P.B.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
IRUNGATTUKOTTAI

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING

IV YEAR QUESTION BANK

SEMESTER VII
AE6701 Avionics
ME6014 Computational Fluid Dynamics
AE6702 Experimental Stress Analysis
AE6010 Airframe Maintenance and Repair
AE6007 Fatigue And Fracture
GE6757 Total Quality Management

AE 6701 AVIONICS
1. What is avionics?
Avionics means "aviation electronics". It comprises electronic systems for use on
aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft, comprising communications,
navigation and the display and management of multiple systems.
2. Explain the advantage of using avionics in civil aircraft.
Reducing the crew workload by automating tasks.
The reduction in weight can be translated to increased passengers or long
range.
To enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft mission safely and
efficiently.
All weather operation and reduction in maintenance costs.
3. Explain the advantage of using avionics in military aircraft.
A single seat fighter or strike aircraft is lighter and Costs less than an
equivalent two seat version.
Elimination of the second crew member (navigator/observer/crew
member) results in reduction in training costs.
Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in
maintenance costs
Secure communication.
4. Give the general advantage of Avionics over the conventional aircraft
system.
Increased safety
Air traffic control requirements
All weather operation

 Reduction in fuel consumption

Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in
maintenance costs
5. Define the usage of avionics in space systems.
Fly-by-wire control systems were used for vehicle attitude and translation
control.
Sensors used around the aircraft for data acquisition.
Redundancy system and autopilot.
On board computers used in satellites for processing.
6. Explain illities of Avionics system.
Capability
Reliability
Maintainability
Certificability
Survivability(military)
Availability
Susceptibility
vulnerability
Life cycle cost(military) or cost of ownership(civil)
Technical risk
Weight & power
7. Give various systems where the avionics used in aircrafts.
Aircraft intercoms
Wide Area Augmentation System
Terrain awareness and warning system
Ground proximity warning system
Aircraft collision avoidance systems

 Display systems
Traffic Collision Avoidance System
8. Explain the steps involved in design of avionics system.
The three stages are:
i. Conceptual design - What will it do?
ii. Preliminary design - How much will it weigh?
iii. Detailed design - How many parts will it have?
9. What are digital computers?
A device that processes numerical information; more generally / any device that
manipulates symbolic information according to specified computational
procedures is called as digital computers. The term digital computeror simply,
computerembraces calculators, computer workstations, control computers
(controllers) for applications such as domestic appliances and industrial processes.
10. What is a volatile memory and give examples?
Volatile memory, also known as volatile storage, is computer memory that
requires power to maintain the stored information, unlike non-volatile memory
which does not require a maintained power supply. It has been less popularly
known as temporary memory.
Most forms of modern random access memory (RAM) are volatile storage
11. What is aliasing?
In computing, aliasing describes a situation in which a data location in memory
can be accessed through different symbolic names in the program. Thus,
modifying the data through one name implicitly modifies the values associated to
all aliased names, which may not be expected by the programmer. As a result,
aliasing makes it particularly difficult to understand, analyze and optimize
programs. Aliasing analyses intend to make and compute useful information for
understanding aliasing in programs.

12. Differentiate between volatile and non volatile memories.

Volatile memory: The data is lost on reboot, you will lost all of your data when
your electricity go out.. This is the ram memory. Random-access-memory.
Non-volatile memory: The data is saved to a hard drive or flash drive, or it could
be a hard coded chip. This is rom memory. Read-only-memory. All data that
stored in this type of memory will retain when you shutdown your computer.
13. What is microprocessor?
A complex microcircuit (integrated circuit) or set of such chips that carries out the
functions of the processor of an information technology system; that is, it contains
a control unit (and clock), an arithmetic and logic unit, and the necessary registers
and links to main store and to peripherals.
14. Explain the registers of microprocessor?
In computer architecture, a processor register (or general purpose register) is a
small amount of storage available on the CPU whose contents can be accessed
more quickly than storage available elsewhere. Typically, this specialized storage
is not considered part of the normal memory range for the machine. Processor
registers are at the top of the memory hierarchy, and provide the fastest way for a
CPU to access data.
15. What is Accumulator?
In a computer's central processing unit (CPU), an accumulator is a register in
which intermediate arithmetic and logic results are stored. Without a register like
an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation
(addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read
right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main memory is slower
than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the
large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register.

16. Explain the types of memories?

Volatile memory, also known as volatile storage, is computer memory that
requires power to maintain the stored information, unlike non-volatile memory
which does not require a maintained power supply. It has been less popularly
known as temporary memory. Most forms of modern random access memory
(RAM) are volatile storage, including dynamic random access memory (DRAM)
and static random access memory (SRAM).
Non-volatile memory, nonvolatile memory, NVM or non-volatile storage, is
computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered.
Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory, flash memory,
most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks,
and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as
paper tape and punch cards.
17. Give few avionics architecture.
First Generation Architecture ( 1940s 1950s)
i. Disjoint or Independent Architecture ( MiG-21)
ii. Centralized Architecture (F-111)
Second Generation Architecture ( 1960s 1970s)
i. Federated Architecture (F-16 A/B)
ii. Distributed Architecture (DAIS)
iii. Hierarchical Architecture (F-16 C/D, EAP)
Third Generation Architecture ( 1980s 1990s)
i. Pave Pillar Architecture ( F-22)
Fourth Generation Architecture (Post 2005)
i. Pave Pace Architecture- JSF
ii. Open System Architecture

18. Explain Federated architecture.

In FEDERATED ARCHITECTURE Data conversion occurs at the system level
and the datas are send as digital form called Digital Avionics Information
Systems(DAIS). Several standard data processors are often used to perform a
variety of Low Bandwidth functions such as navigation, weapon delivery ,
stores management and flight control Systems are connected in a Time Shared
Multiplex Highway. Resource sharing occurs at the last link in the information
chain via controls and displays.
19. Explain centralized architecture.
As the digital technology evolved, a central computer was added to integrate the
information from the sensors and subsystems. The central computing complex is
connected to other subsystems and sensors through analog, digital, synchro and
other interfaces. When interfacing with computer a variety of different
transmission methods, some of which required signal conversion (A/D) when
interfacing with computer. Signal conditioning and computation take place in one
or more computers in a LRU located in an avionics bay ,with signals transmitted
over one way data bus. Data are transmitted from the systems to the central
computer and the DATA CONVERSION TAKES PLACE AT THE CENTRAL
COMPUTER.
20. How is federated architecture different from centralized architecture?
In FEDERATED ARCHITECTURE Data conversion occurs at the system level
and the data are send as digital form called Digital Avionics Information
Systems (DAIS). It is fully digital.
In centralized architecture Data conversion takes place at the central computer.
Analog wires are used.
21. Explain MIL-STD 1553B components?
BUS CONTROLLER

 BUS MONITOR
REMOTE TERMINAL
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
22. Explain the status word of MIL-STD 1553B.
Status words are transmitted by the RT in response to command messages from
the BC and consist of:
3 bit-time sync pattern (same as for a command word)
5 bit address of the responding RT
11 bit status field
1 parity check bit.
The 11 bits in the status field are used to notify the BC of the operating condition
of the RT and subsystem.
23. Explain the bus controller and Remote terminal of MIL-STD 1553B.
There is only one Bus Controller at a time on any MIL-STD-1553 bus. It initiates
all message communication over the bus.
A Remote Terminal can be used to provide:
An interface between the MIL-STD-1553B data bus and an attached
subsystem
A bridge between a MIL-STD-1553B bus and another MIL-STD-1553B
bus.
24. Explain ARINC 429 standard.
ARINC 429 is the technical standard for the predominant avionics data bus used
on most higher-end commercial and transport aircraft. It defines the physical and
electrical interfaces of a two-wire data bus and a data protocol to support an
aircraft's avionics local area network.
25. Explain ARINC 629 standard.
ARINC 629 is a multi-transmitter protocol where many units share the same bus.

It was a further development of ARINC 429 especially designed for the Boeing
777.
26. What is an auto pilot?
An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a
vehicle without assistance from a human being. Most people understand an
autopilot to refer specifically to aircraft, but self-steering gear for ships, boats,
space craft and missiles are sometimes also called by this term.
27. What is brick walling or partitioning in avionics architecture?
The purpose of partitioning is fault containment: a failure in one partition must
not propagate to cause failure in another partition. The function in a partition
depends on the correct operation of its processor and associated peripherals, and
partitioning is not intended to protect against their failurethis can be achieved
only by replicating functions across multiple processors in a fault-tolerant
manner.
28. Define Glass cockpit.
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic instrument displays.
Where a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display
information, a glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight management
systems, that can be adjusted to display flight information as needed. This
simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the
most pertinent information. They are also popular with airline companies as they
usually eliminate the need for a flight engineer. In recent years the technology has
become widely available in small aircraft.
29. Define plasma panel.
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV
displays (32" inches or larger). Many tiny cells between two panels of glass hold a
mixture of noble gases. The gas in the cells is electrically turned into a plasma

which then excites phosphors to emit light.

30. Differentiate LED & LCD.
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in
the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the
light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs present many
advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However,
they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources.
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically
displaying information such as text, images, and moving pictures Among its
major features are its lightweight construction, its portability, and its ability to be
produced in much larger screen sizes than are practical for the construction of
cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled
with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to
produce images in color or monochrome.
31. Explain CRT and its usage in aircraft displays.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a
source of electrons) and a fluorescent screen, with internal or external means to
accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to create images in the form of light
emitted from the fluorescent screen.
32. What is meant by DVI?
The Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video interface standard designed to
provide very high visual quality on digital display devices such as flat panel LCD

computer displays and digital projectors. It was developed by an industry

consortium, the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG). It is designed for
carrying uncompressed digital video data to a display.
33. What are MFD and its significance in Aircraft?
A Multi-function display (MFD) is a small screen (CRT or LCD) in an aircraft
surrounded by multiple buttons that can be used to display information to the pilot
in numerous configurable ways. Often an MFD will be used in concert with a
Primary Flight Display. MFDs are part of the digital era of modern planes or
helicopter. The first MFD were introduced by airforces. The advantage of an
MFD over analog display is that an MFD does not consume much space in the
cockpit.
Many MFDs allow the pilot to display their navigation route, moving map,
weather radar, NEXRAD, GPWS, TCAS and airport information all on the same
screen.
34. What is HOTAS?
HOTAS, an abbreviation for Hands On Throttle-And-Stick, is the name given to
the concept of placing buttons and switches on the throttle stick and flight control
stick in an aircraft's cockpit, allowing the pilot to access vital cockpit functions
and fly the aircraft without having to remove his hands from the throttle and flight
controls. Having all switches on the stick and throttle allows the pilot to keep his
"hands on throttle-and-stick", thus allowing him to remain focused on more
important duties than looking for controls in the cockpit.
35. Explain HUD?
A head-up display, or abbreviated as HUD, is any transparent display that
presents data without requiring the user to look away from his or her usual
viewpoint. The origin of the name stems from the user being able to view
information with his head "up" and looking forward, instead of angled down

looking at lower instruments. Although they were initially developed for military
aviation, HUDs are now used in commercial aircraft, automobiles, and other
applications.
36. Explain Navigation.
Navigation is the process of reading, and controlling the movement of a craft or
vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized
knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. The word navigate is
derived from the Latin "navigare", meaning "to sail".All navigational techniques
involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns.
37. Explain the types of Navigation.
Dead reckoning
Navigation by Piloting
Celestial navigation
Electronic navigation
38. Explain Dead reckoning type of navigation.
Dead reckoning (DR) is the process of estimating one's current position based
upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based
upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time, and course. While traditional
methods of dead reckoning are no longer considered primary means of navigation,
modern inertial navigation systems, which also depend upon dead reckoning, are
very widely used.
39. What is INS?
An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer,
motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to
continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity
(direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for
external references. It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines,

guided missiles, and spacecraft.

40. What are different types of INS?
It is of two different configurations based on the inertial sensor placement. They
are
a. Stable or Gimballed platform.
b. Strap down platform
41. What is GPS?
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. space-based global navigation
satellite system. It provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to
worldwide users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on
or near the Earth. GPS is made up of three parts: between 24 and 32 satellites
orbiting the Earth, four control and monitoring stations on Earth, and the GPS
receivers owned by users. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space that are
used by GPS receivers to provide three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude,
and altitude) plus the time.
42. Explain about P and C/A codes.
Binary data that is modulated or "superimposed" on the carrier signal is referred
to as Code. Two main forms of code are used with NAVSTAR GPS: C/A or
Coarse/Acquisition Code (also known as the civilian code), is modulated and
repeated on the L1 wave every millisecond; the P-Code, or Precise Code, is
modulated on both the L1 and L2 waves and is repeated every seven days. The
(Y) code is a special form of P code used to protect against false transmissions;
special hardware, available only to the U.S.government, must be used to decrypt
the P(Y) code.
43. What is Flight control system?
An aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective
cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to

control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered
as flight controls as they change speed.
44. What is Actuator?
An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or
system. An actuator typically is a mechanical device that takes energy, usually
created by air, electricity, or liquid, and converts that into some kind of motion.
45. Explain different types of actuator.
plasma actuators
pneumatic actuators
electric actuators
hydraulic cylinders,
linear actuators
46. What is FBW?
A fly-by-wire system actually replaces manual control of the aircraft with an
electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic
signals, and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each
control surface to provide the expected response. The actuators are usually
hydraulic, but electric actuators have also been used.
47. Explain the advantage of FBW over conventional FCS.
Care free maneuvering characteristics
Continuous automatic stabilization of the aircraft by computer control of
the control surfaces
Auto pilot integration
Good consistent handling which is sensibly constant over a wide flight
envelope and range of load conditions
Enables a lighter, higher performance aircraft designed with relaxed
stability

48. What is strap down Navigation?

Strapdown systems have all their sensors mounted on a platform that changes
orientation like the plane. Instead of mechanical gyros to hold it level, it has three
more accurate gyros that sense the orientation of the system. Additionally, it has
the same three acceleration sensors.
Whereas the gimballed system just senses the orientation of the platform to get
the aircraft's attitude, the strapdown systems have three gyroscopes that sense the
rate of roll, pitch, and yaw. It integrates them to get the orientation, then
calculates the acceleration in each of the same axes as the gimballed system. Due
to the sensing of the rate of rotation, rather than just holding a platform level, very
accurate and sensitive gyroscopes are needed.
49. What is FMS?
A Flight Management System is a fundamental part of a modern aircraft in that it
controls the navigation. The flight management system (FMS) is the avionics that
holds the flight plan, and allows the pilot to modify as required in flight. The FMS
uses various sensors to determine the aircraft's position. Given the position and
the flight plan, the FMS guides the aircraft along the flight plan. The FMS is
normally controlled through a small screen and a keyboard.
50. What is meant by jammers in electronic warfare?
Electronic jamming is a form of Electronic Warfare where jammers radiate
interfering signals toward an enemy's radar, blocking the receiver with highly
concentrated energy signals. The two main technique styles are noise techniques
and repeater techniques.
51. Give the difference between ECCM and ECM.
Electronic countermeasures (ECM) are a subsection of electronic warfare which
includes any sort of electrical or electronic device designed to trick or deceive
radar, sonar, or other detection systems like IR (infrared) and Laser. It may be

used both offensively or defensively in any method to deny targeting information

to an enemy. The system may make many separate targets appear to the enemy, or
make the real target appear to disappear or move about randomly. It is used
effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles. Most air forces use ECM to
protect their aircraft from attack.
Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) is a part of electronic warfare which
includes a variety of practices which attempt to reduce or eliminate the effect of
electronic countermeasures (ECM) on electronic sensors aboard vehicles, ships
and aircraft and weapons such as missiles. ECCM is also known as electronic
protective measures (EPM), chiefly in Europe. In practice, EPM often means
resistance to jamming.
52. Explain RADAR.
Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify
the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as
aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The term RADAR
was coined in 1941 as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. A radar
system has a transmitter that emits microwaves or radio waves. These waves are
in phase when emitted, and when they come into contact with an object are
scattered in all directions. The signal is thus partly reflected back and it has a
slight change of wavelength (and thus frequency) if the target is moving.
Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal can be amplified
through use of electronic techniques in the receiver and in the antenna
configuration. This enables radar to detect objects at ranges where other
emissions, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect.
53. Explain Certification.
Certification refers to the confirmation of certain characteristics of an object,
person, or organization. This confirmation is often, but not always, provided by

some form of external review, education, or assessment.

54. Explain V & V
Verification and validation is the process of checking that a product, service, or
system meets specifications and that it fulfills its intended purpose. These are
critical components of a quality management system such as ISO 9000.
Sometimes preceded with "Independent" (or IV&V) to ensure the validation is
performed by a disinterested third party.
55. Explain Reliability.
The idea that something is fit for purpose with respect to time;
The capacity of a device or system to perform as designed;
The resistance to failure of a device or system;
The ability of a device or system to perform a required function under
stated conditions for a specified period of time;
The probability that a functional unit will perform its required function for
a specified interval under stated conditions.
The ability of something to "fail well" (fail without catastrophic
consequences)
56. Explain maintainability.
The probability that a failed system can be made operable in a specified interval
or downtime is called as maintainability.
57. Explain Electronic warfare.
Electronic warfare (EW) refers to any action involving the use of the
electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum or to attack
the enemy. The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the
advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can
be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, and
can target communication, radar, or other services. EW includes three major

subdivisions: Electronic Attack (EA), Electronic Protection (EP), and Electronic

warfare Support (ES).
58. Explain the specific advantages of INS.
It is the self contained, autonomous and unjammable.
It is faster than the data given by the GPS.
INS is very accurate over the short distance.
59. Explain Gimbaled INS.
Gimbaled systems have a platform in the device that is mounted in gimbals. This
device has 2 or more mechanical gyroscopes (not likely there are more than 3)
that keep this platform level. On the platform, in addition to the gyroscopes, are
usually three accelerometers, one in each direction. This was the earlier type of
INS. It does not need accurate gyroscope orientation sensing, they only need
mechanical gyroscopes to keep a platform level -- a much less demanding task for
the gyroscopes. Additionally, since the accelerometers are already oriented
(usually north/south, east/west, and up/down) the actual integration to obtain
velocity and then position can be done by simpler, analog electronics.
60. Give few examples of integrated avionics system used in weapon system.
Hemet Mounted Display (HMT)
Head Level Display (HLD)
Night Vision Goggles (NGV)
Forward Looking Infra Red Displays (FLIR)
61. Give few examples of Standards used in design of avionics system.
Military standards - MIL-STD-1629A (Hardware FMEA), MILSTD882 (systems safety program requirements)
ARINC 429, 629 (Civilian a/c data bus) and MIL-STD-1553A, 1773
(Military a/c data buses)
Civil Standards - FAR 25 : 1309 A (equipments, systems and

installation), FAR 25 : 581 (lightning protection systems), FAR 25 : 571

(control systems), FAR 25: 572 (stability augmentation systems)
62. Give few examples of integrated avionics system used in civil airlines.
INS & GPS (Navigation)
MFKs and MFDU (Display I/O)
HUD
Glass Cockpit
63. Explain the steps of certification.
Assessment
Validation
Verification
Other major steps like
Functional Hazard Assessment (FHA)
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)
64. Explain the document support for Certification.
In Military aircrafts, the documents support for certification
i. MIL-STD-1629A (Hardware)
ii. DOD-STD-2167 (Software)
In Civil aircrafts, the document support for certification
o FAR 25 : 1309A (systems)
o RTCA-DO-178A (Software)
Within the overall task of hardware assessment and validation,
certification is perhaps the most difficult part for civil/military avionics
designers. Certification is the challenging process of negotiation and
compromise between the designers and the regulatory authorities
buttressed by technical analysis and expertise on both sides.

65. Explain the advantage of GPS over conventional navigation.

Global coverage and assessment
More precise
High integrity and portable simple system
Augments the accuracy of the self contained systems
66. Explain FBW over FBL.
FBW: (FLY BY WIRE) Its a concept of utilizing digital data bus for the
transmission of mechanical movements from pilots joystick to the
Mechanical actuators near by the control surface in the form of electronic
signals using suitable transducers. It eliminates majority of the weight in
handling control rods, push pull systems. Because of this weight
elimination the redundancy level of FBW can be raised.
FBL: (FLY BY LIGHT) Its a concept of utilizing optic fiber cables for
the transmission of mechanical movements from pilots joystick to the
mechanical actuators near by the control surface in the form of
monochromatic light signals using suitable transducers. It eliminates the
amplification units, filter circuits, modulator units etc., which are at high
redundant levels in the FBW. FBL is more reliable and the signals passing
through the fiber optic cable never degrade and hence it contributes further
low weight in the aircraft.
67. What is FBL?
FBL: (FLY BY LIGHT) Its a concept of utilizing optic fiber cables for
the transmission of mechanical movements from pilots joystick to the
mechanical actuators near by the control surface in the form of
monochromatic light signals using suitable transducers. It eliminates the
amplification units, filter circuits, modulator units etc., which are at high
redundant levels in the FBW. FBL is more reliable and the signals passing

through the fiber optic cable never degrade and hence it contributes further
low weight in the aircraft.
68. Compare INS and GPS.
INS
Self contained system
Accuracy degrades with time

GPS
Not a self contained system
Accuracy level is high

always
Being a self contained system,
weight is more

Weight is less comparatively

No signal transmission/reception

Signal is transmitted/received

69. What is usage of night vision goggles?

Night time flight is possible (As pilot can see the terrain like a near
morning)
Close Ground Support during night time attack is enabled in rotor and
fighter planes
Night time reconnaissance and surveillance is possible on NVG enabled
cameras
70. Explain advantage of EL over Plasma display.
Less flickering
Sustainable luminosity even during aging
Light weight than plasma displays
Simple light weight component
Available in smaller size (unlike plasma displays, which are available only
at 32)
71. Explain the need of communication system in airline.
Renders a clear picture of aircrafts health during the complete mission
Ensures safety landing and take-off guidance

 Provides suitable environment awareness to the crew members of flight to

direct the flying machine
Acts as primary interfacing unit between pilot and the ATC or ground
station.
72. Explain the advantage of HMD over MUD?
In HMD the gimbaled sensors enables the pilot to watch critical data in the
helmet in the directions through which he/she moves/looks, thus
facilitating him/her to watch the primary data always.
HMD display formats are very similar to those of HUDs except for the
addition of helmet-pointing azimuth and elevation information and vectors
showing where the last target of interest was prior to looking down into
the cockpit or searching for another target.
73. Explain MFK and its usage.
As the cockpits of modern aircraft have more controls jammed into them,
the point reached where there is no more space. Multifunction keyboards
(MFKs) offer a very attractive solution to this space problem wherein a
single panel of switches performs a variety of functions depending on the
phase of the mission or the keyboard menu selected.
Multifunction keyboards can be implemented in several ways. The first
two ways use LEDs or LCDs in panels in a central location. Designs using
LEDs have arrays (typically ranging from five rows of three switches to
seven rows of five switches) of standard sized push button switches with
legends built into the surface of the switches.
74. Differentiate between Civil and military communication standards.
Civil Communication Standards

Speed level in data bus is generally slow. Frequency band is in common range of
communication devices. Redundancy and integrity level is moderate. Maintenance
is spoken in terms of Cost Of Ownership (COO)
Ex: ARINC 429, FAR-25-1309A
Military Communication Standards
Speed level in the data bus is high.Frequency band is in isolated or restricted range
of communication devices. It varies between nation to nation. Redundancy and
integrity level is high. Maintenance is spoken in terms of Life Cycle Cost (LCC)
Ex: MIL-STD-1553A, MIL-STD-16629A
75. Differentiate between ARINC 629 and MIL-STD-1553A
ARINC 629
Simplex data. Supports a Multi-transmitter and Bi-directional approach to digital
Data communications bus. Employs a protocol referred to as DATAC (Digital
Autonomous Terminal Access Control).
MIL-STD-1553A
Duplex data bus. It provides a medium for the exchange of data and

information

between various Avionics subsystems. Integration of Avionics subsystems in

military or civil aircraft. Low level protocols define the electrical and physical
standards. High level protocols deal with the data formatting, including the syntax
of messages and its format.
76. Explain the major components of microprocessor.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit
Timing and Control Unit
Register sets
77. What is fetching?
Fetching means getting/bringing/taking/carrying/obtaining the
value/address from the specific memory location/register pair.

 Assembly language code MOV B,A says that fetch the 8 bit data from
accumulator to B register.
78. Give the need for standard documents in the design of avionics system.
In most of the aircrafts, the most important avionics function is flight
controls, frequently in flight critical manner, that is, if the avionics fail, the
aircraft is lost. Because of the critical role for the avionics, it is essential to
take early surveys to formulate standards.
Those standards must ensure the aircraft safety even during the critical
failure of its avionics components.
Those accepted standards have to be documented so that in future avionics
design for various aircraft it would be considered as reference to build it.
Ex. MIL-STD-9490, 1629, 810 etc.,
79. Give the advantages of digitization.
Digitizing or digitization means converting the analogue data in to discrete
or digital data source.
Converting the details about a picture/sound/scene in to a discrete form is
called as digitizing.
80. What are major drivers for avionics in civil transport aircraft?
Major drivers for avionics in civil transport aircraft are:
i. Capability
ii. Reliability
iii. Maintainability
iv. Certificability
v. Cost of Ownership
vi. Technical risk
vii. Power and Weight
81. Explain the usage of microprocessors in Avionics system.

 In ground station, the complete avionics on ATC (AIR TRAFFIC

CONTROL) is running on the backbone of microprocessor for various
data computation. (weather data computation)
Sensors on the airborne equipments are interrupted and computed to the
understandable values and displayed on the panels only through the use of
microprocessor. (Temperature monitoring system)
And most of the avionics system in fighter planes utilizes microprocessor
for data computation and presentation. (HMT, HUD)
82. How are reliability and maintainability related to each other?
When a system is said to be more reliable and maintainable then it is
readily available.
A more reliable system requires less maintenance and a less reliable
system requires more maintenance. Hence a suitable trade-off has to be
made between these two things to save money.
Both increase in reliability and maintainability requires more money in
turn.
83. Explain the advantage of GPS over conventional navigation.
GPS (Global Positioning System)
also called NAVSTAR (NAVigation System, Timing And Ranging)
The GPS consists of 3 main segments:
Space Segment: the constellation of satellites
Control Segment: operation and monitoring of the GPS System
User Segment: all GPS receivers and processing software's
GPS Orbit characteristics:
Semi-Major Axis (Radius):
26,600 km
Orbital Period :
11 h 58 min
Orbit Inclination:
55 degrees
Number of Orbit Planes:
6 (60 degree spacing)
Number of Satellites:
24 (4 spares)
Approximate Mass:
815 kg, 7.5 year lifespan
Data Rate (message):
50 bit/sec

 PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) Codes:

Codes
Transmit, Frequencies L-Band

Satellite-dependent
L1: 1575.42 MHtz
L2: 1227.60 MHtz

84. Explain the specific advantages of INS.

INSs have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some
include a gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular reference). An
inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion
sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously
calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and
speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. It
is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and
spacecraft. Other terms used to refer to inertial navigation systems or closely
related devices include inertial guidance system, inertial reference platform,
inertial instrument, and many other variations.
85. Explain MFDS
Need : Cockpit have less space
MFK has single panel of switches performing a variety of functions
depending on the phase of the mission
MFK depends on the display technology, so their design uses the same
principles and, in some cases, it may be possible for a display to double as a
tactical input device
86. Explain HOTAS.
HOTAS, an acronym of Hands On Throttle-And-Stick, is the name given to the
concept of placing buttons and switches on the throttle lever and flight control stick
in an aircraft's cockpit, allowing pilots to access vital cockpit functions and fly the
aircraft without having to remove their hands from the throttle and flight controls.
Application of the concept was pioneered with the Ferranti AIRPASS radar and

gun sight control system used by the English Electric Lightning and is widely used
on all modern fighter aircraft such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the A-10A/A-10C
and others. HOTAS is a shorthand term which refers to the pattern of controls in
the modern fighter aircraft cockpit. Having all critical switches on the stick and
throttle allows the pilot to keep both "hands on throttle-and-stick", thus allowing
focus to remain on more important duties than looking for controls in the cockpit.
87. Explain RADIO Navigation.
Radio navigation or radio navigation is the application of radio frequencies to
determine a position of an object on the Earth. Like radiolocation, it is a type of
radio determination. The basic principles are measurements from/to electric
beacons, especially.

88. Explain ADF and DME.

ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is the radio signals in the low to medium
frequency band of 190 Khz. to 1750 Khz. It was widely used today. It has
the major advantage over VOR navigation in the reception is not limited to
line of sight distance. The ADF signals follow the curvature of the earth.
Direction finding (DF), or radio direction finding (RDF), is the measurement
of the direction from which a received signal was transmitted.

 Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio

navigation technology that measures slant range distance by timing the
propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals.
DME frequencies are paired to VHF omni directional range (VOR)
frequencies and a DME interrogator is designed to automatically tune to the
corresponding DME frequency when the associated VOR frequency is
selected. An airplanes DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to
1150 MHz. DME transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to
1213 MHz range and receive on a corresponding channel between 1025 to
1150 MHz. The band is divided into 126 channels for interrogation and 126
channels for reply. The interrogation and reply frequencies always differ by
63 MHz. The spacing of all channels is 1 MHz with a signal spectrum width
of 100 kHz.
89. Explain VOR and LORAN.
VOR/DME refers to combined radio navigation station for aircraft, which
consists of two radio beacons, placed together, a VHF omnidirectional range
(VOR) and distance measuring equipment (DME). VOR produces an angle
between the station and the receiver in the aircraft, while DME does the
same for range.
VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio
navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to
determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals
transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies
in the very high frequency (VHF) band from 108 to 117.95 MHz.
LORAN, short for long range navigation,[a] was a hyperbolic radio
navigation system developed in the United States during World War II. It
was similar to the UK's Gee system but operated at lower frequencies in

order to provide improved range up to 1,500 miles (2,400 km) with accuracy
of tens of miles. It was first used for ship convoys crossing the Atlantic
Ocean, and then by long-range patrol aircraft, but found its main use on the
ships and aircraft operating in the Pacific theatre.
LORAN, in its original form, was an expensive system to implement,
requiring a cathode ray tube (CRT) display. This limited use to the military
and large commercial users. Use was never widespread, and by the time new
receivers were available in the 1950s, the same improved electronics led to
new systems with higher accuracy.
90. Explain DECCA and OMEGA.
The Decca Navigator System was a hyperbolic radio navigation system
which allowed ships and aircraft to determine their position by receiving
radio signals from fixed navigational beacons. The system used low
frequencies from 70 to 129 kHz. It was first deployed by the Royal Navy
during World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be
used to achieve accurate landings. After the war it was extensively
developed around the UK and later used in many areas around the world.
Decca's primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters, offering much
better accuracy than the competing LORAN system.
Omega was approved for development in 1968 with eight transmitters and
the ability to achieve a four-mile (6 km) accuracy when fixing a position.
Each Omega station transmitted a sequence of three very low frequency
(VLF) signals (10.2 kHz, 13.6 kHz, 11.333... kHz in that order) plus a fourth
frequency which was unique to each of the eight stations. The duration of
each pulse (ranging from 0.9 to 1.2 seconds, with 0.2 second blank intervals
between each pulse) differed in a fixed pattern, and repeated every ten

seconds; the 10-second pattern was common to all 8 stations and

synchronized with the carrier phase angle, which itself was synchronized
with the local master atomic clock. The pulses within each 10-second group
were identified by the first 8 letters of the alphabet within Omega
publications of the time.
There were nine Omega stations in total.
1. Bratland Omega Transmitter
2.Trinidad Omega Transmitter
3. Paynesville Omega Transmitter
4. Kaneohe Omega Transmitter
5. La Moure Omega Transmitter
6. Chabrier Omega Transmitter
7. Trelew Omega Transmitter
8. Woodside Omega Transmitter
9. Omega Tower, Tsushima
91. Explain inertial sensors.
An inertial reference unit (IRU) is a type of inertial sensor which uses
gyroscopes (electromechanical, ring laser gyro or MEMS) and
accelerometers (electromechanical or MEMS) to determine a moving
aircrafts or spacecrafts change in rotational attitude (angular orientation
relative to some reference frame) and translational position (typically
latitude, longitude and altitude) over a period of time. Another name often
used interchangeably with IRU is Inertial Measurement Unit.

 Inertial navigation is a self-contained navigation technique in which

measurements provided by accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to track
the position and orientation of an object relative to a known starting point,
orientation and velocity. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) typically contain
three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three orthogonal accelerometers,
measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By
processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and
orientation of a device.
Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the
navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines
and ships. Recent advances in the construction of microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) have made it possible to manufacture small and light
inertial navigation systems. These advances have widened the range of
possible applications to include areas such as human and animal motion
capture.
92. Explain satellite navigation system.
A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system of satellites that provide
autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small
electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and
altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few metres) using time signals
transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The signals also
allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high
precision, which allows time synchronisation. A satellite navigation system
with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system
(GNSS). The system can be used for navigation or for tracking the position of
something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking).

93. Explain about warning systems.

Collision-avoidance systems
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the
location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair
collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as
TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of
other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution.
To help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such
as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as
a key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of "lookahead" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain "lookdown". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain
awareness warning system (TAWS).
94. Explain basic principles of auto pilot.
Automatic pilots, or autopilots, are devices for controlling spacecraft,
aircraft, watercraft, missiles and vehicles without constant human
intervention. Most people associate autopilots with aircraft, so that's what
we'll emphasize in this article. The same principles, however, apply to
autopilots that control any kind of vessel.
In the world of aircraft, the autopilot is more accurately described as the
automatic flight control system (AFCS). An AFCS is part of an aircraft's
avionics -- the electronic systems, equipment and devices used to control
key systems of the plane and its flight. In addition to flight control systems,
avionics include electronics for communications, navigation, collision
avoidance and weather. The original use of an AFCS was to provide pilot

relief during tedious stages of flight, such as high-altitude cruising.

Advanced autopilots can do much more, carrying out even highly precise
maneuvers, such as landing an aircraft in conditions of zero visibility.
Although there is great diversity in autopilot systems, most can be classified
according to the number of parts, or surfaces, they control. To understand
this discussion, it helps to be familiar with the three basic control surfaces
that affect an airplane's attitude. The first are the elevators, which are
devices on the tail of a plane that control pitch (the swaying of an aircraft
around a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction of motion). The
rudder is also located on the tail of a plane. When the rudder is tilted to
starboard (right), the aircraft yaws -- twists on a vertical axis -- in that
direction. When the rudder is tilted to port (left), the craft yaws in the
opposite direction. Finally, ailerons on the rear edge of each wing roll the
plane from side to side.
Autopilots can control any or all of these surfaces. A single-axis autopilot
manages just one set of controls, usually the ailerons. This simple type of
autopilot is known as a "wing leveler" because, by controlling roll, it keeps
the aircraft wings on an even keel. A two-axis autopilot manages elevators
and ailerons. Finally, a three-axis autopilot manages all three basic control
systems: ailerons, elevators and rudder.
PART B
INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS
1. i) Explain the need of avionics in Civil and military aircrafts.
ii) Explain few Integrated Avionics system and weapon system.
2. i) What are the major design drivers for avionics system?

ii) Describe the various illities in Avionics systems.

