44

CHAPTER 3
FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM DEVICES

3.1

INTRODUCTION
Modern power system networks are very large with hundreds of

buses and mechanical controlling is not sufficient for them. There is a

widespread

use

of

microelectronics,

computers

and

high-speed

communications for control and protection of present day transmission

systems; however, when operating signals are sent to the power circuits,
where the final power control action is taken, the switching devices are
mechanical and there is little high-speed control. Another problem with
mechanical devices is that control cannot be initiated frequently, because
these mechanical devices tend to wear out very quickly compared to static
devices. In effect, from the point of view of both dynamic and steady-state
operation, the system is really uncontrolled. Power system planners,
operators, and engineers have learned to live with this limitation by using a
variety of ingenious techniques to make the system work effectively, but at a
price of providing greater operating margins and redundancies. These
represent an asset that can be effectively utilized with prudent use of FACTS
technology on a selective, as needed basis.
In recent years, greater demands have been placed on the
transmission network, and these demands will continue to increase because of
the increasing number of nonutility generators and heightened competition
among utilities themselves. Added to this is the problem that it is very
difficult to acquire new rights of way (ROW). Increased demands on
transmission system, absence of long-term planning, and the need to provide

45
open access to generating companies and customers, all together have created
tendencies toward less security and reduced quality of supply.
The FACTS technology is essential to alleviate some but not all of
these difficulties by enabling utilities to get the most service from their
transmission facilities and enhance grid reliability. It must be stressed,
however, that for many of the capacity expansion needs, building of new lines
or upgrading current and voltage capability of existing lines and corridors will
be necessary.
The FACTS is a concept based on power-electronic controllers,
which enhance the value of transmission networks by increasing the use of
their capacity. As these controllers operate very fast, they enlarge the safe
operating limits of a transmission system without risking stability. Needless to
say, the era of the FACTS was triggered by the development of new solidstate electrical switching devices. Gradually, the use of the FACTS has given
rise to new controllable systems.
3.2

BASIC CONCEPT OF FACTS

Assuming the line to be lossless and ignoring the effect of line

charging, the real power flow (P) is given by,

P=

V1 V2
sin(
X

2)

(3.1)

where, X is the series line reactance. Assuming V1 and V2 to be held constants

(through voltage regulators at the two ends), the power injected by the power
station determines the flow of power in the line. The difference in the bus
angles is automatically adjusted to enable P = PG (Note that usually there
could be more than one line transmitting power from a generating station to a
load centre).

46
We may like to control the power flow in an AC transmission line
to (a) enhance power transfer capacity and or (b) to change power flow under
dynamic conditions (subjected to disturbances such as sudden increase in
load, line trip or generator outage) to ensure system stability and security. The
stability can be affected by growing low frequency, power oscillations (due to
generator rotor swings), loss of synchronism and voltage collapse caused by
major disturbances. The maximum power (Pmax) transmitted over a line is

Pmax =
where,

max

V1 V2
sin
X

max

(3.2)

(30o - 40o) is selected depending on the stability margins and the

stiffness of the terminal buses to which the line is connected. For line lengths
exceeding a limit, Pmax is less than the thermal limit on the power transfer
determined by the current carrying capacity of the conductors (Note this is
also a function of the ambient temperature). As the line length increases, X
increases in a linear fashion and Pmax reduces as shown in Figure 3.1.
The series compensation using series connected capacitors
increases Pmax as the compensated value of the series reactance (XC) is given
by
Xc =X(1-kse )

(3.3)

where, kse is the degree of series compensation. The maximum value of kse
that can be used depends on several factors including the resistance of the
conductors. Typically kse does not exceed 0.7.

47
Thermal Limit

PMAX

Stability Limit

Line Length

Figure 3.1 Power transfer capacity as a function of line length

Fixed series capacitors have been used since a long time for
increasing power transfer in long lines. They are also most economical
solutions for this purpose. However, the control of series compensation using
thyristor switches has been introduced only 10-15 years ago for fast power
flow control. The use of Thyristor Controlled Reactors (TCR) in parallel with
fixed capacitors for the control of XC also helps in overcoming a major
problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR) that causes instability of
torsional modes when series compensated lines are used to transmit power
from turbo generators in steam power stations. In tie lines of short lengths, the
power flow can be controlled by introducing Phase Shifting Transformer
(PST) which has a complex turns ratio with magnitude of unity. The power
flow in a lossless transmission line with an ideal PST shown in Figure 3.2 is
given by

P=

V1 V2
X

where,

sin( )
=

1-

(3.4)
2.

