parameters.Sixteen percent of the wells crossed the WHO limit for ammonia. Faecal
coliform was present in 21.4% of the tested well waters. Animal and human wastes
were the significant source of well water pollution.
Water samples from deep tube wells of Hazaribagh, Armanitola and
Banani of Bangladesh were analyzed for 26 parameters to determine their suitability
for drinking purpose as well as their possible contamination by Alangir et al., (1994).
Liu et al., (1994)studied the Ching-Pu and Sat- Lun landfill sites located in the
Taiwanese cities of Taiwan and Kaohsiung on the effects of reclaimed municipal
landfills on the local environment. The results showed that leachates from the
decomposing waste deposits seeped downward to contaminate the ground water.
Ground water Sources used for human consumption were tested for
chemical and bacteriological parameters in EI-Tall and EL-Kabier region of
Islamia ,Egypt .Water from wells of about 14 m depth were contaminated by
sulphate, chloride and carbonate ions and their salinity crossed the drinking
water standard Diab (1995) .Those samples were also potentially pathogenic
regarding their coli counts .
A research was undertaken by Asbrand (1996) in two districts of
South Berlin ,Germany to have an idea of the extent of ground water pollution
due to contamination with sewage water. Pollution of this aquifer especially by
nitrate, phosphate and other salts was attributed to the presence of sewage plant
in nearby area .The influence of sewage was clearly detectable by the high
concentration of inorganic salts in the wells located a few kilometers away
from the sewage tratment plant.
Pollution profiles and mechanism of ground water contamination in
Shijiazhuang city of China were investigated and discussed byGuo et al
,.(1996). The results of analysis and geochemical modelling showed that the
main reason for ground water pollution in the city was the leakage of sewage
channels. Excessive concentration of inorganic salts was attributed to the
dissolution and dolomite and gypsum.
Malard et al.,
(1997)
contamination was due to the spillage of sewage effluents through the fracture
zone.
Bore wells of Caliber municipality ,Nigeria were sampled and
analyzed using standard field and laboratory techniques to determine the water
quality status of ground water (Udom et al., 1998) . Nkansah et al (2001) studied
the ground water quality in the Kwahu west district of Ghana. This investigation
determined the use of physico-chemical parameters together with trace metal
contamination as indices of quality. Wright and Nobel (2002) compared the
contamination, of surface and ground water sources and soils in the vicinity, due to
leaching, percolation and infiltration.
Pradhan et al., (2003) investigated the quality of drinking water used by
the communities and their awareness regarding water quality and water borne diseases
in Bungamati Locality in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The observation indicated that
the factors responsible for contaminating drinking water at source points included
lack of protection and proper treatment of water, leakage in pipe distribution system,
intermittent supply of water, poor drainage system and poor environment surrounding
of water sources. So, the drinking water is not potable. The communities are unaware
of the quality of water they use. Incidence of water borne diseases appears to be the
common health problem among the sample households in the study region. It is found
more serious during the dry summer.
Gregor Muri (2004) studiedbasic physical and chemical characteristics of
the water in 14 Slovenian mountain lakes. Surface water was sampled once a year
over three consecutive years (2000-2002). The influences of lake and catchment area
properties on the measured parameters were studied. The lakes tropic status and size
of catchment area were found to affect the water chemistry. Pearson correlation
coefficients were calculated to identify the strength of relation between the variables.
The highest correlation was found among the alkalinity, calcium and conductivity.
Cluster analysis was additionally performed to obtain natural groupings in the data.
Finally, the condition of the lakes was assessed. Although the water quality has
deteriorated in some lakes (especially in Jezero na Planini pri Jezeru),most of the
lakes are still in a good condition
23
(2005) on the
assessment of the well water quality of Benghazi ,Libya , recorded very high
nitrate contents in some of the well waters ,which are of concern.
Lang
et
al., (2006)
observed
that
the
major
anthropogenic
components in the surface and ground water include K+, Na+ ,Cl- ,SO42-and
NO3 with Cl-and NO3 being the main contributors to ground water pollution in
Guiyang ,China
and
its
adjoining
areas.
The
seasonal
variations
in
parameters during
respectively. Fluoride endemic areas were identified as those villages around Mtubwi
F.P School and Liwonde L.E.A School. This finding was supported by the prevalence
of a high proportion of dental florosis in standard 3 and 4 pupils in these two schools.
24
Positive correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with pH, total
dissolved solids and carbonates, while phosphates correlated negatively with the
fluorides. No correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with
nitrates, electro conductivity, total hardness, carbonates and chlorides.