3. With a neat block diagram explain the integration of different avionics system.
4. i) Explain clearly the top down design procedure that is adopted in Avionics
system design.
ii) List the factor on which Avionics design is evaluated and explain each factor in
brief.
5. Explain the various layers of Avionics systems used in a typical airplane with a
neat sketch.
6. Explain the design and technologies involved in avionics system and the
standards used for it.
7. With a neat sketch explain 8085 microprocessor architecture in detail.
8. i) Draw the functional representation of ROM memory cell and explain the
concept underlying the ROM.
ii) Describe with a block schematic how a digital computer can be used to measure
Analog signal.
9. Explain HMD, HUD and HDD in detail.
10. Describe a FBW flight control system and its characteristics and redundancy
concept in detail.
11. Explain the operation of inertial navigation system and explain its two types of
construction.
12. What is FBW explain its salient features with the block diagram in comparison
with the conventional flight control system.
13. What is FBL and explain its salient features with block diagram in comparison
with FBW.
14. a) what is the need for a communication system in aircraft?
b) Explain one of the most modern reliable communication systems used in aircraft
with a block schematic.

15. What is GPS and explain the working of it with codes of communication used
for locating the object.

DIGITAL AVIONICS ARCHITECTURE

1. Explain the interference of seven segments LED with the microprocessor to

display a binary data.
2. Compare the memory mapped I/O and peripheral mapped I/O in
Microprocessor.
3. Discuss the various avionics architecture in detail.
4. Explain the ARINC 420 data bus in detail.
5. Explain the ARINC 629 data bus in detail.
6. Explain MIL STD 1553 B data bus in detail bring out clearly the bus
architecture, protocol, word ad message formats and coupling methods.
7. i) List the evolution of avionics architecture starting from first generation to
fourth generation.
ii) Describe in detail about one of the third generation Avionics Architecture with
block schematics.

FLIGHT DECKS AND COCPITS

1. a) Compare and contrast the display technologies CRT,LED,LCD,EL and

plasma Panel. Explain the basic principle of touch screen and what are its
limitations?

b) What are the various types of CRTs used in civil and military aircraft and
explain them in detail. Explain the basic principle of MFK and HOTAS in detail &
what are its limitations?
2. a) Explain the basic principle of HUD and what are its limitations?
How are they overcome in HMD?
b) what are special features of DVI?
3. a) Describe the layout of a cockpit.
b) Describe voice recognition & speech synthesis technology.
4. Explain in detail the factors considered in a flight deck design of a commercial
aircraft.
5. Explain the human factors involved in design of a flight deck in detail.
6. Explain the principle of operation of a Head Up Display system in detail with
neat diagrams.
7. What is MAP display? Explain its principle of operation.
8. Write short notes on the following : a) LED b) LCD c) CRT d) Plasma panel.
9. Write short notes on the following : a) Night vision goggles b) Head Mounted
display c) Synthetic vision sensor d) Touch Screen.
10. Explain in detail how speech recognition and synthesis is used in Direct Voice
Input avionic systems.
11. Explain with necessary diagrams the following :
a) Reflective optical systems of HUD system
b) Refractive optical systems of HUD system
12. Explain in detail the applications of HUD system taking in to consideration of
the following :
a) Display control panel
b) Display modes

c) Symbology sets
d) Annunciations.

INTRODUCTION TO NAVIGATION SYSTEM

1. What is navigation system and explain the various types of navigation with
examples.
2. Explain in detail about Radar Electronic war fare and its salient features and its
usage.
3. Explain Certification and explain the various steps involved in certification of
Avionics system.
4. Explain radio navigation in detail.
5. Explain in detail about INS.
6. Explain in detail about satellite navigation system.
7. Explain in detail about ADF, DME, VOR, LORAN, DECCA, OMEGA, ILS,
MLS.
8. What is Dead reckoning navigation system and explain any one type in detail.
9. Explain satellite navigation system in detail. Explain inertial sensors.
10. What is parabolic navigation? Explain in detail.
11. What is OMEGA navigation? Explain in detail.
12. What is weather Radar? Explain in detail.
13. What is moving target indicator? Explain in detail.

AIR DATA SYSTEMS AND AUTO PILOT

1. Explain Conventional Flight control system and advantage of FBW to overcome

the disadvantage of Conventional FCS.
2. Basic principles of longitudinal and lateral auto pilot.
3. Explain air data quantities in detail.
4. Explain about air data systems and Explain about warning systems.
5. Explain basic principles of longitudinal and lateral auto pilot.
6. Explain in detail about Auto pilot system.

ME6014 - COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

UNIT I
GOVERNING EQUATION AND BOUNDARY EQUATIONS
1. What is CFD. Give its importance.
Computational fluid dynamics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid
mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that
involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the
interaction of liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With highspeed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved. Ongoing research yields software
that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or
turbulent flows. Initial experimental validation of such software is performed using a wind
tunnel with the final validation coming in full-scale testing, e.g. flight tests.

2. Brief about some equations which forms the basis of CFD.

The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems are the NavierStokes equations,
which define any single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flow. These equations can be
simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations. Further
simplification, by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations.
Finally, for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows (not transonic orhypersonic)
these equations can be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations.

3. Give a brief history of CFD.

Historically, methods were first developed to solve the Linearized potential equations.
Two-dimensional (2D) methods, using conformal transformations of the flow about a
cylinder to the flow about an airfoil were developed in the 1930s. The computer power
available paced development of three-dimensional methods. The first work using computers
to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, was performed at Los
Alamos National Labs, in the T3 group. This group was led by Francis H. Harlow, who is
widely considered as one of the pioneers of CFD. From 1957 to late 1960s, this group
developed a variety of numerical methods to simulate transient two-dimensional fluid flows,
such as Particle-in-cell method (Harlow, 1957), Fluid-in-cell method (Gentry, Martin and
Daly, 1966), Vorticity stream function method (Jake Fromm, 1963), and Marker-and-cell
method(Harlow and Welch, 1965). Fromm's vorticity-stream-function method for 2D,
transient, incompressible flow was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible
flows in the world.
4. Do a brief literature survey o CFD and the origin of different codes and methods?

The first paper with three-dimensional model was published by John Hess and
A.M.O. Smith of Douglas Aircraft in 1967. This method discretized the surface of the
geometry with panels, giving rise to this class of programs being called Panel Methods. Their
method itself was simplified, in that it did not include lifting flows and hence was mainly
applied to ship hulls and aircraft fuselages. The first lifting Panel Code (A230) was described
in a paper written by Paul Rubbert and Gary Saaris of Boeing Aircraft in 1968. In time, more
advanced three-dimensional Panel Codes were developed at Boeing(PANAIR, A502),
Lockheed (Quadpan), Douglas (HESS),McDonnellAircraft (MACAERO), NASA (P MARC)
and Analytical Methods (WBAERO, USAERO and VSAERO). Some (PANAIR, HESS and
MACAERO) were higher order codes, using higher order distributions of surface
singularities, while others (Quadpan, PMARC, USAERO and VSAERO) used single
singularities on each surface panel. The advantage of the lower order codes was that they ran
much faster on the computers of the time. Today, VSAERO has grown to be a multi-order
code and is the most widely used program of this class. It has been used in the development
of many submarines, surface ships, automobiles, helicopters, aircraft, and more recently wind
turbines. Its sister code, USAERO is an unsteady panel method that has also been used for
modeling such things as high speed trains and racing yachts. The NASA PMARC code from
an early version of VSAERO and a derivative of PMARC, named CMARC, is also
commercially available.
5. Explain about XFOIL and PROFILE codes in brief.
In the two-dimensional realm, a number of Panel Codes have been developed for
airfoil analysis and design. The codes typically have a boundary layer analysis included, so
that viscous effects can be modeled. Professor Richard Eppler of the University of Stuttgart
developed the PROFILE code, partly with NASA funding, which became available
inthe
early1980s. This
was
soon
followedby MIT Professor
Mark
[21]
Drela's XFOIL code.
Both PROFILE and XFOIL incorporate two-dimensional panel
codes, with coupled boundary layer codes for airfoil analysis work. PROFILE uses
a conformal transformation method for inverse airfoil design, while XFOIL has both a
conformal transformation and an inverse panel method for airfoil design.
An intermediate step between Panel Codes and Full Potential codes were codes that used the
Transonic Small Disturbance equations. In particular, the three-dimensional WIBCO code,
developed by Charlie Boppe of Grumman Aircraft in the early 1980s has seen heavy use.

6. Write about Full Potential Codes and Full Potential Equations.

Developers turned to Full Potential codes, as panel methods could not calculate the
non-linear flow present at transonic speeds. The first description of a means of using the Full
Potential equations was published by Earll Murman and Julian Cole of Boeing in 1970.
Frances Bauer, Paul Garabedian and David Korn of the Courant Institute at New York
University (NYU) wrote a series of two-dimensional Full Potential airfoil codes that were
widely used, the most important being named Program H A further growth of Program H was

developed by Bob Melnik and his group at Grumman Aerospace as Grumfoil. Antony
Jameson, originally at Grumman Aircraft and the Courant Institute of NYU, worked with
David Caughey to develop the important three-dimensional Full Potential code FLO22 in
1975. Many Full Potential codes emerged after this, culminating in Boeing's Tranair (A633)
code, which still sees heavy use.
7. What are the basic equations of fluid dynamics?
The main task in fluid dynamics is to find the velocity field describing the flow in a
given domain. To do this, one uses the basic equations of fluid flow, which we derive in this
section. These encode the familiar laws of mechanics:
conservation of mass (the continuity equation,)
conservation of momentum (the momentum equation,).
In any domain, the flow equations must be solved subject to a set of conditions that act at the
domain boundary, If the flow leads to compression of the fluid, we must also consider
thermodynamics:
conservation of energy.

8. Give the basis for Incompressible inviscid Flow.

1 Bernoullis equation 2 Continuity equation 3 Dynamic pressure 4 Pressure coefficient 5
Laplaces equation 6 Applying Laplaces equation.

9. Explain Bernoullis equation in brief.

Bernoullis equation
An incompressible flow is a flow where the density is constant. Lets assume were dealing
with an incompressible flow. From the momentum equation and the streamline condition, we
can derive that
dp = V dV. (1.1)
This equation is called Eulers equation. Since the streamline condition was used in the
derivation, it is only valid along a streamline. Integrating the Euler equation between point 1
and point 2 gives

In other words,

is constant along a streamline.

An inviscid flow is a flow without friction, thermal conduction or diusion. It can be shown

that inviscid flows are irrotational flows. For irrotational

is constant, even for dierent streamlines.

10. Explain Continuity Equation in brief.

Continuity equation
In a low-speed wind tunnel the flow field variables can be assumed to be a function of x only,
so A = A(x), V = V (x), p = p(x), etcetera. Such a flow is called a quasi-one-dimensional
flow. From the continuity equation can be derived that

for two points in the tunnel. This applies to both compressible and incompressible flows. If
the flow becomes incompressible, then 1 = 2. The equation then reduces to A1V1 = A2V2.
If we combine this with Bernoullis equation, we find

11. Explain Laplace Equation in brief.

If the flow is incompressible, it follows from the continuity equation that

If the flow is also inviscid, and thus irrotational, it follows that V = 0. It also implicates that there is a velocity potential such that V = .
Combining this with above equation gives

This simple but important relation is called Laplaces equation. It seems that the velocity
potential satisfies Laplaces equation. But what about the stream function? We know that

We can also remember the irrotationality condition, stating that v

Inserting above in this condition gives

So the stream function also satisfies Laplaces equation, just like the velocity potential
function .

12. What is a Panel Method?

A method to simulate the flow around an airfoil is the so-called panel method.
The panel method Using source distributions
We know that any combination of sources, doublets, vortices and such satisfies the Laplace
equation. However, which combination describes our flow? To find that out, we have to
use the boundary conditions. But how should we use them? We just use the panel method!
Simply apply the following steps.
First we take the edge of our airfoil. We split it up in N panels.
We then place a source distribution (or similarly, a doublet distribution or vortex
distribution) of constant strength i on every panel. (1 i N.)
At every panel, we can find the velocity potential (as a function of the source strengths
). We can also find the flow velocity /n normal to the airfoil. This flow velocity should
of course be 0. This gives us N equations. Using these conditions, we can solve for the
source strengths i.
Solving for the source strengths might seem like a dicult task. However, these equations can simply be put in a matrix. This goes according to

13. What is Source and sink flows?

1. Source flow: Consider a two-dimensional, incompressible flow where all the streamlines
are straight lines emanating from a central point O, as shown at the left of Figure. Mover, let
the velocity along each of the streamlines vary inversely with distance from point O. Such a
flow is called a source flow. Examining Figure, we see that the velocity components in the
radial and tangential directions are Vr and V , respectively, where V = 0. The coordinate
system in Figure is a cylindrical coordinate system, with the z axis perpendicular to the page.
(Note that polar coordinates are simply the cylindrical coordinates r and
confined to a
single plane given by z = constant.) It is easily shown that (1) source flow is a physically
possible incompressible flow, that is, .V = 0, at every point except the origin, where .V
becomes infinite, and (2) source flow is irrotational at every point.

Figure: Source and sink flows.

14. What is Doublet flow?

Doublet flow: Our third elementary flow:
There is a special, degenerate case of a source-sink pair that leads to a singularity
called a doublet. The doublet is frequently used in the theory of incompressible flow; the
purpose of this section is to describe its properties.
Consider a source of strength and a sink of equal (but opposite) strength by a distance l, as shown in figure a. At any point P in the flow, the stream function is

separated

1 as seen from figure a. Equation is the stream function for a sourcewhere

2
2
sink pair separated by the distance l.

Now in Figure a, let the distance l approach zero while the absolute magnitude of the
strengths of the
source and sink increase in such a fashion that the product l remains
constant. This limiting process is shown in Figure b. In the limit, as l
remains constant, we obtain a special flow pattern defined as a doublet.
doublet is denoted by k and is defined as k
obtained from Equation as follows:

lim
l
k l

0
const

0 while l
The strength of the

. The stream function for a doublet is

Figure:: How a source-sink pair approaches a doublet in the limiting case.

15. What is vortex flow?
Vortex flow: Our fourth elementary flow
Consider a flow however all the streamlines are concentric circles about a given point, as
sketched in figure. Moreover, let the velocity along any given circular streamline be constant,
but let it vary from one streamline to another inversely with distance from the common
center. Such a flow is called a vortex flow. Examine Figure; the velocity
components in the radial and tangential directions
are V and V , respectively, where
r

Vr

0 and V constant / r.

It is easily shown (try it yourself) that (1) vortex flow is a

.V

physically possible incompressible flow, that is,

at every point, and (2) vortex flow
V
0, at every point except the origin.
is irrotational, that is,

16. What is Lifting flow over a cylinder?

Consider the flow synthesized by the addition of the nonlifting flow over a cylinder and a
vortex of strength , as shown in figure. The stream function for nonlifiting flow over a
circular cylinder of radius R is given by Equation:

Figure: The synthesis of lifting flow over a circular cylinder

17. Draw the Source panel distribution over the surface of a body of a arbitrary shape.

Figure: Source panel distribution over the surface of a body of a arbitrary shape.
18. What is the difference between source panel and vortex panel methods?
The vortex panel method is directly analogous to the source panel method. However,
because a source has zero circulation, source panels are useful only for nonlifting cases. In
contrast, vortices have circulation, and hence vortex panels can be used for lifting cases.
For the source panel method, the n equations for the n unknown source strengths are
routinely solved, giving the flow over a nonlifting body. In contrast, for the lifting case with
vortex panels, in addition to n the n equations given by Equation applied at all the panels,
we must also satisfy the Kutta condition.

19. Classify PDE.

Classification of partial differential equations, hyperbolic, parabolic, and elliptic equations.

20. Brief characteristics of Hyperbolic equations.

Figure: Domain and boundaries for the solution of hyperbolic equations. Twodimensional steady flow.
A significance of these characteristics is that information at point P influences only the region
between the two characteristics. For example, if in figure, we jabbed point P with a pin, i.e., if
we set up a small disturbance at point P, then this disturbance is felt at every point within
region I in figure, but only in that region. In this sense, region I is defined as the region of
influence of point P. Now image the two characteristics through P extended backward to the y
axis. That portion of the y axis which is intercepted by the two characteristics is labeled ab.
This has a corollary effect on boundary conditions for hyperbolic equations. For example,
assume that boundary conditions are specified on the y axis (x = 0). That is, the dependent
variables u and v are known along the y axis. Then the solution can be obtained by
marching forward in the distance x, starting from the given boundary. However, the
solution for u and v at point P will depend only on that part of the boundary between a and b,
as shown in figure. Information at point c, which is outside the interval ab, is propagated
along characteristics through and influences on only region II in figure. Point P is outside
region II, and hence does not feel the information from point c. Point P depends on only that
part of the boundary which is intercepted by and included between the two retreating
characteristics lines through point P, that is, interval ab. For this reason, the region to the left
of point P, region, III in Figure, is called the domain of dependence of point P; that is,
properties at P depends only on what is happening in region III.

20. Brief characteristics of Parabolic equations.

Figure: Domain and boundaries for the solution of parabolic equations in two
dimensions.
Starting with the initial data line ac, the solution between the boundaries cd and ab is
obtained by marching in the general x direction. The extension to the case of three
dimensions is straightforward, as sketched in Figure. Here, the parabolic equation has three
independent variables x, y and z. Considering point P located in this space. Assuming that the
initial conditions are given over the area abcd in the yz plane. Furthermore, assuming
boundary conditions given along the four surfaces abgh, cdef, ahed, and bgfc, which extend
in the general x direction away from the perimeter of the initial data surface. Then, the
information at P influences the entire three-dimensional region to the right of P, contained
within the boundary surfaces. This region is crosshatched in figure. Starting with the initial
data plane abcd, the solution is marched in the general x direction.
21. Brief characteristics of Elliptic equations.

Figure: Domain and boundaries for the solution of elliptic equations in two dimensions.

Let us consider an elliptic equation in two independent variables x and y. The xy

plane is sketched in Figure. The characteristic curves for an elliptic equation are imaginaryfor the most part, the methodology associated with the method of characteristics is therefore
useless for the solution of elliptic equations. For elliptic equations, there are no limited
regions of influence or domains of dependence; rather, information is propagated everywhere
in all directions. For example, consider point P in the xy plane sketched in Figure. Assume
that the domain of the problem is defined as the rectangle abcd shown in figure and that P is
located somewhere inside this closed domain. This is already in contrast to the rather open
domains considered in figures and for hyperbolic and parabolic equations, respectively. Now
assume that we jab point P in figure with a needle; i.e., we introduce a disturbance at point P.
The major mathematical characteristic of elliptic equations is that this disturbance is felt
everywhere throughout the domain. Furthermore, because point P influences all points in the
domain, then in turn the solution at point P is influenced by the entire closed boundary abcd.
Therefore, the solution at point P must be carried out simultaneously with the solution at all
other points in the domain. This is in stark contrast to the marching solutions germane to
parabolic and hyperbolic equations.

22. Define Well-posed problems.

If the solution to a partial differential equation exists and is unique, and if the solution
depends continuously upon the initial and boundary conditions, then the problem is wellposed. In CFD, it is important that you establish that our problem is well-posed before we
attempt to carry out a numerical solution. When the blunt body problem was set up using the
unsteady Euler equations, and a time-marching procedure was employed to go to the steady
state at large starting with essentially arbitrary assumed initial conditions at time t = 0, the
problem suddenly became well-posed.

23. What are thedifferent ways to discretize partial differential equations?

There are different ways to discretize partial differential equations. The best are finitedifference or finite-element methods, which are well suited to computer program
implementation. In the simplest method of finite differences, derivatives at a point (x, y) are
approximated by difference quotients over a small

/ xwhere x is small and y is constant, and

/ x is replaced by
/ y is replaced by where
/y

interval, i.e.,

y is small and x is constant. Finite-difference solutions are usually satisfactory for practical
applications. The finite-element method replaces the original function by a function that has
some degree of smoothness over the global domain, but is a piecewise polynomial on simple
nodes such as small triangles or rectangles.

UNIT II
FINITE DIFFERENCE AND FINITE VOLUME METHODS FOR DIFFUSION
1. What do you mean by the word discretization?
The word discretization requires some explanation. Obviously, it comes from
discrete, defined the in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language as
constituting a separate thing; individual; distinct; consisting of unconnected distinct parts.
However, the word discretization cannot be found in the same dictionary; it cannot be
found in Websters New World Dictionary either. The fact that it does not appear in two of
the most popular dictionaries of today implies, at the very least, that it is a rather new and
esoteric word. Indeed, it seems to be unique to the literature of numerical analysis, first being
introduced in the German literature in 195 by W.R. Wasow, carried on by Ames in 1965 in
his classic book on partial differential equations, and recently embraced by the CFD
community. In essence, discretization is the process by which a equation involving functions,
all of which are viewed as having an infinite continuum of values throughout some domain, is
approximated by analogous (but different) expressions which prescribe values at only a finite
number of discrete points or volumes in the domain.
2. Compare analytical and numerical solutions of PDE.
Analytical solutions of partial differential equations involve closed-form expressions
which give the variation of the dependent variables continuously throughout the domain. In
contrast, numerical solutions can give answers at only discrete points in the domain called
grid points.
3. What is the advantage of having uniform spacing of grid?
The majority of CFD applications involve numerical solutions of a grid which
contains uniform spacing in each direction, because this greatly simplifies the programming
of the solution, saves storage space, and usually result in greater accuracy. This uniform
spacing does not have to occur in the physical plane, but it has to occur in computational
plane.
4. Draw a diagram which illustrates structured grid.

Figure: Discrete grid points

5. How can we solve a given equation by a process called Discretization?

Imagine that we have a two-dimensional flow field which is governed by the NavierStokes equation, or as the case may be, the Euler equation, as derived in Chapter. These are
partial differential equations. An analytical solution of these equations would provide, in
principle, closed-form expressions for u, v, p, , etc., as functions of x and y, which could be
used to give values of the flow-field variables at any points in the domain. On the other hand,
if the partial derivatives in the governing equations are replaced by approximate algebraic
difference quotients, where the algebraic difference equations are totally replaced by a system
of algebraic then the flow-field variables at two or more of the discrete grid points shown in
figure, then the partial differential equations are totally replaced by a system of algebraic
equations which can be solved for the values of the flow-field variables at the discrete grid
points only. In this sense, the original partial differential equations have been discretized.
Moreover, this method of discretization is called the method of finite differences. Finitedifference solutions are widely employed in CFD, and hence much of this chapter will be
devoted to matters concerning finite differences.

6. What is the basic equation of finite difference Discretization?

Most common finite-difference representations of derivatives are based on Taylors series
expansions. For example, referring to figure, if ui, j denotes the x component of velocity at
point (i, j), then the velocity vi+1,j if ui, j denotes the x component of velocity at point (i, j),
then the velocity vi + 1, j at point (i + 1,j) can be expressed in terms of a Taylor series
expanded about point (i, j) as follows:

u
u i 1,j

u i ,j

x2

i,

u ( x) 2

x3

i ,j

u ( x)3
i ,j

......

Equation is mathematically an exact expression for ui + 1, j if (1) the number of terms is infinite

and the series converges and/or (2) x

0.

8. What is truncation error?

Finite-difference representation of derivatives. Solving equation for (
obtain

u i 1,jui ,j

u
x

i ,j

x
Finite
difference
representation

x2
i ,j

x3

( x)2
6
i ,j

Truncation error

......

u / x)i ,j , we

In equation, the actual partial derivative evaluated at point (i, j) is given on the left
side. The first term on the right side, namely,

u i 1,jui ,j

x i ,j

then the truncation error in equation tells us what is being neglected in this approximation. In
equation, the lowest-order term in the truncation error involves x to the first power; hence,
the finite-difference expression in equation is called first-order accurate.

9. Obtain Difference expressions for the y derivatives.

Difference expressions for the y derivatives are

u i ,j
u
x

ui ,j

y
ui ,j 1

ui ,j

i ,j

ui ,j

ui ,j 1

O( y)

Forward difference

O( y)

Rearward difference

O( y)2

Central difference

2 y
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of higher-order accuracy?
The pros and cons of higher-order accuracy are as follows:
1. Higher-order accurate difference quotients, such as displayed in equations, by
requiring more grid points, result in more computer time required for each time wise
or spatial step-a con.
2. On the other hand, a higher-order difference scheme may require a smaller number of
total grid points in flow solution to obtain comparable overall accuracy a pro.
3. Higher order difference schemes may result in a higher-quality solution, such as
captured shock waves that are sharper and more distinct-also a pro. In fact, this aspect
is a matter of current research in CFD.
11. What is the purpose of time marching in CFD?
Time marching in the context of CFD is used to accomplish one or the other of the following
purposes:
To obtain a steady-state solution by means of assuming some arbitrary initial conditions for a
flow field, and then calculating the flow in steps of time, going out to a sufficiently large
number of time steps until a final steady-state flow is approached at large values of time. In
this situation, the final steady state is the desired result, and the marching is simply a means
to that end. The solution to the supersonic blunt body problem is a cast in point.

To obtain an accurate timewise solution of an inherently unsteady flow, such as the timevarying flow field over a pitching airfoil or the naturally unsteady flow pattern that results for
many separated flows.
12. What is explicit approach?
By definition, in an explicit approach each difference equation contains only one
unknown and therefore can be solved explicitly for this unknown in a straightforward
manner.
13. Compare explicit and implicit approaches.
With the complexity of the implicit approach relative to the explicit approach in mind, the
immediate question is: Why deal with the implicit approach at all? Why not always use an
explicit approach? Unfortunately, life is not that simple. We yet to mention the most
important difference between the explicit and implicit approaches. Note that the increments x
and t appear in all the above difference equations. For the explicit approach, once x is
chosen, then t is not an independent, arbitrary choice; rather, t is restricted to be equal to or
less than a certain value prescribed by a stability criterion. If t is taken larger than the limit
imposed by the stability criterion, the time marching procedure will quickly go unstable, and
our computer program will quickly shut down due to such things as numbers going to infinity
or taking the square root of a negative number. In many cases, t must be very small to
maintain stability; this can result in long computer running times to make calculations over a
given interval of time. On the other hand, there are no such stability restrictions on an implicit
approach. For most implicit methods, stability can be maintained over much larger values of
t than for a corresponding explicit method; indeed, some implicit methods are
unconditionally stable, meaning that any value of t, no manner how large, will yield a stable
solution. Hence, for an implicit method, considerably fewer time steps are required to cover a
given interval in time compared to an explicit method. Therefore, for some applications, even
though the implicit approach requires more computation per time step due to its relative
complexity, the fact that considerably fewer time steps are required to cover a given interval
of time actually can result in a shorter run time on the computer compared to an explicit
approach.
14. Write the advantage and disadvantage of explicit method.
Explicit approach
Advantage

Relatively simple to set up and program

Disadvantage

In terms of our above example, for a given

x, t must be less than
some limit imposed by stability constraints. In some cases, t must be
very small to maintain stability; this can result in long computer
running times to make calculations over a given interval of t.

15. Write the advantage and disadvantage of implicit method.

Implicit approach
Advantage

Stability can be maintained over much larger values of t, hence using

considerable fewer time steps to make calculations over a given
interval of t. This results in less computer time.

Disadvantage More complicated to set up and program

Disadvantage

Since massive matrix manipulations are usually required at each time

step, the computer time per time step is much larger than in the explicit
approach.

Disadvantage

since large t can be taken, the truncation error is large, and the use of
implicit methods to follow the exact transients (time variations of the
independent variable) may not be as accurate as an explicit approach.
However for a time-dependent solution in which the steady state is the
desired result, this result timewise inaccuracy is not important.

16. What is Discretization and round off errors?

Discretization error, the difference between the exact analytical solution of the partial
differential equation [for example, equation and the exact (round-off-free) solution of the
corresponding difference equation [for example, equation. from our discussion in section, the
discretization error is simply the truncation for the difference equation plus any errors
introduced by the numerical treatment of the boundary conditions.
Round-off error, the numerical error introduced after a repetitive number of
calculations in which the computer is constantly rounding the numbers to some significant
figure.
If we let
A = analytical solution of partial differential
equation D = exact solution of difference equation
N = numerical solution from a real computer with finite accuracy
Then
Discretization error = A D
Round-off error = e = N D
From equation, we can write
N=D+e
where, again, e is the round-off error, which for the remainder of our discussion in
this section we will simply call error for brevity. The numerical solution N must satisfy the
difference equation.

17. What is Courant number?

u u in
t

1
2

(u in 1 uin 1
t

The difference used in the above equation, where equation is used to represent the time
derivative, is called the Lax method, after the mathematician Peter Lax who first proposed it.
t ik t
If we now assume an error of the form e m (x, t) e e m as done previously and
substitute this form in equation, the amplification factor becomes

et

cos(k m x) iC sin(k m x)

where C = c

t/ x. The stability requirement is

yields

c t
x

e at

1, which we applied to equation

In equation, C is called the Courant number.

18. What is CFL condition?

C c

t
x

In equation, C is called the Courant number. This equation says that t x / c for the
numerical solution of equation to be stable. Moreover, equation is called the CourantFriedrichs-Lewy condition, generally written as the CFL condition. It is an important stability
criterion for hyperbolic equations. The CFL condition dates back to 1928; the original work
can be found in Reference.
The CFL condition, i.e., the Courant number must
be less than or at most equal to unity, is also the
stability condition which holds for the second-or

UNIT III
FINITE VOLUME METHOD FOR CONVECTION DIFFUSION
1. Brief Lax-Wendroff Technique
The Lax-Wendroff technique is an explicit, finite-difference method particularly
suited to marching solutions. The idea of numerical solutions obtained by marching in steps
of time or space; such marching solutions are associated with the solution of hyperbolic and
parabolic partial differential equations. A good example of a flow-field problem governed by
hyperbolic equations the time-marching solution of an inviscid flow using the unsteady Euler
equations.
2. Write nonconservative form of fluid dynamic equations.
u
v
Continuity:
t
x u x
y v y
X momentum:

u
t

Y momentum:

v
t

u
x

u
u

v
x

e
t

Energy:

u
y

1
x

y
y

e
e
v
x
y

y
pu
x

pv
y

3. What is Flux-Vector Splitting

Flux-Vector Splitting
To introduce the idea of flux-vector splitting, we need to examine some additional
matrix properties from linear algebra. The definition of the eigen values j of the matrix A
is given by equation. We can further define the eigenvector associated with a specific eigen
j
value j as the column vector L which is a solution of the equation

Lj
where

I0

Lj T is the transverse of the column vector Lj ; hence Lj

j

is a row vector. Since

A and
the elements of L are obtained directly by solving
j are known in equation,
Equation. For each different eigen value of the matrix A, there will be a different eigenvector

L . To be more specific, since

Lj

appears on the left of equation, the L is called a left

-1

eigenvector of the matrix A, There are as many define a matrix T whose inverse T has
-1
elements that are the elements of all the eigenvectors. Specifically, the jth row of T consists
of the elements of the left eigenvector for y . The matrix T has the property of
diagonalizing the matrix A through the equation
1
T AT
where

is a diagonal matrix with the eigen values of A as the diagonal terms.

4. What are Upwind Schemes

Recall the discussion in chap 3 concerning the definition of characteristic curves and the
emphasis in sec that information concerning a flow field travels along these characteristic
curves. Moreover, we have seen that the eigenvalues of the jacobian matrices give the slopes
of the characteristic lines; for an unsteady flow, the values of these eigenvalues represent the
velocity and direction of propagation of information. It would seem natural that a numerical
scheme for solving the flow equations should be consistent with the velocity and direction
with which information propagates throughout the flow field. Indeed, this is nothing more
than obeying the physics of the flow.
Strictly speaking, the central difference schemes which have been highlighted
throughout this book do not always follow the proper flow of information throughout the flow
field. In many cases, they draw numerical information from outside the domain of
dependence of a given grid point; as discussed at the end of sec, this can compromise the
accuracy of the solution. For flow fields which involve smooth, continuous variations of the
flow-field variables, this does not appear to cause a major problem. We have seen some
examples where a central difference scheme works quite well: the shock-free nozzle flows in
the continuous expansion wave in and the smoothly varying coquette flow. In all thee cases, a
central difference scheme (such as MacCormacks scheme works reasonably well. In fact,
there is a mathematical reason for this, dealing with the analytic continuation properties of
smooth Equation is written in operator form; for example, the expression
An

Bn

x
is an operator which, when acting on U n

An

y
1

as on the left-hand side of equation.

Bn Un

A nU n

B U

n 1

and similarly on the right-hand side of equation. Examining Equation more closely, we note
that the right-hand side is a known number at time level n; all the unknowns are on the lefthand side. Question: How many unknowns do we have on the left-hand side? The answer,

of course, depends on what type of finite-difference expression we choose to represent the

derivatives. For example, if we use the familiar on the left-hand side, a five-point difference
module will be needed to support the difference scheme, as sketched in fig. In turn, we will
have
five
unknowns
on
the
left-hand
side
of
equation
namely,
n+1
and U . Clearly, we have lost the tridiagonal form; in the above
U n 1 U n 1 U n 1U n 1 U n 1
i 1, j ,

i 1, j ,

i,j,

i 1, j , i , j 1,

i,j-1

expression, in addition to the terms involving the three diagonals, namely,

n 1
n 1
n 1
n+1
, and U
we also have terms off the three diagonals, namely, U
and U .
Un 1 U
i 1, j ,

i,j

i+1,j,

i,j 1

i,j-1

Indeed, these terms lead to a pentadiagonal matrix. The matrix manipulation associated with
the solution of such a system is very computational-intensive-we have lost the tremendous
computational advantage of the tridiagonal form. The reason for this problem is the
multidimensional nature of the equations: the simultaneous appearance of both the x and y
derivatives in equation.
A solution to this problem involves the idea of approximate factorization, described
below.

Figure: Five-point difference module for Equation.

