin A)(sin C)(cos b)
cos C = -(cos A)(cos B) + (sin A)(sin B)(cos c)
spherical triangle.
A
B
c
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Review: Cosine Law for the Sides of Spherical

Triangles
cos a = (cos b)(cos c) + (sin b)(sin c)(cos A)
cos b = (cos a)(cos c) + (sin a)(sin c)(cos B)
cos c = (cos a)(cos b) + (sin a)(sin b)(cos C)
spherical triangle.
A
B
c
The PZS Triangle

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The PZS Triangle: Suns Azimuth

cos (90- ) = [cos (90- )][cos (90- H)] + [sin (90- )][ sin (90- H)][cos(Az)]
sin () = sin() sin(H) + cos () cos (H) cos (Az)

cos (Az) = [ sin () sin () sin (H) ] / [ cos () cos (H) ] *
* Other forms of equation: Sine, Cosine
and Tangent formula (half-angles)
Note:
24h = 360 1h = 15
1m = 15
1s = 15
Sample Problems
1. During an instant of observation, the apparent
declination of the sun is 1420N and the altitude is
4820. If the latitude of the observer is equal to
1820N, compute for the polar distance of the sun.
2. Solar morning observation was conducted that
showed the sun to have an altitude of 1736.8. If the
declination of the sun at the moment of observation is
1225 and the latitude of the place of observation is
4212N, determine the bearing of the star.
3. Determine the azimuth of the sun observed at its
rising (altitude is 0) at a place of latitude 3345N, if
the declination of the sun was 4116.
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* Assuming that the observer
is situated between the
equator and the north
pole, a stars behavior
may be:
zenith
1
Northern
Circumpolar Stars
2
Southern
Circumpolar Stars
3
4
5
Equatorial Stars
6

1.
2.
3.
4.
Rising/Setting
Prime Vertical Crossing
Culmination
Elongation

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Rising/Setting
Instant when the star intersects the celestial horizon of the
place (for equatorial stars only).

Prime Vertical Crossing

Instant when the star intersects the prime vertical circle.

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Culmination/Transit
Instant when the star intersects the celestial meridian.

Elongation
Occurs when the hour circle and vertical circle of star are
perpendicular to each other (for Type 1 stars only).

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Astronomic Observations
Common problems in surveying which employ knowledge of
geodetic astronomy are the determination of:
1. Latitude
2. Time/Longitude
3. Azimuth

Instrument for Astronomic Observations

Observatory (High-precision) Instruments
Permanently installed in laboratories
Used for repeated measurements of time and latitude
First-order (Precision) Instruments

Portable instruments which can provide standard deviations of less than
0.3
Used to establish the astronomic/natural coordinates of the origin of a
geodetic network, for first order triangulation, trilateration and traverse
For determining the size, shape and orientation of the best fitting ellipsoid

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Second-order (Geodetic) instruments
Provides standard deviations of less than 1.0
for astro-geodetic determination of the geoid
2nd order triangulation azimuth checks
control for small scale topographic mapping and aerial surveys
Lower order (Surveying) instruments

Used for property and engineering surveys
For solar and Polaris observations

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Latitude Determination
Latitude can be determined during Culmination/Transit

Latitude Determination
Latitude can be determined during Culmination/Transit
- D (CW)

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Latitude Determination: Example

Compute the latitude of the place of observation when the
observation of Polaris is at upper culmination.
Altitude = 43 37 (direct)
= 43 36 (reverse)
Declination = 89 04 30

Time Computation
Astronomic observations can be used to determine the
Apparent Time (TT) using certain methods of computation.
By the Cosine Formula (derived from the PZS Triangle):
cos (t) = [ sin (H) sin () sin () ] / [ cos () cos () ] *
where: t = h, hour angle
* Other forms of equation: Sine, Cosine
and Tangent formula (half-angles)
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Azimuth Determination
Stars, when observed, may be used to determine the azimuth of a
line.
Given the NPD of a body from an almanac and observed values of
declination, horizontal angle and time, we can determine the
azimuth of the body and the line of interest of the observer.
Azimuth determination from solar observations are applicable
only to Project Control Surveys (Primary, Secondary and Tertiary)
and not for Geodetic Control Establishment.
Equipment needed: Theodolite with a solar eyepiece, Range pole,
Calibrated watches or chronometer

Solar Observations: Field Procedure

Here we assume that we want to determine the astronomical
azimuth of a line T1-T2 from solar observations.
1. Set-up and level the theodolite at T1.
2. Backsight T2 and set the horizontal circle reading to almost
(00000). It is advisable to not set the reading at exactly zero
but instead record the initial horizontal circle reading and apply
this correction later on during the computations. Record also the
magnetic azimuth of such line to be used for comparison on the
computed azimuth of the line
3. With the telescope in direct position, sight the sun at its 1st
position and record the Horizontal Circle Reading, Time, and
Altitude (Vertical Circle Reading).
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4. Still on the direct position, sight the sun at its 2nd position.
Reverse the telescope and sight the sun at its 3rd and 4th position.
Do not forget to record the Horizontal Circle Reading, Time, and
Altitude (Vertical Circle Reading). This completes the 1st Set of
Readings (SET I).
5. With the telescope still in reverse position, continue to take the
2nd Set of readings with the sun at its 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th
positions. This comprises Set II of the observations.
6. Sight the other end of the line again and check whether the
reading is still the same as that of the previous one. It must give
the same reading; otherwise, the instrument is disturbed.