48

V1L

V2L

jX

1:e

Figure 3.2 A lossless line with an ideal PST

Again, manually controlled PST is not fast enough under dynamic
conditions. Thyristor switches can ensure fast control over discrete (or
continuous) values of , depending on the configuration of PST used. Pmax
can also be increased by controlling (regulating) the receiving end voltage of
the AC line. When a generator supplies a unity power factor load, the
maximum power occurs when the load resistance is equal to the line
reactance. It is to be noted that V2 varies with the load and can be expressed
as
V2 =V1 Cos(

2)

(3.5)

Substituting Equation (3.5) in (3.1) gives

V21 sin[2( 1
P=
2X

2 )]

(3.6)

By providing dynamic reactive power support at bus (2) as shown in

Figure 3.3, it is possible to regulate the bus voltage magnitude. The reactive
power (QC) that has to be injected is given by

49
V22 -V1 V2 cos(
QC =
X
V1L

2)

(3.7)

V2L

jX

QC

Load at unity
power factor

Figure 3.3

Transmission line compensated by controllable reactive

power source at receiving end

Comparing Equation (3.6) with (3.1), it can be seen that the

maximum power transfer can be doubled just by providing dynamic reactive
power support at the receiving end of the transmission line shown in
Figure 3.3. This is in addition to the voltage support at the sending end. It is to
be noted that while steady state voltage support can be provided by
mechanically switched capacitors, the dynamic voltage support requires
synchronous condenser or a power electronic controller such as SVC or Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).
3.3

OPPORTUNITIES FOR FACTS

What is most interesting for transmission planners is that FACTS

technology opens up new opportunities for controlling power and enhancing

the usable capacity of present, as well as new and upgraded, lines. The
possibility that current through a line can be controlled at a reasonable cost
enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines with
larger conductors, and use of one of the FACTS controllers to enable
corresponding power to flow through such lines under normal and
contingency conditions.

50
These opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS controllers
to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of
transmission systems including series impedance, shunt impedance, current,
voltage, phase angle, and the damping of oscillations at various frequencies
below the rated frequency. These constraints cannot be overcome, while
maintaining the required system reliability, by mechanical means without
lowering the useable transmission capacity. By providing added flexibility,
FACTS controllers can enable a line to carry power closer to its thermal
rating. Mechanical switching needs to be supplemented by rapid-response
power electronics. It must be emphasized that FACTS is an enabling
technology, and not a one-on-one substitute for mechanical switches.
The FACTS technology is not a single high-power controller, but
rather a collection of controllers, which can be applied individually or in
coordination with others to control one or more of the interrelated system
parameters mentioned above. A well-chosen FACTS controller can overcome
the specific limitations of a designated transmission line or a corridor.
Because all FACTS controllers represent applications of the same basic
technology, their production can eventually take advantage of technologies of
scale. Just as the transistor is the basic element for a whole variety of Microelectronic chips and circuits, the thyristor or high-power transistor is the basic
element for a variety of high-power electronic controllers.
FACTS technology also lends itself to extending usable
transmission limits in a step-by-step manner with incremental investment as
and when required. A planner could foresee a progressive scenario of
mechanical switching means and enabling FACTS controllers such that the
transmission lines will involve a combination of mechanical and FACTS
controllers to achieve the objective in an appropriate, staged investment
scenario.

51
The unique aspect of FACTS technology is that this umbrella
concept revealed the large potential opportunity for power electronics
technology to greatly enhance the value of power systems, and thereby
unleashed an array of new and advanced ideas to make it a reality. FACTS
technology has also provided an impetus and excitement perceived by the
younger generation of engineers, who will rethink and re-engineer the future
power systems throughout the world.
It is also worth pointing out that, in the implementation of FACTS
technology, we are dealing with a base technology, proven through HVDC
and high-power industrial drives. Nevertheless, as power semiconductor
devices continue to improve, particularly the devices with turn-off capability,
and as FACTS controller concepts advance, the cost of FACTS Controllers
will continue to decrease. Large-scale use of FACTS technology is an assured
scenario.
3.4

PARAMETERS CONTROLLED BY FACTS

CONTROLLERS
FACTS controllers are capable of controlling the following

parameters
Solve power transfer limit and stability problems
Thermal limit
Voltage limit
Stability limit
Transient stability limit
Small signal stability limit
Voltage stability limit

52
Increase power transfer capability of a line
Mitigate Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR)
Power quality improvement
Load compensation
Limit short circuit current
Increase the loadability of the system
Rapid control of reactive power flow
3.5

BENEFITS OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

Providing greater flexibility
Control of power flow as ordered
Increase the voltage stability and enhance the static stability
Reduce real power loss and improve the voltage profile
Increase the utilization of lowest cost production
Reduce loop flows
Reduce reactive power flows
Provides secure tie line connections to neighboring utilities
Increase the loading capability of lines to their capabilities
including short term and seasonal
Improved steady state system performance
Reduced environment impacts
FACTS controller requires minimal maintenance
Reduced power system oscillation

53
Increase the system security
To provide controllable compensation to a power system in
order to increase the power transmission capability
It is possible to maintain constant power flow in a
transmission line
It is possible to vary the apparent impedance
3.6

POSSIBILITIES OF POWER FLOW CONTROL

Control of the line impedance X (e.g., with a thyristorcontrolled series capacitor) can provide a powerful means of
current control.
When the angle is not large, which is often the case, control of
X or the angle substantially provides the control of active
power.
Control of angle (with a Phase Angle Regulator, for example),
which in turn controls the driving voltage, provides a powerful
means of controlling the current flow and hence active power
flow when the angle is not large.
Injecting a voltage in series with the line, and perpendicular to
the current flow, can increase or decrease the magnitude of
current flow. Since the current flow lags the driving voltage
by 90 degrees, this means injection of reactive power in series,
(e.g., with static synchronous series compensation) can
provide a powerful means of controlling the line current, and
hence the active power when the angle is not large.
Injecting voltage in series with the line and with any phase
angle with respect to the driving voltage can control the