This idea has its roots in the classic alternating-direction-implicit (ADI) procedure
developed in the middle 1950s by Peaceman, Rackford, and Douglas. The ADI method is
discussed in; this method essentially splits the unsteady two-dimensional problem described
by Equation into two separate one-dimensional problems at each time step: the first stage
deals with the unknowns associated with the x derivative evaluated at an intermediate time
1
n
12
n1/ 2
, namely, U i 11/ 2 ,Uin, j , and Ui+1,j , which yields an easily solved tridiagonal
2
form; the second stage deals with the unknowns associated with the y derivatives evaluated at
time level n+1, is achieved by two applications of the tridiagonal solution procedure. The
concept of the ADI method is nicely described in, which should be consulted for more
details.
level n

The ADI philosophy described above has been extended to the solution of the
governing flow equations via the Beam and Warning scheme described in sec. leading to a

procedure called approximate factorization. In this procedure, we represent Equation in a

somewhat factored form, namely,

G
t
t
t
t
F
n
n
n
n
U
I 2 x A
I 2 y B nU n 1
I 2 x A
I 2 y B
t x
y
If you mentally carry out the multiplication of the two factors on both the left and right
sides of equation, you will see that equation is not precisely the same as equation; indeed,
equation has some extra terms, namely,
t

x A

4
t
and

y B

Un 1

x A

y B

2
which do not appear in equation. On the other hand, these terms involvet , and they do

not affect the second-order accuracy which is originally embodied by equation. Therefore,
we can replace equation with equation. The factored form appearing in equation is called
approximate factorization (approximate because of the aforementioned leftover terms that
we simply live with).
Before we underscore the advantage of equation, let us introduce the notation

Un

Un

The factors on the left and right sides of equation are identical; hence, bringing the
right-hand-side factors to the left-hand side, we can factor out the expression U n 1 U n , and
using the notation of equation, we can write as following subsections, we will only discuss
the general nature of these ideas so as to familiarize you with just the essence of each. The
purpose of these discussions is to ease your transition to more advanced studies.

t
n
2 x A

t
n n
2 y B U

E
x

G
y

UNIT IV
FLOW FILED ANALYSIS

1. Write a brief overview of FEM.

Finite element methods (FEM) are versatile in applications to multidimensional
complex irregular geometries. Initial applications of FEM began with structural analysis in
the later 1950s and primarily were based on variational principles. During the early days on
the development of FEM, application were made for simple flow problems, beginning with
Zienkiewicz and Cheung [1965], followed by Oden and Wellford [1972], Chung [1978], and
Baker [1983], among others, significant contributions in CFD began with the streamline
upwind Petrov-Galerkin (SUPG) method {Heinrich, Huyakorn, Zienkiewicz, and Mitchell,
1977, Hughes and Books 1982; Hughes, Mallet, and Mizukami, 1986] or streamline diffusion
method (SDM) [Johnson, 1987], Taylor-Galerkin methods (TGM) Donea, 1984, Lohner
Morgan, and Zienkiewicz, 1985] and hp adaptive methods [Oden and Demkowicz, 1991,
among many other related works.
2. Discuss some of the approaches in FEM.
The original approaches of SUPG or SDM for convection-dominated flows have
grown into GLS (Galerkin/least squares) when some changes in the formulation are
introduced. It is suggested that al methods related to numerical diffusion test functions be
called the generalized Petrov-Galerkin (GPG) methods. Hughes and his co-workers have
contributed significantly in the past two decades to the GPG methodologies associated with
the problems of convection-dominated flows and shock discontinuities.
3. Brief the algorithm arising from the Taylor series expansion.
The algorithm arising from the Taylor series expansion is TGM (Taylor Galerkin
Method). Zienkiewicz and his co-workers [Zienkiewicz and Codina, 1995] have applied for
the past decade the concept of characteristics Galerkin methods (CGM) which produce results
similar to TGM in dealing with convection-dominated problems for both compressible an
incompressible flows.
4. Discuss in short about accuracy in FEM.
The finite element literature is enriched with mathematical error analysis.
Mathematical proofs of convergence, stability, and accuracy are important in the so-called hp
adaptive methods in which accuracy improves as the mesh is refined and the approximating
polynominal degrees are increased in accordance with the flow field gradients.

5. What are the major issues in CFD on FDM?

The major issues in CFD as observed in FDM are as follows: (1) Difficulties of
satisfying the conservation of mass in incompressible flows (incompressibility condition),
resulting in checkerboard type pressure oscillations: (2) Shock discontinuities in compressible
flows: and (3) convection dominated flows in both incompressible and compressible and
compressible flows. Mixed method, penalty methods and pressure correction methods were
developed to cope with the incompressibility condition.
6. How are these issues addressed in FEM.?
The Taylor-Galerkin methods (TGM) and generalized Petrov Galerkin (GPG)
methods have been successful in dealing with shock discontinuities and convection
dominated flows. Recent development include computations formulation and a single
compute code using the various schemes extended from TGM, GPG and FDV leading to all
speed flows.
7. What are the numerical methods other than the FDM, FEM and FVM?
There are many numerical methods other than the FDM, FEM and FVM which are
based on the standard Eulerian coordinates. They includes boundary element methods
(BEM), coupled- Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) methods, particle-in-cell (PIC methods, and
Monte Carlo methods (MCM).
8. What is Galerkin method in finite element formulations?
. In the Galerkin methods, the variable of the partial differential equations is
approximated as a linear combination of the trial (interpolation, shape, or basis) functions. It
was shown that local properties were assembled into a global form by superposition
intuitively. In this chapter, we demonstrate this process directly from the global form using
Boolean algebra, with the local properties then arising indirectly as a consequence.
9. Write briefly about Galerkin Methods.
In the Galerkin methods, the variable of the partial differential equations is
approximated as a linear combination of the trial (interpolation, shape, or basis) functions. It
is known that local properties were assembled into a global form by superposition intuitively.
10. What is the disadvantage of Galerkin method?
The Galerkin method described lead to unstable and inaccurate solutions in fluid
dynamics equations in which the flow is convection dominated. In this case, we must use the
methods of weighted residual with test functions.

11. What are the applications of the numerical diffusion test function
The numerical diffusion test function

play a role of numerical viscosities

equivalent to those used in FDM formulations. Some specific applications include streamline
upwind Petrov Galerkin (SUPG) methods. Taylor Galerkin method (TGM), generalized
Petrov Galerkin (GPG) methods, characteristics Galerkin methods (CGM), discontinuous
Galerkin (GGM) and flowfield dependent variation (FDV) methods.

UNIT V
TURBULENCE MODELS AND MESH GENERATION

1. What is the importance of grid generation?

Grid generation is often considered as the most important and most time
consuming part of CFD simulation. The quality of the grid plays a direct role on the quality
of the analysis, regardless of the flow solver used. Additionally, the solver will be more
robust and efficient when using a well constructed mesh. It is important for the CFD analyst
to know and understand all of the various grid generation methods. Only by knowing all the
methods can he or she select the right tool to solve the problem at hand.

2. Write short notes on structured grid generation.

Structured grid methods take their name from the fact that the grid is laid out
in a regular repeating pattern called a block. These types of grids utilize quadrilateral
elements in 2D and hexahedral elements in 3D in a computationally rectangular array.
Although the element topology is fixed, the grid can be shaped to be body fitted through
stretching and twisting of the block. Really good structured grid generators utilize
sophisticated elliptic equations to automatically optimize the shape of the mesh for
orthogonality and uniformity.

3. What are the advantages of structured grid generation?

Structured grids enjoy a considerable advantage over other grid methods in
that they allow the user a high degree of control. Because the user places control points and
edges interactively, he has total freedom when positioning the mesh. In addition, hexahedral
and quadrilateral elements, which are very efficient at filling space, support a high amount of
skewness and stretching before the solution will be significantly effected. This allows the
user to naturally condense points in regions of high gradients in the flow field and expand out
to a less dense packing away from these areas. Also, because the user interactively lays out
the elements, the grid is most often flow-aligned, thereby yielding greater accuracy within the
solver. Structured block flow solvers typically require the lowest amount of memory for a
given mesh size and execute faster because they are optimized for the structured layout of the
grid. Lastly, post processing of the results on a structured block grid is typically a much
easier task because the logical grid planes make excellent reference points for examining the
flow field and plotting the results.

4. What are the disadvantages of structured grid generation?

The major drawback of structured block grids is the time and expertise
required to lay out an optimal block structure for an entire model. Often this comes down to
past user experience and brute force placement of control points and edges. Some geometries,
e.g. shallow cones and wedges, do not lend themselves to structured block topologies. In
these areas, the user is forced to stretch or twist the elements to a degree which drastically
affects solver accuracy and performance. Grid generation times are usually measured in days
if not weeks.
5. Write short notes on unstructured grid generation.
Unstructured grid methods utilize an arbitrary collection of elements to fill the
domain. Because the arrangement of elements has no discernible pattern, the mesh is called
unstructured. These types of grids typically utilize triangles in 2D and tetrahedral in 3D.
While there are some codes which can generate unstructured quadrilateral elements in 2D,
there are currently no production codes which can generate unstructured hexahedral elements
in 3D.

6. What are the advantages of unstructured grid generation?

The advantage of unstructured grid methods is that they are very automated
and, therefore, require little user time or effort. The user need not worry about laying out
block structure or connections. Additionally, unstructured grid methods are well suited to
inexperienced users because they require little user input and will generate a valid mesh under
most circumstances. Unstructured methods also enable the solution of very large and detailed
problems in a relatively short period of time. Grid generation times are usually measured in
minutes or hours.

7. What are the disadvantages of unstructured grid generation?

The major drawback of unstructured grids is the lack of user control when
laying out the mesh. Typically any user involvement is limited to the boundaries of the mesh
with the mesher automatically filling the interior. Triangle and tetrahedral elements have the
problem that they do not stretch or twist well, therefore, the grid is limited to being largely
isotropic, i.e. all the elements have roughly the same size and shape. This is a major problem
when trying to refine the grid in a local area, often the entire grid must be made much finer in
order to get the point densities required locally. Another drawback of the methods is their
reliance on good CAD data. Most meshing failures are due to some (possibly minuscule)
error in the CAD model. Unstructured flow solvers typically require more memory and have
longer execution times than structured grid solvers on a similar mesh. Post processing the
solution on an unstructured mesh requires powerful tools for interpolating the results onto
planes and surfaces of rotation for easier viewing.

PART B

1. Derive the energy equation for a viscous flow in partial differential nonconservation form.
2. Derive the continuity equation for inviscid flow in partial differential non-conservation
form.
3. Write down elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic partial differential equations as
applicable to CFD.
4. Explain the grid generation technique based on PDE and summarize the advantages
of Sthe elliptic grid generation method.
5. Obtain the 2D steady compressible continuity equation in transformed coordinates for the
transformation
x,
ln( y 1)
6. Write down the procedure for the calculation of pressure coefficient distribution around a
circular cylinder using the source panel technique.
Discuss the vortex panel method applied to lifting flows over a flat plate.
7. Discuss the source panel method for the flow past an oscillating cylinder.
8. State and explain the difference between explicit and implicit methods with suitable
examples.
9. How do you determine the accuracy of the discretization process? What are the uses and
difficulties of approximating the derivatives with higher order finite difference schemes?
How do you overcome these difficulties?
10. Explain the strong and weak formulations of a boundary value problem.

11. Explain the description of Prandtl boundary layer equation and its solution
methodology.
12. Study the stability behaviour of second order wave equation by Von-Neuman stability
method.
13. What are quadrilateral Lagrange elements and isoparametric elements in FEM?
14. Solve the simplified Sturn-Lioville equation:
2

y
2

yF

With boundary conditions y(0) = 0 and

0 ; using Galerkin finite

element method.

16. What is strong formulation? Explain with the help of one dimensional boundary value
problem.
17. Explain Runge-Kutta and multi-stage time stepping.
18. Discuss the properties of discretization schemes and explain upwind discretization
applied to FVM.
19. What is cell centered formulation? Explain with the help of using control volume,
semi discretization equation, ij U / t
F.nds
0.
20. State and explain the spurious modes for Runge-Kutta cell vertex formulation in
FVM.
21. Compare and contrast direct methods and iteration methods in solving a system
simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
22. Solve the following equations by Gauss-Siedel Iteration
Method: 5x+2y+z=12
x+4y+2z=15
x+2y+5z =20.
23. Solve the following equations by Gauss-Elimination method:
x+3y+6z=2

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.

42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.

3x-y+4z=9
x-4y+2z =7
Explain the steps to solve a fluid dynamics problem.
Derive the stability condition for CTCS discretization of second order wave equation using
Von Neumann stability analysis.
Derive the finite difference expressions for a second order derivative with forward,
backward and central difference approximations.
Obtain the CFL condition for Lax method of discretization of first order wave equation.
Derive the continuity equation with differential approach in conservation form and from this
obtain non conservation differential form.
Explain the various computer graphic techniques used in CFD.
Explain the need for turbulence modeling in dealing with CFD problems. What are the
various turbulence models used in CFD problems.
Write an algorithm for obtaining the inverse of a matrix.
Consider steady state heat loss through a straight long fin with temperature of the fin base
and the surrounding fluid and Tb and Tf respectively. Assume the heat loss from the end face
of to be negligible. Derive the governing equation for the problem.
Distinguish between discretization and round-off errors. Compare them with suitable
examples.
Show that forward time and central space differencing for first order wave equation results
in unstable scheme using Von Neumann stability criterion and comment.
Derive the continuity equation with integral approach in non conservation form and from
this obtain conservation integral form.
Express the complete Navier-Stokes equations and derive Bernoullis equation from it
explaining the assumptions made in the process.
Discuss the various relaxation techniques.
Derive the Quasi one-dimensional compressible flow equations for flow through a nozzle.
Explain the method of capturing the shock in dealing with the nozzle.
Present the algorithm for explicit and implicit method and outline the solution procedure.
Write down the governing equation for the thermal field and present the discritised form of
the equation for a flow inside a channel. Show how upwinding is carried out and outline the
procedure.
Derive the unsteady mass conservation equation in differential form and show how density
is updated using the MacCormack method for a quasi one dimensional compressible flow in
a CD nozzle.
Form the continuity equation for two dimensional transient compressible flow , show how
density is updated using the MacCormach scheme.
Explain the SIMPLE algorithm and show how the pressure is determined.
Derive the continuity equation for an incompressible flow field in differential form and state
the assumptions made.
Derive the momentum equation in Cartesian co-ordinates and state the assumptions for NS
equations.
Derive the forward and central difference approximations to the first derivative along with
the leading error term.
Derive the stability criterion for the explicit scheme for one dimensional transient
conduction.
Derive the stability criterion for the wave equation (CFL condition) from physical or
numerical considerations.

ANNA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI

TIME 3 Hours

221082 -COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

MAXIMUM: 100 Marks
PART A
(10 x 2 = 20 Marks)

1. What are the important applications of CFD in engineering?

2.
3.
4.
5.

Write the 3-dimensional momentum equation.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of stream function-vorticity method?
Differentiate between structured and unstructured grid.
What is meant by CFL condition?

6. Define discretization and round off error.

7. Discuss the need for upwind type discretization.
8. What are the various relaxation techniques?
9. What are the effects of turbulence on time averaged Navier-stoke equation?
10. What are the needs for turbulence models?
PART B

(5 x16 = 80 Marks)

11. a) Derive the energy equation for a viscous flow in partial differential nonconservation form.
(16)
(Or)
b) (i) Explain uniform and non-uniform grids and their necessity.
(8)
(ii) Explain briefly about numerical errors and grid independence test.
(8)
12. a) A long, cylindrical fuel element of radius b=1 cm and thermal conductivity k=25 W/
o
8
3
(m C) generates energy at a constant rate of qg=5X10 W/m . The boundary surface at
o
r=b can be assumed to be maintained at 100 C. Assuming one-dimensional, radial heat
flow, calculate the radial temperature distribution in the fuel element by using finite
differences. Compare the results with the exact solution of the
problem.
(16)
(Or)
b) Drive the equation for two-dimensional transient heat conduction in a square plate
13. a) Discuss SIMPLE procedure of Patankar & Spalding in detail.
(16)
(Or)
b) State and explain the difference between explicit and implicit methods with suitable
examples.
(16)
14. a) (i) Elaborate finite difference approach for computation of thermal boundary layer
flows.
(8)
(ii) An iron rod L=5 cm long of diameter D=2 cm with thermal conductivity k=50 W/ (m.
o
o
2o
C) protrudes from a wall and is exposed to an ambient at T = 20 C and h=100W/m C).
o
The base of the rod is at T0=320 C, and its tip is insulated. Assuming one-dimensional
steady-state heat flow, calculate the temperature distribution along the rod and the rate of
heat loss into the ambient by using finite differences. Compare the finite- difference solution
with the exact analytical solution of this problem. (8)
(Or)
b) (i) Discuss the upwind scheme and its advantages.
(8)
(ii) Derive an energy balance equation of a square plate using convection heat transfer
Method
(8)
15. a) Explain when k- model is preferred and why?
(Or)
b) Explain different Reynolds number models in detail.

(16)
(16)

AE6702- EXPERIMENTAL STREES ANALYSIS

REGULATION 2013
QUESTION BANK
UNIT-1
EXTENSOMETERS AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
PART-A
1. Define Measurement:
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of
comparison between a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown, with a
similar quantity whose magnitude (amount) is known, the later quantity being
called a standard.
2. What are the basic requirements for measurement?
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined
& should be commonly acceptable.
(ii) The standard must be of the same character as the measure and (ie, the
unknown quantity or the quantity under measurement)
(iii) The apparatus used and the method accepted for the purposes of
comparison must be provable.
3. What are the methods of measurements?
(i) Direct Method: In these methods, MEASURAND is directly compared
against a standard.
(ii) Indirect Method: Measuring systems are used in indirect methods for
measurement purposes.

4. What are the uses of measuring instruments?

Measurements involve the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities (or) variables. In simple cases, an instrument consists of
a single unit which gives an output reading or signal according to the unknown
variable (MEASURAND) applied to it.
5. What is dimensional measurement?
Dimensional Measurements are characterized as determination of size of
an object.These are the measurements of dimensions of an object.
6. Explain the measurements of length and displacement:
A displacement means the movements of a point with respect to another
point. Generally length (or change in length) means it referring a distance
between two reference points.Thus measurement of length includes both the
dimensional measurement and the displacement measurement.
7. What are the STANDARDS for the measurement of an angle?
The primary standards of angle may be taken either as angle subtended by
a circle at its centre ie, 360 or as angle between two straight line intersecting in
a manner such that all four angles so formed are equal, ie, each angle is 90.
8. How we can measure the Area of survey plats?
Measurement of area of regular and standard geometrical figures can be
obtained from the dimensions using standard mathematical relationships.There
are many engineering applications which require the measurement of plane
area.Graphical determination of the area of survey plots form maps, the
integration of function to determine the area enclosed by a curve analysis of
experimental data may require the use of measurement of plane area.
9. Give any two methods for measure an unknown force:

An unknown force may be measured by the following methods,

1. Balancing the unknown force against the known gravitational force either
directly
(or) indirectly using a system of levers.
2. Transferring the unknown force to a fluid pressure and then meaning the
resulting
fluid pressure. Hydraulic and Pneumatic load cells are used for transferring the
force into pressure.
10. How we can measure the temperature changes?
Temperature is not measured directly, but is measured through indirect
means; change of temperature of a substance causes a variety of effects. These
effects may be physical,chemical, electrical (or) optical and they may be used
for the measurement of temperature through use of proper temperature sensing
devices.
11. Tell some thing about static characteristics and static calibration in
measurements:
Static characteristics of a measurement system are in general those that
must be considered when the system or instrument is used to measure a
condition not varying with time. All the static performance characteristics are
obtained in one form or another by a process called static calibration
12. What is accuracy and tell about point accuracy?
Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
the true value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement

means conformity to truth.Point Accuracy is the accuracy of the instrument

only at one point on it scale.
13. Give the Type of errors in measurements
(i) Gross errors
(ii) Random errors
(iii) systematic errors
- Instrumental errors
- Environmental errors
- Observational errors
14. Differentiate Gross error and Instrumental Error
Gross errors mainly cover human mistakes in reading instruments and
recording and calculating measurement results.Instrumental Error occurs due to
the wrong adjustments of a measuring devices while it construction or
misalignments of its pats.

15. Differentiate environmental and systematic errors

Environmental errors causes due to the surrounding condition of
instruments, but systematic errors causes because of the fault of the arrangement
of measuring system during the whole measuring process.
16. What absolute static error? Give example
Absolute static error is the difference between measured values of
quantity and the true value of quantity. ie, Eo= X(m) X(t)

Example: an error of 2mm is negligible when the length being measured is of

the
order of ( 1000 mm) 1 m but the same error of 12 mm may be considerable
when the
measurement of 10mm length.
17. What is relative static error?
It is the ratio between absolute error to the true value of quantity
ie, Er= Eo/Xt
18. What is static correction?
Static correction is the negative value of absolute static error ie, Cs= -Eo
19. A meter reads 127.50V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43v.
Determine (a) static error and (b) static correction for this instrument.
Sol: (a) static error (E0) = Xm- Xt = + 0.07V
(b) static correction (Cs)= Eo= -0.07V
20. A thermometer reads 95.45 0c and the static correction given in the
correction curve is 0.08 0c Determine the true value of the temperature
Sol: Cs= - ( Xm- Xt) ie, Xt= Cs + Xm = -0.08 + 95.45 = 95.37 C
21. An inclined Limb manometer is used for measurement of flow rate reads
0.161 x 10- m/s. The true value of flow rate is 0.159 x 10- m/s.
Determine (a)
static error (b) static correction.

Sol: Eo= Xm Xt = ( 0.61- 0.15) x 10- = 0.002 x 10- m/s

22. What do you mean by limiting errors?
The limits of the deviations from the specified values of measurement
datas are
defined as Limiting errors (or) Guarantee error
23. Determine relative limiting error:
The relative error (fractional error) is defined as the ratio of the error to
the specified magnitude (nominal magnitude) of a quantity.

24. What is an uncertainty in a measurement?

Uncertainty of measurement is a parameter associated with the result of
measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of values that could be
reasonably
attributed to the measurand.
25. Define static sensitivity
The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the
ratio of the magnitude of the output quantity to the magnitude of input quantity
being measured.
26. What is known as deflection factor?

Deflection factor or inverse sensitivity is the reciprocal of the static

sensitivity.
27. Define scale range:
The scale range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the
largest and the smallest reading of the instruments.
28. What is the frequency range in measurements?
Frequency range is defined as frequency over which measurements can
be performed with a specified degree of accuracy.
29. What is extensometer?
Extensometer is an instrument used top measure minute deformation of
material while it is subjected to a stress.
30. Classify the extensometers depending upon the magnification systems.
1. Mechanical Extensometers
2. Optical extensometers
3. Acoustical (Vibrating wire) extensometers
4. Electrical extensometers
5. Pneumatic extensometers.
31. What are the Basic Requirements of extensometer?
1. Very high magnification:The magnification required is usually greater
than 1000: 1
2. Sensitivity: The relation between input and output should not be
affected

by the reversal in the direction of input and this requires that the
movement
should not

have any friction.

3. Low input force: The input force required to cause displacement should
be
extremely small thus there is no defamation of the component due to
the process of measurement.
32. Classify the mechanical extensometers depending upon the manner of
obtaining the magnification.
1. Wedge magnification
2. Screw magnification
3. Compound magnification
4. Lever magnification
33. Give the disadvantages of a simple mechanical lever magnification
For strain measurements on inner surfaces of small structures, the
clearance may be in sufficient for the gauge and all its auxiliary equipment.
34. Give the magnification and gauge length of porter- Lipp strain gauge.
Gauge length is 25 mm
Magnification is 300 times
35. Give the advantages of porter- Lipp gauge
1. Very compact

2. Light weight
36. Give the magnification capacity & gaugelength of Huggen-Berger
tensometer
The magnification may vary from 300 to 2000 depending upon the
model. The gauge length varies from 12.5 to 25 mm.
37. What is the measurement capacity of C.E. John extensometer?
C.E. Johnson extensometer can measure strain up to 5 micro strains over
a gauge
length of 50 mm.
38. Give the minimum strain value that scratch gauge can be sense.
The minimum strain that a strain gauge can sense is above 100 micro
strains.
39. Give the advantages of scratch gauge
1. Compact in size
2. It can be attached to almost any surface with clamps or screws &
adhesive bonding
3. It can measure scratch under all types of loading (static, shock, fatigue)
4. It can be used to record stress in all types of environments.
40. Tell something about the magnification capacity of Martens extensometer:
This instrument is extremely sensitive and by using telescope, regarding
may be
estimated to 1/10 mm which corresponding to a length charge of approximately

0.0002m.
41. What is the sensitivity of Tuckerman gauge?
The sensitivity of tucker man gauge is 2 micro strains.
42. For the following reading find the deformation sensitivity & strain
sensitivity
for Tuckerman optical gauge. Base length = 25 mm, d= 1/20, magnification
factor = 5
solution Ds=d/m = 1/(20x5)= 0.01mm
Ss= Ds/L = 0.01/25 = 4 x 10-4 strains.
43. Give the formula to obtain fundamental frequency for a vibrating wire

Where A = Cross sectional Area of vibrating wire

E = Young s moduls of wire material
L = Length of Vibrating wire
M = Mass for unit length
P = tensioning force in the wire
L = incremention length of the vibrating wire.
PART B

1. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

2. Write short notes on:
(a) Accuracy
(b) Sensitivity
(c) Range
3. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their
special advantages and limitations.
4. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should
be considered
5. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain
Huggenberger tensometer in detail.
6. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the
Tuckerman gauge in detail.
7. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.
8. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a
capacitance strain gauge and give its uses and limitations.
UNIT II
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES
PART A
1. Give the classifications of Electrical strain gauges
(a) inductance (or) magnetic strain gauges
(b) Electrical resistance strain gauges
(c) The capacitance strain gauges.
2. How strain can be measured by using Electrical strain gauges?
Electrical strain gauge is a device in which a change in length produces a
change in some electrical characteristics of the gauges.
3. Give the working principle of inductance strain gauges?
An electrical inductance gauge is a device in which the mechanical
quantity to be

measured produced a change in the magnetic field, and hence in the impedance
of a
current carrying coil.
4. Give the working principle of variable air gap gauges
In this types of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by
changing the air gap.
5. Give the working principle of movable core solenoid gauges
In this type of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by
changing the position of the iron core in the coil.
6. Give the working principle of eddy- current gauges
In this types of gauges the losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by
changing the thickness or position of the high- loss element inserted in the
magnetic field.
7. Give the formula for the impedance of a coil to the passage of alternating
current.

Where Z= impedance in ohms

F= frequency in herzs
L= inductance of the coil in henrys
R= resistance component in ohms

8. How the displacement of material structures can be measured by using

electrical
resistance strain gauges?
In the electrical resistance strain gauges the displacement (or) strain is
measured as a function of the resistance change produce by the displacement in
the gauging circuit.
9. What is known as bonded strain gauges?
A thin paper sheet or metal sheet with strain gauge wire is bonded with an
adhesive material to the structure under strictly.
10. What is the use of gauge factor in strain gauge measurements?
Gauge factor is used to determine the sensitivity of strain gauges.
11. Give the requirements for strain gauges?
o Gauge factor should be high
o Wires used in a strain gauge should have high resistance.
o The wires should have a linear relationship between strain &
resistance
of the wire.
12. What is the resistance of material?
Resistance is the property of a material that restricts the flow of charges
through the material.
13. What is known as foil strain gauges?
The foil strain gauge has metal foil photo- etched in a grid pattern of the
electric insulator of the thin resin and gauge leads attached.

14. Give the formula for electrical capacity between parallel plates in
capacitance
strain gauges
C= [8.86 x 10-3 KA (N-1)]/H
Where c- capacitance in picofoarads
K- dielectric constant of the medium between the two plates
A- area of one sife of the plate, mm2
N- No of plates
H- distance between plates in mm
15. What is the basic principle of unbonded metallic strain gauges?
The principle of unbonded metallic gauges is based on change in
electrical resistance of a metallic wire due to change in tension of the wire.
16. What is photo-etching?
Photo etching is the act of producing grid configuration on metal foil with
the help of photo effect.
17. What is known as strip gauges?
The number of strain gauges are arranged in a particular manner is called
strip gauges.
18. What is known as strain rosettes?
An arrangement of strain gauges in particular orientation or angle is
known as strain rosettes
19. Give the quantities required for a good gauge material?

High gauge factor

High resistance
Low temperature sensitivity
High electrical stability
Good corrosion resistance
High yield point stability
20. Give some arrangements of strain gauges to obtain strain rosettes
1. Two gauge rosette
2. Rectangular rosette
a) Three element
b) Four element
3. Delta (or) Equiangular rosette
4. T. Delta rosette
21. Give the formula for strain measured by a strain gauge in particular angles

22. Give the relation on between principal stress and principal strains

23.What are the methods are available for computing the strain rosette datas?
1. Analytical Solutions
2. Graphical Solutions
3. Semi graphical (or) vectorial layout method
4. Nomographic Solutions
5. Geometrical Computers.
24. Give the advantages of strain Rosette analysis.
(i)Extreme simplicity and speed of application.
(ii)Possibility of allowing for transverse effects.
(iii)No requirements for additional equipments.
(iv) The possibility of training relativity unskilled persons to use the
method.
25.Give the type of strain gauge circuits.
1. Wheat stone bridge circuits for static strain measurements.
2. Potentiometer circuits for dynamic strain measurements.
26. Define sensitivity of potentiometer:
Sensitivity of the potentiometer circuit is defined as the ratio of the output
voltage divided by the strain.
PART - B
1.

Write short notes on the following :

(i)
Electromagnetic strain gauge
(ii)
Weldable strain gauge

(6)
(6)

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

What is the necessity of temperature compensation? How this can be

achieved?
What do you understand by a strain rosette? What are the different types
of strain rosette configurations currently in use? Discuss their uses and
limitations.
Discuss the various methods of calibrating a strain gauge.
What are the essential requirements of a balancing technique? Discuss the
different ways in which you can balance a bridge.
Discuss the associated instrumentation for measuring
(a) Strain strains
(b) Dynamic strains
UNIT III
PHOTOELASTICITY
PART - A

1. Define Light
Light is usually defined as the radiation that can affect the human eye.
2. Define White light:
Light from a source that emits a continuous spectrum with equal energy
for every wave length is called white light.
3. Define monochromatic light:
Light of a single wave length is called monochromatic light.
Example: sodium vapour lamp, Hg arc lamp.
4. What is wave front?
The focus of points on different radial lines from the source exhibiting the
same
disturbance at a given instant of time, in a surface known as a wave front.
5. Define Ray?

A line normal to the wave front, indicating the direction of propagation of

the waves is called a ray.
6. What are longitudinal waves?
The waves in which vibration are along the direction of their travel is
known as
longitudinal waves.
7. What are transverse waves?
Transverse waves are waves in which vibrations are perpendicular to the
direction of wave travels.
8. What is polarized light?
The light having vibration only along a single straight line perpendicular
to the
direction of propagation of light is said to be polarized.
9. What is plane of polarization?
The plane containing the direction of propogation of light, but containing
no
vibrations is called the plane of polarization.
10. What are the methods are available to obtain plane polarized light?
(i) Refraction and Reflection for glass plate.
(ii) By using Nichol Prism.
11. What are the disadvantages are available in Nichol prism when we use that
to

obtain plane polarized light?

1. Costly
2. Intensity is Poor.
12. What is the basic principle for photo elasticity?
When polarized light enters a loaded transparent component, it is split
into two beams both beams travel along the same path, but each vibrates along a
principal direction and travels at a speed proportional to the associated principal
stress.
13. What is Refractive index?
The ratio of the velocity of light In air to the velocity in the medium is
called the
refractive index of the medium and is denoted by n .
14. What is wave length?
The wave length of any given frequency in the distance traveled during
one complete vibration.
15. Define Amplitude?
Amplitude is a magnitude of the disturbance, the intensity of light may be
taken
as directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration.
16. Define phase
The phase of vibration at any instant defines the stage of the cycle
reached at that instant.

17. Give the general equation of motion of a transverse light wave propagating
in Zdirection.

Where E = magnitude of light vector

t = amplitude of the wave.
18. What do you mean by Polariscope?
Polariscope is an optical instrument that utilizes the properties of
polarized light in its operation.
19. Give the types of polariscopes used in experimental stress analysis?
(i) Plane Polariscope
(ii) Circular Polariscope
20. Give the four different possible setups in circular polariscope?
Setup Polariser- Analyzer Quarter wave plates Field

21. What is the standard setup in circular polariscope?

The crossed crossed setup is called the standard setup of the circular
polariscope.
22. State Stress optic law:

The relative change in index of refraction is proportional to the difference

of principal stresses.
23. What is known as isotropic point in a polariscope setup?

24. What is known as singular points in a polariscope setup?

25. What are the properties of photo elastic materials?

1. Transparent to light used in the Polariscope.
2. Easily machinable by conventional means.
3. It should be force form residual stresses
4.They should have both mechanical and optical isotropy and
homogeneity.
26. Give the most commonly used methods for compensation techniques
1. Babinet compensation method.
2. Babinet soleil compensation method
3. Tension or compression stop method.
4. Tardy method of compensation.
5. Senarment method of compensation
6. Photometric method.

27. What are the techniques used to determine the stresses at the inner layers of
the
body in 3D photo elasticity?
1. Locking in the stresses in the model
2. Multilayer reflection technique.
PART B
1. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and
the fringes obtained in it
2. Sketch a plain polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the
fringes obtained in it.
3. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.
4. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity.
5. What are the important properties of an ideal photoelastic material?
Discuss the important photoelastic materials.
6. Explain the Tardys compensation method in detail. Why this method is
preferred over other methods?
UNIT-IV
BRITTLE COATING AND MOIRE TECHNIQUES
PART A
1. What do you Understand by the brittle coating method?
The brittle coating or stress coat method is a qualitative whole field
technique where a brittle lacquer or impact lacquer is sprayed on the part to be
analysed, the loaded in a static, dynamic or impact mode.
2. What is the function of brittle coating?

