RUNNING HEAD: JUSTICE, SOCIAL CAPITAL, SPIRITUAL CAPITAL

Justice, Social Capital, Spiritual Capital, and Transformation

Caitlin Leffingwell
Eastern University

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Introduction
While staying at a hostel for residency last fall, I found myself in a long conversation
with two German gentlemen regarding everything from card games and weather to cultural
stereotypes and spiritual norms. Somewhere in this range of topics, we began comparing the
general approaches that our countries take with anyone who is disadvantaged or needy
namely people who are unemployed, homeless, uneducated, or in other difficult positions. In
contrast to the American belief that all individuals are responsible for their own welfare, my new
friends noted that the German government essentially takes full responsibility for the well-being
of its citizens through extensive social services. After thoroughly discussing the positive and
negative aspects to both approaches, we concluded that neitherespecially the German
approach, ironicallyencourages a strong help your neighbor mentality; in other words, my
capitalistic society tends to think your misfortune is your responsibility, while their more
socialistic society tends to think your misfortune is the governments responsibility.
In contrast, I posed the potential for an approach where people act on the belief that your
misfortune is partly my (or our) responsibilitya mentality that played a heavy role in leading
my roommates and I to use our apartment as an informal shelter for women in need. Sharing this
choice and the remarkable gains (and challenges) that came from it ultimately launched this
particular conversation into another string of topics, but looking back on that interaction through
the new lens of these readings showed me just how close we came to the concept of social
transformation and our drastic need for it around the world. Perhaps, as these writers have
expressed in so many ways, some of the most broken aspects of our world could be transformed
as we boldly shift in practical ways toward spiritual capital, social capital, and justice. In order to
explore this possibility more fully, the first two sections of this paper briefly review these five

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readings and discuss their implications for urban social transformation, while the last section
pulls these insights into the specific context of my own community in Hartford, Connecticut and
my future ministry there.
Readings Review
The first book that I read for this class was Lins Social Capital: A Theory of Social
Structure and Action, which built upon a history of capital theoriesincluding human capital,
cultural capital, and other neocapital theoriesto propose a new theory that highlights the
variety of actors involved in society and the unique wealth of interactions that occur between
them. Lin (2001) expanded upon this theory with 12 very detailed (and borderline philosophical)
postulates (p.75-76), but his main point seemed to revolve around these three central components
of social capital: structure (embeddedness), opportunity (accessibility through social networks),
and action (use) (p.41). Along these lines, the book emphasized that social capital is comprised
of resources embedded in a social structure that are accessed and/or mobilized in purposive
actions (p.29) or, in other words, an investment in social relations with expected returns in the
marketplace (Lin, 2001, p.19). Lin (2001) argued that these returns could include benefits
ranging from information and influence to social credentials and identity reinforcement (p.20),
while taking the form of either bonding or bridging capital depending on particular needs (p.22).
This new social capital theory also touched on the unique interactions (homophilous and
heterophilous) between actors with differing levels of resources (p.47), as well as the intriguing
cultural differences between societies that value transactional rationality or relational rationality
(p.162) and expressive interactions or instrumental interactions (Lin, 2001, p.249). Although Lin
could have delved deeper into the multicultural element of this theory, especially because he
decided to make the term actor more inclusive and focused so intently on the interactions

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between actors, I felt that his explanation of cultural differences was reminiscent of Hofstedes
dimensions of national culture and contributed an important new approach to our understanding
of social capital.
Perhaps my favorite book from this collection was also on the topic of social capital:
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community by Putnam. After determining
a working definition of social capital and its various elements, as well as a comprehensive
analysis of the social capital trends that the United States has followed for the last century,
Putnam (2000) very thoroughly went through various American societal sectors to track and
express the current state of social capital in our country. In doing so, he found that community
engagement peaked during the 1960s, yet we have been pulled apart from one another and from
our communities over the last third of the century (Putnam, 2000, p.27). Interestingly enough,
the most notable exception to this theme has been a significant increase in small groups (youth
volunteers, telecommunication, grassroots, and self-help groups), social movements, and
telecommunications over the last few decades (Putnam, 2000, p.180). Finally, Putnam (2000)
explored some of the reasons for this trend, the benefits andmost poignantlydownfalls of a
more disconnected society, and potential solutions for pulling us all back together. While I
enjoyed the well organized and engaging tone of this entire book, these final sections left me
scratching my head for a few reasons. The first stemmed from how Putnam (2000) blamed at
least half of this change on the slow, steady, and ineluctable replacement of the long civic
generation by their less involved children and grandchildren (p.283), without explaining exactly
what might make this younger generation less involvedparticularly when the main countertrends occur within this disengaged generation. Similarly, I finished the book wondering how
Putnams analysis might have changed in the last fifteen years, as our social media and pseudo-