Akoto et al., (2007) studied the trace metals and some physiochemical
properties in drinking water samples from the Brong Ahafo region of the Republic of
Ghana, where drinking water is not treated before it is consumed. The concentrations
of most of the investigated parameters in the drinking water samples from Brong
Ahafo region were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization
drinking water quality guidelines. There were no correlations between metal
concentrations in the drinking water samples.
Naaz Abaas, et al, (2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was
3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Shittu et al., (2008) didpysicochemical and bacteriological analyses on
well water, stream water and river water used for drinking and swimming purposes in
Abeokuta, Nigeria. The results obtained were compared with WHO and EPA
standards for drinking and recreational water. With the exception of Sokori stream
and a well water that did not comply with Turbidity and Mg2+ standards respectively,
all others were within the standards set for PH, Color, Total solids, Total dissolved
solids, acidity, total hardness, Ca2+ hardness, chloride and Iron.
Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the
bottled mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The
positive samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%.
The recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water
when compared with tap water from municipal supplies
25
26
COD,Chloroform,
Dichlomethane,
Dibromochloromethane,
27
the difference between the 4 m upstream and 4 m downstream samples, relative to the
entry point of the effluent.
Christopher et al., (2011) reported the environmental impact of leachate
pollutants on ground water samples from three boreholes located near a landfill at
Akure, Nigeria. The concentration of waste materials in the landfill site had
systematically polluted the soil and groundwater over time. Water hardness was
higher due to the leaching of both Ca and Mg into the groundwater table. Dumping of
industrial wastes and accumulation of heavy metals are considered the greatest hazard
on landfill site from the study. Presence of Fe, Pb and Cr in detectable quantities was
an indication of toxicity level in the groundwater and therefore poses serious
environmental risk to humans, animals and even the soil.
Vialle et al., (2011) studiedthe quality of harvested rainwater used for
toilet flushing in a private house in the south-west of France over a one-year period.
Temperature, pH, conductivity, colour, turbidity, anions, cations, alkalinity, total
hardness and total organic carbon were screened using standard analytical techniques.
Total flora at 22o C and 36o C, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci were
analysed. Overall, the collected rainwater had good physicochemical quality but did
not meet the requirements for drinking water. The stored rainwater is characterised by
low conductivity, hardness and alkalinity compared to mains water. Three widely
used bacterial indicators - total coliforms, E. coli and enterococci - were detected in
the majority of samples, indicating microbiological contamination of the water.
Pearl Kaplan et al., (2011) presented studies on theoccurrence of
Biochemically Active Compounds during Drinking water treatment plants in North
Carolina. They highlighted the complexities in safeguarding drinking water sources
from anthropogenic contaminants including the determination of BACs that remain
unchanged through drinking water treatment and the identification of transformation
products of BACs resulting from disinfection. The transformation of BACs during
drinking water treatment is important to guide future occurrence studies and direct
policy decisions that protect the safety of drinking water for consumers.
Mohamed Nageeb Rashed et al., (2012) investigated the physicochemical and bacterial characteristics of Nasser Lake water and houses drinking
29
water, as well as fish cultures and its wastewater, in three villages west of Lake
Nasser, Egypt. Fifteen representative water samples (Nasser Lake, different drinking
water, fish cultures, and wastewater sources) were collected from three villages (Garf
Hussein, Bashaier, and Kalabsha) in the west of Lake Nasser. Physico-chemical, total
viable counts, and bacterial qualification of water were achieved. The obtained results
indicated that the produced water, supposed to be for domestic use in the three
villages, contained all the tested organisms. The investigated water samples of the
lake and drinking water in the selected three villages are supposed to be chemically
safe according to World Health Organization and to Egyptian standards for drinking
water. Water pollution index (WPI) was used in this study and the result concluded
that for irrigation canals from the lake to the agriculture site, fish cultures (both
concrete and earth pond systems), and drainage canal of fish ponds need to be treated
before it is discharged to the ke. It is better to reuse it after treatment for agricultural
purposes or recycled it to the fish cultures.
Indian findings:
Water samples have been collected from problematic ground water and
surface water sources in different villages belonging to nine blocks/taluks of
Gulbarga district, Karnataka State. The water samples were analyzed for
physicochemical properties. Different types of statistical models like correlations and
regressions were applied to study the interrelationships between these variables.
Significant differences between blocks/taluks and different sources of water obtained
using analysis of variance two ways classification technique. This study was
conducted by Reddy (1991).