The brittle coatings to be employed were those coating which naturally

formed on structural members, such as mill scale on hot-rolled steel and oxider
a heated surfaces.
3. What are the uses of brittle coating methods?
Brittle coating have been used on plastics,wood,paper,rubber,glass,bones
and metals to investigate stresses under static, dynamic and impact loads. Also
used to test parts in the laboratory as well as out of doors under field conditions.
4. What is the principle of brittle coating stresses?
i) The directions of the principle stress which are perpendicular to the cracks
(isostatic).
ii) The estimated magnitude of the larger principle stress by means of the
isoentatics clock of crack ends.
5. What are the assumptions in coating stresses analysis?
i) A state of plane stress is assumed to exist.
ii) Perfect adhesion between the coating and the specimen.
iii) Maximum principle stress theory is assumed given the failure of the
loading.
iv) Residual stresses in the calibration strip and specimen are the same.
6. What are the types of brittle coating methods?
i) Resin based coating
ii) Ceramic based coating
iii) tens-lac brittle lacquer.
7. What are the variable influences of brittle coating behavior?

i) Number and type of coating

ii) Effect of spraying unit.
iii) Effect of coating application method
iv) Influence of heat treatment.
8. What is the advantage of brittle coating?
i) It provides whole field data for both magnitude and direction of principle
stresses and does not require a tedious point-to-point method.
ii) There is no load simulation problem.
iii) The data analysis is simple.
9. What is the application of brittle coating?
i)Determination of residual stresses in conjunction with the hole drilling
method.
ii) Determination of compressive strain by using relaxation technique.
iii) Determination of dynamic strains.
iv) For outdoor operations.
10. What is Moirs fringe method?
The Moirs effect occurs whenever two similar but not quite identical array
of equally spaced lines or dots are arranged so that one array can be viewed
through the other.
11. What are methods available in Moirs fringe analysis techniques?
i) Geometrical approach
ii) Displacement approach.

12. What is the application of Moirs methods?

i) In plane and out of plane displacement and slopes can be determined
easily.
ii) Moirs methods can be used to dynamic problems.
iii) Strains in curved surfaces can be conveniently analyzed.
iv) Moirs fringes can be used to determine isopachics and thus can act as
an extensometer.
13. What is advantage of Moirs methods?
i) Strain distribution in actual components can be determined and there is
no necessity of making models.
ii) Strain at very high temperatures can be determined conveniently.
iii) The gratings do not spoil the specimen as is the case in the brittle
lacquer and strain gauge methods.
PART B
1. What are the assumptions made while analyzing brittle coatings? Derive
expressions for coating stresses.
2. When do we use relaxation loading method to analyze brittle coating data?
How specimen stresses can be determined by this method?
3. Explain briefly the refrigeration t technique used for brittle lacquers. What
are the effects of this technique on brittle lacquers?
4. What are the various types of brittle coating available? Discuss their
important features.

5. Describe the calibration method generally used for brittle coating .how true
threshold strains can be determined by this method?
6. Discuss briefly the various influencing the coating behavior?
7. Explain the Moirs method in brief and discuss the fundamental properties
of the Moires fringes.
8. What are the two techniques used for Moirs fringe analysis? Discuss the
displacement approach in detail?
9. Describe calibration the shadow Moirs method in detail and give its uses.
10. Discribe the ligtenberg method to solve plate bending problems?
UNIT-V
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
PART A
1. Define Non destructive testing
Non destructive testing is a technique for revealing flaws and defects in
a material or device without damaging as destroying the test sample.
2. Give some advantages of NDT:
1. Can be done directly on production items without regards to part cost
or
quantity available.
2. Can be done on 100% of production of on representative samples.
3. Give the limitations of NDT:
1. Results often must be interpreted by a skilled. Experienced technician.

2. In absence of contact with each other, different observers may disagree

on meaning & significance of test results.
4. What is neutron Radiography?
Radiographic inspection using a stream of neutrons known as neutron
Radiography.
5. Give the advantages of Radiographic inspection.
- The ability to detect internal flows
- An ability to detect significant variations in composition.
- Permanent recording of raw inspection datas.
6. Give some advantages of Brittle coating method.
- Provides nearly whole field area
- Is non destructive if the coating is sensitive enough.
- Is simple to analyze
7. Give some advantages by using fiber optic sensors.
- Light weight (very small in size)
- Low power requirement
- Resistant to electromagnetic interference
- High sensitivity
PART B
1. State the uses and advantages of Non-Destructive Testing procedures.
Explain in detail any one of the NDT procedure for evaluating a given
specimen.

2. Write short notes on the following:

a. Eddy Current Testing
b. Radiography
3. Explain the process of Magnetic particle inspection with a neat sketch.
4. With a suitable sketch explain the process of Fluorescent penetrant
technique.
5. Explain the brittle coating method in brief. What are the advantages and
limitations of this method?
6. Briefly explain the following which are used in the experimental analysis:
a.

Fiber optic sensors

b. Thermography
c.

C Scan

AE6010
AIRFRAME MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR PRACTICES
1. What is welding?
Welding is a process used joining metal parts by either fusion or forging.
2. What are the joining methods used in aircraft?

Bolting

Riveting,

Brazing,

Soldering,

Bonding,

Welding.

3. Give reason for welding process is the best joining method?

Rigidity

Simplicity

Low weight

High strength

4. What is Gas welding? List its types?

Gas welding is accomplished by heating end & edges of metal to molten state with a
high temperature flame.
Types:

Oxy-acteylene

Oxy-hydroyen

5. What is electric resistance welding?

Is a process in which a low voltage , high amperage current is applied to the metal to
be welded through heavy , low resistance copper conductor.
6. What are the types of electric resistance welding?

Butt welding

Spot

7. List down the equipments used in Oxy-acteylene welding technique?

Cylinder (Oxygen, acetylene)

Pressure regulator

Welding torch

Hose

Special wrench

Spark lightner

Goggles , Gloves

Fire extinguisher

8 . What type of fire extinguisher use in Oxy-acteylene welding?

Carbon dioxide type used , is a chemical powder for special in gases or oil fire.
10. How to identify the oxygen- hose & acetylene hose?
Oxygen right hand thread
Acetylene - left hand thread
11. What are the types of NDT?

Eddy current method

Ultrasonic

Dye-penetrate

Maganetic

12. List the types of plastic used in aircraft?

Acrylics plastic

Cellouse,

Acetates

13. What is thermosetting plastic ?

14. How to ensure the quality weld ?

1. Smooth & uniform thickness
2. Extra thickness at the seam
3. Weld metal should taper off smoothy into the base metal.
4. Oxide form not more than in
5. No signs of blowholes , porosity & globules.
6. No signa of pitting, burning, cracks.

15.what is the purpose of APU?

When modern a/c s engine s are not operating , there are two available sources of
power to operate its other systems. They are a/cs battery and auxiliary power unit. b/c of the
limted capacity of the batteries , the amount of supply is insufficient to provide all but the very
basic needs.
16.Differenitate between soldering and brazing?
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal item are joint together by melting and
flowing a filter metal into the joint
Brazing :- if the filler metal has a melting point of more than 800F ,the process is called brazing
17.List the five fundamental types of welded joints?
*Butt joint
*Lap joint
* Tee joint
* Edge joint
*Corner joint
19. What is autoclaves?
An autoclaves is an instrument used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to
high pressure saturated stream at 12C for around 15-20min
20.Define Mean Aerodynamics Chord?
MAC is defined as the chord line is along the wing span and c is the chord at the
coordinates y
21.Explain the meaning of a/c leveling?
A level bust is also a altitude deviation ,occurs when an a/c fails tofly at certain level.An a/c
leveling off at the correct level or altitude ,but with an incorrect.
23.What are the flammables in aerospace industry?
Frequency found flammables or combustibles materials in the aviation industry include fuels,
paint-related products, alcohols, acetones, toluence and some metal filings
24.State the eight categories of toxins in the aviation industry?
1.solvents and thinners for bluing
2.solids such as metal dust or asbestos
3.Machine lubricants ,cutting fluids ,and oils

4.Gases such as co2 or N2

5.Polymers,epoxiesand plastics
6.sensitizers,such as epoxy s/m
7.Carcinogens
8.Reproductive hazards,such as carcinogens
25.Differenitate between Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
Thermoplastics: There are a wide range of thermoplastics some that are rigid and some that are
extremely flexible.
Thermosetting plastics: The molecules of thermosetting plastics are heavily cross linked . They
form a rigid molecular structure.
26.What is rigging of the flight control system?
The rigging involves two principal types of operations, first the a/c structure must be rigged for
correct alignment of all fixed components. Second rigging is the alignment of control surface
and the controls that moves the surface.
27.What is meant by trouble shooting?
Trouble shooting is the process of identifying the cause of a malfunction determining its
serverity and eliminating the cause,replacing or repairing.
28.What are the classifications of Damage?
*Negligible damage
*Patch Repairable Damage
*Damage Repair by insertion
*Damage requiring replacement.
29.What are the types of Non-Destructive Inspection?
*Visual Inspection
*dye penetrant
*fluorescent penetration
*Magnetic particle
*Radiological
*Eddy current
30.Define Welding?
Welding is a process used for joining metals parts by either fusion or forging

31.What are the different types of fusion welding?

Oxyacetylene welding

Electric arc welding

Electric Resistance

Inert Gas Arc

32.What are the purpose of welding jigs & fixtures?

*To minimize distortion caused by heat of welding.
*To prevent Welding in more convenient position .
*Minimise fitting up pblm.
33.What is Welding jigs?
Welding jigs are specialized devices which enables the component to be easily & rapidly
setup& held.
34. What is welding fixtures?
A welding jig, but in addition ,it permits the changing of the position during actual
welding.
35.What are the maintenance practices taken in Electric Resistance welding?
Weekly:
*Inspect electrical connection
*Clean electrode holders& exterior
*Clean transformers with low pr.hose
*If noisy operation & tighten bolts.
36.What is synthetic plasctics?
The main source is crude oil. Coal & natural gas are also used. They are broken down
into monomers.
37.What are the advantages of plastics?
* plastics are used in place of glass for windows because they are light in wt & no
reduction in clarity.
* Resistant to breaking than glass
38.Why we use plastics?
Plastics are easily formed materials. It can be easily printed and decorated.
39. What are the helicopter flight controls?

*Movement about the 3 axes of the a/c.

*The engine power.
*The rotor system lift.
41. Define Toxins?
Toxins are generally defined as any substance that can cause an illness or injury.
42. What are the physical hazards ?
*Ray, Microwaves, beta or gamma rays invisible laser beams and HF sound waves.
43.What are the biological hazards?
Biological hazards are living organism that cause illness or disease spread through air
droplets or spores and enter the body through contact.
44.What are the different types of welding position?
The four welding positions are flat-position welding, vertical position welding, horizontal
position welding and over head position welding.
45. What are the techniques used to remove paint?

Solvents

Sandblasting

Trialene soap

46.State the composite components used in airplane?

Fibrous glass reinforced plastics
47. What are jacking?
Raising the a/c for any maintenance & inspection
48. Differentiate between pressure regulator and pressure relief valve?
Pr regulator valve:It regulates the flow of pressure
Pr relief valve:It prevent the cabin from being at a higher altitude than the ambient air.
49.What is eddy current inspection?
The electrical current are generated in the parts by means of electromagnetic waves.
50.What is radiological Inspection?

X-ray inspection was limited in valve in the part because of the in accessibility of many
joints and the necessity of taking exposures from several angles to makes certain that all defects
was found.
51. What are the three general categories of hazardous materials?
Hazardous materials are typically grouped into three categories : chemical agents,and
physical and biological hazards.
52.What are the four classes of chemical agents?
*Flammable And Corrosive Toxic Or Reactive
53.How long does it take for a toxic agent to show its effects on human body?
Toxins are generally defined as any substance that can cause an illness or injury .The
effects of toxins, unlike Flammables and corrosives, may appear all at once ,or may build up
over time with additional exposure. Some toxins may dissipate over time when further
exposure. Some toxins may dissipate over time when further exposure is eliminated while
others remains in a humans system even after death.
54. List some of the flammable materials found in the aviation industry?
Flammables are materials that may easily ignite in the presence of a catalyst such as heat,
sparks, or flame. They may be in any of the three physical forms; Solids, Liquid, or Gas. C
Combustible liquids are very similar to flammable liquids, but they are not as easy to ignite.
Frequency found Flammable or combustible materials in the aviation industry include
fuels, paints-related products, alcohols, acetone, toluene, and some metal filings.
55.What type of corrosives generally come in powder form?
Strong acids are most normally found in a liquid form, whereas bases tend to come in
powered form.
56.What type of toxin may cause cancer?
Carcinogens may cause change in the genetics makeup of a human cell, resulting in
cancer. Although the use of carcinogens is rare in the aviation industry, aviation maintenance
technicians associated with cargo a/c should pay particular attention to the cargo manifest
before cleaning spillage.
57.What are the basic five requirements of a hazard communication pgm?
*Inventory
*Labeling

*Material safety data sheets

*Training
*Written program
58.What is mean by Fuse welding?
It is the process used by welders in the aviation and other industries in which enough heat
is applied to melt the edge or surfaces of the molten parts flow together, leaving a single, Solid
piece of metal when cool.
60.Define electric Arc welding?
This method requires a special generator to provide a low-voltage , high amperage
current for the arc. The power supply may be an electric motor driven generator, an enginedriven generator, or a special transformer.
61.Define MIG?
The type of inert gas welding utilizes a metal electrode, which melts and is carried into
the weld pool it provide the extra thickness desired. This type of weld has been called metal
inert gas welding.
62.What is TIG ?
It is the gas tungsten arc welding by the AWS, is accomplished by means of a torch with
a non-consumable tungsten electrode. The electrode is used to sustain the arc and the molten
pool of metal.
63. What are the different types of Inert gas welding?
1.TIG welding
2.MIG welding
3.Plasma-Arc welding
64. Define Plasma Arc welding?
In the plasma arc welding the flow of plasma is restricted but is at an increased speed
through an orifice, resulting in higher temp and improved concen of heat.
65.What are the different types of soldering?
The different types of soldering are dip soldering, Resistance soldering, Induction
soldering, Furnace soldering.
66.What is Dip soldering?
It is where the joint is lowered into a pot of molten solder.

67.What is Resistance soldering?

It is where the heat is produced by passing electric current through the joint materials
68. Define Induction soldering?
It is where the passing if a magnetic field over the joint materials produces an electric
current.
69.Define Furnace soldering?
It is where the units to be soldered are passed through an electric or gas furnace.
70.Explain the difference between safe life and fail safe design?
Safe Life:-Originally, the recognized theory of structural design was called safe-life. The
philosophy of safe life was to test the various components to failures and to use as a
components airworthy maximum life 25% of the average life, when tested to destructive
failure.
Fail safe:-The next stage in the structural design philosophy was fail-safe construction. In
fail safe construction each component was designed to be able to accept the forces of adjacent
components should their neighbor components fail.
71.What is a safety factor?
When designing an original structure it is unwised to design a part so that the entire
strength of material is utilized under standard operating condition.
72.How is stress measured?
The result of such forces is called stress. Stress is load applied over a given area, in which
these forces are applied determines the type of stress (compression, tension, torsion, bending, or
shear) some stress are most typically unidirectional, such as tension and shear. In such cases the
cross sectional area over which the load is applied may be easily determined, and these area can
be used to calculate the amt of stress.
73. Describe Strain?
Strain is measured by establishing a ratio of the increased in length the result from a
stress divide by the original length of the material. If the unit of measure for a strain calculation
inches the unit of measure for strain is inches per inches.
74. What is Fatigue ?
As an a/c ages, it is subject to variety of stress. These stresses come from the load applied
on the ground, during take off, taxing, Landing,a/c pressurization and during flight. The

accumulation of these stresses over time results in a weakening of the material. This weakening
is called Fatigue.
75. What is the purpose of a relief hole?
When a piece of metal has two bends that interest, it is nessceory to provide relief holes
in the metal at the intersection of the bends. If relief holes are not provided , the metal crowds
together in the corners and set up stresses that lead to cracks.
76.What is bend allowance?
The distance of the bend allowance depends upon the thickness of the metals, the radius
of the bend and the degree of the bend.
77.What are the hand tools used for Sheet metal work?
*Hammer
*Hand nibbling tool
*Hole saw
*Chassis punch
*Hand rivet set
*Rivet gun
*Bucking bar
*Sheet fasteners
*Hole finder
*Rivet cutter
78. What is the difference b/w aircraft assembly and rigging?
Assembly: of an a/c refers to the joining of parts or subassemblies by various by
various means until the entire a/c is in condition for operation .
Rigging is the alignment of a/c parts oo sections to obtain proper flight characteristics.
79.What are precaution must be taken in the hoisting of an a/c?
A fuselage is provided with fitting or attachment for the purpose of hoisting or jacking.
When it is necessary to hoist or jack the a/c the technician must make sure that the correcet
procedure is used and the proper fitting are available. The manufacturers manual gives detailed
instruction for handling the a/c.
80.Define symmetric check?

A/c symmetry is determined by first leveling the a/c and then measuring the distance
from reference points on the a/c central axis to reference points on the adjustable components.
81.What are the principle operation involved in a/c rigging?
The a/c structure must be rigged for correct alignment of all fixed components.The
fuselage is aligned at the time of manufacture in the assembly jigs.
The second type of rigging is the alignment of control surfaces and the control that move
the surface. These operations require the adjustment of cable length ,cable tension, push-pull
rods, bell cranks, cable drums, and various other parts.
82. Define Stagger in biplane?
Stagger is the longitudinal difference in the position of the leading edges of the wings of
the biplane. If the leading edge of the upper wing is ahead of the leading edge of the lower
wing, the stagger is positive.
83.Define Decalage in biplane?
Decalage is the difference b/w the angles of incidence of the upper and lower wings.
84. What is angle of incidence?
The angle formed by the intersection of the wing chord line and the horizontal axis
of the aircraft.
85. What are the inspections carried on the control system ?
1. Examine all cables for wear or corrosion
2. Examine all pulleys for wear , cracks and alignment
3. Where the cables passes through fairleads or guides
4. Wear of pulley bearing, bearing bolt, bushings, clevis pins and other
moving parts
5. Cable tension
6. The system should be checked to see that no cable fitting comes within
2in of a pulley.
7. Control surface travel area should be checked
8. After all adjustments are made, all safetying turnbuckles, clevis pins, nuts,
etc
86. What is tricycle landing gear?

Tricycle landing gear is characterized by having a nose wheel assembly and two
main gear assemblies one on each side of the a/c. This arrangement places the aircraft fuselage
in a level attitude when the aircraft is on the ground.
87. Explain the conventional-geared a/c?
It have two main wheel assemblies, one on each side of the a/c, and a tail wheel. This
arrangement has the advantage of reduced drag in the air and recorded landing gear weight.
There is some loss of forward visibility for the pilot when maneuvering on the ground due to the
a/c nose-high attitude.
88.What is the purpose of landing gear?
It supports the air plane during the ground operation, dampens vibrations when the
airplane is being taxied or towed and cushions the landing impact. The landing of an airplane
often involves stresses far in excess of what may be considered normal.
89. What is anti torque rotor?
The direction in which a helicopter is pointed is controlled by anti torque rotor(tail rotor).
The control s/m for the tail rotor to change the pitch of the rotor blade, thus changing the
sideward thrust exerted by the rotor. The rotor speed remains constant.
90.Expalin about rigid landing gear?
A rigid landing gear is commonly found on helicopter and sail planes. This Gear is
rigidly mounted to the a/c with no specific component to the cushion the ground contact other
than through the flexing of the landing gear on air frame structure.
91. What are the types of the shock absorbing landing gear?
The two types of shock absorbing landing gear commonly used are the spring-oleo and
the air-oleo type.
92.what do you mean by rotor system?
It is used to convert the engine power into lift, propulsive force, and directional control.
The helicopter have two main rotor. This system is driven by the a/c powerplant through a
transmission
93.Explain Trunnion?
The trunnion is the portion of the landing gear assembly attached to the airframe. The
trunnion is supported at its ends by bearing assemblies which allows the gear to pivot during
retraction and extension.

94. Define Struts?

The struts is the vertical member of the landing gear assembly that contains the shock
absorbing mechanism the top of the strut is attached to, or is an integral part of the trunnion it is
also called as the outer cylinder.
95. What is snubbing action?
During the strut extension stock the fluid is forced return through the metering
orifice. This is design to prevent the strut from extending too rapidly on the take off or during
bad landing and is often referred to as a snubbing action.
96. Explain about fully articulated rotor system?
It has three or more rotor blades and each blade can move by three different motions,
independent of the other blades in the system.
97. What is feathering in Helicopter?
Each blade is also free to rotate about its central axis . this is called feathering.
98. Explain Collective control?
Collective control lever is located on the left side of the pilot seat. And move up and
down to control the amount lift being generated by the main rotor system.
99. What is auto rotation?
When the freewheeling unit disconnect the engine from the rotor system the helicopter
enters a type of flight known as auto rotation, where the air moving upward through the rotor
system causes the rotors to turn.
100. What is shimmy dampers?
The shimmy damper is a hydraulic snubbing unit that reduces the tendency of the nose
wheel to oscillate from side to side.
101. Explain the types of shimmy dampers?
Shimmy dampers are usually constructed in one of the two general design. They are piston type
dampers and vane type dampers.
102. Explain about the piston shimmy damper?
A piston type shimmy damper is simply a hydraulic cylinder containing a piston rod and
a piston and filled with hydraulic fluid.
103. Explain about the vane type dampers?
Vane type dampers are designed with a set of moving vanes and a set of stationary vane.

104. Explain about Truck?

The truck is located on the bottom of the strut piston and has the axles attached to it. It is
used when wheels are to be placed in tandem or in dual tandem arrangement.
105. What is tracking of Main rotor?
Tracking of a helicopter rotor means determining if one blade follows the path or track of
the other blade or the blades as they rotate during operation. The two principle methods for
rotor tracking
1. Stroboscopic light tracking
2.Flag tracking
107. How hazard materials are grouped?
These materials are grouped into 3categories by
1. Chemical agents.
2. Physical hazards
3. Biological hazards
108. Describe the dye-penetrant inspection process?
Inspection of a metal is easily accomplished by means of dye penetrant inspection. In
this process the dye penetrates any small cracks or fissures and seeps out when a developer Is
applied to the joint. Thus the crack is revealed as bright red line.
109. Describe the basis of fluorescent penetrant inspection?
It can be use for detecting cracks or other flaws in a welding structure. A liquid
containing a fluorescent material is applied to the part to be inspected.
110. What are some of the disadvantages plastics as compared to glass?
1.plastics is readily accepting a static charge and thus attracting dust and dirt particle.
2.glass is softer, plastic is more easy to damaged by surface abrasion than glass.
111. inspection and maintenance of fire protection system?
Mechanical parts are examined for damage, wear, security of mountings and compliance
with technical and regulatory requirements.
112. Inspection and maintenance of ice protection system?
The inspection of pneumatic mechanical deicer system require and examination of the
deicer boots for the condition, adherence to the protected surface and the condition of the
surface of the boots.

113. List the Personal safety equipments?

*

Fire retardant clothing

Fire extinguisher

114. What are the types of toxins?

*Reproductive hazards
*Carcinogens
*Gases such as co2 and n2
*Polymer
115. How are the plastic sheets protected while in storage ?
1.Plastic sheets should be store in racks or on flats.
2. In rack plastic sheets stored on edge at 10 degree angle from the vertical.
3. The bottom edges should rest on blocks about 3 inch wide no more than 42inch apart.
4.If store flat, plastics should be supported underneath, thinner and smaller size pieces
placed on the top of thicker and larger size pieces.
5. formed pieces should be store individual racks.
116. If the masking paper adhesive has dried out and will not peel off the surface easily, what
can be done?
Any plastic is storied should hav aspray type or paper masking installed . Care should
Be taken to remove rough egdes from plastics that have been cut before placing them in a
storage rack or stack.do not allow any dirt plastic metal or other particle to get b/n piececs of
plastics as this can damage the platic surface even with a masking installed.
117. What are the basic tools used in cutting the plastics
Radial arm saws, table saw, band saw, jig saw, scroll saw.
118. Explain about PPE?
Personal protection equipment in the form of safety glasses , respirators, dust masks, and
chemical resistant gloves should be used when handling any chemical substance.
119. What are the characteristics of welding fixtures?
Supporting ,clamping, grounding, imparting movement
120. How welding fixtures are classified?
1.act on the work being welded
2. act on the welding equipment

PART B QUESTIONS
UNIT I
1. State the characteristics of a good weld & How welded-patch repair is carried out.
2. Explain in detail the procedures and instructions for setting up Acetylene
Welding Equipment.
3. Explain in detail the various NDT methods used in aircraft maintenance.
4. (i). State the five fundamentals type of welded joints.
(ii). Explain the characteristics of a good weld.
(iii). What is plasma Arc welding?
(iv). Differentiate between MIG and TIG welding.
5. Explain welding jigs of fixtures used in aircraft industry?
6. Explain maintenance of welding equipments.
7. Explain different types of inert gas welding?
8. Explain NDI checks used in sheet method?
9. Explain rivet repair design?

UNIT II
1. Discuss about the maintenance and repair of plastic components.
2. Explain in detail about the inspection and repair of composite components.
3. Explain the common method of cementing transparent plastics.
4. Explain an typical example of the procedure used in the repair of a mat-molden
assembly.
5.

Explain NDI methods for composites inspection?

6.

Explain cementing of plastics.

UNIT III

1. Describe the important guide lines for installation and rigging of control surfaces.
2. Explain the methods used for checking the track of the main rotor of a helicopter.
3. Explain the procedure of jacking an aircraft.
4. Describe the various methods used in tracking the main rotor of a helicopter.
5. Explain control surface rigging?
6. Explain procedure for AC leveling?
7. Explain symmetric check on aircraft?

UNIT IV
1. Describe the inspections on fixed-gear and retractable landing gear carried
out for maintenance of landing gear.
2. Write short notes on Fire Protection system and Ice Protection system.
3. Write the procedure for servicing and maintenance of oxygen system in any airplane.
4. Write short notes on:
(i). water and waste system inspection.
(ii) fire protection system inspection.
5. Explain inspection and maintenance of fire protection system?
6. Explain inspection and maintenance of instruments?
7. Explain inspection and maintenance of fixed and retractable landing gear.

UNIT V
1. Describe in brief about the three categories of hazardous materials in aircraft
maintenance.
2. Explain quoting an example of trouble shooting procedure followed in aircraft
servicing.
3. Write in detail the safety precautions to be followed while storing and handling
hazardous materials.
4. Explain the causes and remedial actions of the following defects:
(i). Aircraft has a tendency to fly one wing low
(ii). Aircraft has a tendency to be nose or tail heavy.
5. Explain with diagram on position and warning system used in aircraft?

6. Explain trouble shooting with and without chart?

AE6007 - FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

Unit-1 FATIGUE OF STRUCTURES

PART A
1. Define endurance limit
2. What is a notch?
3. What is stress concentration factor
4. What is Nuebers stress concentration factor
5. What is plastic stress concentration factor
6. Draw notched S.N curve
7. What is fatigue
8. Draw the SN curve
9. Explain Goodman, Gerber and soderberg relations
10. What is stress reversals
PART-B
1. Explain S-N curve of fatigue tests
2. Explain the effect of mean stress, Goodman, Gerber and Soderberg relations
3. Explain notches and stress concentrations
4. Explain Neubers stress concentration factors in detail
5. Explain plastic stress concentration factors in detail
6. Explain Notched S.N curves in detail

Unit -2 STATISTICAL ASPECTS OF FATIGUE BEHAVIOR

PART A
1. What is low cycle fatigue
2. What is high cycle fatigue

3. Explain Coffin-Mansons relation

4. Explain transition life
5. What is cyclic strain hardening
6. What is strain softening
7. Explain the analysis of load histories
8. Name the cycle counting techniques
9. What is cumulative damage
10. What is Miners theory

PART B
1. Explain Low cycle fatigue and high cycle fatigue in detail
2. Explain Coffin-Mansons relation
3. Explain the analysis of load histories in detail
4. Explain cycle counting techniques in detail
5. Explain Miners theory.

Unit-3 PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF FATIGUE

PART A
1. What are the phases in fatigue life?
2. Explain dislocation
3. Explain stress analysis of cracked bodies
4. What is potential energy and surface energy
5. What is fracture toughness
6. What are the stress intensity factors
7. Write the Griffiths equation
8. What is nucleation ?
9. Explain the crack initiation process
10. Explain the crack growth process

PART B
1. Explain the phases in fatigue life in detail
2. Explain the strength and stress analysis of cracked bodies
3. Explain Griffith theory
4. Explain Irwin-Orwin extension of Griffiths theory
5. Explain the effect of thickness on fracture toughness and stress intensity factors
for typical geometries.

Unit -4 FRACTURE MECHANICS

PART A
1. What is safe life?
2. What is fail-safe design philosophies?
3. What is the importance of fracture mechanisms in aerospace structures?
4. Explain the methods of fatigue testing
PART B
1. Explain safe life and fail safe design philosophies in details
2. Importance of fracture mechanics in aerospace structures?
3. Application of fracture mechanics to composite materials and structures

Unit-5 FATIGUE DESIGN AND TESTING

PART A
1. What are the common causes of failure
2. Explain the principle of failure analysis?
3. Explain the fracture mechanics approach to failure problems
4. What are the techniques of failure analysis
5. Explain service failure mechanisms
6. What is brittle fracture?

7. What is ductile fracture?

8. Distinguish brittle fracture and ductile fracture
9. What is fatigue fracture?
10. What are wear failures?
11. What are fretting failures
12. What are environment induced failures
13. What are the high temperature failures
14. What is faulty heat treatment failures?
15. What are design failures
16. What are processing failures?
PART B
1. What are the various techniques of failure analysis? Explain in detail
2. Explain service failure mechanisms
3. Explain brittle and ductile fracture in detail
4. Explain wear failure and fretting failures
5. Explain environment induced failures and high temperature failures
6. Explain faulty heat treatment and design failures

GE6757
TOTAL
QUALITY
MANAGEMENT

UNIT I-INTRODUCTION

PART - A

1. Define quality.

Quality is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills

requirements .Degree means that quality that can be used with adjectives such as poor, good and
excellent. Inherent is defined as existing in something especially as a permanent characteristic.
Characteristic can be quantitative or qualitative. Requirements is a need or expectation that is stated,
generally implied by the organization, its customers, and other interested parties. Quality fulfills or
exceeds our expectations. It is quantified as
Q = P/E
Q Quality
P Performance
E Expectations.

It is also defined as the degree of excellence a product or service provides.

According to Deming It is the predictable market. According to Joseph ordingJurantoPhilip
QualityB.Crosby
Quality

is conformance to requirements.

2. What are the dimensions of Quality?

The dimensions of Quality are:
1. Performance Primary product characteristics such as the brightness of the picture.
2. Features Secondary characteristics, added features, such as remote control.
3. Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards.
4. Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail.
5. Durability Useful life includes repair.
6. Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair.
7. Response Human to human interface, such as the courtesy of the dealer.

8. Aesthetics Sensory characteristics such as exterior finish.

9. Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first.

3. Define Quality planning.

It is defined as the process of planning to design and obtain a better quality product
or service and to attain new break through goals.

4. What are the steps in Quality planning?

According to Juran the steps included in Quality planning are:
1. Establish quality goals.
2. Identify customers.
3. Discover customer needs.
4. Develop product features.
5. Develop process features.
6. Establish process controls, transfer to operations.

5. Define Quality cost.

Quality cost is defined as those costs associated with the non achievement of product or service
quality as defined by the requirements established by the organization and its contracts with
customers and society. Simply stated quality cost is the cost of poor products or services. Quality
cost is equated with the cost of attaining quality, it is also equated with the extra cost incurred due to
poor quality.

6. What are the types of quality cost?

Various types of costs associated with Quality are

Prevention cost
Appraisal cost
Internal Failure cost and
External Failure cost

7. What is total quality cost?

Total Quality cost is the summation of all Quality cost
Total Quality cost = [Prevention cost +Appraisal cost +Internal
failure cost +External failure cost]

8. Define activity based costing.

Activity based costing can be defined as a cost calculated based on the activities involved in the
manufacturing process

9. What is trend analysis?.

Trend analysis of quality cost shows the changes in cost over time period or change in cost that may
occur in future. Time to time comparison of changes in quality cost over time period can be
analyzed using trend analysis method.

10.Define Pareto analysis?

Pareto chart was developed by an Italian economist namely Vilfrado pareto. The pareto chart is a
specialized version of a histogram that rank the categories in the chart from most frequent to least
frequent. This chart is used to display the pareto principle in action, arranging data so that a few
vital factors are causing most of the quality problems. This chart is used to analyze the defects that

occur frequently.It is based on the 80-20 rule according to which 80% of the problems are caused by
20% of the components and 20% of the problems are caused by 80% of the components.

11. Define TQM?

TQM is a management philosophy which seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing, finance,
design, engineering, usandonmeetingproductiocustomer needs and organizational objectives. It views
organizations as a collection of processes. It maintains that organizations must strive to continuously
improve these processes by incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers.
The Simple Objective of TQM
Do

the right things,

the

first time, every time.

Some Basic Tenets of TQM

1. The customer determines quality.
2. Improving quality requires the establishment of effective quality metrics. We must speak with
data not just opinions.
3. People working within systems create quality.
4. Quality is a moving target. It requires a commitment toward sustained continuous improvement.
5. Prevention not detection is the key to producing high quality. We must design quality into
products and reduce variability.
6. Top Management must provide leadership and support for all quality initiatives.

12.

What are the Points in Demings Philosop

1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of products and service.

2. Adopt a new philosophy: we are in a new economic age.
3. Cease dependence upon inspection as a way to achieve quality.

4. End the practice of awarding business based on price tag.

5. Constantly improve the process of planning, production, and service- this system includes people.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute improved supervision (leadership)
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between departments.
10. Eliminate slogans/targets asking for increased productivity without providing methods
11. Eliminate numerical quotas.
12. Remove barriers that stand between workers and their pride of workmanship.
13. Institute programs for education and retraining.
14. Put all emphasis in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.

13. Define Vision Statement?

A vision is a guiding image of success formed in terms of a contribution to society. If a strategic
plan is the "blueprint" for an organization's work, then the vision is the "artist's rendering" of the
achievement of that plan. It is a description in words that conjures up a similar picture for each
member of the group of the destination of the group's work together.
A vision statement outlines what a company wants to be. It focuses on tomorrow; it is inspirational;
it provides clear decision-making criteria; and it is timeless.

14. Define Mission Statement?

A mission statement outlines what the company is now. It focuses on today; it identifies the
customer(s); it identifies the critical process(es); and it states the level of performance. It has
been said that a vision is something to be pursued, while a mission is something to be

accomplished.

15. Define Quality Policy?

The overall intentions and direction of an organization regarding quality, as formally expressed by
top management.
1. Recognize that top management and all organizational units are fully committed to quality.
Quality is everyones responsibility and of quality leadership, focused on Customer Satisfaction.

2. Define quality as the elimination of variation through an increase in process capability and
reduction in cycle time.
3. Adopt the defect prevention approach to quality rather than defect detection.
4. Establish a cooperative environment for teamwork and mutual problem solving among all
employees.
5. Make incremental, sustained improvements in quality and productivity through ongoing
training and application in statistical techniques.
6. Involve suppliers and customers in process and unit cost optimization.

16. What is strategic planning ?

Strategic planning is known as long term planning. Goals are needed for long term
planning. Objectives are needed for short term planning.