54
magnitude and the phase of the line current. This means that
injecting a voltage phasor with variable phase angle can
provide a powerful means of precisely controlling the active
and reactive power flow. This requires injection of both active
and reactive power in series.
Because the per unit line impedance is usually a small fraction
of the line voltage, the MVA rating of a series controller will
often be a small fraction of the throughput line MVA.
When the angle is not large, controlling the magnitude of one
or the other line voltages (e.g., with a thyristor-controlled
voltage regulator) can be a very cost-effective means for the
control of reactive power flow through the interconnection.
Combination of the line impedance control with a series
controller and voltage regulation with a shunt controller can
also provide a cost-effective means to control both the active
and reactive power flow between the two systems.
3.6.1

Objectives of Series Compensation

Series compensation is more effective in controlling the actual

transmitted power which, at a defined transmission voltage, is ultimately

determined by the series line impedance and the angle between the end
voltages of line.
It was always recognized that ac power transmission over long lines
was primarily limited by the series reactive impedance of the line. Series
capacitive compensation was introduced decades ago to cancel a portion of
the reactive line impedance and thereby increase the transmittable power.
Subsequently, within the FACTS initiative, it has been demonstrated that

55
variable series compensation is highly effective in both controlling power
flow in the line and in improving stability. Controllable series line
compensation is a cornerstone of FACTS technology. It can be applied to
achieve full utilization of transmission assets by controlling the power flow in
the lines, preventing loop flows and, with the use of fast controls, minimizing
the effect of system disturbances, thereby reducing traditional stability margin
requirements.
3.6.2

Objectives of Shunt Compensation

It has long been recognized that the steady-state transmittable

power can be increased and the voltage profile along the line be controlled by
appropriate reactive shunt compensation. The purpose of this reactive
compensation is to change the natural electrical characteristics of the
transmission line to make it more compatible with the prevailing load
demand. Thus, shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched reactors are
applied to minimize line overvoltage under light load conditions, and shunt
connected, fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are applied to maintain
voltage levels under heavy load conditions.
The ultimate objective of applying reactive shunt compensation in a
transmission system is to increase the transmittable power. This may be
required to improve the steady-state transmission characteristics as well as the
stability of the system. Var compensation is thus used for voltage regulation
at the midpoint (or some intermediate) to segment the transmission line and at
the end of the (radial) line to prevent voltage instability, as well as for
dynamic voltage control to increase transient stability and damp power
oscillations.

56
3.7

TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

In general, FACTS controllers can be classified into four types

depending on the manner in which it is connected to the power system.

Series controllers
Shunt controllers
Combined series-series controllers
Combined series-shunt controllers
Depending on the power electronic devices used for the purpose of
controlling, the FACTS controllers can be classified as
Variable impedance type
Voltage Source Converter (VSC) based
The variable impedance type controllers include:
Static Var Compensator (SVC), (shunt connected)
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor or Compensator
(TCSC), (series connected)
Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST) of
Static PST (combined shunt and series)
The VSC based FACTS controllers are:
Static synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) (shunt connected)

57
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) (series
connected)
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) (combined series-series)
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) (combined shuntseries)
Some of the special purpose FACTS controllers are
Thyristor Controller Braking Resistor (TCBR)
Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL)
Thyristor Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR)
Interphase Power controller (IPC)
NGH-SSR damping controller
3.7.1

Series Controllers
The series Controller shown in Figure 3.4 could be variable

impedance, such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable

source of main frequency, sub synchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a
combination) to serve the desired need. In principle, all series controllers
inject voltage in series with the line. Even variable impedance multiplied by
the current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As
long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series
controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other
phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

58

Line

Figure 3.4 Series controller

3.7.2

Shunt Controllers
As in the case of series controllers, the shunt controller shown in

Figure 3.5 may be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of

these. In principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system at the
point of connection. Even variable shunt impedance connected to the line
voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection of
current into the line.

Line
i

Figure 3.5 Shunt controller

As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line
voltage, the shunt controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive
power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as
well.

59
3.7.3

Combined Series-Series Controllers

This could be a combination of separate series controllers shown in

Figure 3.6, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline

transmission system. Or it could be a unified Controller, in which series
Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line
but also transfer real power among the lines via the power link.
The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series
controller, referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to
balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby
maximize the utilization of the transmission system.

DC power
link

AC lines

Line

Figure 3.6 Combined series-series controllers

Note that the term "unified" here means that the dc terminals of all
controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

60
3.7.4

Combined Series-Shunt Controllers

This could be a combination of separate shunt and series

controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner shown in

Figure 3.7, or a Unified Power Flow Controller with series and shunt
elements.