Analysis of six tube well water samples, which is the source of drinking
water in Roorkee city of Hardwar district was carried out along with physicochemical
and biotic analysis. Presence of bacterial community in relation to biotic factors is
sought by Garg Dinesh (1991).
Ravichandran et al (1991) studied the groundwater quality of Madras in
the context of polluted waterways of the city. Multiple regression analysis indicated
that the areas around waterways were contaminated with nitrates and phosphates,
while pH and electrical conductivity were beyond acceptable limits.
30
Dhanaselvan et al (1991) reported that the groundwater quality of Kanpur city Uttar
Pradesh was contaminated by both industrial and domestic sewage.
Hydro geochemical studies have been carried out in Seetammadhara,
which is an integral part of the Visakhapatnam urban area by Madhusudhana Reddy
(1991). Water samples were collected from both dug wells and bore-wells and
analyzed for chemical quality studies. The controlling factors of groundwater
chemistry and criteria for water uses were discussed.
Ramaswami (1991) collected water samples from dug and tube wells near
the Noyil River in Tiruppur Municipal area for the assessment of chemical quality
with reference to Indian Standards for drinking water. It was observed that values of
several parameters exceeded the permissible limits pointing out to the necessity of
proper treatment, disposal and management of wastes discharged into the river and on
open land.
Physico chemical and bacterial parameters of some bore wells and dug
wells of Challapalli Mandal, Andhra Pradesh were monitored by Rao et al,. (1992)..
The quality of well water samples was assessed by comparing with existing
standards for important parameters and correlation coefficient among various
water quality parameters were determined .
Ground water samples during post monsoon and pre monsoon were
analyzed in upper Gunjana Eru river basin of Cuddapah district, Andhra
Pradesh to assess the quality of water. The inequality was due to agricultural
and domestic activities through infiltration and percolation during monsoon as
reported by Raju et al., (1992).
Subba Rao and Subba Rao (1993) studied the chemical quality of
groundwater in the industrial zones of Visakhapatnam. They report that fifteen
percent of the industrial well waters recorded more than 3000 uS/cm level of
conductivity and that major ions crossed the safe limits at many places. Toxic
elements including lead, chromium, arsenic, zinc, cobalt have been traced in large
31
amounts in the groundwaters of the industrial zones, with a zinc plant being identified
as the worst offender.
Somasundaram et al., (1993) investigated ground water quality of
Madras urban aquifer to determine variations in major ions and nitrate
concentration. In addition, a detailed local survey of pollution in ground water
sources adjacent to a sewage - polluted water course was carried out for heavy
metals and bacterial populations. The source of pollution was almost certainly a
combination of inadequate sanitation and industrial discharge spillage.
Presences of nitrates in ground water and its relationship with other
physicochemical constituents of water were studied in a grid pattern by Vijay Kumar
et al. (1993). Nitrate concentration was found to increase with decreasing pH and
increasing hardness, Cl-, SO42- and TS content where alkalinity, F and water table did
not exhibit any significant effect on NO3- content.
Ozha et al (1993) observed that major nitrate contributing sources for the
groundwater in Barmer and Churu of Rajasthan appear to be of geologic origin,
especially rock fossils and nitrate deposits. Further, nitrate concentration increased
with total hardness, calcium and magnesium and decreased as the depth of the water
table increased.
Ground water quality in the close vicinity of sewage outlets of
Patiala city, Punjab was evaluated by Mittel et al.,
32
33
places
indicated
that
the
water
was
not
suitable
for
domestic
consumption.
34
to their proximity to the Buckingham canal, which functions as a drain for the urban
wastes.
Sudhir Dahiya (1999) examined groundwater samples from the rural
areas of Tosham subdivision, Bhivani district of Haryana. High concentrations of
chloride are due to contamination of sewage.
Water Quality survey of Rohtas district of Bihar was conducted by Ray et
al., (2000). Samples were collected from different sources and analyzed. Two
hundred and nine samples were collected from 196 villages. Results of water quality
survey identified the problems area in respect of high iron, manganese, fluoride ,
nitrate and brackishness of water in the district.
Fluoride in very limited quantities is desirable for healthy growth of teeth
and bones in human beings and prevents dental caries, and in excess quantities causes
the disease mottle enamel of teeth called Fluorosis. This Paper by Lingeswara Rao
(2001) discusses about the toxicity of fluoride in ground water of Chittoor district of
Andhra Pradesh.