The basic steps of strategic planning are.

1. Customer needs 2. Customer positioning 3.Predict the future 4. Gap Analysis 5 . Closing the gaps
6.Alignment of strategic planning 7. Implementation.

17. What are the barriers to TQM ?

The main barriers to TQM are as follows :
i. Lack of understanding of the TQM concept
ii. Absence of visible support from senior & Top management
iii. Fear of change
iv. Poor internal communication
v. Heavy work loads
vi. Nature of organization
vii. Lack of adequate education & training
viii. Limited resources
ix. Irregularity of the meetings
x. Delay in implementation of the recommendation
xi. Difficulties in evaluation
18. What is the role of senior management ?
The major role of senior management is as follows:
1. MBWA (mgmt by wandering around)
2. Strategy of problem solving and decision making
3. Strong information base
4. Recognition and reward system
5. Spending most of the time on quality
6. Communication
7. Identity and encourage potential employee
8. Accept the responsibility
9. To play a role mode

10. Remove road block

19.

What is quality council ?

A quality council is a group of top level managers established to build quality into the culture. It
develops the quality strategy and guide and support their implementations. The quality council is
composed of senior managers of the functional areas eg: design, marketing, finance, production and
quality and a coordinator or consultant and a union representative

20. What are the six basic concepts of T.Q.M ?

The six basic concepts of T.Q.M are
a. A committed and involved management b. Focus an
customer
c. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force d.
Continuous improvement
e. Treating supplier as partners & f.
Performance measure

PART B

1.

Explain the various dimensions of quality with examples.

Depending upon the needs of the customers any product has to be supplied by the manufacturer.
However the product should have certain characteristics and features. Customers only determine
ultimately whether the product has been of expected quality. Various dimensions of quality that the

customers do look for in a product, in order to satisfy their needs, only decide the characteristics of
a product. For a manufactured product the dimensions of Quality are as following:

1. Performance Primary product characteristics such as the brightness of the picture.

This is the deciding driving force deciding the operating characteristics.

2. Features Secondary characteristics, added features, such as remote control. Though this
attribute is a secondary characteristic, it necessarily supplements the basic functioning of the
product.

3. Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards. How far the products physical and
performance characteristic match with the set standards is called conformity.

4. Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail. Under
prescribed conditions of use of the product the probability of surviving over a specified period is
termed as reliability of that product.

5. Durability Useful life includes repair. The quantum of use a customer gets from a product
before it wears out beyond further use or when a replacement is essential is called durability.

6. Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair. The possibility to repair a
product quickly and with ease is serviceability.

7. Response Human to human interface, such as the courtesy of the dealer. It refers to the degree
they react and act quickly to resolve the problems.

8. Aesthetics Sensory characteristics such as exterior finish. It is the manner in which a product
looks feels, tastes or smells.

9. Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first.

The dimensions of quality in respect of a service are as follows:

Time This is the duration up to which a customer is made to wait.
Timeliness It refers to whether the promise can be kept or whether the service can be performed as
promised.
Completeness It refers to whether all the items given by the customer is included. Courtesy
Whether the front office sales people greet each customer cheerfully and politely.
Consistency Whether the services are delivered in the same manner for every customer and every
time for the same customer.

Accessibility and convenience Whether the service is easy to get ?or must the customer influence
the service provider to get the required service.
Accuracy This is with regard to whether the service is done correctly even in the first instance.
Responsiveness Whether the service person reacts and cat quickly to resolve problems

2. Explain Quality Planning.

Quality planning is one of the foremost function of the members in the organization to
achieve the quality objectives.
Quality planning is nothing but forecasting the future activities related to quality.
The whole organization should be involved in the implementation of Quality planning.
Quality planning acts as a road map for the members in the organization to achieve the
quality goal.
The Quality planning organizes the activities as a team from the beginning of the project.
Thus the manufacturing department works simultaneously with design and Engineering department
before finalizing the detailed specifications.

Various steps in Quality planning are

i)

Establishing Quality goals

ii)

Identifying the customers

iii)

Discovering the customer needs

iv)

Developing the product features

v)

Developing the process features

vi)

Establishing the process control and transferring in to operations.

Functions of Quality planning

Different functions of Quality planning are

i)

Preparation, issue and updating of guidelines in quality assurance.

ii)
Preparation of updated detailed inspection instructions including check lists and formats
for all stages of material, component and assembly of product
iii)
a.

Planning for requirement of Inspection equipments. It involves

Assessing the requirements of various measuring equipments, Gauges etc along with

desired accuracy.
b.
iv)
v)

Designing special equipments, gauges etc.

Developing sampling schemes (Sampling plans ) to evaluate the
quality of products.
Developing quality surveillance (Quality supervision) procedures for manufacturing.

vi)
Developing a scheme of periodic calibration to check the accuracy of gauges and
measuring instruments.
vii)

Collaboration with the product design group to review the product design.

viii)
Collaboration with technology or process group for assessing technology and process
capabilities.

ix)

Collaborating with suppliers or vendors for assessing their capability.

x)

To develop schemes for quality audits.

3. Explain the quality cost in detail?

Quality costs are the costs associated with preventing, finding, and correcting defective work. These
costs are huge, running at 20% - 40% of sales. Many of these costs can be significantly reduced or
completely avoided. One of the key functions of a Quality Engineer is the reduction of the total cost
of quality associated with a product.
Prevention Costs: Costs of activities that are specifically designed to prevent poor quality. Examples
of "poor quality" include coding errors, design errors, mistakes in the user manuals, as well as badly
documented or unmentionably complex code.
Appraisal Costs: Costs of activities designed to find quality problems, such as code inspections and
any type of testing.
Failure Costs: Costs that result from poor quality, such as the cost of fixing bugs and the cost of
dealing with customer complaints.
Internal Failure Costs: Failure costs that arise before your company supplies its product to the
customer.
External Failure Costs: Failure costs that arise after your company supplies the product to the
customer, such as customer service costs, or the cost of patching a released product and distributing
the patch.
Total Cost of Quality: The sum of costs: Prevention + Appraisal + Internal Failure + External
Failure.

The cost of quality, or total quality cost, is defined as the sum of resources spent on prevention plus
resources spent on appraisal plus the expenditures and economic impact of failures. The objective of
Total Quality Cost is to achieve measurable improvement in materiel quality and quality cost
reduction on a systematic basis. The purpose of the Total Quality Cost Model is to
Provide quality cost information to enable informed, effective decision-making related to
cost of quality
Identify failure costs to facilitate appropriate corrective action
Identify appraisal and prevention targets for improvement
Enable results tracking
Identify relationships between improvement actions
4.

Explain the quality cost model :

Quality cost model are defined as the costs associated with to non achievement of product or

service quality. The valve of the quality should be based on its ability to contribute to profits. Even
though a successful TQM program can provide organizational benefit ,its real value will ultimately
be determined by its ability to contribute to profit. The top mgmt always wishes to have tangible
proof, in terms of profit improvement, for continuing all the efforts and providing the resources to
continue quality improvement programmers.
The quality casts are a measure of all costs associated with achievements of product quality.
Quality costs are used by the mgmt in its pursuit of quality improvement, customer satisfaction,
market share and profit enhancements.
The major classification of quality costs are divided into 4 parts. They are:
a. Preventive costs is used to keep failure and appraisal costs minimum .
The preventive cost is also known as : The cost of building acceptable quality
The elements of preventive costs are :
1.

New product design and development cost

2.

Quality planning cost

3.

Process control costs

4.

Vendor development cost

5.

Administrative cost

6.

Quality audit costs

7.

TQM training cost

b.

Appraisal cost give the degree of conformance to quality requirements.These costs

are incurred to measure, inspect, test and audit products and performance to determine conformance
with acceptable quality levels, standards of performance and specification. These include evaluating
products, components and purchased materials. It includes performance of employees, performance
of equipments and machines receiving field tests, laboratory test, quality audit, life testing, quality
data processing, failure testing and random time sampling for appraisal.
c. Internal failure costs : There costs are incurred due to the defects in the product before its
shipment to a customer there include :c1: scrap costs c2 . Rework costs c3 down grading cost c4 .
Down time costs.
d.External failure costs : These costs represent all costs incurred on defective products after it is
delivered to a customer. These costs will disappear if there is no defect.
The external failure costs include the
1.

customer complaint adjustment cost

2.

Cost of defective products returned by the customer.

3.

Warranty charges

4.

Allowance

5.The cost incurred to correct defects according to the required specifications

6. The liability costs and penalty costs.

5. Explain the Evolution of TQM?

The concept of quality has existed for many years, though its meaning has changed and evolved
over time. In the early twentieth century, quality management meant inspecting products to ensure
that they met specifications. In the 1940s, during World War II, quality became more statistical in
nature. Statistical sampling techniques were used to evaluate quality, and quality control charts were

used to monitor the production process. In the 1960s, with the help of so-called qualit concept took on a
broader meaning. Quality began to be viewed as something that encompassed the
entire organization, not only the production process. Since all functions were responsible for
product quality and all shared the costs of poor quality, quality was seen as a concept that affected
the entire organization.
The meaning of quality for businesses changed dramatically in the late 1970s. Before then quality
was still viewed as something that needed to be inspected and corrected. However, in the 1970s and
1980s many U.S. industries lost market share to foreign competition. In the auto industry,
manufacturers such as Toyota and Honda became major players. In the consumer goods market,
companies such as Toshiba and Sony led the way. These foreign competitors were producing lowerpriced products with considerably higher quality.

To survive, companies had to make major changes in their quality programs. Many hired
consultants and instituted quality training programs for their employees. A new concept of quality
was emerging. One result is that quality began to have a strategic meaning. Today, successful
companies understand that quality provides a competitive advantage. They put the customer first
and define quality as meeting or exceeding customer expectations.

Since the
1970s,
competition
based on
quality has
grown in
importance and
has generated
tremendous

interest, concern, and enthusiasm. Companies in every line of business are focusing on improving
quality in order to be more competitive. In many industries quality excellence has become a
standard for doing business. Companies that do not meet this standard simply will not survive. The
importance of quality is demonstrated by national quality awards and quality certifications that are
coveted by businesses.
The term used for todaystotalqualitynewmanagementconceptorTQM.The figureof qu represents the line of
the old and new concepts of quality. The old concept is reactive, designed to
correct quality problems after they occur. The new concept is proactive, designed to build quality
into the product and process design.

6.

Explain the Demings? Philosophy

DEMINGS 14 POINTS
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of products and service.
2. Adopt a new philosophy: we are in a new economic age.
3. Cease dependence upon inspection as a way to achieve quality.
4. End the practice of awarding business based on price tag.
5. Constantly improve the process of planning, production, and service- this system includes people.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute improved supervision (leadership)
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between departments.
10. Eliminate slogans/targets asking for increased productivity without providing methods
11. Eliminate numerical quotas.
12. Remove barriers that stand between workers and their pride of workmanship.
13. Institute programs for education and retraining.
14. Put all emphasis in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.
The 14 points are obviously the responsibilities of top management. No one else can carry them out.
Quality is everybody's job, but quality must be led by management. The 14 points apply anywhere,

to small organizations as well as to large ones. The management of a service industry has the same
obligations and the same problems as management in manufacturing.
I. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with a plan to become
competitive and to stay in business. Decide whom top management is responsible to.
2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. We can no longer live with commonly
accepted levels of delays, mistakes, defective materials, and defective workmanship.
3. Cease dependence on mass inspection. Require, instead, statistical evidence that quality is built
in, to eliminate need for inspection on a mass basis. Purchasing managers have a new job, and must
learn it.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, depend on meaningful
measures of quality, along with price. Eliminate suppliers that can not qualify with statistical
evidence of quality.
5. Find problems. It is management's job to work continually on the system (design, incoming
materials, composition of material, maintenance, improvement of machine, training, supervision,
retraining).
6. Institute modern methods of training on the job.
7: Institute modern methods of supervision of production workers. The responsibility of foremen
must be changed from sheer numbers to quality. Improvement of quality will automatically improve
productivity. Management must prepare to take immediate action on reports from foremen
concerning barriers such as inherited defects, machines not maintained, poor tools, fuzzy
operational definitions.
8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.

9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production must
work as a team, to foresee problems of production that may encounter with various materials end
specifications.
10. Eliminate numerical goals, posters, and slogans for the work force, asking for new levels of
productivity without providing methods.
11. Eliminate work standards that prescribe numerical quotas.
12. Remove barriers that stand between the hourly worker and his right to pride of workmanship.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and retraining.
14. Create a structure in top management that will push every day on the above 13 points
7. Explain the ``Barriers to TQM?
BARRIER TO TQM:
1.

Lack of management commitment

2.

Inadequate knowledge or understanding of TQM

3.

Inability to change organizational culture

4.

Improper planning

5.

Lack of continuous training and education

6.

Inability to build a learning organization that provides for continuous improvement

7.

Incompatible organizational structure and isolated individuals and departments

8.

Insufficient resources

9.

Inappropriate reward system

10.

Use of a prepackaged program or inappropriately adapting TQM to the organization

11.

Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results

12.

Short-term focus or using a Band-Aid solution

13.

Paying inadequate attention to internal and external customers

14.

Inappropriate conditions for implementing TQM

15.

Inadequate use of empowerment and teamwork

Lack of management commitment

All types of organizations, including schools, manufacturing companies, health care organizations,
and public organizations, experience low employee participation and interest in their TQM
programs when management commitment is missing at any level. Missing or even minimal support
from

the chief executive officer and admini

For example, TQM will not succeed if upper management is only motivated by outside pressures,
such as needing to please the board of directors employees see discrepancies in what management says and
what it actually does, they will lose
interest and faith in TQM. For successful implementation, the administrative team must have a
clearly communicated purpose for adopting TQM, be consistent in its application of TQM
principles, and not treat it as the latest management fad.
Inability to change organizational culture
Many have found that changingtoreflectTQMisdifficultacompanysandrequirelotof cu time; W. Edwards
Deming has stated that it takes three to five years to fully implement TQM into
an organization. First, the fear of change must be removed from the organization, poor labor-management
relations must be resolved, and the compan
Unfortunately, in the United States, organizations are impatient and often focus on the quick fix
Improper planning
Another barrier is created by a lack of clarity in the implementation plan and the failure to promote
open dialogue among the participants. Many implementation problems can be overcome with proper
planning. Three components of a successful TQM plan are:

Obtaining company wide commitment

Communicatingsion,mission,companyandgoals vi

Providing open communication about the com

The board of directors or other controlling group must be involved from the beginning. A time
frame, such as a Gantt chart, should be developed and posted in public areas so that everyone

remains focused on TQM. The plan should remain flexible, however, so that adjustments and
improvements can be made as the culture evolves.
Lack of continuous training and education
Training and education is an ongoing process that facilitates continuous quality improvement in any
organization. Leaders involved in the TQM implementation should identify the educational needs of
the organization and be creative in meeting those needs efficiently and cost-effectively. Training
and education should be both formal and informal. One health care organization, for example, used
a leading consulting group to train its vice presidents to be trainers for the rest of the organization.
This approach demonstrates managementstheprinciplesare com consistently taught to all employees. The
vice presidents also continually learn the principles as they
teach them. Informal training could include circulating articles on TQM or displaying information
about TQM on company bulletin boards.
Incompatible organizational structure and isolated individuals and departments
Autocratic organizational structure and management policies can lead to TQM implementation
problems. If organizational structure is a problem, part of the planning process should be
restructured with a defined purpose and explicit expected outcomes. When TQM principles are
used, the isolation of individuals and departments will dissolve over time. Teamwork is an essential
part of the TQM environment, and some success has been realized by managers who used TQM
principles to resolve some of the most longstanding turf battles that prevailed in their organizations.
Tools such as brainstorming, fishbone diagrams, and workflow diagrams can be successful in
identifying the discrepancies and misinterpretations that are often the root cause of such feuds.
Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results
Having no measurement process or ineffective measurement techniques, failing to maintain accurate
and reliable data.
Paying inadequate attention to internal and external customers
Organizations must pay attention to both their internal and external customers so that they can
understand the needs and expectations of both types of customers from both perspectives. Too
often, managers assume they know what customers need and expect, which results in misdirected

efforts and investments. An astute organization makes a

customers changing needs

high priority of understanding all and

expectations.

Inadequate use of empowerment and teamwork

Complacency in teams will inhibit TQM progress. Ineffective teams that fail to stay focused or
complete their tasks are a big expense to organizations. To be effective, teams need trained
facilitators, a mission or purpose, a time frame for completing projects, members who represent the
functional areas of the process to be improved, and accountability. The mission of the team must not
be overwhelming; some tasks might need to be broken down into manageable phases so this is not
the case. Whenever possible, teams recommendation sends a powerful, positive message to employees about
the importance of empowerment and teamwork.
Avoid TQM barriers by understanding them
While these barriers occur to varying degrees and with varying frequency, there is little doubt that
they exist in every organization. Management must understand that they do exist and should not
only deal with them in the implementation process but plan for them as well. The list of barriers can
be used in the planning or early implementation phases of TQM to increase awareness and
understanding of the principles. It can be used by organizations that have been involved in TQM for
some time to evaluate progress and to improve existing systems. Awareness of these barriers should
be emphasized when training organizations in TQM concepts and methods. If these potential
problems are understood and prepared for, plans can be made to counter them. Any organization can
benefit from a better understanding and knowledge of TQM.

8. Explain the LEADERSHIP: and its concepts?

Leadership

is WE not ME

Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective
leader. Good leaders develop through a never-ending process of self-study, education, training, and
experience. This guide will help you through that process. To inspire your people into higher levels
of teamwork, there are certain things you must be, know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but
are acquired through continual work and study. The best leaders are continually working and

studying to improve their leadership skills. Before we get started, lets define leadership. Leadership
is a complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective
and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. A person carries out
this process by applying her leadership attributes (belief, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and
skills). Although your position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives you the authority to
accomplish certain tasks and objectives in the organization, this power does not make you a
leader...it simply makes you the boss. Leadership makes people want to achieve high goals and
objectives, while, on the other hand, bosses tell people to accomplish a task or objective.
Factors of leadership
The four major factors of leadership are the:
Follower - Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a new hire requires
more supervision than an experienced employee. A person with a poor attitude requires a different
approach than one with a high degree of motivation. You must know your people! The fundamental
starting point is having a good understanding of human nature: needs, emotions, and motivation.
You must know your employees' be, know, and do attributes.
Leader - You must have a honest understanding of who you are, what you know, and what you can
do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the leader who determines if a leader is successful. If a
follower does not trust or lacks confidence in her leader, then she will be uninspired. To be
successful you have to convince your followers, not yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy
of being followed.
Communication - You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. For
instance, when you "set the example," that communicates to your people that you would not ask
them to perform anything that you would not be willing to do. What and how you communicate
either builds or harms the relationship between you and your employees
Situation - All situations are different. What you do in one leadership situation will not always work
in another situation. You must use your judgment to decide the best course of action and the
leadership style needed for each situation. For example, you may need to confront a employee for
inappropriate behavior, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then
the results may prove ineffective.

Habits of Leadership:
Be Proactive: Principles of Personal Vision
Habit 1

Begin with the End in Mind: Principles of Personal Leade

Habit 2

Put First Things First: Principles of Personal Management

Habit 3

Think Win/Win: Principles of Interpersonal Leadership

Habit 4

Seek First to Understand, Then to be Understood

Habit 5

Synergize Principles of Creative Communication

Habit 6

Sharpen the Saw: Principles of Balanced Self-Renewal

Habit 7

UNIT II- TQM PRNCIPLES

1.What is customer satisfaction?

Customer satisfaction is one of the major purposes of a quality management system. It
is more of a feeling or attitude. Customer satisfaction is subjective and hard to measure. It is
the degree to which the customers experience expectations.

2.What are the factors influencing customer satisfaction?

The factors influencing customer satisfaction are:
Performance
Features
Service
Warranty
Price
Reputation

3.What is meant by performance?

Performance involves fitness for use which is a phrase that indicates that a product and
or service is ready for the use of customers at the time of sale. Other considerations are:
Availability- which is the probability that a product will operate when needed.
Reliability, which is freedom from failure over time.
Maintainability, which is the ease of keeping the product operational..
4.What is meant by features?
Features or attributes of a product or service are psychological , time oriented,
contractual, ethical and technological. Features are secondary characteristics of a product or
service. For example the primary function of an automobile is transportation, whereas a car
stereo system is a feature of an automobile.

5.What is meant by service?

An emphasis on customer service is emerging as a method for organization to give the
customer the added value. Customer service is an intangible- it is made up of many small
things, all geared to changing the customers perception .Intang
that are not quantifiable, yet contribute greatly to customer satisfaction. Providing excellent
customer service is different from and more difficult than achieving product excellence.
6.How can the customer complaints be handled?
Investigate customers experience by actively soliciting feedback, both positive and
negative and then acting on it promptly.
Develop procedures for complaint resolution that empowering front line personnel.

Analyse complaints , but understand that complaints do not always fit into neat
categories.
Work to identify process and material variations and then eliminate the root cause
.More inspection is not corrective actio
When a survey response is received , a senior manager should contact the customer
and strive to resolve the concern.
Establish customer satisfaction measures and constantly monitor them.
Communicate complaint information as well as the results of all investigations and
solutions to all people in the organization.
Provide a monthly complaint report to the quality council for their evaluation and
if needed the assignment of process improvement teams.
Identify customers expectations beforehand rather than afterward through complaint
analysis.

7.What are the elements of customer service?

Organization
Customer care
Communication
Front line people
Leadership
8.What are the consumer code of ethics?
The customer code of ethics is a code which the employee is expected to sign. It is:
Keep promises to the customer.

Return the call to the customer as quickly as possible.

Extend assistance to the customers as needed. There should not be any let up.
Treat the customers with respect.
Evaluate the customer satisfaction on a regular basis.
Deliver service and product quickly and efficiently.
Give personal attention to every customer.
Maintain a neat and acceptable environment in the work place as well as office.
Treat every customer just as we would want to be treated ourselves.
9.What is meant by customer retention?
Customer retention is the most difficult job an organization is to undertake. Any
organization can not dispense with this, because it is the root of business improvement.
Customer retention is more powerful and effective than customer satisfaction. Customer
satisfaction surveys , interviews with customers and quick redressal of their grievance
must be undertaken as important activities by any organization. In fact customer retention
is the connection between customer satisfaction and the so called bottom line..

10.How is employee retention related to customer retention?

The employee retention has a significant impact on customer retention. The
organization should continuously improve the methods of obtaining information relating
to consumer needs and expectations. Continuous improvement and customer satisfaction
always go hand in hand.Globally acclaimed competitors always tend to continually fine
tune their operations to achieve additional improvements. Once maximization of customer
satisfaction is successfully done, automatically the customer retention follows.
11.What is meant by motivation?
Motivation is the creation of the desire to do something. Knowledge of motivation
helps to understand the utilization of employee involvement to achieve process
improvement.

12.What are the different levels in motivation?

Abraham Maslow stated the motivation could be explained in terms of needs and
that there are five levels:
Level 1- survival
Level 2 security
Level 3 social
Level 4 esteem
Level 5 self actualization
13.What is meant by employee survey?
Employee survey helps to assess the current state of employee relations, identify
trends, measure the effectiveness of program implementation, increased communication
effectiveness. Survey includes personality characteristics like anxiety , self esteem in the
organization and the ability to participate in the organization: management styles like
consideration of subordinates and commitment to quality , job attitudes like job
satisfaction, social support at work and co workers commitment to quality and the work
like various task, autonomy and importance.
14.What is meant by employee empowerment?
Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability , the confidence and
the commitment to take the responsibility and ownership to improve the process and
initiate the necessary steps to satisfy customer requirements within well defined
boundaries in order to achieve organizational values and goals.
15.Define team and team work.
Team is defined as a group of people working together to achieve a common
objective or goals. Teamwork is the cumulative action of the team during which each
member of the team subordinates his individual interest and opinions to fulfill the
objectives or goals of the group..
16.What are the various types of teams?
Process improvement team

Cross functional team

Natural work team
Self directed or self managed team.
17.What are the characteristics of successful teams?
1.Sponsor
2.Team charter
3.Team composition
4.Training
5.Ground rules
6.Clear objectives
7.accountability
8.Well defined decision procedures
9.Resources
10.Trust
11.Effective problem solving
12.Open communication
13.Appropriate leadership
14.Balanced participation
15.Cohesiveness
18.What is meant by recognition and reward?
Recognition is a form of employee motivation in which the organization openly
acknowledges the positive contribution an individual or team has made to the success of

the organization. It may be either in oral or writing praising the deserving employee by
presenting certificates or members .they may also be rewarded by cash awards. Reward is
something tangible such as cash award to promote desirable behaviour. Reward can be
delayed but recognition cannot be delayed & should be on a timely basis.
19. What is the need for performance appraisal?
The purpose of performance appraisal is to let the employees know how they are doing
& provide a basis for promotion & salary increase, counseling and other purposes relating
the employees future. Employees should be aware of the process of appraisal. The
parameters of evaluation should be known to the employees. The appraisal should point
out the employees strength & weakness.
20. What are the benefits of employee involvement .
1. Employees make better decision using their expert knowledge of the
process.
2. Employees are more likely to implement & support decisions they had a
part in making.
3. Employees are better able to spot & pinpoint areas for improvement
4. Employees are better able to take immediate corrective action.
5. Employee involvement reduces labor / management friction by
encouraging more effective communication & co-operation.
6. Employee involvement increases the morale by creating a feeling of
belonging to the organization.
7. Employees are better able to accept change because they control the work
environment.
8. Employees have an increased commitment to unit goals because they are
involved.
21. Define the terms internal & external customer.
An external customer can be defined in many ways such as the one who uses the
product or service, the one who purchases the product or service, or the one who
influences the sale of the product or service. An external customer exists outside the
organization & falls into three categories current , prospective & lost customers. An
internal customer is very important every function whether it is engineering order
processing or production has an internal customer- each receives a product or service
and in exchange provides a product or service. Every person in a process is considered
as customer of the preceeding operation.
22.How should be the frontline employees of an organization?

The customers should not be dealt by the front line employees who do not
possess adequate experience in handling the customers.The organization should try to
:
1.Hire the best
2.Develop the best employees as the best ones.
3.Motivate the professionals to stay and excel.
The frontline employees should possess a good personality .The organization
should also understand that if its employees are not happy , they will not treat the
customers properly.The tendency of the customer is that he gets frustrated even on
small things.He get infuriated if he is not given the due attention.It can not be denied
that the front line employees are able to gather a lot of information on customers
23.Narrate the steps to achieve employee satisfaction.
Know thyself
Know your employees
Establish a positive
attitude Share the goals
Monitor progress
Develop interesting work like job rotation , job enlargement and job
enrichment.
Communicate effectively
Celebrate the success.
24.What is meant by Quality circle?
QC are the group of people from one work unit who voluntarily meet together
on a regular basis to identify , analyse and solve problems relating to quality and other
problems problems in other areas.They choose their own problems , discuss among
themselves and try to arrive at a viable solution for implementation.These quality
circles are quite successful in Japan, though success of equal magnitude has not been
able to be achieved in other countries.

25. What is Continuous improvement?

Continuous improvement is derived from the Japanese term KAIZEN which means small but
continuous improvement.

26. What is Continuous process improvement?

Continuous process improvement is the heart of TQM Process. It consists of measuring key
quality parameters and take active steps to improve them. TQM demands structured
improvement programmes in all these areas of business administration, customer services,
product quality and so on. The main aim of continuous process improvement is to improve the
levels of customer satisfaction and reducing the cost of attaining this. The Organization should
strive to achieve perfection and quality by continuously improving the production process and
business.
27. What is Seire?
Seire is a Japanese word which means Organize.
It is about separating the things which are necessary for the Job from those that are
unnecessary and keeping the number of necessary things as low as possible and at a
convenient location. Differentiation should be made between necessary and unnecessary
things.
28. What is Seiton?
SEITON is a Japanese word which means to put things in order.
Things must be kept in order so that they are ready for use when needed. An American
Mechanical Engineer recalls that he used to spend so many hours for searching tools and parts,
when he worked in U.S.A. Only after he joined in a Japanese company, he saw how easily
workers were able to find what they needed and he realized the value of Seiton It is all about
neatness. Neatness is a study of efficiency. It is a question of how quickly one can get the
things needed and how quickly one can put them away. Things should be put back where they
belong.

29. What is Seiso?

SEISO is a Japanese word, which means Clean up.
Keep the workplace clean. Everyone in the organization from the managing director to the
sweeper should undertake this Job.

30. What is Seiketsu?

SEIKETSU is a Japanese word which means Standarardise.

Seiketsu means continually and repeatedly maintaining neatness and cleanliness in the
organization. It claims both personal cleanliness and the cleanliness of the environment. The
emphasis is on visual management, transparency in storage (put appropriate labels) and
standardization.
31. What is Shitsuke ?
Shitsuke is a Japanese word which means Discipline.
Discipline means instilling the ability of doing things the way they are supposed to be done.
Discipline is a process of repetition and practice. The emphasis in self-discipline is on creating
a work force with good habits.
32.What is 5 S Practice?
5-S (JAPANESE 5-S PRACTICE) is the key for Total Quality Environment. The 5-S Practice
is a technique used to establish and maintain quality environment in an organization.
The 5-S Stands for five Japanese words.
1.Seire (Organize)
2.Seiton (Put things in order)
3.Seiso (Clean up)
4.Seiketsu (Standarardise)
5.Shitsuke (Discipline)
33.What is the logic behind 5-S Practice?
The logic behind the 5-S Practice is that organization, neatness, cleanliness, standardization
and discipline at the work place are the basic requirements for producing high quality products
and services, with high productivity and no wastage.
34. What is PDSA or Shewart Cycle?
The PDSA Cycle was first developed by Walter Shewart and then it was modified by Deming
as PDCA Cycle.. PDSA stands for PLAN,usedfor DO, testing ideas that may create an improvement. It
can be used to test ideas for improvement
quickly and easily based on existing ideas, research, feedback, theory audit etc or practical
ideas that have been proven to work elsewhere. It is a very effective improvement technique
and it uses simple measurements to monitor the effect of changes overtime. It encourages
starting with small changes, which can build in to larger improvements through successive
quick cycles of changes. The PDSA Cycle has been used for decades as an effective tool for
continuous improvement. This method is well established and validated and is particularly
suited for small and dynamic organizations.
35. Define a Process.

A process is a planned series of actions that advances a material or procedure from one stage
of completion to the next. Process includes the steps and decisions involved in the way work is
accomplished. Inputs to a process may be men, materials, money data etc. Output of the
process may be products, service, Information etc. The output of one process may be the input
to another process.
A simple example is the movement of raw material from one phase of production to the other.
Process refers to all business and product activities of an organization. Business processes are
purchasing, accounting, marketing, production, human resources etc.
36. Differentiate between Chronic and Sporadic Problems.
Quality improvement activities are concerned with both sporadic and chronic
problems.
The approaches for solving chronic problems differ from that for solving sporadic
problems
Sporadic Problems.
Sporadic problems are quality problems that occur on all of a sudden due to several
reasons.
Sporadic problems are attacked by the control sequence.
Sporadic problems are dramatic and receive immediate attention.
It is easy to identify and eradicate the sporadic problems. The causes for the sporadic
problems have to be analyzed and corrective measures have to be taken to eradicate
those problems completely.
Chronic problem
A Chronic problem is a long standing problem and it is very difficult to find solution
for the problem.
Chronic problems are not dramatic because they exist for a long time
Chronic problems use the breakthrough sequence.
Chronic problems are like chronic disease, which exist forever and it is often difficult
to solve.
A continuous improvement can be achieved in Chronic problems by using statistical
quality control techniques.

37.What

do you mean by KAIZEN?

Kaizen is a Japanese word, which means small but continuous improvement. It means ongoing
improvement involving everyone including managers and workers. The Kaizen philosophy
assumes that our way of life i.e. our professional life, social life or personnel life deserves to
be constantly improved. In the Kaizen philosophy , improvement in all areas of business such

as cost, meeting delivery schedules, employee safety and skill development, supplier relations,
new product development or productivity all enhances the quality of the firm. Thus, any
activity directed towards improvements falls under Kaizen Umbrella.
Activities such as establishing traditional quality control systems , installing robotics and
advanced technology, instituting employee suggestion systems, maintaining equipment and
implementing JIT Production systems all leads to improvement (or) all can be reduced to one
word namely KAIZEN.

38.

Explain the term JIT?

JIT is a Japanese -intechnique,time.Theprimarywhichgoalof JITmeans is to achieve Zero inventory in

an organization as well as throughout the entire supply chain.
Just-in-time is not a jargon term for a new c ultimate total elimination of inventory.
39. Explain Taguchi Quality loss function
Dr. Genichi Taguchi , a mechanical engineer who has own four deming awards has introduced
the Quality loss function concept, which combines cost, target and variation in one metric with
specifications being of secondary importance. Taghuchi has defined quality as the loss
imparted to society from the time a product is shipped. Societal losses include failure to meet
customer requirements, failure to meet ideal performance and harmful side effects.
40. What are the types of Quality problems ?
There are about five types of Quality problems. These problems can be classified in to
1. Compliance problem These problems arise because the existing system is not
performing properly.
2. Unstructured problem - These problems arise because the existing system is not
performing properly.
3. Efficiency problem - These problems arise because the existing system is not
performing properly.
4. Process design problem These problem arises because of poor process design.
5. Product design problem These problem arises because of poor product design.

41.Define Capability Index

Capability Index is the ratio of tolerance to the capability. There are two measures.
One indicates the ability of process to meet the specifications.

Another indicates the centering of the process on the target.

42.Define Partnering
Partnering is a relationship between two or more parties based upon trust, dedication to
common goals and objectives and understanding of each participants expectations and values.
43.What are the benefits of Partnering ?
The benefits of partnering are
Improved Quality
Increased efficiency
Lower cost
Increased opportunity for Innovation
Continuous improvement in products and services.
44. What are the key elements for partnering Relationship?
The three key elements for partnering relationship are
1. Long term commitment
2. Trust
3. Shared Vision
45.What are the approaches to be followed for continuous process improvement?
The following are the different approaches towards continuous process improvement.
Juran trilogy Juran approach on quality improvement is from cost oriented
perspective.
Shewarts Plan Do Study Act (PDSA) Cycle
This approach is basically applying scientific methods for continuous improvement
and quality.
5S for workplace organization to improve quality.
KAIZEN The Japanese approach to Quality improvement.