Line
i

DC power
link

Figure 3.7 Combined series-shunt controllers

In principle, combined shunt and series controllers inject current
into the system with the shunt part of the Controller and voltage in series in
the line with the series part of the Controller. However, when the shunt and
series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the
series and shunt Controllers via the power link.
3.8

APPLICATIONS OF FACTS DEVICES

The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:
Power flow control

61
Increase of transmission capability
Voltage control
Reactive power compensation
Stability improvement
Power quality improvement
Power conditioning
Flicker mitigation
Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and
storages
3.9

STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

A Static Var Compensator is a shunt connected FACTS controller

for providing fast acting reactive power on high voltage electricity

transmission networks. SVCs are part of the Flexible AC System device
family, regulating voltage and stabilizing the system.
The term static refers to the fact that the SVC has no moving
parts, the SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring
the system closer to the unity power factor.
3.9.1

Definition
SVC means a shunt-connected static var generator or absorber

whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to

62
maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system
(typically bus voltage).
3.9.2

Objectives of SVC
Increase power transfer in long lines
Improve stability with fast acting voltage regulation
Damp low frequency oscillations due to swing (rotor) modes
Damp sub-synchronous frequency oscillations due to torsional
modes
Control dynamic over voltages

3.9.3

Operating Principle
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device consists of a

group of shunt-connected capacitors and reactors banks with fast control

action by means of thyristor switching circuits designed to bring the system
closer to the unity power factor. From the operational point of view, the SVC
can be considered as a variable shunt reactance that adjusts automatically
according to the system operative conditions. Depending on the nature of the
equivalent SVCs reactance, i.e., capacitive or inductive, the SVC draws
either capacitive or inductive current from the network. Suitable control of
this equivalent reactance allows voltage magnitude regulation at the SVC
point of connection. They also be placed near high and rapidly varying loads
where they can smooth flicker of voltage.
3.9.4

Analysis of SVC
The location of SVC is important in determining its effectiveness.

Ideally, it should be located at the electrical centre of the system or midpoint

of a transmission line. For example, consider a symmetric lossless

63
transmission line with SVC connected at the midpoint shown in Figure 3.8.
Without SVC, the voltage at the midpoint is given by,

Vmo =
Where,

Vcos /2
cos /2

(3.8)

= l is the electrical length of the line, l is the length of the line and

is the phase constant given by

lc=2 f lc

(3.9)

Where, l and c are positive sequence inductance and capacitance of the line
per unit length, f is the operating frequency.

VL

VmL /2

VL0

P
ISVC
SVC

Figure 3.8 A transmission line with SVC connected at midpoint

It can be shown that the voltage variation in the line (due to
variation in ) is maximum at the midpoint. SVC helps to limit the variation
by suitable control. The steady state control characteristics of SVC are shown
in Figure 3.9 where ADB is the control range. OA represents the
characteristic where the SVC hits the capacitor limit; BC represents the SVC
at its inductor limit. Note that SVC current is considered positive when SVC
susceptance is inductive. Thus

64
ISVC =-BSVC VSVC

(3.10)

The slope of OA is BC (susceptance of the capacitor) and the slope

of OBC is BL (susceptance of the reactor). A positive slope (in the range of
1-5%) is given in the control range to
(a) enable parallel operation of more than one SVC connected at
the same or neighboring buses and
(b) prevent SVC hitting the limits frequently.

VSVC

D Vref

ISVC

Figure 3.9 Control characteristics of SVC

The steady state value of the SVC bus voltage is determined from
the intersection of the system characteristic and the control characteristic
shown in Figure 3.10. The system characteristic is a straight line with
negative slope and is defined by
VSVC =VTH-XTH ISVC

(3.11)

65
where, VTH and XTH are the Thevenin voltage and reactance viewed from the
SVC bus. For the system shown in Figure 3.8, we have

VTH=Vmo =

VTH=

Vcos( )
2
cos( /2)

(3.12)

Zn
tan
2
2

(3.13)

Where, Zn is the surge impedance defined by

Zn =

3.9.5

l
c

(3.14)

Expression for Voltage and Power

Control Range: The SVC control range is described by

VSVC =Vref+Xs ISVC

(3.15)

VSVC

VSVCo
System
Characteristics

ISVCo

ISVC

Figure 3.10 Determination of operating point of SVC

66
where, Xs is the slope of the control characteristic. Vref is the SVC voltage
(corresponding to point D) when ISVC = 0.
Combining Equations (3.11) and (3.15), we get

VSVC =Vm=

VTH XS VrefXTH
+
XS +XTH XS +XTH

(3.16)

The expression for power flow in the line is given by

P=

VmVsin( /2)
Zn sin( /2)

(3.17)

With Vref = V, it can be shown that P is given by,

P=kP0 + 1-k P1

(3.18)

Here,
V2 sin
V2 sin( /2)
P0 =
, P1 =
Zn sin
Zn sin( /2)

(3.19)

and

k=

Xs
XS +XTH

(3.20)

Remarks
1.

P0 is the power flow in the line without SVC and P1 is the

power flow in the line when SVC maintains a constant voltage
V at the midpoint (Xs = 0)

2. k

1 as Xs

67
3.

For small values, it can be assumed that sin

, sin /2

/2,

Cos /2 1.
In this case,
V2
sin
V
XL
P0 =
sin , P1 =
XL
2
2

(3.21)

Where, XL = ( l)d is the total reactance of the line (d is the length of the line).
At SVC limits: When the SVC hits the limit it can be represented as a fixed
susceptance (BSVC) where BSVC = BC at capacitive limit. At the inductive
limit, BSVC = - BL.
Substituting ISVC from Equation (3.10) in Equation (3.11), we get

VSVC =

VTH
Vcos /2
=
(1-XTHBSVC ) (1-XTHBSVC )cos /2

(3.22)

The power flow in the line is given by

P0
V2 sin
P=
=
(1-XTHBSVC ) Zn (1-XTHBSVC )sin
3.9.6

(3.23)

Configuration of SVC
The two most popular configuration of SVC are
1. Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR)
2.