As per an estimate by Dinesh Kumar et al., (2001) the landfills of NCT
Delhi cumulatively generate a significant quantity, 814800 cum, of leachates
annually, which is alarming from ground water quality point of view. In the present
paper issues related to ground water contamination through Municipal landfills
leachates in NCT Delhi have been discussed. An attempt has also been made to
evolve abatement measures on Hydro geologic design principles and policy
guidelines for mitigating the menace of ground water contamination through landfill
sites.
To evaluate the quality of drinking water in and around Tiruchirappalli
city, twenty spots were identified within a radius of about 20 km. All the water bodies
were found to contain high level of inorganic salts and total hardness with high
electrical conductance. Since they are unsuitable for drinking purposes, method to
improve the water quality has been suggested by. Abdul Jamee (2002).
35
higher
concentration
of magnesium causes
laxative effect to human beings and excess fluoride causes severe bone
fluorosis as determined byMishra et al.,(2003) .
From a study of the ground water Tiruchirapalli ,Tamil Nadu by
Ramachandramoorthy et al ., (2004) it was found that low calcium content and
high alkalinity increases the fluoride level in water where as the lower the
total hardness ,higher is the fluoride ion concentration .It shows that ground
water has been contaminated by the industrial activity and application of large
amount of fertilizer around the area.
36
industrial
effluents
and
sewage
in to
nallah
have
contributed
considerable pollution in the ground water in its vicinal areas, and is harmful
for use in agriculture and drinking purposes. The levels of nitrate and fluoride
concentration are high in tube well water samples, and need serious attention.
Mishra et al (2005) evaluated the effect of industrial effluents on the
groundwater and surface water due to the steel plant and other major industries at
Rourkela in Orissa. Their analytical data of physico-chemical parameters indicated
that the groundwater of some the areas is contaminated due to municipal and
industrial solid waste dumping.
Poonkothai and Parvatham (2005) carried out experiments on physicchemical and microbiological parameters of automobile wastewater in Nammakkal,
Tamilnadu and found that the values for physico-chemical parameters were on the
higher side of permissible limits of BIS and those bacteria were present at high
concentrations.
37
samples. Water
quality
groundwater
were collected from 11 wells in this area and analyzed chemically and the results
observed by Ravi Sanker (2008) showed significant variations in water quality
parameters.
Pathak and Gopal (2008) enumerated pollution indicator bacteria such as
coliform, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci using a multiple-tube fermentation
method in 100 treated drinking water samples from 20 locations in residential,
commercial and industrial areas of a tropical city during summer. 34% of the samples
were bacteriologically nonpotable. Maximum coliform-contaminated (27%) samples
were derived from industrial areas, which samples contaminated with fecal coliform
(23%) and fecal streptococci (20%) originated from commercial areas. Coliform
identified as E.coli Klebsiella sp, enterobacter sp and citrobacter sp were present in
29%, 26%, 24% and 15% of samples respectively.
Environmental monitoring of drinking water sources at Angul
Talcher Industrial area studies conducted by Basanta Kumar Sahu (2008)
reveals that dug wells are more polluted than the tube wells. It may be
mentioned that though the dug well sources were fit in terms of their water
40
quality indices, they cannot be considered safe for human consumption because
of high coliform counts.
Karunakaran (2008) collected ten Groundwater samples at different
locations in and around Namakkal were analyzed for their physicochemical and
microbial characteristics. Groundwater suitability
for
domestic and
irrigation
purposes was examined by using WHO and BIS standards, which indicate the
groundwater in a few areas, were not much suitable for domestic and
agriculture purposes.
Bishnoi and Malik (2008) studied the quality of groundwater in the
environmentally degraded localities of paniput city in Haryana. They attribute the
high levels of chemical constituents to geological factors, poor sewage and
indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes. Correlation coefficient analysis showed a
positive and significant correlation of electrical conductivity with total dissolved salts,
total hardness, sulphate and total alkalinity. Total hardness was positively and
significantly correlated with magnesium and sulphate. Further, total alkalinity was
found to be positively and significantly correlated with bicarbonate. Fluoride was
higher than permissible limits in most of the samples.
Gadhave (2008) presented this paper to find quality of water samples
and to find out the magnitude of health problems in industrial area Shrirampur.
The natural quality of ground water tends to be degraded by human activities.
Six sampling points were selected for the study. The parameters studied were pH,
Total hardness, Chlorides, Sulphates, Calcium and the ion concentrations were
expressed in mg/L.