PART B
1. Explain customer perception of quality.
One of the basic concepts of TQM is continuous process improvement.There is no
acceptable level of quality because the customers needs , values and expectations
are constantly changing and becoming more dependent. The following factors
influence customer perception:
Performance
Features
Service
Warranty
Price
Reputation
Performance
It involves fitness for use which is a phrase that indicates that a product and or service
is ready for the use of customers at the time of sale. Other considerations are:
Availability which is the probability that a product will operate when needed.
Reliability, which is freedom from failure over time.
Maintainability, which is the ease of keeping the product operational..
Features
Features or attributes of a product or service are psychological , time oriented,
contractual, ethical and technological. Features are secondary characteristics of a product or
service. For example the primary function of an automobile is transportation, whereas a car
stereo system is a feature of an automobile.
Service
An emphasis on customer service is emerging as a method for organization to give the
customer the added value. Customer service is an intangible- it is made up of many small
things, all geared to changing the customer that are not quantifiable, yet contribute greatly to customer
satisfaction. Providing excellent
customer service is different from and more difficult than achieving product excellence.

Warranty
The product warranty represents an org product backed up by a guarantee of customer
satisfaction.. It also represents a public
commitment to guarantee a level of service sufficient to satisfy the customers. A warranty forces the
organization to focus on the cust warranty generates feedback by providing information on the product or
service quality. It
also forces the organization to develop a corrective action system. A warranty encourages
customers to buy a service by reducing the risk of the purchase decision and it generates more
sales from existing customers by enhancing loyalty.
Price
Customers are willing to pay higher price to obtain value. They evaluate the
organizations performance with that of the competitors to determine who provides the greatest
value. Ongoing efforts must be made by everyone having contact with customers to identify ,
verify and update each customers perception of value in relation to each product or service.
Reputation
Customers rate the organizations with the overall experience with them not just
the product. Good experience are repeated to six people and bad experience are repeated to 15
people, therefore it is very difficult to create a favourable impression.
2.Explain about service quality in various sectors.
Service quality in hospitals:
Seller :Doctors, hospitals, nursing homes etc.
Buyer :Patient
Acceptable service quality
1.Direct medical service such as diagonism, medicines surgery and
treatment. 2.Indirect operations such as administration and purchasing.
3.Quality of performance related to food , housing, safety, and security.
Quality can be assessed through
1.Patient satisfaction survey
2.Hospital quality trend surveys
3.Patient quality service reports
4.Error rate survey.

Telecom service:
1.Availability

2.Connection establishment
3.Connection retention.
4.Connection quality
5.Billing integrity

.
Hotels: They have to be highly sensitive to personal desires , attitudes, wishes and tastes.
It depends upon
1.Appropriate reservation facility
2.provision of suitable room facility
3.Availability of food and bar services
4.Other services such as parking, transportation, gift shops,telephone service, laundry.
Restaurents:
Elements of quality are :
1.Accessibility, parking and surrounding.
2.Reception
3.Cleanliness and
utensils 4.Safety
measures 5.Dining room
6.Service
It requires
1.Understanding and giving the customer what he wants
2.Provide service without any delay.
3.Serve with good quality food
4.Listening politely to customer complaints.
Transportation:
1.Effectiveness in protection
2.Charges of transportation
3.Efficiency of packing
4.Efficiency of storage
5.Efficiency of delivery
3.List and explain the five levels in Maslows theory and relate it to customer satisfaction
A popular motivational theory was developed by Maslow.He stated that motivation
could be explained in terms of a hierarchy of needs and that there are five levels .these levels
are survival, security, social, esteem, and self actualization.
Level 1

It means food, clothing and shelter. These are usually provided by a job,in work place
needs at level 1 include proper lighting, heating/air conditioning, ventilation, phonic
communication system, data /voice access and computer information system.

Level 2
It means a safe place of work and job security .These are very important to
employees.it is really a motivating factor , if an organization takes interest in the well being of
its employees.Actually a threat of losing the job can not be a motivating factor to the
employees.It is not limited to job security alone.It includes having privacy in doing the job, by
having a cabin, a storeroom or cupboard to lock the personal items and adjustable furniture.

Level 3
It is the need to belong.this is a must for human beings.The greatest punishment to an
employee is to keep him in isolation in an office environment.In such a situation he would feel
utmost despair and go to the extreme step of ending his life.Employees need to be provided
with formal social areas like canteens, conference rooms and informal areas like water coolers
, coffee vending machine or notice boards.

Level 4
It is pride and self worth.Everone wants to be recognized in the organization in which
he works.Business cards, office rooms furnished with needy furniture and creating a good
ambience definitely enhances the talent and definitely motivates him.It is quite interesting to
note that he longs for all these to satisfy his ego under the guise of self respect.Seeking advice
from the employees on matters of common interest will create and sustain a self esteem
feeling in employees.

Level 5
Deals with the ascent on the ladder to higher positions.Really intelligent and efficient
employees require to be promoted.Stagnation in the existing position for too long a period will
not make the employees sustain enthusiasm and any amount of coaxing can not considered as

motivating them.An interesting point at this juncture is worth notable.An employee is prone to
think that if his job security is endangered , why not reverting back to the previous level.
4.Describe

Herzbergs dissatisfiers and moti

Herzberg extended the general work of Maslow by using empirical research to develop his
theory on employee motivation. He found that people were motivated by recognition
responsibility , achievement, advancement and the work itself.These factors were labeled as
motivators.In addition he found that bad feelings were associated with low salary , minimal
fringes benefits poor working conditions , ill defined organizational policies and mediocre
technical supervision. These job related factors were labeled as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors
which implies that they are preventable..It is important to realize that dissatisfiers are often
extrinsic in nature and motivators are often instrinsic.the presence of the extrinsic conditions
does not necessarily motivate employees, however their absence results in dissatisfaction
among employees..Absence of motivating factors does not make employees dissatisfied but
when there are motivating factors present they do provide strong levels of motivation that
result in good job performance for the individual and the organization.In general dissatisfiers
must be taken care of before motivators are lower levels and the motivators are equivalent to the upper
levels.

5.Explain the process of resolving customer complaints.

Investigate customers experience by actively soliciting feedback, both positive and
negative and then acting on it promptly.
Develop procedures for complaint resolution that empowering front line personnel.
Analyse complaints , but understand that complaints do not always fit into neat
categories.
Work to identify process and material variations and then eliminate the root cause
.More inspection is not corrective action
When a survey response is received , a senior manager should contact the customer
and strive to resolve the concern.
Establish customer satisfaction measures and constantly monitor them.
Communicate complaint information as well as the results of all investigations and
solutions to all people in the organization.
Provide a monthly complaint report to the quality council for their evaluation and
if needed the assignment of process improvement teams.
Identify customers expectations beforehand rather than afterward through complaint
analysis.

An organization should devote more attention to train the so called front line employees to
solve the complaints directly.Customers want their problems solved quickly, efficiently
and effectively.Hence the frontline employees should know how to handle the customers
.the attitude of the employee concerned is often belongs to the why should we care
category.In such circumstances the top management should see that such employees are
removed from the front office and assigned unimportant works with no direct dealing of
the customer.Nowadays customers are quite knowledgeable and they switch over to the
competitor once their self respect is harmed.
Any organization should understand that customer focus and listening skills are not
easily learnt. So training has become a management top priority.In fact the front line
employees should be recognized and rewarded for their skills in successful dealing with
the customers.Mangement should also give enough powers to the employee directly
dealing the customers to take the spot decisions to satisfy the irate customer if he is found
correct.The management should encourage the employees to take risk make decisions and
not be afraid of making a mistake..
It ahs been found that the better service at the point of sale, the fewer the complaints
and grater the sales volume.Disgruntled or dissatisfied employees are to be reckoned as
dead weights around the neck of the management.They are like dissatisfied
customers.Hence the management has to tackle the employee problem.The management
should consider necessary to evaluate the improvement in customer satisfaction.

6.Explain the elements of service quality.

Elements of service quality are:
1.Organization
Identify each market segment
Write down the requirement
Communicate the requirements
Organize the process
Organize the physical spaces.
2.Customer care
Meet the customers expectations
Get the customers point of view
Deliver what is promised.
Make the customer feel valued
Respond to all complaints

Overrespond to the customer

Provide a clean and comfortable customer reception area.
3.Communication
Optimize the tradeoff between time and personal attention
Minimize the number of contact points
Provide pleasant knowledgeable and enthusiastic employees
Write documents in customer friendly language.
4.Front line people
Hire people who like people
Challenge them to develop better methods
Give them the authority to solve the problem
Serve them as internal customers
Be sure they are adequately trained
Recognize and reward performance.
5.Leadership
Lead by example
Listen to the front line people.
Strive for continuous process improvement

7.How can the employee be empowered.

Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability , the confidence and
the commitment to take the responsibility and ownership to improve the process and
initiate the necessary steps to satisfy customer requirements within well defined
boundaries in order to achieve organizational values and goals.
The word empowerment is not to be confused with delegation or job
enrichment.Delegation is distribution and entrusting work to others.Employee
empowerment requires the individual to be held responsible for accomplishing a whole
task.Besides the employee by having been empowered becomes accountable for the
work.The following conditions are necessary for employee empowerment.
1.Everyone must understand the need for the change.
2.The system needs to change to create a new scenario.
3.The organization must enable its employees.

People fear change that is why the resist change.Change is always considered as
something impost on them without their full concern.The organization needs an effective
communication with their employees.They should be convinced that the change would
benefit them.Change in the system is a must to reinforce and motivate the individual and
group accompolishment.Enabling the employees means providing information,education
and skill.People want normally want to be more incharge of their jobs and carreers.Many
appreciate the value of trust and responsibility in an environment supporting people and
their actions.

8.Explain about the different types of teams in detail.

Team is defined as a group of people working together to achieve a common objective or goal.The various types of teams are:

i)process improvement team

ii)cross-functional team
iii)natural work team
iv)self-directed/self managed work team
i)process improvement team:
It represents each operation of the process or sub process.A team of about six to ten
members will come from the work team.The team is temporary in nature and it is
unbundled once the objective or goal is achieved
ii)Cross-functional team:
It comprises of about six to ten members representing different functional areas lide
engineering,marketing,accounting,production,quality and HR.It may also have a customer
and supplier.The life of this team is also temporary.
iii)Natural work team:
It is not voluntary.It is composed of all the members of the work unit.The manager
is part of the team and the projects to improved are selected by the management.
iv)self-directed/self managed work team:
The extension of natural work team without manager.There is team co-odinator who
acts as a liason with the senior management.The team meets daily to plan their
activities.The
additionsl
responsibilities
are
hiring
dissmisal,performance
evaluation,customer relations,supplier relation,recognition and reward and training.

9.What are the characteristics of successful teams?

1.Sponsor- A sponsor is a member of the quality council thereby providing the
organizational support.
2.Team charter- It is a document that contain the team boundaries, background of the
problem, the teams authority and duties.It also identifies the members team, leader
timekeeper and facilitator.
3.Team composition- The size should rarely exceed ten people except in the case of
natural work team.Larger teams have the problem of conflict.
4.Training- members should be trained on problem solving techniques , team
dynamics, and communication skills.
5.Groung rules- They contain the rules and operation and conduct.There should be an
open discussion of what is tolerated and not.
6.Clear objectives- There should be clear objectives and goals.
7.Accountability- Periodic status reports should be given to the quality council.It
should find the teams weakness and strengths.
8.Welldefined decision procedures- Effective , acceptable and timely decisions have
to be made by the team.
9.Resources- Important aspect is the access to the information.The team cannot be
expected to perform without the necessary tools and techniques.
10.trust- management must trust them to perform the task effectively
11.Effective problem solving- Decisions are based on the problem solving method.
12.Open communication- Members actively listen , without interruption speak with
clarity and directness, ask questions and say what they mean.
13.Appropriate leadership- All teams need leadership whether imposed by the quality
council or whether someone emerges as a leader.
14.Balanced participation- all members must actively involve in the teams activities.
15.Cohesiveness- members should be comfortable working with each other as a single
unit.

10.Explain the role of team members

The team consist of a
1.Team leader:
Ensure smooth and effective operation of the
team Ensure that all the members participate
Serve as a contact point between the sponsor or the quality
council Implement the changes recommended by the team
Monitor the status and accomplishment of the members
Prepare the meeting agenda
Ensure that team decisions are made by consensus.
2.Facilitator is not a member of the team.He is a neutral assistant and may not be needed
with a mature team.His role:
Support the leader in facilitating the team during the initial stages.
Focus on how the decisions are made.
Intervenes when necessary to keep them on track.
Does not perform the activities of the team
Provides feedback on the team performance.
3.Recorder- He is rotated on a periodical basis.His role is:
Documents the main ideas of the discussion, the issues raised, decisions made,
actions and future agenda.
Presents the documents for the team
review. Participates a s a member
4.Time keeper:His role is:
Monitors the time
as a team member.

participates

5.Team member
Contribute best, without reservation by actively
participating. Respects the peoples contributions
Listen carefully
Be enthusiastic

Works for consensus

Supports the decisions of the team
Trusts, supports and ahs genuine concern for other team members
Understands and is commited to the team
Respect and is tolerant of individual differences.
Encourages feedback on own behaviour
Acknowledges and works through conflict openly.
Gives honest and sincere appreciation
11.Explain the team problems and their solutions
There are many problems
1.Floundering- The team has trouble starting or ending or in between.Determine the cause
of the hold up and have each member write down the reasons and discuss in the next
meeting.
2.Overbearing participants-They have an unusual amount of influence in the team.They
have a particular expertise.They sometimes discourage discussions and discount the
members ideas.Reinforce the ground rules, ask for the persons cooperation, and enforce
the importance of the data and problem solving method.
3.Dominating participants- they like to hear themselves talk, and they dominate the
meeting.Solution is to structure discussion on the key issues for equal participation and
have the team agree on the need for balanced participation.
4.Reluctantparticipants- They feel shy or they are unsure o themselves they must be
encouraged to participate.
5.Unquestioned acceptance of the opinions as facts- Some members assert personal
beliefs with such confidence that other members think that as facts.Solution is to request
data and to follow the problem solving method.
6.Rush to accomplish- Team is being pushed by one or more members who are impatient
for results.Confront the rusher offline and explain the effects of impatience.
7.Attribution It is guessing at a persons motives their opinion.Solution is to find out the real meaning
of the problem.
8.Discounts and plops- Arises when members fail to givecredit to anothers opinion or no
one responds to a statement that plops.Solution is to reinforce active listening, and support
the discounted member.

9.Wander lust- It happen when members lose track of the meetings purpose or want to
avoid a sensitive topic.Solution are to use agenda with time estimates and redirect the
conversation back to the agenda.
10.Feuding team member- they disrupt the entire team with their disagreement.solution
are to get the adversaries to discuss the issues offline , offer to facilitate the discussion and
encourage them to form some contract about their behaviour.
12.What are the stages of team development?
There are different stages in the life cycle of teams.Bruce tuckerman found that there
were four stages to team development.These stages are forming , storming, norming and
performing.
1.Forming- here the members become aware of the team boundaries.They are not familiar
with each other.They are cautious ad their communication is formal..Time is spent in
organizing and training.The leader charters the team .they should meet to evaluate the
problem posed by the management, determine the type of training team members may
need and identify the appropriate team leader.
2.Storming-The members start to realize the amount of work that lies ahead.Members
they resist working as a team.There is a real deal of conflict.Each individual particularly
from the cross functional team brings with them both hierarchial and functional baggage,
differenced in goals, , differences in perception as well as different work ethics sense of
time career family priorities, and attitudes towards authority. Team leader should handle
the conflict.
Ask each member to list what the other side should do.
Have the sides each to write ten questions for their opponents .This will allow them
to signal their major concern about the other sides position.The answers often lead to
compromise.
Convince the team members they sometimes have to admit they are
wrong. Respect the experts on the team
3.Norming- Here the members begin to work together.Emotional conflict is reduced as
cooperation cohesion and constructive criticism start to become the normal
behaviour.Significant process begins to occur.
4.Performing- They have settled their relations and expectations.They better understand
the project and begin performing by diagnosing and solving problems and choosing and
implementing changes.Members work to achieve their objectives effectively and
efficiently.

5.Adjourning- this stage is reserved to the temporary teams.They should evaluate the
performance and determine the results learned.They also need a celebration to recognize
the team members contribution to the organization..
13What are the barriers to team progress?
1.Insufficient training- They should be trained in problem solving techniques group
dynamics and communication skill.
2.Incompatible rewards and compensation- They make little effort to reward team
performance.Because of the strong focus on the individual reward it is difficult
for individuals to buy into the team concept.
3.First line supervisor resistance- They are reluctant to give up power and concerned
about job security
4.lack of planning A lack of common direction or alignment on the use of collaborative
efforts , internal competition, redundancy and fragmented work processes all prevent
work teams.
5.lack of management support- It must provide the resources and buy into the quality
council/sponsor system.
6.Access to information system-They need information such as business performance ,
competitive performance, financial data and so on.
7.Lack of union support-They need union support for the team to be successful.
8.Project scope too large- The team and organization are not clear on what is reasonable
or management is abducting its responsibility to guide the team.
9.Project objectives are not significant- Management has not defined what role the team
will play in the organization.
10.No clear measure of successs-The team is not clear about its charter and goals.
11.No time to do improvement work Value and beliefs of the organization are not compatible with the
team s work.Individua teams progress.
12.Team is too large-The organization lack methods for involving people in ways other
than team membership.

13.Trapped in group think- team members all have a mindset that no actions are taken
until everyone agrees with every decision.
14.Explain about recognition and reward.
Recognition is a form of employee motivation in which the organization openly
acknowledges the positive contribution an individual or team has made to the successs of
the organization.Management can either orally or in writing praise the deserving
employee by presenting certificates or mementos.They may also be rwarded by cash
awards.Rewards and recognition go together and if the organization adopts this method, it
amounts to letting the deserving employees made known to outside world as valuable
assets.
In fact the recognition should be valid and genuine and also meaningful for the giver
and the recipient.Reward can be delayed; but recognition can not be delayed and should
be on a timely basis.People like to be recognized either individually or as a team .There
can be no parallel act like putting up the details on the notice board or in the in house
bulletins about the deserving employee.Sending letters to their families will bring
immediate joy to such employees.
An effective system has:
Serves as a continual reminder that the organization regards quality and productivity
as important.
Offers the organization a visible technique to thank high achievers for outstanding
performance.
Provides employees a specific goal to work.It motivates the employees to improve the
process.
Boosts the morale in the work environment by creating a healthy sense of competition
among individuals and teams seeking recognition
15.How can the performance appraisal be improved?
The very purpose of performance appraisal is to make the employees know hoe they
are functioning in the organization The employees should know the parameters for
measurement. There are seven steps for improvement for performance appraisal
1.Use rating scales having few rating measure
2.Require work team or group evaluations that are at least equal in emphasis to individual
focused evaluation
3.Require more frequent performance reviews

4.Promotion decision to be made by

independent administrative process. 5.Include indexes of customer
satisfaction in the appraisal process. 6.Use subordinate feedback as the
index of customer satisfaction 7.Include evaluation for process
improvement in addition to results.

16.Explain the steps involved in implementing the continuous process improvement.

CONTINOUS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT
The Organisation should strive to achieve perfection and quality by continuously improving
the production process and business. It is very difficult to attain the perfection Continuous
improvement is derived from the Japanese term KAIZEN which means small but continuous
improvement. Continuous process improvement is the heart of TQM Process .It consists of
measuring key quality parameters and take active steps to improve them. TQM demands
structured improvement programmes in all these areas of business administration, customer
services, product quality and so on.
The main aim of continuous process improvement is to improve the levels of customer
satisfaction and reducing the cost of attaining this.

The following line diagram shows the steps towards implementing continuous process
improvement.
Define current status
Define improvement objectives
Make team
Define the process
Assess the reasons for variability
Develop improvement plans
Take pilot runs
Requirement of Modification/Upgradation
Implement pilot process results
Measure Results
Implement fully
17What are the strategies to be followed to achieve continuous process improvement?

Continuous process improvement can bemade by the following strategies

Anticipate the changing customer needs
View all production activity or business activity as process
Make all process effective, efficient and adaptable.
Control in-process performance by using various TQM tools like control charts.
Eliminate waste and rework wherever it occurs
Eliminate those activities which do not add value to the product or service
Eliminate non conformities in all phases of work.
Innovate to achieve breakthrough
Incorporate lessons learned for the future activities.
Use technical tools such as statistical process control (SPC), experimental design,
benchmarking, Quality function deployment,(QFD) and so on to improve
competive advantage.
18.Explain various phases in ADDIE model of continuous process improvement

ADDIE or Systems Approach to Continuous Process Improvement

ADDIE or Analysis, Design, Development, Implement and Evaluate model has five
phases.
a) Analysis Phase :
In this phase the aim is to identify the areas of opportunity and to target specific
problems. These areas of opportunity and problems are identified based on brainstorming
sessions, Process definition sessions Recommendations forwarded to the team by
organizational members and various other analyzing techniques.
b) Design Phase
This Phase generates solutions through Brainstorming sessions. Here the required
resources are identified to implement the choosen solution and also the baselines to
measure the outcomes that are identified.
c) Development Phase
Here a detailed procedure for implementing the approved solution is formulated.
d) Implementation phase
Execute the approved solution
e) Evaluation Phase

In this phase, measurement tools are built; implementation is monitored and

measurements to baseline are evaluated. Evaluation is not only reserved for the last but is
done throughout the entire process.

19.Explain the Juran Trilogy

JURAN TRILOGY
Dr. Joseph Moses Jurans major contribution management.
Dr.Joseph Juran was also called as father of Quality. He was a professor and Quality
consultant and conceptualized the Pareto principle where many Industries depends on it. The
American
society for quality have proposed
Principle. Its universal application makes it one of the most useful concepts and tools of
modern day management.
Dr. Joseph Moses Juran has written many books on Quality. One of his book namely
Standard reference work on Quality control departments in most of the organizations.
This handbook on quality gives more useful information to improve the performance of the
organization by improving the quality of goods and services. One of his classic book namely
Managerial Breakthrough presents more general theory of quality management
The book Managerial Breakthrough is the first book to describe a step by step sequence for
breakthrough improvement. Today this process has evolved in to six sigma and it act as a basis
for quality initiatives world wide.
In 1979 Juran founded Juran Institute, an organization aimed at providing Research and
pragmatic solutions to enable organizations from any Industry to learn the tools and
techniques for managing Quality.
Juran describes Quality from the customer perspective as having two aspects.
Higher quality means greater number of features that meet customer needs.
The second aspect is that the product should be free from troubles.
The Juran Trilogy, published in 1986, was accepted world wide as the basis for quality
management.
The Juran Trilogy describes three basic components or processes required to manage quality
in the organization. They are
Quality Planning
Quality improvement
Quality Control
Quality Trilogy model was developed by Juran at Juran Institute. Quality Trilogy provides a
model of how an organization can improve from the bottom line by better understanding the
relationship between the processes that plan , control and improve quality.

Quality planning - The process for designing products , services and processes to meet new
breakthrough goals.
Steps involved in Quality planning are
Setting the goals
Identify the customers
Determine the needs of those customers
Translate those needs in to business language.
Develop a product that can respond to those needs.
Optimize the product features so as to meet the organizations needs and customer needs.
Quality Improvement
Develop a process to produce a product of good quality.
Optimize the process

Quality Control
Prove that the process can produce the products under operating conditions with minimum
inspection
Transfer the process in to operations.

20.Explain PDSA Cycle with a neat sketch

PDSA CYCLE
The PDSA Cycle was first developed by Walter shewart and then it was modified by deming
as PDCA Cycle. PDSA stands for PLAN, DO, STU ideas that may create an improvement. It can be used to
test ideas for improvement quickly
and easily based on existing ideas, research, feedback, theory audit etc or practical ideas that
have been proven to work elsewhere. It is a very effective improvement technique and it uses
simple measurements to monitor the effect of changes overtime. It encourages starting with
small changes, which can build in to larger improvements through successive quick cycles of
changes. The PDSA Cycle has been used for decades as an effective tool for continous
improvement. This method is well established and validated and is particularly suited for small
and dynamic organizations.
STEP 1 PLAN
Identify what change you think will create improvement and then plan the test of the change.
What is the objective of introducing the change? Plan on how you are going to collect the
informations
about the differences that oc

how you will know whether the change made has worked or not? The change should bring out
the differences which are measurable in isolation. A major change could be broken in to
smaller and more manageable chunks.
STEP 2
Put the plan in to practice. Then set the change by collecting data. The stage involves carrying
out the plans successfully. It is important that the DO stage is kept as short as possible. There
may be changes that could only be measured over long periods. Record any unexpected
events, problems and observations. Start analyzing the data.
STEP 3 STUDY
Review and reflect on the data collected in the previous step. Complete the analysis of the
data. Find out whether there has been any improvement in the process ? Did your expectations
meet the reality. Find out what could have been done differently.
STEP 4 ACT
Make further changes or amendments after yo and collect data again. Carry out an amended and measure any
difference.
21.Explain the problem solving method for process improvement.

THE PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD FOR PROCESS IMPROVEMENT

Problem solving represents to find the cause of the problem and addressing the cause of the
problem so that the problem does not occur. Problem solving method of process improvement
is a systematic approach which will yield greater benefits on process improvements. When the
quality improvement problem is small or in the initial stages, a quick solution to those
problems can be achieved because either the solution is obvious or the Team/Individual
involved in solving the problem has the necessary expertise or has a bright idea. But this is
quite impossible if the quality improvement problem is wider in scope. Thus in the long term,
a systematic approach will yield better results. The problem solving method has seven stages
which are given below. They are
1. Identify the opportunity
2. Analyze the current process
3. Develop the optimal solution
4. Implement changes
5. Study the results

6. Standardize the solution

7. Plan for the future
22. Explain 5-S Practice
5 S (JAPANESE 5-S PRACTICE)
5-S is the key for Total Quality Environment. The 5-S Practice is a technique used to establish
and maintain quality environment in an organization.
The 5-S Stands for five Japanese words.
1.Seire (Organize)
2.Seiton (Put things in order)
3.Seiso (Clean up)
4.Seiketsu (Standarardise)
5.Shitsuke (Discipline)
The English equivalents , their meanings and typical examples are shown in the following
table

JAPANESE
Seire
Seiton

ENGLISH
Structurise
Systemise

Seiso

Sanitise

MEANING
Organize
Neatness (or) in
order
Cleaning

Seiketsu
Shitsuke

Standardise
Self Discipline

Standardisation
Discipline

TYPICAL EXAMPLE
Throw away rubbish
30-seconds are required
to retrieve a document.
Individual cleaning
responsibility
Transparency of storage
Do 5-S Daily

1.Seire (Organize)
It is about separating the things which are necessary for the Job from those that are
unnecessary and keeping the number of necessary things as low as possible and at a covenient
location. Differentiation should be made between necessary and unnecessary things.
2. Seiton (Put things in order)
Things must be kept in order so that they are ready for use when needed. An American
Mechanical Engineer recalls that he used to spend so many hours for searching tools and parts,

when he worked in U.S.A. Only after he joined in a Japanese company, he saw how easily
workers were able to find what they needed and he realized the value of Seiton It is all about
neatness. Neatness is a study of efficiency. It is a question of how quickly one can get the
things needed and how quickly one can put them away. Things should be put back where they
belong.
3. Seiso (Clean up)
Keep the workplace clean. Everyone in the organization from the managing director to the
sweeper should undertake this Job.
4. Seiketsu (Standarardise)
Seiketsu means continually and repeatedly maintaining neatness and cleanliness in the
organization. It claims both personal cleanliness and the cleanliness of the environment. The
emphasis is on visual management, transparency in storage (put appropriate labels) and
standardization.
5. Shitsuke (Discipline)
Discipline means instilling the ability of doing things the way they are supposed to be done.
Discipline is a process of repetition and practice. The emphasis in self-discipline is on creating
a work force with good habits.
The logic behind the 5-S Practice is that organization, neatness, cleanliness, standardization
and discipline at the work place are the basic requirements for producing high quality products
and services, with high productivity and no wastage.

23.Differentiate

between Kaizen and Innovati

KAIZEN Vs INNOVATION
Kaizen is different from innovation. Innovation results in large, short term and radical changes
in products and processes. Innovation is dramatic, a real attention getter and often championed
by a few proponents. Kaizen, on the other hand, is a continous improvement involving every
employee at every level in every organization. Kaizen is focused on small, frequent and
gradual improvements over a long term. The comparison between kaizen and Innovation is
given in the following table

S.NO
1
2
3

CRITERIA
Effect
Pace
Time-frame

Kaizen and Innovation

KAIZEN
INNOVATION
Long term and Long
Short term and Dramatic
lasting but undramatic
Small steps
Big-Steps-Leap
Continous and
Intermittent and non-

4
5
6

Change
Involvement
Practical
requirements

7
8

Effort Orientation
Evaluation Criteria

Incremental
Gradual and Constant
Everybody
It requires little
Investment but greater
effort to maintain it.
People
Process and efforts for
better results

incremental
Abrupt and Volatile
Selected few champions
It requires large investment
but little effort to maintain it.
Technology
Results for profit

24. How can every one be involved in improvement activities (Kaizen Philosophy) ?

Top Management
1. It can focus on improvement as an important component of corporate strategy.
2. It provides support to improvement activities by allocating resources effectively.
3. It builds systems, procedures and reward structures that are conducive to improvement.
Middle Mnagement
1. Middle Management can implement top management improvement goals by
establishing, upgrading and maintaining operating standards that reflect those goals
2. It improves co-operation between departments.
3. It makes employees conscious of their responsibility towards improvements and develops
their problem solving skills through training.

Supervisors
1. Supervisors provide more of their attention to im
2. They provide better guidance for workers and improve communication.
Workers
Workers engage in improvement through suggestion systems and small group activities, selfdevelopment programs for problem solving and enhanced Job performance skills.
The foundation for Quality improvement in the kaizen philosophy is the use of statistically
based tools for problem solving and training for all levels of management and workers.

Quality control and Engineering knowledge is made available to shop floor personnel so that
they can solve their own problems better in the kaizen philosophy.
25. What are the criterias to be followed in selecting the supplier?
Organisations should choose the suppliers very carefully. When choosing the partners , they
should use the existing performance of their partners, minimum targets, agreed targets and the
suppliers attitude as the criteria for supplier selection. Before selecting the supplier the
organization must first evaluate whether its needs (Requirements such as raw material and
other materials) actually need a supplier in the first place. This dilemma arises because the
organization has a choice to make or buy a particular item. The decision is a strategic one that
must be made even during the design stage.
Supplier must be selected based on the following criteria. Those criteria are
Find a supplier who understands and appreciates the management philosophy of the
organization.
The supplier should have a stable management system. To determine this point, several
questions have to be asked such as : Is there a quality policy statement with the
supplier that includes quality objectives and a commitment to quality? Is the policy
understood at all levels of management? Are they implementing it? Does the
management have scheduled review of its quality system to determine its effectiveness
? etc.
The ability of the supplier to maintain high technical standards and his capability of
dealing with future technological innovations.
The ability of the supplier to supply the right quantity and quality of raw material at the
right time.
The ability of the supplier to meet sudden increase in requirement of raw materials
(Probably due to sudden change in demand)
The ability of the supplier to provide the raw material at the right price.
Easy accessibility of the supplier in terms of communication
The sincerity of the supplier in implementing the contract provisions.
The supplier has an effective quality system such as ISO 9000 or QS 9000 etc., and
other improvement programs.
26.

What are the eight criterias required f

The customer and supplier shall have agreed upon specifications that are
mutually developed, justifiable and unambiguous.
The supplier shall have no product-related lot rejection for a significant period
of time, say,. one year or significant number of lots.

The supplier shall have no non-product related rejections for a stated period of
time or number of lots. Non product related rejections are wrong count of items
sent to supplier or billing error etc.
The supplier shall have no negative non-product related incidents for a stated
period of time. This criterion covers incidents or problems that occur even
though inspection and tests showed conformance to specifications.
The supplier shall have a fully documented quality system such as ISO 9000 or
QS 9000.
The supplier shall have a successfully passed an on-site system evaluation. This
evaluation could be by a third party such as an ISO registrar or by the customer
itself.
The supplier must conduct inspections and test in his premises to achieve
quality.
The supplier shall have the ability to provide timely inspection and test data to
the customer because this is necessary by the customer when the product
arrives.
27. What are the techniques used to present performance measures?
There are six techniques used for presenting performance measures, namely
a) Time series graph
b) Control chart
c) Capability Index
d) Taguchi, s Loss function
e) Cost of poor Quality
f) Malcolm Balridge National Quality Award
28. Explain the basic concepts of performance measure and mention the
area required to measure the performance.
Performance measures are used to achieve the following objectives
a) To establish performance measures and reveal trend.
b) To identify the processes to be improved.
c) To determine the process gains and losses
d) To compare the actual performance with the standard performance.
e) To provide information for the individual and team evaluation

f) To determine the overall performance of the organization.

g) To provide information for making proper decisions.
Various areas required to measure performance appraisals are
a) Human Resources
b) Customers
c) Production
d) Suppliers
e) Research and Development
f) Marketing / Sales
g) Administration

UNIT III- TQM TOOLS &

TECHNIQES-II

PART A
1. What are the seven quality tools?
Cause-and-effect diagram ; Check sheet ; Control chart ; Histogram ; Pareto chart ;
Scatter diagram; Stratification
2. Define Pareto Diagram?
It is a process tool to classify data and rank categories in descending order of occurrence to
separate significant categories from trivial ones. Separating data into category, counting
occurrences in each category, and arranging categories from highest to lowest frequency and
drawing and labeling bars for each category does it.