Thyristor Switched Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled Reactor

(TSC- TCR)

68
The second type is more flexible than the first one and requires
smaller rating of the reactor and consequently generates fewer harmonic. The
schematic diagram of a TSC - TCR type SVC is shown in Figure 3.11.
SVC HV Bus

Filter

Figure 3.11 A Typical SVC (TSC-TCR) configuration

This shows that the TCR and TSC are connected on the secondary
side of a step-down transformer. Tuned and high pass filters are also
connected in parallel which provide capacitive reactive power at fundamental
frequency. The voltage signal is taken from the high voltage SVC bus using a
potential transformer.
The TSC is switched in using two thyristor switches (connected
back to back) at the instant in a cycle when the voltage across valve is
minimum and positive. This results in minimum switching transients. In
steady state, TSC does not generate any harmonics. To switch off a TSC, the
gate pulses are blocked and the thyristors turns off when the current through
them fall below the holding currents. It is to be noted that several pairs of
thyristors are connected in series as the voltage rating of a thyristor is not
adequate for the voltage level required.

69
However, the voltage ratings of valves for a SVC are much less
than the voltage ratings of a HVDC valve as a step down transformer is used
in the case of SVC. To limit di/dt in a TSC it is necessary to provide a small
reactor in series with the capacitor.
3.9.7

Types of SVC Controllers

The following are the basic types of reactive power control

elements which make up all or part of any static Var system.

Saturated reactor (SR)
Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
Thyristor controlled transformer (TCT)
Self or line commutated converter (SCC/LCC)
3.9.8

Types of SVC Models

Two models of SVC are usually implemented for load flow

analysis of a power system. They are,

3.9.8.1 Firing angle model
The equivalent susceptance, Beq which is function of a changing
firing angle,

is made up of the parallel combination of Thyristor Controlled

Reactor (TCR) equivalent admittance and a fixed capacitive susceptance. This

model provides information on the SVC firing angle required to achieve a
given level of compensation.

70
3.9.8.2

Variable susceptance model

A changing susceptance BSVC represents the fundamental frequency

equivalent susceptance of all shunt modules making up the SVC. This model
is an improved version of SVC models.
3.9.9

Applications of SVC
The major application of SVC is for rapid voltage regulation
and control of dynamic (temporary) over voltages caused by
load throw off, faults or other transient disturbances. The
dynamic reactive control at the load bus increases power
transfer and can solve the problem of voltage instability
(collapse) caused by contingency conditions.
It is to be noted that steady state voltage regulation can be
achieved by mechanically switched capacitors and reactors.
However, fast voltage regulation is required to prevent
instability under transient conditions. Thus, generally, a SVC
is operated with minimum reactive power output under normal
conditions. This is achieved by the Susceptance Regulator
which ensures that full dynamic range is available for control
under contingency conditions.
The fast controllability provided by the thyristor switches can
be also utilized to improve system stability (both transient and
small signal). The use of auxiliary damping controllers can
help damp low frequency, inter area power oscillations that
can appear at stressed operating conditions (involving high
loading of tie lines).

71
The location of SVC is an important issue. If the objective is
to compensate a long transmission line, the SVC is to be
located at the midpoint of the line (if a single SVC is to be
used). For very long lines, multiple SVC at regular intervals
can be applied. For example, if two SVCs are to be used, one
is located at a distance d/3 from the sending end while the
other is located at a distance, d/3 from the receiving end (d is
the length of the line).
When SVCs are applied to improve the power transfer in a
transmission network, the location can be determined by the
sensitivity of voltage at the critical buses with respect to the
reactive power injection ( Vi/ Qj). In general, it can be stated
that a bus with low short circuit level can be a candidate bus.
Incidentally a synchronous condenser can raise the fault level
while providing controllable reactive power. It is to be noted
that a SVC does not raise the fault level which can be a
blessing as the requirement of the fault current interruption
capability of circuit breakers does not go up. On the other
hand, for reactive power control at HVDC converter stations
with low Short Circuit Ratios (SCR), the synchronous
condenser

improves

voltage

regulation

and

system

performance.
However, a SVC has several advantages over synchronous
condenser namely,
(a) Faster response under transient conditions

72
(b) There are no moving parts, hence requires less maintenance
(c) There are no problems of loss of synchronism
(d) As mentioned earlier, a SVC does not contribute to short
circuit currents.
3.10

THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR

The basic Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) scheme

was proposed in 1986 by Vithayathil with others as a method of rapid

adjustment of network impedance." It consists of the series compensating
capacitor shunted by a Thyristor-Controlled Reactor. In a practical TCSC
implementation, several such basic compensators may be connected in series
to obtain the desired voltage rating and operating characteristics.
3.10.1

Definition
TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a

series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to

provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.
3.10.2

Operating Principle
A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can provide

continuous control of power on the ac line over a wide range. From the
system viewpoint, the principle of variable-series compensation is simply to
increase the fundamental-frequency voltage across a fixed capacitor (FC) in a
series compensated line through appropriate variation of the firing angle, .