Kavita (2008), collected Ground water samples from 60 locations
iduring premonsoon and postmonsoonseasons.Groundwater sampleswere tested for11
physicochemical parameters
locations, where
and procedures.
41
maximum permissible limits and the dissolved oxygen was much lower than the
desirable limit in all the well waters. Hence all the four well waters are found
unsuitable for domestic purposes as it is confirmed by water quality index.
Gupta et al., (2009) tested ground waters which were taken from the
various places in and around Kaithal City town (Haryana , India) and the analysis
reports that the water quality like pH, EC, Cl-, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Hardness lies
within the maximum permissible limit prescribed by WHO and ICMR. Except few
parameters like DO, few samples were reported with lower DO than the permissible
level, but this value does not have any impact for the water to use for drinking
purpose. According to this report, the ground water in and around HCTM College,
water works areas are suitable for drinking, agriculture and industries and really it is
not harmful to human beings.
Physicochemical characteristics of ground water (Two open well, two bore
well) and municipal water in Amalner town were analyzed by Patil and Patil (2010)
during November 2007-February 2008. The results were compared with standards
prescribed by WHO and ISI 10500-91. Total 15 parameters were analyzed. It was
found that the underground water was contaminated at few sampling sites and Dekhu
road showed physicochemical parameters within the water quality standards and the
quality of water is good and it is fit for drinking purpose.
For the study of different samples of ground water Kiran Mehata (2010)
collected samples from the locations of Vadgam taluka of Gujarat state of India and
analyzed for their physic-chemical parameters for concentrations of ions. Its quality
was compared with drinking water standards of ICMR and EU (1998). Correlation coefficient (r) were also calculated for these water quality characteristics and found Fe is
positively correlated with many other parameters.
Groundwater samples were taken from 13 different locations of Kotputli
town by Ranjan Agrawal (2010). The quality analysis has been made through
different physico chemical characters. Comparative studies of samples in different
seasons were conducted and were found that there is no appreciable change in the
different parameters during rainy season. It was also analyzed that Electrical
Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were decreased in the rainy season,
43
and Alkalinity, Total Hardness were increased after the rainfall. A systematic
calculation of the correlation coefficient has also been carried out between different
analyzed parameters.
The
from different litho logical units in the Siliguri subdivision of Darjeeling district have
been evaluated for 18 parameters by Khondaker Emamul (2010).The study reveals
that groundwater is hard and contains more iron percentage than the permissible
limit. The rapid soil erosion and the associated runoff were caused
geomorphologic conditions,
deforestation
by
climatic factors, which are probably responsible for the low concentration of
groundwater.
The Study of Jothi venkatachalam (2010) brings an acute awareness
among the people about the quality of ground water
by analyzing various
the hydrochemistry
of
groundwater .
collected and analyzed for PH ,EC ,D.O ,TH ,CaH ,MgH Total
alkalinity and Nitrate .The water samples near the sea are more chloride
concentrations than the samples far away from the sea .From this he
concludedthat the intrusion of salt water into ground water was due to the over
pumping of the ground water along the sea coast.
Ground water samples collected from different locations around sugar
factory area within the range of 4 kms by Ratnakant Sheth (2010). Ground water
from nine different spots were collected and analyzed for their physical
characteristics. Water quality index for different groundwater sources at industrialized
area was also calculated and found water samples were in the category of Good-Very
poor.
Remia et al., (2010) analyzed the physical and chemical characteristics of
drinking water in the selected areas of Koundampalayam panchayat in Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu in India. The values of all the physical and chemical characteristics of the
water samples collected from all three zones were as per the standard limits
prescribed by the various agencies. Some parameters like total solids, calcium,
magnesium and chlorides crossed the standard limits.
Veena Choudary et al., (2010) studied the groundwaters of northwest
Rajasthan, India and found fluoride, boron and nitrate contamination.
Jayalakshmi et al., (2011) studied the physico-chemical parameters of
water and waste water in and around Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh. They found that
the some of the waters are slightly polluted while waste water at certain sites was
highly polluted as a result of contamination with industrial, agricultural and domestic
wastes.
SathishKumarand Ravichandran (2011) assessed the quality of
groundwater in Cheyyar basin in Tamilnadu and found it to be severely polluted,
mainly due to industrial effluents.
45
46
contaminated within 30.5 m of the discharge point of the septic systems. Eleven of
those samples were collected from less than 122 cm below the ground level. The
depth of the ground water table and the distance from the discharge point of sewage
were the main factors influencing the pattern and severity of ground water
contamination.