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social movement era affects both social capital and perceived social capital. Nonetheless, I
appreciated this practical application of social capital and the fact that it helped me better
understand how it makes us smarter, healthier, safer, richer, and better able to govern a just and
stable democracy (Putnam, 2000, p.290).
Branching off from the topic of social capital, Zohar and Marshalls book Spiritual
Wealth We Can Live (2004) argued for doing profit in a wider context of meaning and value
[to] generate profit that both draws on and adds to the wealth of the human spirit and to general
human well-being (p.31). They explained that wealth is simply that which we have access to
that enhances the quality of life (Zohar & Marshall, 2004, p.3) and explored the idea that we are
all connected by the fact that We need a sense of meaning and values and a sense of
fundamental purpose (spiritual intelligence) in order to build the wealth that these can generate
(spiritual capital) (p.5). In developing this higher form of motivation and accessing more
satisfying forms of wealth, we move through what Zohar & Marshall (2004) call the Scale of
Motivations and become knights with the creativity and the motivation to invent and embody
new, living practices and a philosophy of business that can take us into a meaningful and
sustainable future (p.9). Although this model of transformation is certainly intriguing and aimed
at noble results, I cannot help but to hesitate at its overly simplistic view of change; while I wish
life were like a video game where we could level up based on certain changes, I think that this
Scale of Motivation concept can only be used practically as a general modelbecoming a useful
tool in this sense for assessing both myself and those in my care.
Taking this combination of social capital and spiritual capital a step further, Gauthamadus
(n.d.) wrote Social Transformation of the Tsunami Affected Fishing Community: The Concept
and the Need to share a key example of how Social Transformation combines psychological,

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social support, communication and educational methodologies to re-establish social support

structures and processes (p.1). In explaining a concise framework and various elements of this
model of social transformation, Gauthamadus (n.d.) emphasized the importance of restoring
social capital after disasters by collaborating with all sectors (p.6) but relying heavily on
existing community resources (p.8)all for the meaningful purpose of providing sustainable
quality of life in every way. In doing so, we begin to see a practical application of these heavy
topics played out in an international context.
Approaching this idea of social transformation from a slightly different angle, The Idea
of Justice by Amartya Sen (2009) argued for a new theory of justice that stems from reason and
takes a less bounded approach by understanding justice as it relates to injusticeaiming to bring
our world closer to justice by eradicating injustices. In this theory, justice demands capability
(freedom and choice) as well as inherent responsibility, while focusing on the actual lived-out
accomplishments of real people rather than the less tangible concept of justice only within
institutions (Sen, 2009, p.18); in other words, by proposing a fundamental shift in the focus of
attention from the means of living to the actual opportunities a person has, the capability
approach aims at a fairly radical change in the standard evaluative approaches (Sen, 2009,
p.254). It also relies on a more complete view of justicedifferentiated by the terms niti and
nyaya (p.20)and emphasizes a comprehensive outcome, which includes the processes
involved versus just the culmination outcome used by most prior theories (Sen, 2009, p.22).
Due to all of these insightful nuances that in many ways revolutionize the concept (and pursuit)
of justice, digging through this book was certainly worthwhile despite the fact that such
philosophical writing can be mentally exhausting. Such an intricate web of arguments and
counterarguments are daunting, yet rich with insights regarding the multifaceted idea of justice.

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Urban Social Transformation

Most dictionaries note that the origin of the word transform means to drastically
change shape, and I found that each of these readings spoke to different, yet very related, ways
of helping our societyparticularly relevant within an urban contextundergo such changes.
While Zohar and Marshall called for a greater focus on sustainable meaning, Putnam and Lin
spoke to the advantages of greater social ties; Gauthamadus unpacked an example of putting
these concepts into practice within the unique context of disasters, while Sen theorized about the
justice that could come through such approaches. Each advocated not for abolishing our current
global system, but for transforming itdrastically changing its shape by enhancing its
motivation, its methods, and its outcomes. If we see the current trend toward American civic
disengagement as a crisis, as Putnam argued, then we can find motivation in the idea that SQ
[spiritual intelligence] is needed for times of crisis, when our habitual attitudes fail us, and
something new and creative is needed (Zohar & Marshall, 2004, p.115). In seeking this higher
meaning and the spiritual capital that comes with it, our most effective method may in fact be
social capital and what Putnam (2000) deemed its core feature: the principle of generalized
reciprocity (p.134). Calling such moral codes fundamental to civilized life (p.135), Putnam
(2000) argued that A society that relies on generalized reciprocity is more efficient than a
distrustful society[, because]Honesty and trust lubricate the inevitable frictions of social life
(p.147). Such a method calls for an era of civic inventiveness to create a renewed set of
institutions and channels for reinvigorated civic life that will fit the way we have come to live
(Putnam, 2000, p.401). Moreover, we likely will find that transforming such motives and
methods results in tangible, holistic transformation within the lives of people globally. As Sen
(2009) wrote, Escape from isolation may not only be important for the quality of human life, it