73

Figure 3.12 Basic thyristor-controlled series capacitor scheme

This enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the seriescapacitive reactance. A simple understanding of TCSC functioning can be
obtained by analyzing the behavior of a variable inductor connected in
parallel with an FC, as shown in Figure 3.12. The equivalent impedance, Zeq,
of this LC combination is expressed as

Zeq = j

1
1
||( L)=-j
1
C
CL

(3.24)

The impedance of the FC alone, however, is given by j(1/ C). If

C (1/ L) > 0, (1/ L) > 0 or, in other words, L > (1/ C), the reactance
of the FC is less than that of the parallel-connected variable reactor and that
this combination provides a variable-capacitive reactance. Moreover, this
inductor increases the equivalent-capacitive reactance of the LC combination
above that of the FC.
If C (1/ L) = 0, a resonance develops that results in an infinitecapacitive impedance - an obviously unacceptable condition. If however,

(1/ L) < 0, the LC combination provides inductance above the value of the
fixed inductor. This situation corresponds to the inductive-vernier mode of the
TCSC operation.

74
In the variable-capacitance mode of the TCSC, as the inductive
reactance of the variable inductor is increased, the equivalent-capacitive
reactance is gradually decreased. The minimum equivalent-capacitive
reactance is obtained for extremely large inductive reactance or when the
variable inductor is open-circuited, in which the value is equal to the
reactance of the FC itself.
The behavior of the TCSC is similar to that of the parallel LC
combination. The difference is that the LC-combination analysis is based on
the presence of pure sinusoidal voltage and current in the circuit, whereas in
the TCSC, because of the voltage and current in the FC and TCR are not
sinusoidal because of thyristor switching.
3.10.3

Modes of TCSC Operation

There are essentially three modes of TCSC operation; these are

illustrated in Figure 3.13 and described as follows;

3.10.3.1 Bypassed-thyristor mode
In this bypassed mode, the thyristors are made to fully conduct with
a conduction angle of 1800. Gate pulses are applied as soon as the voltage
across the thyristors reaches zero and becomes positive, resulting in a
continuous sinusoidal of flow current through the thyristor valves. The TCSC
module behaves like a parallel capacitorinductor combination. However, the
net current through the module is inductive, for the susceptance of the reactor
is chosen to be greater than that of the capacitor.
Also known as the TSR mode, the bypassed thyristor mode is
distinct from the bypassed-breaker mode, in which the circuit breaker provided
across the series capacitor is closed to remove the capacitor or the TCSC module
in the event of TCSC faults or transient over voltages across the TCSC.

75
This mode is employed for control purposes and also for initiating
certain protective functions. Whenever a TCSC module is bypassed from the
violation of the current limit, a finite-time delay, Tdelay, must elapse before the
module can be reinserted after the line current falls below the specified limit.

(a) The bypassed-thyristor mode

(b) The blocked-thyristor mode

(c) The partially conducting thyristor (capacitive-vernier) mode

(d) The partially conducting thyristor (inductive-vernier) mode

Figure 3.13 Different operating modes of a TCSC

76
3.10.3.2 Blocked-thyristor mode
In this mode, also known as the waiting mode, the firing pulses to
the thyristor valves are blocked. If the thyristors are conducting and a
blocking command is given, the thyristors turn off as soon as the current
through them reaches a zero crossing. The TCSC module is thus reduced to a
fixed-series capacitor, and the net TCSC reactance is capacitive. In this mode,
the dc-offset voltages of the capacitors are monitored and quickly discharged
using a dc-offset control without causing any harm to the transmission-system
transformers.
3.10.3.3 Partially Conducting Thyristor or Vernier Mode
This mode allows the TCSC to behave either as a continuously
controllable capacitive reactance or as a continuously controllable inductive
reactance. It is achieved by varying the thyristor-pair firing angle in an
appropriate range. However, a smooth transition from the capacitive to
inductive mode is not permitted because of the resonant region between the
two modes.
A variant of this mode is the capacitive-vernier-control mode, in
which the thyristors are fired when the capacitor voltage and capacitor current
have opposite polarity. This condition causes a TCR current that has a
direction opposite that of the capacitor current, thereby resulting in a loopcurrent flow in the TCSC controller. The loop current increases the voltage
across the FC, effectively enhancing the equivalent-capacitive reactance and
the series-compensation level for the same value of line current. To preclude
resonance, the firing angle

of the forward-facing thyristor, as measured

from the positive reaching a zero crossing of the capacitor voltage, is

constrained in the range

min

1800. This constraint provides a continuous

vernier control of the TCSC module reactance. The loop current increases as

77
is decreased from 1800 to
with =

min

min.