Note: The time interval between two consecutive readings should not
exceed two minutes; the total time of observation should not
exceed ten minutes.
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Solar Observations: Computations

1. Compute for the mean of the horizontal circle readings, time, and
altitude.
2. Based on the tabular values, determine the parallax and refraction
correction and apply this correction to the mean altitude to get the
corrected altitude H.
3. Now we want to get the North Polar Distance of the sun at the time
and date of observation. This is tracked by space observatories and
are tabulated (Ephemeris) on star catalogues. PAGASA publishes an
almanac which tabulates the NPD of the sun at 8 a.m. and 2 p.m.
everyday for an entire year. Since it would not be likely that our time
of observation is exactly 8 a.m. and 2 p.m., we have to correct the
NPD from the table.

4. The correction is determined by finding the difference in hours of the
time of observation from 8 a.m. or 2 p.m., whichever is nearer, and
multiplying this difference with the hourly variation of the suns rate
of motion. The rate of motion is predicted by observatories based on
Keplers law of planetary motion and is tabulated along with the
ephemeris of the sun.
5. The correction is applied to NPD from the table to get the corrected
NPD denoted as P.
6. For tertiary controls, the latitude of the place may be determined by
scaling a map or by the mean latitude as published on the almanac.
(ex: Davao City is at 7.3 latitude).

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7. However, for secondary and primary controls, latitude should be
determined by astronomical observations such as by observing the
altitude of the sun at exactly 12 noon. For geodetic controls, it is
advisable to observe other stars instead of the sun such as the
altitude of Polaris at any hour angle.
8. The azimuth of the sun is computed from the formula:
9. If the observation was made in the morning, the azimuth of the sun
is equal to 360 - A. If the observation was made in the afternoon, the
azimuth of the sun is equal to A.

10. The mean horizontal angle between the sun and the backsight point
(T2) is computed by subtracting the Initial Horizontal Circle Reading
to the Mean Horizontal Circle Reading.
11. The azimuth of the line (T1-T2) is computed by subtracting the mean
horizontal angle to the azimuth of the sun.
12. Two azimuths are computed from the two sets of readings. The
difference between the two azimuths is multiplied to 0.33725 to get
the probable error. This probable error must check against the
tolerance standards for the corresponding accuracy classification
otherwise the observation must be rejected. Tolerance standards can
be found on the Manual of Land Surveying Regulations (DAO 98-12).

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Corrections Applied to Observed Altitude
Index Correction
This occurs when the instruments initial vertical angle is not at the zero
level, even if the telescope is set to be horizontally leveled. This error in
measurement is remedied by subtracting the index error of the vertical circle
to the value of the vertical angle of the celestial object being observed.

Parallax Correction
It is assumed that the celestial sphere is of infinite radius and that vertical
angle measured from a station on the earths surface is the same as that if it
would be measured from the center of the earth. But for stellar or solar
observations, these angles are not equal. There is an error in this observed
vertical angle due to the fact that it is observed on the surface and not on
the center of the earth. This error is called parallax.
Parallax Correction is always added to the observed vertical angle, and can
be obtained from the astronomic almanac.

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Astronomic Refraction Correction

When a ray of light emanating from a celestial body passes through the
atmosphere of the earth, the ray is bent downward. Hence, the sun or star
appears to be higher above the observers horizon than they actually are.
The angle of deviation of the ray from its direction at the surface of the earth
is called the refraction of the ray.
Refraction Correction is always subtracted to the observed vertical angle,
and can be obtained from the astronomic almanac. Note also that refraction
correction is always greater in absolute value than parallax correction.
Hence, the combined correction of parallax and refraction should be
subtracted from the observed altitude.
Suns semi-diameter Correction

Since a measurement may be taken more accurately to the edge, or limb, of
the disc than to the center, the altitude of the center is usually obtained by
measuring the of the upper or lower edge and applying a correction equal to
the angular semi-diameter. For most computations for solar observations,
the suns semi-diameter correction is canceled out using the tangency
method, which is the normal practice in surveying.
Semi-diameter correction is positive if the lower limb of the sun is observed,
and negative when the suns upper limb is observed for solar observations.