3. Define the Ishikawa diagram?

It is called as Fishbone diagram which a process tool to identify possible causes for a
particular effect.
4. Explain Histogram?
It is meaningful to present data in a form that visually illustrates the frequency
of occurrence of values.
5. Define Scatter Diagram?
The scatter plot is a useful way to discover the relationship between two factors, X
and Y, i.e., the correlation. An important feature of the scatter plot is its visualization of the
correlation pattern, through which the relationship can be determined.
6. What are Measures of Central Tendency? What are Measures of Dispersion?
Measures of central tendency are measures of the location of the middle or the center
of a distribution. The definition of "middle" or "center" is purposely left somewhat vague so
that the term "central tendency" can refer to a wide variety of measures. The mean is the most
commonly used measure of central tendency.
7. Define Process Capability?
In any manufacturing process, the variability is inherent and cannot be eliminated fully
though it can be controlled to some extent. The extent of variability decides Go, Non-Go or
Acceptance, Rejection of the products. Statistics renders an immense help to assess this
variability quantitatively and to take the correction action promptly before any disaster that
may occur as a consequence. Process capability study is a statistical tool or technique, to
assess the variation in the ability of the process during the conversion of feed material.
It is defined as the quality performance capability of the process with given process
factors and under normal, in control condition. Based on the results of any process that are
continuously measured, standard deviation is calculated by taking the square root of its
variance to calculate the indices of process capability namely CP and Cpk. The need for process
capability is to
i.
Predict the extent to which the process will be able to hold tolerance or customer
requirements.
ii.
Choose, from among competing process, the most one for meeting the customer
requirements.

iii. Redesign and implement a new process that eliminates the source of variability now at
work.
8. What are types of Process Capability index?
Potential capability index (Cp): The potential process capability measures the overall
performance of the process and is measured as the ratio of difference between upper
specification limit (USL) and lower specification limit (LSL) to six times of standard
deviation ( ).
C DESIGN TOLERANCE
P
PROCESS TOLERANCE

USL - LSL
6
Performance capability Index (Cpk): The index CP calculates the precision of the
process by measuring the overall processes performance, consideration the both positive and
negative deviation. This is alone not sufficient, since there is every chance for lack of accuracy
in the process. To assess the accuracy, clustering nature of values around the mean or away
from the center value are calculated. Using performance capability index (Cpk) the clustering
effect on Lower limit is calculated by CPKL & Upper limit is calculated by CPKU and minimum
of the above is Cpk.
P

LSL

C
pkl

USL -

pku

3
3

C pk= MIN (Cpku, Cpkl)

9. Define Mean, Median, and Mode with example?
The arithmetic mean is what is commonly called the average: When the word "mean"
is used without a modifier, it can be assumed that it refers to the arithmetic mean. The mean is
the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. The formula in summation notation
is: = X/N populationwheremean andN isthe numbertheof scores.
Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle
number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of
numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers
2, 4, 7, 12 is (4+7)/2 = 5.5.

Mode is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution and is used as a measure
of central tendency. The advantage of the mode as a measure of central tendency is that its
meaning is obvious.

10. Define Population and Sample with example?

A sample is a subset of a population. Since it is usually impractical to test every
member of a population, a sample from the population is typically the best approach available.
A population consists of an entire set of objects, observations, or scores that have
something in common. For example, a population might be defined as all males between the
ages of 15 and 18.
11. What are types of Control Charts? Explain Variable charts? Explain Attribute
charts?
The control chart is a very important tool in the analyze of the Six Sigma improvement
methodology. In to judge if the process is predictable; in causes of variation so that they can be acted o
performance of the process is under control. The original concept of the control chart was

proposed by Walter A. Shewhart in 1924 and the tool has been used extensively in industry
since the Second World War, especially in Japan and the USA after about 1980. Control charts
offer the study of variation and its source. They can give process monitoring and control, and
can also give direction for improvements. They can separate special from common cause
issues of a process. They can give early identification of special causes so that there can be
timely resolution before many poor quality products are produced.
Shewhart control charts track processes by plotting data over time.These charts can
track either variables or attribute process parameters. The types of variable charts are process
mean (x), range (R), standard deviation (s), individual value (x) and moving range (Rs). The
attribute types are fraction nonconforming (p), number of nonconforming items (np), number
of nonconformities (c), and nonconformities per unit (u).

The typical control limits are plus and minus 3 standard deviations limits using about
20-30 data points. When a point falls outside these limits, the process is said to be out of
control. When a point falls inside these limits, the process is said to be under control.
There are various types of control charts, depending on the nature and quantity of the
characteristics we want to supervise. The following control charts are the most often used ones
depending on whether the data are continuous or discrete. These charts are called Shewhart
control charts. Note that for continuous data, the two types of chart are simultaneously used in
the same way as a single control chart.
For continuous data (variables):

For discrete data (attributes):

Besides these charts, the following new charts for continuous data have been suggested and
studied. For good references forcontrol charts, see CUSUM (cumulative sum) chart ; MA
(moving average) chart ; GMA (geometric moving average) chart ; EWMA (exponentially
weighted moving average) chart
(b) How are control charts constructed?
A detailed generic sequence for construction of control charts can be developed, which can be
useful when working with control charts in practice.
Step 1. Select the characteristic and type of control chart
First, the decision must be made regarding the characteristic (effect) of the process or product
that is to be checked or supervised for predictability in performance. Then the proper type of
control chart can be selected.
Step 2. Determine the sample size and sampling interval
Control charts are, in most cases, based on samples of a constant number of observations, n.
For continuous data, it is common to use two to six observations. However, there are also
charts for subgroup sizes of one, x (individual observation) chart and Rs (moving range) chart.
For discrete data, n could be as large as 100 or 200.
Step 3. Calculate the control lines and center line
All control charts have control limits, UCL and LCL, showing when the process is affected by
special cause variation. A CL is drawn between the control limits. The distance from CL to
UCL/LCL is 3 standard deviations of the characteristic.

For example, for n individual observations,

the following formulae apply to the calculation of CL, UCL and LCL for the x
(average) chart.

Here, A2 and d2 are the frequently used constants for control charts,. Table 4.1 contains
CL, UCL and LCL for the respective control charts.

Step 4. Draw the control chart and check for special causes
The control chart can now be drawn, with CL, UCL and LCL. The samples used for calculating
the control limits are then plotted on the chart to determine if the samples used to

calculate the control limits embody any special causes of variation. Special causes exist if any
of the following alarm rules apply:

A single point controlfallslimits. outside the 3

Two out of three consecutive points fall o
Seven or more consecutive points fall to o
A run of eight or more consecutive points trend).

At least 10 out of 11 consecutiverline. points a

At least eight consecutive points make a c side of the center line, and the next point is on the other side
of the center line.
12. Explain Normal Distribution?
It was proposed by De-Moivre an english Mathematician in the yea random variable X is said to have a
2
normal distribution with the parameter &
(Mean &
Variance)
if its density function is given b
2
1
2

1
e

f(x)

(x

2
2

Where X ~ N ( , ), can be converted into Standard Normal Variable Z ~N (0, 1) using the
relationship of transformation, whose probability density function is
1
2
X
f(z)

where z

e z /2

If we have sample of size n, and the characteristics are y1, y2, y3, y4,yn, then &
calculated as

y y y ... y

n
n
2

(yi y)
2 v i 1

n 1
where v - variance, y bar - mean

is

If we use X bar - R chart, in which there are k sub groups of size n, can be estimated
and Ri is the range of each sub group and d2 is the constant that depends on sample size n. The
value of d2 can be found by seen the X bar - R chart table
R
S
d
2

RR

13. What are characteristic of Normal Curve ?

The curve is bell-shaped and symmetrical about the line x = .
Mean, Median, Mode of the distribution coincides so it is called symmetrical.

X-Axis is an asymptote (the line that touches the curve at infinity) to

the curve.
Since f (x) is probability, it can never be negative so no portion of
the curve lies below the x-Axis.
14. Define Qualitatively Six sigma?

Six-sigma (6 ) has been considered as a business strategy that employs a wellstructured continuous improvement methodology to tackle process variability and drive
out waste from the process with the application of statistical tool and techniques in a
rigorous manner.

15. Define Quantitatively Six sigma?

In statistical terms, six sigma means 3.4 defects per million opportunities where
represents the degree of concentration towards the center.

16. Why six sigma is fascinating?

I] It is regarded as a fresh management strategy, which can replace Quality Control
(QC), Total Quality Control (TQC), Total Quality Management (TQM) and others. It is
viewed as a 4S approach (Systematic, Scientific, Statistical and Smarter) for the knowledge
based information society.
II] It provides the base for the manpower cultivation and utilization by employing the
belt
systemand categorizing them as green
A person in the company acquires belt according to the training given.
III] There are many success stories of successful implementation of six- sigma in
world class companies.
IV] It provides flexibility in the new millennium of 3Cs, which are Change:
Changing Society, Customer: Power is shifted to customer and the customer demand is high,
and Competition: Competition in quality & Productivity
16. What are Key concepts of Six sigma?
Critical to quality: Attributes most important to the customer
Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer wants
Process capability: What your process can deliver
Variation: What the customer sees and feels
Design for six- sigma (DFSS): Designing to meet customer needs and process capability
18.What is Themes of Six sigma?
Themes of six sigma are as follows :
Genuine focus on the customer
Data and fact driven management
Process is where the action is
Proactive management
Boundary less collaboration
19. What are Six Sigma Methodologies?
Six Sigma methodologies are classified as two types which are improvement oriented
namely DMAIC and DFSS.
20.Differentiate between the Six sigma Methodology?
DMAIC is Define Measure Analysis Improvement and Control. We use this
methodology, when we have some existing system.

DFSS is Design for Six Sigma. We use this system when the entire system is to be
installed from the beginning.
21.Define PPM?
Parts per Million (PPM): The number of defective item out of one million inspected item.
22.Define DPU?
Defects per Unit (DPU): It is defined as ratio between the Number of unit defective to
Number of unit inspected.
Number of unit defective DPU

Number of unit inspected

23.Define DPO?
Defects per Opportunities (DPO): It is defined as ratio between Defects per unit to Number of
independent opportunities for non-conformance per unit.
DPO

DPU

Where m- Number of independent opportunities for non conformance /unit

24.Define DPO?
Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO): It is the number of defective opportunities,
which do not meet the required specification out of one million opportunities.
6
DPMO DPO 10
25.Define Yield.
Yield: It tells the performance of the process in terms of percentage.
YIELD = 1- DPU
26. What are the New Seven Management tools?
Affinity diagram ; Interrelationship digraph ; Tree diagram ; Prioritization matrix ; Matrix
diagram ;
Process decision program ; Activity network diagram.
27, Define Affinity diagram?
The affinity diagram is used to generate ideas, then organize these ideas in a logical
manner. The first step in developing an affinity diagram is to post the problem (or issue)

where everyone can see it. Next, team members write their ideas for solving the problem on
cards and post them below the problem. Seeing the ideas of other members of the team helps
everyone generate new ideas. As the idea generation phase slows, the team sorts the ideas into
groups, based on patterns or common themes. Finally, descriptive title cards are created to
describe each group of ideas.
28.Define Tree diagram?
A tree diagram assists teams in exploring all the options available to solve a problem,
or accomplish a task. The tree diagram actually resembles a tree when complete. The trunk of
the tree is the problem or task. Branches are major options for solving the problem, or
completing the task. Twigs are elements of the options. Leaves are the means of
accomplishing the options.

29.Define Matrix Diagram?

The matrix diagram allows teams to describe relationships between lists of items. A
matrix diagram can be used to compare the results of implementing a new manufacturing
process to the needs of a customer. For example, if the customer's main needs are low cost
products, short leadtimes, and products that are durable; and a change in the manufacturing
process can provide faster throughput, larger quantities, and more part options; then the only
real positive relationship is the shorter leadtime to the faster throughput.
The other process outcomeslarger quantities and more optionsare of little value to
the customer. This matrix diagram, relating customer needs to the manufacturing process
changes, would be helpful in deciding which manufacturing process to implement.
30.Define Arrow Diagram?
The activity network diagram graphically shows total completion time, the required
sequence of events, tasks that can be done simultaneously, and critical tasks that need
monitoring. In this respect, an activity network diagram is similar to the traditional PERT
chart used for activity measurement and planning.

31.What is SPC?
SPC is statistical process control.SPC is a methodology for monitoring a process to
identify special causes of variation and signaling the need to take corrective action when it
is appropriate.When special causes are present the process is deemed to be out of control.A

practical definition of SPC can be that both the process averages and variances are
constant over time.
32.What are the types of histograms?
There are five types of histograms depending on the type of distribution .They
are :
1.Bell shaped distribution
2.Double peaked distribution
3.Plateau distribution
4.Comb distribution
5.Skewed distribution
33.What is an attribute?
An attribute refers to those quality characteristics that conform to specifications or do
not conform to specifications.

34.What is meant by nonconformity?

A nonconformity is a departure of a quality characteristics from its intended level or
state that occurs with a severity sufficient to cause an associated product or service not of
meet a specification requirement.A nonconforming unit is a unit of product or service
containing at least one nonconformity.
PART B
1. Explain Pareto chart?
The Pareto chart was introduced in the 1940s by Joseph M. Juran, who named it after the
Italian economist and statistician Vilfredo Pareto, 18481923. It is applied to distinguish
the vital few from the trivial many as J is closely related to the so called 80/20 rule 80% of the
problems ste causes, or in SixtheSigmapoor termsvalues80%in Yofstem

In the Six Sigma improvement methodology, the Pareto chart has two primary
applications. One is for selecting appropriate improvement projects in the define phase.
Here it offers a very objective basis for selection, based on, for example, frequency of
occurrence, cost saving and improvement potential in process performance. The other
primary application is in the analyze phase for identifying the vital few causes (Xs) that
will constitute the greatest improvement in Y if appropriate measures are taken.
A procedure to construct a Pareto chart is as follows:

1) Define the problem and process characteristics to use in the diagram.

2) Define the period of time for the diagram for example, weekly, daily, or shift. Quality
improvements over time can later be made from the information determined within this
step.
3) Obtain the total number of times each characteristic occurred.
4) Rank the characteristics according to the totals from step 3.
5) Plot the number of occurrences of each characteristic in descending order in a bar graph
along with a cumulative percentage overlay.
6) Trivial columns can be lumped under one column designation; however, care must
be exercised not to omit small but important items.
Table 4.2 shows a summary table in which a total of 50 claims during the first month of
2002 are classified into six different reasons. Figure 4.4 is the Pareto chart of the data
in Table 4.2.

2. Explain the cause and effect diagram and Check sheet ?

Cause-and-effect diagram
An effective tool as part of a problem-solving process is the cause-and-effect diagram, also
known as the Ishikawa diagram (after its originator) or fishbone diagram. This technique is
useful to trigger ideas and promote a balanced approach in group brainstorming sessions
where individuals list the perceived sources (causes) with respect to outcomes (effect). As
shown in Figure 4.1, the effect is written in a rectangle on the right-hand side, and the
Causes are listed on the left-hand side. They are connected with arrows to show the causeand-effect relationship.
When constructing a cause-and-effect diagram, it is often appropriate to consider six main
causes that can contribute to an outcome response (effect): so-called 5M1E (man, machine,
material, method, measurement, and environment).

When preparing a cause-and-effect diagram, the first step is to agree on the specific
wording of the effect and then to identify the main causes that can possibly produce the
effect. The main causes can often be identified as any of 5M1E, which helps us to get
started, but these are by no means exhaustive. Using brainstorming techniques, each main
cause is analyzed. The aim is to refine the list of causes in greater detail until the root
causes of that particular main cause are established. The same procedure is then followed
for each of the other main causes. In Figure 4.1, the method is a main cause, the pressure
and the temperature are the causes, and the pressure high are the root causes.

Check sheet
The check sheet is used for the specific data collection of any desired characteristics of a
process or product that is to be improved. It is frequently used in the measure phase of the
Six Sigma improvement methodology, DMAIC. For practical purposes, the check sheet is
commonly formatted as a table. It is important that the check sheet is kept simple and that
its design is aligned to the characteristics that are measured. Consideration should be given
as to who should gather the data and what measurement intervals to apply. For example,
Figure 4.2 shows a check sheet for defect items in an assembly process of automobile
ratios.

3. Explain the Histogram and Scatter diagram?

Histogram
It is meaningful to present data in a form that visually illustrates the frequency of
occurrence of values. In the analysis phase of the Six Sigma improvement methodology,
histograms are commonly applied to learn about the distribution of the data within the
results Ys and the causes Xs collected in the measure phase and they are also used to
obtain an understanding of the potential for improvements.

To create a histogram when the response only takes on simply made each time a discrete value occurs.
After a number of responses are taken, the
tally for the grouping of occurrences can then be plotted in histogram form. For example,
Figure 4.3 shows a histogram of 200 rolls of two dice, where, for instance, the sum of the
dice was two for eight of these rolls. However, when making a histogram of response data
that are continuous, the data need to be placed into classes or groups. The area of each bar
n the histogram is made proportional to the number of observations within each data value
or interval. The histogram shows both the process variation and the type of distribution
that the collected data entails.

Scatter diagram
The scatter plot is a useful way to discover the relationship between two factors, X and Y,
i.e., the correlation. An important feature of the scatter plot is its visualization of the
correlation pattern, through which the relationship can be determined. In the improve
phase of the Six Sigma improvement methodology, one often searches the collected data
for Xs that have a special influence on Y. Knowing the existence of such relationships, it is
possible to identify input variables that cause special variation of the result variable. It can
then be determined how to set the input variables, if they are controllable, so that the
process is improved. When several Xs may influence the values of Y, one scatter plot
should be drawn for each combination of the Xs and Y. When constructing the scatter
diagram, it is common to place the input variable, X, on the X-axis and the result variable,
Y, on the Y-axis. The two variables can now be plotted against each other and a scatter of
plotted points appears. This gives us a basic understanding of the relationship between X
and Y, and provides us with a basis for improvement.
Table 4.3 shows a set of data depicting the relationship between the process temperature
(X) and the length of the plastic product (Y) made in the process. Figure 4.5 shows a
scatter diagram of the data in Table 4.3.

4. Explain the Measures of Tendency and Dispersion?

Measures of central tendency are measures of the location of the middle or the center of a
distribution. The definition of "middle" or "center" is purposely left somewhat vague so
that the term "central tendency" can refer to a wide variety of measures. The mean is the
most commonly used measure of central tendency. The following measures of central
tendency are discussed in this text:

Mean
Median
Mode
OR
Central tendency is measured in three ways: mean, median and mode. The mean is simply
the average score of a distribution. The median is the center, or middle score within a
distribution. The mode is the most frequent score within a distribution. In a normal
distribution, the mean, median and mode are identical.

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is what is commonly called the average: When the word "mean" is
used without a modifier, it can be assumed that it refers to the arithmetic mean. The mean
is the sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores. The formula in summation
notation is: = X/N populationwheremean andN isthe numbertheof scores. If the scores
are from a sample, then the symbol M refers to the mean and N refers to the sample
size. The formula for M is the same as the for central tendency for roughly symmetric distributions but
can be misleading in skewed
distributions since it can be greatly influenced by extreme scores. Therefore, other
statistics such as the median may be more informative for distributions such as reaction
time or family income that are frequently very skewed.
The formal definition of the arithmetic mean is = E[X] where is the populat of the variable X and
E[X] is the expected value of X.
The sample size is very simply the size of the sample. If there is only one sample, the
letter "N" is used to designate the sample size. If samples are taken from each of "a"
populations, then the small letter "n" is used to designate size of the sample from each
population. When there are samples from more than one population, N is used to indicate
the total number of subjects sampled and is equal to (a)(n). If the sample sizes from the
various populations are different, then n 1 would indicate the sample size from the first
population, n 2 from the second, etc. The total number of subjects sampled would still be
indicated by N.
A sample is a subset of a population. Since it is usually impractical to test every member
of a population, a sample from the population is typically the best approach available.

A population consists of an entire set of objects, observations, or scores that have

something in common. For example, a population might be defined as all males between
the ages of 15 and 18.
Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is the nth root of the product of the scores. Thus, the geometric mean
of the scores: 1, 2, 3, and 10 is the fourth root of 1 x 2 x 3 x 10 which is the fourth root of
60 which equals 2.78. The formula can be w means to take the product of all the values of X.
The geometric mean can also be computed by:
1. Taking the logarithm of each number
2. Computing the arithmetic mean of the logarithms
3. Raising the base used to take the logarithms to the arithmetic mean.
The median is the middle of a distribution: half the scores are above the median and half
are below the median. The median is less sensitive to extreme scores than the mean and
this makes it a better measure than the mean for highly skewed distributions.
Computation of Median
When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For
example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4.
When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle
numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is (4+7)/2 = 5.5.
The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution and is used as a measure
of central tendency. The advantage of the mode as a measure of central tendency is that its
meaning is obvious
5. Explain Normal curve?
It was proposed by De-Moivre an english Mathematician in the year 1733. He define it
2
as a randomeXissaid variabltohavenormal distribution with the parameter &
(Mean
& Variance) if its density function
2
1
e

f(x)

1
2

(x

Where X ~ N ( , ), it can be converted into Standard Normal Variable Z ~N (0, 1) using

the relationship of transformation, whose probability density function is
1
2
X
f(z)

where z

e z /2

If we have sample of size n, and the characteristics are y1, y2, y3, y4,yn, then &
calculated as

is

y y y ... y

n
n
2

(yi y)
2 v i 1

n 1
where v - variance, y bar - mean

If we use X bar - R chart, in which there are k sub groups of size n, can be estimated
as
Where Ri is the range of each sub group and d2 is the constant that depends on sample size
n. The value of d2 can be found by seen the X bar - R chart table.
R
R
in
R
S

d2

Characteristics
The curve is bell-shaped and symmetrical about the line x = .
Mean, Median, Mode of the distribution coincides so it is called symmetrical.

X-Axis is an asymptote (the line that touches the curve at infinity)

to the curve.
Since f (x) is probability, it can never be negative so no portion of
the curve lies below the x-Axis.
6, 7 Explain Variable chart and Attribute chart ?

The control chart is a very important tool the Six Sigma improvement methodology. In th applied to
judge if the process is predict of special causes of variation so o verifythat the that the performance of the
process is under control. The original concept of the control

chart was proposed by Walter A. Shewhart in 1924 and the tool has been used extensively
in industry since the Second World War, especially in Japan and the USA after about
1980. Control charts offer the study of variation and its source. They can give process
monitoring and control, and can also give direction for improvements. They can separate
special from common cause issues of a process. They can give early identification of
special causes so that there can be timely resolution before many poor quality products are
produced.
Shewhart control charts track processes by plotting data over time in the form shown in
Figure 4.3. This chart can track either variables or attribute process parameters. The types
of variable charts are process mean (x), range (R), standard deviation (s), individual value
(x) and moving range (Rs). The attribute types are fraction nonconforming (p), number of
nonconforming items (np), number of nonconformities (c), and nonconformities per unit
(u).

The typical control limits are plus and minus 3 standard deviations limits using about
20-30 data points. When a point falls outside these limits, the process is said to be out of
control. When a point falls inside these limits, the process is said to be under control.
There are various types of control charts, depending on the nature and quantity of the
characteristics we want to supervise. The following control charts are the most often used
ones depending on whether the data are continuous or discrete. These charts are called
Shewhart control charts. Note that for continuous data, the two types of chart are
simultaneously used in the same way as a single control chart.
For continuous data (variables):

For discrete data (attributes):

Besides these charts, the following new charts for continuous data have been suggested
and studied. For good references forcontrol charts, see CUSUM (cumulative sum) chart ;
MA (moving average) chart ; GMA (geometric moving average) chart ; EWMA
(exponentially weighted moving average) chart
(b) How are control charts constructed?
A detailed generic sequence for construction of control charts can be developed, which can
be useful when working with control charts in practice.
Step 1. Select the characteristic and type of control chart
First, the decision must be made regarding the characteristic (effect) of the process or
product that is to be checked or supervised for predictability in performance. Then the
proper type of control chart can be selected.
Step 2. Determine the sample size and sampling interval
Control charts are, in most cases, based on samples of a constant number of observations,
n. For continuous data, it is common to use two to six observations. However, there are

also charts for subgroup sizes of one, x (individual observation) chart and Rs (moving
range) chart. For discrete data, n could be as large as 100 or 200.
Step 3. Calculate the control lines and center line
All control charts have control limits, UCL and LCL, showing when the process is affected
by special cause variation. A CL is drawn between the control limits. The distance from
CL to UCL/LCL is 3 standard deviations of the characteristic.

For example, for n individual observations,

the following formulae apply to the calculation of CL, UCL and LCL for the x
(average) chart.

Here, A2 and d2 are the frequently used constants for control charts. Table 4.1
contains CL, UCL and LCL for the respective control charts.

Step 4. Draw the control chart and check for special causes
The control chart can now be drawn, with CL, UCL and LCL. The samples used for
calculating the control limits are then plotted on the chart to determine if the samples used
to calculate the control limits embody any special causes of variation. Special causes exist
if any of the following alarm rules apply:

A single point controlfallslimits. outside the 3

Two out of three consecutive points fall

Seven or more consecutive points fall to

A run of eighttivepointsorisup (inmoreincreasingconsecutrend),ordown(in

decreasing trend).

At least 10 out of 11 consecutive points

At least eight consecutive points make a one side of the center line, and the next point is on the
other side of the center line.

8. Explain DMAIC Methodology?

DEFINE PHASE
SIPCO, Process Mapping, Project team,
Problem and Goal Statement
MEASURE PHASE
Sigma calculation & process capability
calculation
ANALYZE PHASE
Control chart, Pareto chart, cause & effect
analysis & histogram
IMPROVE PHASE
Develop a potential solution

CONTROL PHASE
Develop Standards & Procedures

Fig DMAIC METHODOLOGY

DEFINE PHASE
It defines the scope and goals of the improvement project in terms of customer
requirements and the process that delivers these requirements.
SIPOC
SIPOC (Supplier, Input, Process, Output, and Customer) is a high level tool that identifies
who are your supplier, what he supplies, how it is converted to the required form, what we
get as a outcome and who is going to get it.
Process Mapping
A graphical display of the steps, events, and operation in sequence that makes up the
process. It is a high-level process tool, which tells the detail of all the activity, involved in
manufacturing of the product.
15-word flip chart
It is a team tool, which allows team members to draft a simple 15-word statement of the
project scope. It clearly explains the problem statement and the goal statement of the
project that had to undertaken.

Project team

The team is formed to solve the critical to quality problem and they are given training
regarding the quality tools and others. According to the level of training they are given
belt
which represents. their role in the
Executive leaders
He or she should set the tone and direction for six-sigma effort and they have to commit
themselves and promote it throughout the organization.
Champions
He or She serves as a coach in supporting the project teams for implementing the six sigma
and providing them the required resource for their work.
Master Black belts
He or She is the highest levels of technical proficiency and must be an expertise in six
sigma tools.
Black belts
He or She is the backbone of six-sigma culture and takes responsibilities for the routine
work and results of six-sigma project. They are key agents, fully dedicated and thoroughly
trained in six sigma techniques and tools.

Green Belt
He or She are responsible for collection and analysis of data needed to improve the process
and usually receive more simplified training than black belts and work on projects only on
part time.

Team Members
He or She must have sufficient functional expertise relevant to the project undertaken.
They must be able to work well with others and have technical skills to contribute
significantly to the team.
MEASURE PHASE
It measures the current performance input, output, and process and calculates the sigma
level. In this Phase we do
I] Sigma calculation
II] Process capability calculation

Sigma calculation
Parts per Million (PPM): The number of defective item out of one million inspected item.

Defects per Unit (DPU): It is defined as ratio between the Number of unit defective to
Number of unit inspected.

Number of unit defective

DPU

Number of unit inspected

Defects per Opportunities (DPO): It is defined as ratio between Defects per unit to Number
of independent opportunities for non-conformance per unit.
DPO

DPU

Where m- Number of independent opportunities for non conformance /unit

Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO): It is the number of defective opportunities,
which do not meet the required specification out of one million opportunities.
6
DPMO DPO 10
Yield: It tells the performance of the process in terms of percentage.
YIELD = 1- DPU
PROCESS CAPABILITY
In any manufacturing process, the variability is inherent and cannot be eliminated fully
though it can be controlled to some extent. The extent of variability decides Go, Non-Go
or Acceptance, Rejection of the products. Statistics renders an immense help to assess this
variability quantitatively and to take the correction action promptly before any disaster
that may occur as a consequence. Process capability study is a statistical tool or technique,
to assess the variation in the ability of the process during the conversion of feed material.
Process capability
It is defined as the quality performance capability of the process with given process
factors and under normal, in control condition. Based on the results of any process that are
continuously measured, standard deviation is calculated by taking the square root of its
variance to calculate the indices of process capability namely CP and Cpk. The need for
process capability is to
iv. Predict the extent to which the process will be able to hold tolerance or customer
requirements.
v. Choose, from among competing process, the most one for meeting the customer
requirements.
vi. Redesign and implement a new process that eliminates the source of variability now at
work.
The two type of Process capability are:
a) Potential capability index (Cp): The potential process capability measures the overall
performance of the process and is measured as the ratio of difference between upper
specification limit (USL) and lower specification limit (LSL) to six times of standard
deviation ( ).

CP

DESIGN TOLERANCE
PROCESS TOLERANCE

USL - LSL
6
b) Performance capability Index (Cpk): The index CP calculates the precision of the
process by measuring the overall processes performance, consideration the both positive
and negative deviation. This is alone not sufficient, since there is every chance for lack of
accuracy in the process. To assess the accuracy, clustering nature of values around the
mean or away from the center value are calculated. Using performance capability index
(Cpk) the clustering effect on Lower limit is calculated by CPKL & Upper limit is calculated
by CPKU and minimum of the above is Cpk.
CP

LSL

C
pkl

C
pku

USL -

C pk= MIN (Cpku, Cpkl)

ANALYZE PHASE
It analyzes the gap between the current performance levels with the desired
performance level. In this problems are identified and prioritized for solving it by
identifying root cause of the problem.
Pareto Chart
It is a process tool to classify data and rank categories in descending order of occurrence
to separate significant categories from trivial ones. Separating data into category, counting
occurrences in each category, and arranging categories from highest to lowest frequency
and drawing and labeling bars for each category does it.
Cause and Effect Diagram
It is called as Fishbone diagram which a process tool to identify possible causes for a
particular effect.
IMPROVE PHASE
It involves in generating the improvement solutions for the problem and chooses the
best one for implementation, which will satisfy the goals.
CONTROL PHASE
It involves in putting measures in place to make sure that the new process is monitored
and continuously improved.
9. Explain Affinity, Interrelationship, Tree diagram, Prioritization matrix, Matrix
diagram, Process decision program, Activity network diagram?

The affinity diagram is used to generate ideas, then organize these ideas in a logical
manner. The first step in developing an affinity diagram is to post the problem (or issue)
where everyone can see it. Next, team members write their ideas for solving the problem
on cards and post them below the problem. Seeing the ideas of other members of the team
helps everyone generate new ideas. As the idea generation phase slows, the team sorts the
ideas into groups, based on patterns or common themes. Finally, descriptive title cards are
created to describe each group of ideas.
The interrelationship digraph allows teams to look for cause and effect relationships
between pairs of elements. The team starts with ideas that seem to be related and
determines if one causes the other. If idea 1 causes idea 5, then an arrow is drawn from 1
to 5. If idea 5 causes idea 1, then the arrow is drawn from 5 to 1. If no cause is ascertained,
no arrow is drawn. When the exercise is finished, it is obvious that ideas with many
outgoing arrows cause things to happen, while ideas with many incoming arrows result
from other things.
A tree diagram assists teams in exploring all the options available to solve a problem, or
accomplish a task. The tree diagram actually resembles a tree when complete. The trunk of
the tree is the problem or task. Branches are major options for solving the problem, or
completing the task. Twigs are elements of the options. Leaves are the means of
accomplishing the options.
The prioritization matrix helps teams select from a series of options based on weighted
criteria. It can be used after options have been generated, such as in a tree diagram
exercise. A prioritization matrix is helpful in selecting which option to pursue. The
prioritization matrix adds weights (values) to each of the selection criteria to be used in
deciding between options. For example, if you need to install a new software system to
better track quality data, your selection criteria could be cost, leadtime, reliability, and
upgrades. A simple scale, say 1 through 5, could be used to prioritize the selection criteria
being used. Next, you would rate the software options for each of these selection criteria
and multiply that rating by the criteria weighting.
The matrix diagram allows teams to describe relationships between lists of items. A
matrix diagram can be used to compare the results of implementing a new manufacturing
process to the needs of a customer. For example, if the customer's main needs are low cost
products, short leadtimes, and products that are durable; and a change in the manufacturing
process can provide faster throughput, larger quantities, and more part options; then the
only real positive relationship is the shorter leadtime to the faster throughput.
The other process outcomeslarger quantities and more optionsare of little value to the
customer. This matrix diagram, relating customer needs to the manufacturing process
changes, would be helpful in deciding which manufacturing process to implement.

The process decision program chart can help a team identify things that could go wrong,
so corrective action can be planned in advance. The process decision program chart starts
with the problem. Below this, major issues related to the problem are listed. Below the
issues, associated tasks are listed. For each task, the team considers what could go wrong
and records these possibilities on the chart. Next, the team considers actions to prevent
things from going wrong. Finally, the team selects which preventive actions to take from
all the ones listed.
The activity network diagram graphically shows total completion time, the required
sequence of events, tasks that can be done simultaneously, and critical tasks that need
monitoring. In this respect, an activity network diagram is similar to the traditional PERT
chart used for activity measurement and planning.

UNIT IV- TQM TOOLS AND

TECHNIQES-II

PART-A

1. What is meant by benchmarking?

The process of gathering information ab company in order to copy , follow and exce
Benchmarking is defined as a systematic method (or) popular TQM tool by which
organizations can measure themselves against the best industry practices.
2. What are the six steps in benchmarking process?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Deciding what to benchmark

Understanding current performance
Planning
Studying others
Learning from the data
Using the findings and taking action

3. What is meant by quality function deployment (QFD)?

Quality function deployment (QFD) is a T requirements are met throughout the design process and
also in the production systems.
4. Write about House of quality.
The primary planning tool in QFD is the House of Quality. House of Quality is a set of
matrix used to translate the voice of the customers into technical design requirement that meet
specific target values and characteristics of the final product. Because of its structure, it is
referred to as the House of Quality.

5.

What are the six steps to build House of

1. Identify voice of the customers

2. Identify technical descriptors.
3. Relate the voice of the customers to the technical descriptors
4. Conduct an evaluation of competing products
5. Evaluate technical descriptors and develop targets.
6. Determine which technical descriptors to deploy in the remainder of the production
process.
6.

What are the Taguchis Quality Loss Funct

Taguchi has defined quality as the loss imparted to society from the time a product is
shipped.
There are three common quality loss
functions. 1. Nominal - the - best

2. Smaller the better

3. Larger the better
7. Define Total Productive Maintenance (TPM).
Total Productive Maintenance is defined as keeping the running plant and
equipment at its highest productive level with the cooperation of all areas of organization.
8. What is meant by predictive maintenance and preventive maintenance?
Predictive maintenance is the process of using data and statistical tool to determine
when a piece of equipment will fail.
Predictive maintenance is the process of periodically performing activities such as
lubrication on the equipment to keep it running.

9. Name different loss measurements in TPM?

a. Down time losses Planned Unplanned
b. Reduced Speed Losses
c. Poor Quality Losses
10. Name is meant by Availability?
Down time losses are measured by equipment availability (A) using the
equation,
Availability A=(T/P)*100
Where T= Operation time (P-D)
P=Planned operation time
D= Down time.
11. What is meant by Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) ?
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an analytical technique which combines the
technology and experience of the people
To identify foreseeable failure modes of a product(or) process
To plan for its elimination.
12. Define Reliability.
Reliability is defined as the probability of a product performing satisfactorily without
failure of a specified function under specified conditions for a specified period of time.
13. What are the three main categories of failure?