The maximum TCSC reactance permissible

is typically two-and-a-half to three times the capacitor reactance

at fundamental frequency.
Another variant is the inductive-vernier mode, in which the TCSC
can be operated by having a high level of thyristor conduction. In this mode,
the direction of the circulating current is reversed and the controller presents
net inductive impedance.
3.10.4

Equivalent Circuits for TCSC

IL

XC

XTCR
(a) Basic equivalent circuit
IL

XC

XTCR

ITCR

(b) Capacitive operation

IL

XC

ITCR

XTCR

(c) Inductive operation

Figure 3.14 Equivalent circuits for TCSC

78
Consider the equivalent circuit of the TCSC modelled as a
capacitor in parallel with a variable inductor shown in Figure 3.14(a). The
impedance of TCSC (ZTCSC) is given by

ZTCSC =

-jXC jXTCR
-jXC
=
jXTCR -XC (1- XC )
XTCR

(3.25)

The current through the TCR (ITCR) is given by

ITCR =-j

XC
IL
IL =
X
j(XTCR -XC )
(1- TCR )
XC

(3.26)

Since the losses are neglected, the impedance of TCSC is purely

reactive. The capacitive reactance of TCSC is obtained from 3.25 as

XTCSC=

XC
X
(1- C )
XTCR

Note that XTCSC is capacitive as long as XC < XTCR. XTCR =

(3.27)

when

the thyristors are blocked and ITCR = 0. For the condition when XC < XTCR,
ITCR is 1800 out of phase with the line current IL. In other words, IL is in phase
with ITCR.
For the condition where XC > XTCR, the effective reactance of
TCSC (XTCSC) is negative implying that it behaves like an inductor. In this
case, IL and ITCR are in phase. The capacitive and the inductive operation of
TCSC are shown in Figure 3.14(b) and (c) respectively.
3.10.5

Control of TCSC
The control of TCSC also includes protective functions (protective

bypass). The control functions are partitioned into two levels - common

79
(to all modules) and the module (level). Commands for the control flow from
the common level to the module levels while the status information is sent
back from each module level.
There are three basic functions at each module level. These are
(a) Reactance control
(b) SSR damping control (involving modulation of the reactance)
(c) Bypass (for protection)
The controller also ensures that the transients associated with mode
transitions are minimized. The module controller executes the ordered change
to reactance within one half cycles. This includes bypassing, reinsertion and
setting the vernier without overshoot. The common level receives signals of
line current and TCSC voltage to generate feedback signals for closed-loop
control functions. It also receives commands from energy management centre
for setting power order.
The major control functions in a TCSC are,
Power Scheduling Control
Power Swing Damping Control (PSDC)
Transient Stability Control (TSC)
Sub-synchronous Damping Control (SSDC)
3.10.6

Types of TCSC Models

A TCSC involves continuous-time dynamics, relating to voltages

and currents in the capacitor and reactor, and nonlinear, discrete switching

80
behavior of thyristors. Deriving an appropriate model for such a controller is
an intricate task.
3.10.6.1 Variable-reactance model
A variable-reactance TCSC model for transient and oscillatory
stability studies used widely for its simplicity. In this quasi-static
approximation model, the TCSC dynamics during power-swing frequencies
are modeled by a variable reactance at fundamental frequency. It is assumed
that the transmission system operates in a sinusoidal steady state, with the
only dynamics associated with generators and PSS. This assumption is valid,
because the line dynamics are much faster than the generator dynamics in the
frequency range of 0.12 Hz that are associated with angular stability studies.
The variable-reactance TCSC model assumes the availability of a continuousreactance range and is therefore applicable for multi-module TCSC
configurations. This model is generally used for inter-area mode analysis, and
it provides high accuracy when the reactance-boost factor (= XTCSC/ XC) is
less than 1.5.
3.10.6.2 Transient-stability model
In the variable-reactance model for stability studies, a reference
value of TCSC reactance is generated from a power-scheduling controller
based on the power-flow specification in the transmission line. The reference
value may also be set directly by manual control in response to an order from
an energy-control center, and it essentially represents the initial operating
point of the TCSC; it does not include the reactance of FCs (if any). The
reference value is modified by an additional input, from a modulation
controller for such purposes as damping enhancement. Another input signal,
which is applied at the summing junction, is the open-loop auxiliary signal,
which can be obtained from an external power-flow controller.

81
A desired magnitude of TCSC reactance is obtained that is
implemented after a finite delay caused by the firing controls and the natural
response of the TCSC. This delay is modeled by a lag circuit having a time
constant of typically 1520 ms. The resulting XTCSC is added to the Xfixed,
which is the reactance of the TCSC installations FC component. To obtain
per-unit values, the TCSC reactance is divided by the TCSC base reactance,
Zbase, given as

Zbase =

(kVTCSC )2
MVAsys

(3.28)

where,
kVTCSC = the rms lineline voltage of the TCSC in kilovolts (kV)
MVAsys = the 3-phase MVA base of the power system
The TCSC model assigns a positive value to the capacitive
reactance, so Xtotal is multiplied by a negative sign to ensure consistency with
the convention used in load-flow and stability studies. The TCSC initial
operating point, Xref, for the stability studies is chosen as
Xref=Xtotal-Xfixed

(3.29)

During periods of over current, only some TCSC modules move

into the bypassed mode, for the bypassing of a module causes the line current
to decrease and thus reduces the need for the remaining TCSC modules to go
into the bypass mode.