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Sequence of Altitude Correction

Strictly speaking, the corrections to the observed altitude must be made in
the following order: (1) instrumental corrections, (2) Refraction, (3) Semidiameter, and (4) Parallax corrections.
In practice, however, it is seldom necessary to follow this exact order.
There is a fifth correction applied to the observed altitude of stars or the
sun, the dip correction, but is only applied when the observation is made at
sea with the use of the sextant.

Corrections Applied to Observed Altitude:

Example
1. An observation is made on Polaris at upper culmination and the
observed altitude is 3614. If the declination of the Polaris is 8857,
with index error = -30, semi-diameter = 0118, refraction = 03,
parallax = 02 determine the corrected altitude.
2. The sun was observed to have a zenith distance equal to 461210
when the theodolite was brought tangent to its upper limb. The
index error was at +1030, parallax at 032 and astronomic
refraction equal to 113. If the suns semi-diameter was 026,
determine the true altitude of sun.

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Corrections Applied to the NPD
The distance of the sun from the north pole is only given at specific times
(i.e. 8 am,2 pm) when solar observation is best suited for azimuth
determination. To allow surveyors to make use of solar observations on
other time slots during the day, the variations per hour is added or
subtracted (depending on the sign) to the suns given NPD value.
To determine the necessary NPD correction, the time of observation is

subtracted with given time shown at the table, which is 8 if done in the
morning and 2 during the afternoon. This difference converted to hours in
decimal form, and then multiplied with corresponding variation per hour.
The product, which is in seconds, is added algebraically to the given NPD.

Corrections Applied to the NPD: Example

Compute the corrected NPD, given the North Polar Distance from the
table to be 693636.92, hourly variations equal to 36.2, and the
time of observation is 9:34:30.

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Azimuth Determination: Example/ Assignment

Compute the azimuth of T-1 to T-2 using the notes of the solar
observation using a wild T-2 theodolite by using the tangency method.
Station Occupied: T-1;
Station Observed: T-2;
Latitude of T-1: 143340.73;
Initial Hor. Reading: 000000;
Date: May 22, 1993;
North Polar Distance: 693926.40;
Hourly Variation: 000029.64;
Parallax and Refraction: 032

Azimuth Determination: Example/ Assignment

Position of Telescope
Direct
Direct
Reverse
Reverse
Reverse
Reverse
Direct
Direct
Time
8:32:07
8:32:31
8:33:09
8:33:36
8:33:54
8:34:14
8:34:44
8:35:08
Hor. Reading Circle

3590200
3581947
1781944
1790225
1790212
1782009
3582054
3590357
Zenith angle
483348
484959
3115043
3112517
3113403
3113403
474617
481250
Determine the true azimuth of line T1-T2.

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References
Anderson, J. Mikhail, E. Surveying Theory and Practice (7th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill Science, 1998.
Davis, R., Foote, F., etal. Surveying Theory and Practice. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981.
La Putt, J.P. Higher Surveying 2nd Edition. Baguio City: Baguio
Research & Publishing Center, 1986.
Mueller, I. Spherical and Practical Astronomy to Geodesy. New
York: F. Ungar Publications, 1969.
Wolf, P. and Ghilani, C. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics Tenth Edition. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 2002.

Thank you for listening!

For more information about geodetic
astronomy (also called astronomic geodesy)
as applied in the practice of surveying in the
Philippines, please refer to the:
Official Gazette, DAO 98-12.

35

4 BW Astronomic Geodesy

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4 BW Astronomic Geodesy

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9/6/2011

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Observation/measurement on natural celestial bodies:

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The Celestial Sphere

A pair of coordinates referred

The Celestial Sphere

In this framework, the sphere

Fixed by angular measurements from two (2) planes of

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Observers Location on Earth

Reference Planes used:

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Position of celestial bodies, such as

The Horizon System

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The Horizon System

ZENITH DISTANCE (z) the angular distance between

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The Hour Angle System

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The Hour Angle System

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The Right Ascension System

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The Right Ascension System

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The Right Ascension System

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The Ecliptic System

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The Ecliptic System

ECLIPTIC LONGITUDE () - the angle measured

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Department of Geodetic Engineering

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Department of Geodetic Engineering

Summary of Celestial Coordinate Systems

Parameters Measured from

Hour Angle System

Hour Angle, (h)

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Transformation of celestial coordinates can be

The transformation can be done using spherical

Transformation using spherical trigonometry

Transformation by matrix method use matrix

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The Celestial/Astronomic Triangles

The Celestial/Astronomic Triangles

There are two celestial

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The PZS Triangle: Conversion Between the

PARALLACTIC ANGLE (p or ) - the

Review: Sine Law for Spherical Triangles

a, b, c are the sides of the

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Review: Cosine Law for the Angles of Spherical

Review: Cosine Law for the Sides of Spherical

The PZS Triangle

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The PZS Triangle: Suns Azimuth

sin () = sin() sin(H) + cos () cos (H) cos (Az)