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can also contribute powerfully to understanding and responding to the other deprivations from
which human beings suffer (p.415). In this way, urban social transformation can be motivated
by spiritual capital, made possible by social capital, and result ultimately in an increased
realization of tangible justice.
Current and Future Transformation within My Community
Seeing this process of urban social transformation at work within my current and future
work in Hartford begins with the fact that my ministry is driven largely by what Zohar and
Marshall (2004) describe so well in their discussion of spiritual capital:
For human beings, that which gives lifeindeed that which gives unique definitionto
our humanity is our need to place our enterprises in a frame of wider meaning and
purpose. The spiritual in human beings makes us ask why we are doing what we are
doing and makes us seek some fundamentally better way of doing it. It makes us want
our lives and enterprises to make a difference. (p.43)
When I veer from this core motivation, my pursuit of urban social transformation becomes
lifeless at best and unbearable at worst. Furthermore, I have certainly found that my ability to do
such work relies almost entirely on my ability and willingness to rely on my social support
systemor, in other words, to engage and build my social capital. Most of my work also is what
Lin (2001) calls heterpohilous (interactions between actors with dissimilar resources) (p.47) and
therefore counters the more natural principle of homophily, also known as the like-me
hypothesis, [which states]that social interactions tend to take place among individuals with
similar lifestyles and socioeconomic characteristics (p.39). These uncommon relationships are
certainly motivated in many ways by the deeper meaning and mutual gain that they offer, but the

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challenges inherent to them are also greatly assuaged by the myriad of benefits that come from
healthy social networks.
Moreover, understanding how these elements of urban social transformation impact my
own ministry in Hartford increases overall justice in my community by enabling me to more
effectively help my students access the good life. Not only can I become more aware of the
need to foster their innate desire to pursue meaning and sustainable purpose, but I can also help
them to develop their ability to do soand thereby continue increasing justicethrough
increased social capital. As Putnam (2000) expounded upon, Individual children at risk have
proved particularly vulnerable to social-capital deficits. More hopefully, precisely such children
are most susceptible to the positive benefits of social connectedness, if it can be provided
(p.299). By intentionally working with students to increase social capital, I can utilize what
Gauthamadas (n.d.) calls The Social Transformation framework[, which] combines
psychosocial and transformational strategies to bring about a social change, recognizing that the
individual must also be supported and integrated within social support structures (p.6).
Conclusion
Although each of these readings contributed very different aspects to my understanding
and application of urban social transformation, one of the common themes running through each
was that of shared humanity. As Lin (2001) wrote,
It is only humans who show extensive and generalized relational rationality for solidarity
of constructed groups beyond kin and clan criteria. Humans show an interest and ability
to maintain persistent and profitable relationships at a reasonable transactional cost. Thus,
relational rationality is a human law and is based on the rationality of human choice.
(p.157)

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This uniquely and ubiquitously human willingness to connect is an incredibly beautiful part of
what creates hope for our pervasive neighbourhood in the world today (Sen, 2009, p.173),
because ultimately it is the cultivation and sharing of our truly ultimate concerns that acts as the
real glue to society (Zohar & Marshall, 2004, p.7). As we engage in this common pursuit
using common human features, Sen (2009) reassures us that Because of these basic human
abilitiesto understand, to sympathize, to arguepeople need not be inescapably doomed to
isolated lives without communication and collaboration (p.415). The fact that we struggle
against the same societal brokenness and seek to address them with common human traits makes
me believe that urban social transformation is possible not only within my own community, but
also within our world.

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References
Gauthamadas, Dr. U. (n.d.). Social transformation of the tsunami affected fishing community:
The concept and the need. Academy for Disaster Management Education Planning and
Training (ADEPT).
Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Sen, A. (2009). The idea of justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
Zohar, D. and Marshall, I. (2004). Spiritual capital: Wealth we can live by. San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.