82
3.10.6.3 Long-term-stability model
The capability curves of the TCSC depend on the duration for
which the voltage- and current-operating conditions persist on the TCSC. In
general, two time-limited regions of TCSC operation exist: the transientoverload region, lasting 310 s, and the temporary-overload region, lasting 30
min; both are followed by the continuous region. For long-term dynamic
simulations, an overload-management function needs to be incorporated in the
control system.
This function keeps track of the TCSC variables and their duration
of application, and it also determines the appropriate TCSC overload range,
for which it modifies the Xmax limit and Xmin limit. It then applies the same
modifications to the controller. However, the model is used widely in
commercial stability programs because of its simplicity, and it is also used for
system-planning studies as well as for initial investigations of the effects of
the TCSC in damping-power oscillations.
3.10.6.4 Advanced transient-stability studies model
An alternate TCSC model for transient-stability studies has been
developed that effectively solve the differential equations pertaining to the
TCSC capacitor and the TCR. The TCSC model is invoked at every
half-cycle of the line current. A variable is used to store the instantaneous
capacitor voltage at the line zero crossing at the end of each half-cycle to be
used as the initial condition for the next sample process. The TCR is
represented by a current source updated by the fundamental component of
TCR current that the model calculates at each half-cycle. Also, the model
incorporates the effects of both thyristor firing and synchronization. The
triggering instant is a function of the signal that is used for synchronization,
such as the TCSC voltage or line current. The model is compatible with

83
conventional transient-stability programs in that it updates the capacitor
voltage at every half-cycle while the stability program updates the line current
with the same frequency. It is also flexible enough to integrate not only
controls for minimizing the TCSC-response delay but higher-order controls as
well.
3.10.7

Advantages of TCSC
Use of thyristor control in series capacitors potentially offers the

following little-mentioned advantages:

Rapid, continuous control of the transmission line seriescompensation level.
Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines
within the network to enable optimal power-flow conditions
and prevent the loop flow of power.
Damping of the power swings from local and inter-area
oscillations.
Suppression

of

sub-synchronous

oscillations.

At

sub-

synchronous frequencies, the TCSC presents an inherently

resistiveinductive

reactance.

The

sub-synchronous

oscillations cannot be sustained in this situation and

consequently get damped.
Decreasing dc-offset voltages. The dc-offset voltages,
invariably resulting from the insertion of series capacitors, can
be made to decay very quickly (within a few cycles) from the
firing control of the TCSC thyristors.

84
Enhanced level of protection for series capacitors. A fast bypass of the series capacitors can be achieved through thyristor
control when large over voltages develops across capacitors
following faults. Likewise, the capacitors can be quickly
reinserted by thyristor action after fault clearing to aid in
system stabilization.
Voltage support. The TCSC, in conjunction with series
capacitors, can generate reactive power that increases with
line loading, thereby aiding the regulation of local network
voltages and, in addition, the alleviation of any voltage
instability.
Reduction of the short-circuit current. During events of high
short-circuit current, the TCSC can switch from the
controllable-capacitance to the controllable-inductance mode,
thereby restricting the short-circuit currents.
3.10.8

Applications of TCSC
The major objective in applying TCSC is to increase power
transfer capacity in critical transmission lines (typically tie
lines) under contingency conditions. Under normal steady
state conditions, series compensation using fixed capacitors
may be adequate unless SSR becomes a problem. A TCSC
may be used in such cases to damp (mitigate) SSR by
converting a part of the fixed compensation to controllable
series compensation.
Often, the contingency conditions are also accompanied by
low frequency oscillations that can threaten dynamic security.

85
Sometimes, transient stability may be affected. Thus, it
becomes necessary to provide Power Oscillation Damping
(POD) using appropriate control signals synthesized from
local measurements. Typically active power or line current has
been suggested as input to POD.
In the restructured electricity supply regime, the problem is to
in- crease the Available Transfer Capability (ATC) which is
defined as a measure of transfer capability for transfers of
power for further commercial activity, over and above already
committed uses. The optimal size of a FACTS controller such
as a TCSC is defined as that which results in the minimum
cost of enhancing ATC.
An important consideration in the application of TCSCs is
their location. Based on DC power flow analysis, a technique
is suggested that ranks the effectiveness of the location of a
TCSC. The norm of the sensitivity vector [ PL /

Xj] when

the ith element of the vector is given by PLi/Xj, determines the

PLi is the change in the power flow in ith line

rank. Here,

when there is a change in the reactance of line j. The sum

norm of a vector v is defined by
n

Norm[v]=

|v(i)|

(3.30)

i=1

The line which results in maximum value of the norm is the

most effective location. It is to be noted that within a line, the
location of the controller is not significant. The ratings of the

86
TCSC are determined from power flow, SSR and transient
stability studies.
3.11

PROPOSED APPROACH
In this work, the SVC and TCSC devices are considered

individually and in a combined manner. The combination is based on two

controllers having both series and shunt devices. The combination is the
variable susceptance model of SVC and variable reactance model of TCSC.
The improvement in voltage stability and active power loss minimization are
compared when different type of FACTS Controllers is used. The detailed
static models of SVC and TCSC are discussed in chapter 5.
3.12

CONCLUSION
This chapter gives an introduction and importance of the FACTS

devices with their classification. The power control concept, opportunities,

possibilities of power flow control and benefits of FACTS devices are also
discussed. The configuration and model of SVC and TCSC are discussed in
detail, which are considered in this research work.