1. Debug
2. Chance
3. Wear out
14. What is Debug failure ?
Debug includes a high failure rate at the initial stages because of inappropriate use (or)
flaws in the design (or) manufacturing.
15. What are the two important types of FMEA ?
1. Design FMEA
2. Process FMEA
16. Write some effects of failure.
1. Noise
2. Vibration
3. Erratic operation
4. poor performance
5. Lack of stability.
17. What is meant by performance efficiency?
Reduced speed losses are measured by tracking performance efficiency using the
equation,
Performance efficiency E=(C*N/T)*100
Where C=Cycle time
N= Number of units produced.
18. What are the three classes of customer needs?
1. Dissatisfiers: are the needs that are expected in a product (or) service
2. Satisfiers: are needs that customers say they want
3. Exciters/Delighters: are new (or) innovative features that customer do not except.

19. Name different types of matrix diagrams.

1. L- Matrix
2. T- Matrix
3. Y- Matrix

4. X- Matrix
5. C- Matrix.
20. What are the three types of benchmarking?
1. Internal benchmarking
2. Competitive benchmarking
3. Process benchmarking.
21. Draw the Taguchi Loss Function?

PART B QUESTIONS
1. Discuss about design of FMEA document.
Design FMEA is used in the design process by identifying known and
foreseeable failure modes and then ranking failures according to relative impact on the
product. Design FMEA reduces development time and cost of manufacturing process
by eliminating many potential failure modes prior to operation of the process.
FMEA number space is given on the top right corner of the document which is
needed for reference.
ITEM space is used for component (or) process to be analysed.
Design Responsibility space is used for the team in-charge of the design or
process , (or) the name and the department of the person responsible for preparing the
document.
Model Number / Year of the component should be included in the space
provided to avoid confusion between similar components.
Key date space is used for initial Due date of FMEA.
FMEA date original and FEMA date latest revision should be filled.

In the Core team space, the names of the responsible individuals and
departments having authority to perform tasks should be filled up.
Item/Function :
In this column, the name and code number of the item being analysed is
recorded.
This function of the item should be entered.
If the item has more than one function, they should be listed and analysed
separately.
The environment (temperature. pressure, humidity etc) in which the system
operates should be completely given.
2. Explain briefly above the bench marking
There are six steps in benchmarking process which are given below.
1. Deciding what to benchmarking
2. Understanding current performace
3. Planning
4. Studying others
5. Learning from the data
6. Using the findings and taking action.
Deciding what to Benchmark
The initial stage of benchmarking is to determine what to benchmark and against whom to do
so. Improvement to best-in class levels in some areas will contribute greatly to market and
financial success, where as improvement in other areas will have no significant impact.
Understanding current performance :
Self analysis is an essential step in effective bench marking. It
is important to know your own processes, products, and services before you attempt to
understand the processes, products, and services of another organization. Because, without the
through knowledge of your own products and processes,you may not realize the extent of your
improvement opportunities.
Planning
Once the internal processes are understood,a benchmarking team should be formed. A
team represents different perspectives,special skills and a variety of business connections. The
team will decide what type of benchmarking to perform, what type of data are to be collected,
and the method of collection.
It is better to find appropriate benchmarking partner may be any person (or)
organization
that
supplies
you
with
information
contacts
with
the
suppliers,consultants,customers and people within the organization are the gold mines of
information.

Benchmarking planning process requires examination of several outside organization.

Normally a process is divided in to number of sub processes. A single organization is not
bestinclass for suball-processesstudies.Hence,multiplefororganizationsallshould be studied
for benchmarking.
Studying Others
For studying other organizations,there are three techniques used.
1. Questionnaires
2. Site visits
3. Focus Groups.
Learning from the Data
The Objective of this benchmarking process is to identify and analyse the gaps
between the best practices and data are useful to identify performance gaps between
benchmarking partners.
The objective of this process is to develop strategies and action plans to bridge the
negative gap. To effect the change, the findings should be communicated to the people within
the organization who can enable 0improvement. The findings should be transformed as goals
and objectives and action plans should be developed to implement new processes.
3. (A) Explain Bench-mark Concept.
Benchmarking is the process of gathering, analyzing and evaluating the world
outside your organization and comparing it to your own. The concept of
benchmarking is shown in fig.

Bench marking Measuresst-in-classperformanceorganizationsofbe in class achieve those

performance levels and uses the information as the basis for adaptive creativity
and break-through performance.
There are two key elements of benchmarking.
1. Measure performance of best-in class with numerical values and fix it as a target. Give
numerical value for your own performance and plot it against the target.
2. Now,the managers have to find out reasons why their performance differs

By understanding the differences, the managers are able to organize their improvement efforts
to meet the goal. Hence , benchmarking is used to set the goals and objectives and meet then
by improving processes.

(B) What are the reasons to bench mark ?

1. Benchmarking helps organization to develop their strengths and reduce their
weaknesses.
2. Benchmarking inspires managers and organizations to complete.

3. Benchmarking arouses the organization to be alert whether it has fallen behind the
competiton (or) failed to take advantage of important operating improvements
developed elsewhere.
4. In traditional method, the next years goals to be set based on external information.
5. When managers and workers are aware of external information, they are usually
much more motivated to attain the set goals.
6. No one can argue that attaining the new goal is impossiable, since it can be proved
that another organization have already achieved it.
7. Benchmarking is time and cost efficient because benchmarking process involves
imitation and adaptation rather than invention.
8. Benchmarking reduces some of the planning, testing and prototyping effort since it
copies the working model of an improved process.
9. Benchmarking helps to identify the current position of a business and determine
the priorities for improvement.
10. Benchmarking allows comparisons with previous Benchmarking profiles and
against recognized best practices.
11. Benchmarking encourages regular monitoring of process and continuous
improvement.
12. Benchmarking increases the competitiveness of the company by demonstrating
environmental improvements to customers and shareholders.

4. Explain the different types of needs

The Japanese have developed the concept of Quality Function Deployment (QFD). The
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a TQM tool which ensures requirements are met throughout
the design process and also in the production systems.
QFD is basically a philosophy and a set planning and communication tool that focuses
on customer requirements in coordinating the design, manufacturing and marketing of
goods.
1.Dissatisfiers : are the needs that are expected in a product (or)
service. In a car, safety measures and cushioning seats are known as
dissatisfiers.
These features are generally not stated by customers but assumed as
a given. If they are not present, then the customer will be dissatisfied.
2. Satisfiers : are the needs that customers say they want. Air
conditioning and Compact Disc player in a car are the examples
of satisfiers. Fulfilling these needs creates satisfaction.
3. Exciters/delighters: are new (or) innovative features that customers do
not expect . Antilock brakes and collision avoidance systems are known
as examples of exciters /delighters. The pressure such unexpected
features leads to high perceptions of quality.

5.

a) Explain the Taguchis Quality Loss Fun

Dr. Genichi Taguchi, a mechanical engineering who has won four Deming awards, has
introduced the Quality Loss Function concept, Which combines cost, target and variation in
one metric with Specifications being of secondary importance. Further more, he Developed
Robust Design in which noise factors are taken into account to ensure that the system
functions correctly.
Taguchi has defined quality as the loss imparted to society from the
time a
product is shipped. Societal losses include failure to meet
customer requirements,
failure to meet ideal performance and harmful
side effects. The various losses due to
production are raw material, energy and labour consumed on unusable products (or) toxic-by
products. Consider the following example to illustrate loss-to-society concept. There are three
stages in the evolution of polythene bag thickness.
6. What are the major benefits of quality function deployment (QFD).
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)-House of Quality is an effective Management
tool to drive the design process and production process with the main aim of satisfying the
customer needs. The benefits of QFD are
1. A systematic way of obtaining information and presenting it.
2. Shorter product development cycle.
3. Considerably reduced start-up costs.
4. Fewer engineering changes.
5. Reduced chance of overnights during design process.
6. An environment of team work.
7. Consensus decision.
8. Everything is preserved in writing.
9. It facilitates identification of the causes of customer complaints
and makes it easier to takes prompt remedical action.
10. It is a useful tool for improving product Quality.
11. It is a useful tool for competitive analysis of product quality.
12. It is stabilizes quality.
13. It cuts down on rejects and rework at the production site.
14. It decreases claims substantially.
15. Marketing benefits are obtained by identifying sales point.

7. What is TPM philosophy. Explain the various steps of TPM.

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an extension of the
Quality Management (TQM) philosophy to the maintenance Function.

Total

TPM has the following steps:

1. Management should learn the new philosophy of TPM.
2. Management should promote the new philosophy of TPM.
3. Training should be funded and developed for every one in the origination
4. Areas of needed improvement should be identified.
5. Performance goals should be formulated.
6. An implementation plan should be developed.
7. Autonomous work groups should be established.
8. Write the main purposes of FEMA. Explain the 4 stages of FEMA.
Purpose of FEMA
1. FEMA is an analytical technique that combines the technology and
experience of people in identifying various failure modes of a product (or)
process and planning for its elimination.
2. FEMA implemented in both the design and the process areas to identify
potential failure modes and the effect of those on customers.
3. FEMA attempts to detect the potential product related failure modes.
4. FEMA anticipates the causes of failure and prevents from happening.
5. FEMA debugs and prevents problems that may occur in the manufacturing
process
6. FEMA compares the design characteristics relative to the planned
manufacturing (or) assembly methods
7. Corrective action are taken after a failure mode is identified.
8. FEMA provides justification for setting up a process in a certain manner.
9. FEMA is used by engineers to analyse all possible non- conformities and
problems that may arise in a given process (or) with a certain product.

8. What are the Phases of QFD?

Phase 1: Market analysis to establish knowledge about current customer requirements which
are considered as critical for their satisfa same requirements and the translation into product characteristics.
Phase 2: Translation of critical product characteristics into component characteristics, i.e., the
products parts.
Phase 3: Translation of critical component characteristics into process
characteristics. Phase 4: Translation of critical process characteristics into production
characteristics, i.e., instructions and measurements.

9.

Draw the
Matrix of QFD?

10. Draw the FMEA Form ?

UNIT V

1. Why do we need a Quality system?

In order to assure the quality of a product, the manufacturer must ensure its
quality. So, to ensure this quality it is necessary to make a systematic study and control
check at every stage of production. It is also essential to take critical review of efforts
and achievements of the company with respect to the quality of the product. Thus it is
necessary to develop a standard quality system.
2. What do you mean by ISO 9000 quality standard?
The ISO 9000 system is a quality management system that can be adopted by
all types of organizations belonging to government, public, private, (or) joint sectors.
The ISO 9000 system shows the way in creating products by preventing
deficiencies, instead of conducting expensive post product inspections and rework.
3. What is two party quality system?
In two party quality system, the supplier of the product (or) service would
develop a quality system that would conform to his standard. The customer would then
audit this system for acceptability. Here the supplier and customer form the two
parties.

4. What is a third party registration system?

In two party registration system after auditing, it may be found that the customers
quality requirements are not

incurred in multiple audits, a standard quality system must be developed and audited
by a third party registration system.

5. Name some third party registration system?

The ISO 9000, QS 9000, ISO 14000 and other quality systems are such third
party registration systems that indicate to customers (or) potential customers that the
suppliers has a quality system in place and it is being monitored.

6. Define quality auditing?

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines an audit as a
systematic and independenteterminewhetherqualityexaminationactivitiesand related results
comply with planned arrangements and whether these arrangements are
implemented
effectively and suitable to a
7. What is the two types quality audit?
Quality audit can be classified into two types internal and external audit.
8. What do you mean by external and internal audit?
An internal audit is conducted by personnel within the organization.
An external audit is conducted by people from the organization such as the
purchasing party (second party audit ) (or) a certified auditing agency (third party
audit).

9. How can Quality audit be classified on the audit?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

System Audit
Process Audit
Product Audit
Adequacy Audit
Compliance Audit

10. What is the use of QS 9000?

The QS 9000 standard defines the fundamental quality expectations from the
suppliers of production and service parts. The QS 9000 standard uses ISO 9000 as its
base with much broader requirements.

11. What is the use of ISO 14000 standard?

ISO 14000 standard gives the company a background on which to base its
Environmental Management System (EMS). This system can be joined with other
quality standards and can be implemented together to achieve the organizations
environmental targets.
The overall aim of the system is to provide protection to environment and to
prevent pollution.

12.What are the equivalents of various standards in Indian Standards System?

The equivalents of the above standards in Indian Standards System , developed by the Bureau
of Indian Standards are as below:
1.ISO :9000
2.ISO :9001
3.ISO :9002
4.ISO :9003

-IS :14000 1988

- IS :14001 1988
- IS : 14002 1988
- IS :14004 1989

13.What are the other quality systems?

The other quality systems are AS 9100 used in aerospace industry, ISO/TS
16949, which is called as Quality Systems Automotive Suppliers Particular Requirements for
the application of ISO 9001, TS 9000 a consolidation of the various quality system
requirements within telecommunications industry , QS 9000 and ISO 14000. Out of these Qs
9000 uses ISO 9000 as its foundation.But its requirements are much broader.
15.What are the steps involved in implementing Quality system?
Systematic implementation of quality system involves the following essential
steps:
1.Initiating total quality management.
2.Planning to achieve objective in a coordinated manner.

3.Orientation of staff.
4.Implementation
5.Monitoring.
6.Consolidation.
16.What is a quality manual?
A quality manual is to be established and maintained.It should include:
1.The scope of the QMS with details and justification for any exclusions.
2.The documented procedure or references to them.
3.A description of the interaction among the QMS processes.
17.What are the essential qualities of a auditor?
An auditor should be adequately qualified and competent to perform quality
audit.He should have received training in auditing principles and processes.To be able to audit
efficiently , the auditor should possess the ability to concentrate on the task entrusted and not
distracted by other activities that are taking place at the same time.He should be objective ,
honest and impartial.
18.What are the resources needed to conduct quality audit?
Auditing necessarily needs considerable resources in terms of finance , facilities and
manpower.The auditing organization , which manages the audit has to provide auditors and
subject matter specialists.The auditee commits his time, personnel, office and local
arrangements for the auditors.
The following are the
needs: 1.Human resources
2.Office facilities
3.Logistics , consisting of mode of travel, stay facilities,
etc. 4.Appointment of team leader.
19.What are the strengths of ISO 14000?
One of the greatest strengths of ISO 14000 is that it establishes a process that spreads
responsibility and participation to every individual of the organization. It teaches employees
the effect on the environment of their own work duties, how these can be minimized, what the
benefits can be and what negative consequences can be if responsibilities are ignored.
20.What is EMS?

EMS stands for Environment management system, which gives the procedures and
methods to save the industries from pollution.It is more or less an abatement measure of
environment degradation effects caused by industries.

PART B
1.Why do we need a Quality system? Explain?
Organizations -- industrial, commercial or governmental -- supply products intended to satisfy
a customer's needs and/or requirements ... To be competitive and to maintain good economic
performance, organizations/suppliers need to employ increasingly effective and efficient
systems ... Customer requirements are often incorporated in specifications. However,
specifications may not in themselves guarantee that a customer's requirement will be met
consistently, if there are any deficiencies in the organizational system to supply and support
the product. These concerns have led to the development of quality system standards and
guidelines that complement relevant product requirements given in the technical
specifications. The cornerstone of the family is ISO 9000, which clarifies the principal qualityrelated concepts, and the distinctions and inter-relationships among them, and provides
guidance for the selection and use of the ISO 9000 family.
In order to assure the quality of a product, the manufacturer must ensure its
quality. So, to ensure this quality it is necessary to make a systematic study and control
check at every stage of production. It is also essential to take critical review of efforts
and achievements of the company with respect to the quality of the product. Thus it is
necessary to develop a standard quality system.

The quality assurance system should provide for contract review to ensure that customer
requirements are adequately
defined and documented and that the company has the capability to
meet these requirements.

Quality assurance comes from process control. Therefore, quality assurance systems include
documented procedures for production, installation, and service activities; the appropriate
equipment and working environment; methods for monitoring and controlling critical quality
characteristics; approval processes for equipment; criteria for workmanship, such as written
standards, samples, or illustrations; and maintenance activities. Process control also includes
monitoring the accuracy and variability of equipment, operator knowledge
and skills, the
accuracy of measurement results and data used, and environmental factors.
Traditionally, quality assurance was a result of mass final inspection. Heavy reliance on inspection
proliferated because of the industrial revolution and the division of labor. The
role of the
inspection department was to seek out defective items in production and remove them

prior to shipment.

Deming tried to eliminate mass inspection. According tohim the true purpose of inspection is to provide
information to control and improve the process effectively.
Inspection and/or testing is performed at three points in the production
process: at receipt of incoming materials,
during the manufacturing process, & upon completion of production.

2.Explain briefly about ISO 9000 Series of standards.

The history of the ISO 9000 family is a story both of success and of misunderstanding.
Anybody trying to implement the ISO norm in an enterprise will be confronted with both these
sides, the latter when middle management start becoming involved. People with no experience
of quality assurance find the ISO norm a bit difficult to handle, or at least hard to understand,
without experience or help. This is not only because of the formal structure of the ISO
standard, but also because of its technical language: even the words "shall", "must" and "have"
are assigned their own specific meanings.

As a first step, it is necessary to understand the history and structure of the ISO norm. ISO
stands for International Organization for Standardization, a Geneva-based worldwide
federation. The ISO 9000 standard was first published in 1987, one of its sources being the
BS5750 series 1979, developed by the British Standard Institution (BSI) on the basis of
existing military standards. The Single European Marketing Directive on Standards and
Certification stipulates that the application of ISO 9000 should be encouraged among its

member countries. In clause 0, the EN ISO 9000-1 states:

Organizations -- industrial, commercial or governmental -- supply products intended to satisfy
a customer's needs and/or requirements ... To be competitive and to maintain good economic
performance, organizations/suppliers need to employ increasingly effective and efficient
systems ... Customer requirements are often incorporated in specifications. However,
specifications may not in themselves guarantee that a customer's requirement will be met
consistently, if there are any deficiencies in the organizational system to supply and support
the product. These concerns have led to the development of quality system standards and
guidelines that complement relevant product requirements given in the technical

specifications.

The ISO 9000 family comprises the following parts:

-- ISO 9000-1: 1994, Quality management and quality assurance standards -- Part 1:
Guidelines for selection and use. Any organization which is contemplating the development of
a quality system should refer to these guidelines.
-- ISO 9000-2: 1993, Quality management and quality assurance standards -- Part 2: Generic
guidelines for the application of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003. These guidelines should
be consulted when assistance is needed in the implementation of ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003.
-- ISO 9000-3: 1991, Quality management and quality assurance standards -- Part 3:
Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001 to the development, supply and maintenance of
software. These guidelines are not relevant for public employment services.
-- ISO 9000-4: 1993, Quality management and quality assurance standards -- Part 4: Guide
to dependability program management. This guide is not relevant for public employment
services.
-- ISO 9001: 1994, Quality systems -- Model for quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing. This model is relevant for public employment services
(especially head offices).
-- ISO 9002: 1994, Quality systems -- Model for quality assurance in production, installation
and servicing. This model is relevant for public employment services (especially for local
offices).
-- ISO 9003: 1993, Quality systems -- Model for quality assurance in final inspection and
tests.
-- ISO 9004-1: 1994, Quality management and quality system elements. This provides useful
guidance for public employment services.
-- ISO 9004-2: 1994, Quality management and quality system elements. This also provides
guidance for (public employment) services.
-- ISO 10011-1: 1990 Guidelines for auditing quality systems -- Part 1: Auditing.
-- ISO 10011-2: 1991 Guidelines for auditing quality systems -- Part 2: Qualification criteria
for quality systems auditors.
-- ISO 10011-3: 1991 Guidelines for auditing quality systems -- Part 3: Management of audit
programmes.

-- ISO 10012-1: 1992 Quality assurance requirements for measuring equipment -- Part 1:
Metrological confirmation system for measuring equipment.
-- ISO 10013: 1993 Guidelines for developing quality manuals.
-- ISO/TR 13425: 1993 Guidelines for the selection of statistical methods in standardization
and specification.
-- ISO 8402: 1994 Quality management and quality assurance -- Vocabulary.

ISO standards
ISO - 9000 - basic quality assurance definitions and guidance
ISO - 9001 - quality system for design, production, & service

ISO - 9002 - production and installation

ISO - 9003 - final inspection

Advantages
Better documentation

Greater Quality awareness by employees

Higher perceived quality in the market

Reduced customer quality audits

ISO - 14000 series

focuses on environmental management system that will ensure all operational

processes are consistent and

effective and will achieve environmental objectives of the organization.

a company should review and continually improve

its environmental management system, with the objective of
improving its overall environmental performance

QS-9000

1994- Ford,
Chrysler, and GM released QS-9000, an interpretation and extension of ISO-9000 for automotive
suppliers.

QS-9000 applies to all internal and external suppliers of production and service parts and materials
QS-9000 not only states what must be done, but often how to do it.

Registration to QS-9000 requires demonstration of effectiveness in meeting the intent of the

Registration under QS-9000 standards will also achieve ISO-9000 registration.

The cornerstone of the family is ISO 9000, which clarifies the principal quality-related
concepts, and the distinctions and inter-relationships among them, and provides guidance for
the selection and use of the ISO 9000 family. There is a hierarchy between some of the parts
of the series, so that ISO 9001 contains all the elements of ISO 9002 and ISO 9003, and ISO
9002 contains ISO 9003. Standards applicable to quality assurance in final inspection and tests
are covered in ISO 9003, while ISO 9002 also includes standards applicable to quality
assurance in production, installation and servicing. As indicated above, ISO 9001, in addition,
covers design and development. Clearly, an enterprise that has nothing to do with the design
and development of products and services need not apply ISO 9001. An enterprise that
produces goods or services should aim to apply ISO 9002. When AMS Salzburg decided to
implement the ISO norm, a decision had to be taken on whether implementation of ISO 9002
was enough or whether it would be necessary to refer to ISO 9001. Because there are some
design processes for new services in the organization it was decided to apply ISO 9001.
3. What are clauses in ISO 9001? Explain briefly
. ISO 9001 defines 20 elements necessary for a quality management system, as listed below:
Management Responsibility (Element 1)
The company has to define its commitment to a quality policy, which is understood,
implemented and maintained at all levels of the organization, and to define its quality goals.
Responsibilities and authorities have to be defined and documented. The company must
provide adequate resources and appoint a member of the management as a representative for
quality management. At least once a year, a management review must be held and recorded to
evaluate the quality system.
Quality System (Element 2)
A quality manual, covering all elements of the ISO standard, has to be prepared to document
the quality system. Procedures must be documented and controlled. The company has to
prepare a quality plan to ensure that quality requirements are understood and fulfilled.
Contract Review (Element 3)
The company has to establish and maintain documented procedures for contract review, to
document the customers' requirements and ensure the capability to fulfill the contract or order
requirements. Records of contract review shall be maintained.
Design Control (Element 4)

The company has to establish and maintain documented procedures to control and verify the
design of a new product or service to fulfill customers' requirements. The requirements must
be identified and there must be design reviews, design verification and design validation.
Design changes shall be documented, reviewed and authorized.
Document Control (Element 5)
All documents relevant for quality have to be controlled to ensure that the pertinent issues of
appropriate documents are available at all locations. When necessary, they are to be replaced
by updated versions. Changes shall be reviewed and approved by the same
organization/person that performed the original review or approval.

Purchasing (Element 6)
The company must monitor the flow of purchasing and evaluate the subcontractor's ability to
fulfill specified requirements.
Purchaser Supplied Product (Element 7)
Goods supplied by the customer have to be recorded. It must be ensured that they are
separately controlled and stored to prevent loss or damage.
Product Identification And Traceability (Element 8)
Where appropriate, purchased and delivered products or services must be made traceable
through documentation or batches.
Process Control (Element 9)
All processes of production or service that directly affect quality must be documented and
planned and carried out under controlled conditions to add consistency to the process. Control
of process parameters and product characteristics must ensure that the specified requirements
are met.
Inspection And Testing (Element 10)
The company must ensure receiving inspection and testing, in-process inspection and testing,
and final inspection and testing. These inspections and tests must be recorded.

Control of inspection, measuring and

Test Equipment (Element 11)
The items of equipment used for inspection, measuring and testing must be identified and
recorded. They must be controlled, calibrated and checked at prescribed intervals.
Inspection And Test Status (Element 12)
The status of the product or service must be identified at all stages as conforming or
nonconforming. This is to ensure that only conforming products or services are dispatched or
used.
Control Of Nonconforming Product (Element 13)
The company must establish procedures to ensure that nonconforming products or services are
prevented from unintended use. The disposal of nonconforming products must be determined
and recorded.
Correctional Prevention (Element 14)
Procedures must be established to ensure effective handling of customer complaints and
corrective actions after identifying nonconformities. The cause of nonconformities is to be
investigated in order to prevent recurrence. The corrective action shall be monitored to ensure
its long-term effectiveness. Preventive actions are to be initiated to eliminate potential causes
of nonconformance.
Handling, storage, packaging and
Delivery (Element 15)
Documented procedures must be established to ensure that products are not damaged and
reach the customer in the required condition.
Control Of Quality Records (Element 16)
All records related to the quality system must be identified, collected and stored together. The
quality records demonstrate conformity with specified requirements and verify effective
operation of the quality system.
Internal Quality Audits (Element 17)

The company must establish and maintain documented procedures for planning and
implementing internal quality audits to determine the effectiveness of the quality system. The
comments made by internal auditors must be recorded and brought to the attention of the
personnel having responsibility in the area audited. Follow-up audit activities shall verify and
record the implementation and effectiveness of the corrective action taken.
Training (Element 18)
The company shall establish and maintain documented procedures for identifying training
needs and must have a training record for each employee.
Servicing (Element 19)
Where servicing is a specific requirement, the company must establish and maintain
documented procedures for performing, verifying and reporting that the servicing meets the
specified requirements.
Statistical Techniques (Element 20)
The company must establish and maintain documented procedures to implement and control
the application of statistical techniques which have been identified as necessary for
performance information.
This structure looks very theoretical at first glance, but this is because ISO 9000 stipulates the
elements of a quality management system for any enterprise, irrespective of its branch of
activity. "ISO 9000 is not a prescriptive standard, it does not detail the how but rather the
what. This allows each individual company to define how it intends to comply with the
standard in a way that best suits that company's method of operation".It is possible that some
of the elements are of no relevance or almost no relevance in specific sectors. For example,
elements 11 and 12 are not relevant for AMS Salzburg, and element 15 is only marginally
relevant.
The 20 elements (or the relevant ones) of ISO 9001 must be addressed in a quality manual and
in operational procedures (possibly set out in a procedure manual) which comply with the
standards set in the quality manual. The quality manual defines and documents the quality
policy of the company. It is a statement of the company's intention to pursue a quality policy.
The operational procedures set out the specific way in which ISO 9000 is implemented
throughout the company's business process. Both types of document are required by ISO
9000: 1994. Almost every element of the standard requires records. Besides these, there may
be other documents in the company, for example work instructions, specifications, check-lists,
charts, data sheets, lists, forms and so on. Some of them are used to record events, but they are
not directly required by the ISO norm, which allows the company a great deal of flexibility

regarding whether or not to use such documents. AMS Salzburg, for example, decided to add
work instructions (which define how an activity is performed) to documented procedures, as
work instructions are liable to alteration. In the management of change, it is relatively easy to
replace the work instructions addressed in the operating procedures, without touching the
basic processes.
4.What do you mean by documentation? Explain the Documentation Hierarchy.
ISO 9000 DOCUMENTATION
STRUCTURE
The documentation created for ISO 9000-party regis registrar prior to them visiting the site to conduct the
actual audit. In fact, one type of documentation is used by the registrar to develop the audit plan for your
company. Structuring
your ISO 9000 documentation to facilitate the audit process only serves to enhance the
potential for a successful audit. This structuring will also make it easy for you to plan and
monitor your documentation efforts, both for the registration audit and all subsequent
maintenance audits.

DOCUMENT CONTROL AND ISO 9000

Once the documentation structure has been defined and the documentation written, a strategy
for controlling it must be put in place. ISO 9000 requires that documentation must be readily
available to those who need it, be of current issue, and that all obsolete material be completely
removed from the system. The control of documentation, from creation of new material
through
to the destruction of obsolete mater
It is also one of the elements audited by your 3rd-party registrar.
DOCUMENTING ISO 9000
A thorough analysis of each element prior to writing ensures the resulting documentation will
meet ISO 9000s criteria. Specific character must be clearly established within the organization. Since ISO
9000 registration is not a onetime occurrence, clearly documented procedures for maintaining a compliant Quality System
must be in place. Historically, companies have produced policy and procedure manuals which,
because they contained corporate policies, where often not made available to all employees.
As a result, the procedures were also not procedures be readily available to all persons performing the
work usually necessitate the
separation of these procedures from the policy manual Perhaps the biggest stumbling block for
North American businesses is the requirement to clearly define and document the processes
that it uses. Developing documentation that tells HOW we do something is not new to us, but
accurately describing WHAT it is we do is far less common. Most of our existing
documentation is product or department based. ISO looks only at the processes used to create
products, and these generally run across many areas of an organization. We can no longer

write documentation in isolation, the whole organization must be considered when writing
ISO compliant documentation.
WHEN IS ENOUGH, ENOUGH?
One of the complaints often heard about ISO 9000 refers to the large amount of
documentation that is perceived to be required. While procedural documentation is important
to the proper functioning of an effective Quality System, many companies tend to over
document. First and foremost, you must remember that it is your company and the
documentation must fit the company, not the standard.
The ISO 9000 series of Quality Standards does indicate key characteristics of a properly
functioning Quality System, but how they are implemented is the responsibility of the
organization. ISO documentation must reflect what the company does, not what it thinks the
ISO auditor will want to hear. In determining whether procedural documentation is required,
look at the skill sets of the people performing the task as well as any unique requirements the
company may have for completing the task. In many cases, documentation will not be required
because there is no unique process and/or the person has been trained in how to complete the
task.

5.What do you mean by quality audit? Explain the types of audit.

This chapter describes the types of audits that government and nongovernmental audit
organizations conduct and those organizations arrange to have conducted, of government
organizations, programs, activities, functions, and funds. This description is not intended to
limit or require the types of audits that may be conducted or arranged. In conducting these
types of audits, auditors should follow the applicable standards included and incorporated in
the chapters, which follow.
All audits begin with objectives, and those objectives determine the type of audit to be
conducted and the audit standards to be followed. The types of audits, as defined by their
objectives, are classified in these standards as financial audits or performance audits.
Audits may have a combination of financial and performance audit objectives or may have
objectives limited to only some aspects of one audit type. For example, auditors conduct audits
of government contracts and grants with private sector organizations, as well as government
and nonprofit organizations, that often include both financial and performance objectives.
These are commonly referred to as "contract audits" or "grant audits." Other examples of such
audits include audits of specific internal controls, compliance issues, and computer-based
systems. Auditors should follow the standards that are applicable to the individual objectives
of the audit.

The internal audits were carried out by the Managing Director and the quality system
representative, who drew up the audit plan, the audit check-list and the formats for the audit
report and for the reports by the regional office experts on their particular fields. The
Managing Director and the quality system representative audited the local offices in respect of
the quality system and the departments of the regional office in every respect. The experts
audited the local offices in respect of their particular business areas. The objective of the audit
was to verify that quality activities and related results comply with the definitions given in
operating procedures and work instructions, and to determine the effectiveness of the quality
system. The internal audit was announced several days before it took place, and all the
required records (see the check-list below) were delivered. The first audits focused on
documents control as a basis for the first stage in implementing the ISO norm. We then had to
look closely into the question of whether the operating procedures were in conformity with
actual processes and were appropriate. Nonconformities were noted and recorded, but it was
astonishing that the quality system worked so well despite the short duration of
implementation. We made two audits before the assessment to ensure that corrective action
could be taken, and that approach was effective in ensuring that AMS Salzburg was in good
shape to face the assessment.
An example of an internal quality audit check-list
Audit
notification/program
carried out

Service order carried out

External service
carried out

plan

Audit check-list available 0

Deficiency report form
0
available
Audit
report
available

form

Last audit report available

Pending deficiency report

available

Introductory discussion

Previous deficiencies and

corrective
measures 0
discussed
Completed
participants

list

of

Audit plan discussed

Audit
questions/inspection
carried out

Deficiency
completed

report

Audit report completed

Final discussions

Report signed

6.Explain the concepts of ISO 14000.

ISO - 14000 series

Focuses on environmental management system that will ensure all operational

processes are consistent and effective and will achieve environmental objectives of the
organization.
A company should review and continually improve its environmental management

system, with the objective of improving its overall environmental performance

Section 3.5 of ISO 14001 defines an environmental management system as "the part of the
overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities,
responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for developing, implementing,
achieving, reviewing, and maintaining the environmental policy. " Although ISO 14001 was
developed independent of ISO 9000 to fulfill environmental rather than quality needs.
An EMS is a structured plan to address the impacts a company or organization has on the
environment. The EMS is implemented and checked to ensure that plan goals are being met.

With the plan being revised to meet new goals, the EMS can guide a company toward
continual environmental improvement.
A basic condition for any EMS is compliance with applicable environmental laws, regulations,
and permits. An effective EMS goes beyond compliance to provide an organization with a
systematic approach to the development, implementation, and maintenance of an
environmental policy.
Through planning, implementation, checking, management review, and continual
improvement, organizations become more effective and efficient in the management of their
activities and the impacts of those activities on the environment.
In response to widespread acceptance of the ISO 9000 quality management standards and to
the proliferation of various environmental management systems, the International
Organization for Standardization formed Technical Committee (TC) 207 to begin
development of the ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards in 1992. As TC
207 carefully crafted the draft EMS standard (ISO 14001), companies around the world began
to assess their existing environmental systems to learn what changes would be needed to meet
ISO 14001.
Because many companies in the United States had not been prepared to step up to ISO 9000 in
the early 90s and had to struggle to catch up with their European and Asian counterparts, U.S.
companies are now carefully tracking the increase of certifications to ISO 14001. While there
are relatively few EMS certifications in the U.S., many savvy companies are aligning their
environmental management systems to conform to ISO 14001.
7.What are the benefits of ISO 14000?
The ISO 14001 standard provides specific requirements for an EMS and shares some common
management system principles with the ISO 9000 series of standards, including the "plan-docheck-act model" mentioned above and the requirement for top management commitment.
The basic focus of the ISO 14000 series of standards is environmental protection, while the
ISO 9000 series of standards focuses on quality and customer needs.
It should be noted that ISO 9000 is not a prerequisite for ISO 14001, although companies that
have both have successfully integrated the two management systems.
An effective EMS provides many benefits to the implementing organization, its customers and
stakeholders, and to regulators, including:
Reduced environmental risk.
Proactive environmental management.

Improved employee environmental awareness and performance.

Increased operating efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
Enhanced relationships and communication with employees, regulators, and
stakeholders.