A bacteriological survey was performed on 155 untreated rural ground
water samples including drilled wells, dug wells and springs in northwest Virginia
USA by Sworobuk et al., (1987). A total of 48% and 62% of the samples contained
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci respectively. Water sources from shallower
older wells and lacking adequate casing characteristically were found to be heavily
contaminated with bacteria indicative of lack of sanitation.
In the study conducted by Simchen et al., (1990) some 302 cases of
diarrhea occurred in the studied population. The incidence of diarrhea in people aged
0-18 years during the baseline year and through the period of the epidemic was due to
allegedly contaminated spring that had been implicated previously as a source of
contaminated water and was closed for some weeks previously during 1988. The
human source of the contamination was probably the free-flowing sewage from the
nearby town of Tarshicha.
Payment et al., (1991) (North America) carried out a randomized
intervention trial. 299 eligible households were supplied with domestic water filters
(reverse-osmosis) that eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants from their
water and 307 households were left with their usual tap water without a filter. The
estimated annual incidence of gastrointestinal illness was 0.76 among tap water
drinkers compared with 0.50 among filtered water drinkers (p<0.01). It is estimated
that 35% of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among the tap water drinkers were
47
water related and preventable. Their results raise questions about the adequacy of
current standards of drinking water quality to prevent water-borne endemic
gastrointestinal illness.
Bacteriological analyses were performed in the Sahelian area, France by
Gullemin et al., (1991). About 7.7% of bore-holes, 13.5% concrete wells and 66% of
the traditional wells found to be polluted with total coliform, faecal coliform and
faecal streptococci. After stepwise logistic regression analysis the link with each
factor persisted independently. The unsanitary conditions of the proximal
environment (P<0.001), hazards in re-priming (P<0.001) leaks in the pump (P<0.05)
and the absence of efficient system to keep cattle away from the water supply area
(P<0.05) seemed to contribute to the non portability of water.
Madison and Ghiorse (1993) presented generalized model for the
relationship between geological stratography and microbiological parameters. In
going across the horizons, the bacterial abundance decreases in direct proportion with
nutrient levels.
Le Chevallier et al., (1996) found that the occurrence of coliform bacteria
was significantly higher when water temperatures were > 150C. at a summer water
temperature ( 200C). The efficacy of chlorine concentrations tested was found to be
two or three times lower as compared to that found at a winter temperature (50C).
Grabow, (1996) investigated the water quality assessment and control,
and stated that water borne diseases are most important concern about the quality of
water and also that the pathogens involved included a wide variety of viruses,
bacteria, and protozoan parasites. The prevalence of various water- borne pathogens
changes with selective pressure changes.
Natural Protection of Spring and Well Drinking Water against Surface
Microbial Contamination Parameters for Parasites was studied byStephen Edberg et
al., (1997). Parasitic diseases associated with drinking water transmission prompted a
re-evaluation of source water monitoring criteria for public health protection. The
field of microbial indicators was reviewed and each candidate sentinel evaluated in
terms of its sensitivity, specificity, and technical feasibility. In addition, a clear
distinction was made between source water monitoring and monitoring in the
distribution system. Of all potential candidate microbial sentinels, Escherichia coli
are deemed the most efficacious for public health protection. Based on a conservative
estimate of its half-life in groundwater for 8 d, it is recommended that at least two
48
samples be obtained during this half-life. In addition to E. coli, two water quality
indicator sentinels, which are not necessarily direct public health threats, should also
be monitored at the same frequency. These are the total coliform group and the
Enterococci. If E. coli is present in any source water sample, the borehole and any
directly connected borehole should be embargoed. If either total coliforms or
enterococci are detected, only that individual borehole should be taken off line and
not used until the situation is remediated and the cause of the fecal contamination
eliminated. Clostridium perfringens spores serve as a useful long-lived indicator.
However, their perseverance in a sample should not be considered a direct public
health threat because spores may far outlive pathogens. As a parasite indicator, C.
perfringens should have the same importance as a positive coliform or Enterococcus
analysis. Coliphages do not yet fulfill enough of the criteria to be routinely employed.
Biological monitoring should be coupled with physicochemical monitoring to
establish a long-term history of the source. Because all natural waters vary in the
amounts of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, test methods should be employed that
are refractory to them. A combination of rigorous source protection and extraordinary
source monitoring serve as sufficient multiple barriers for parasite protection.
A detailed assessment of the microbial quality of some selected well water
samples of Crewe, UK was carried out by Fewtrell et al., (1998) for total coliforms,
faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. The microbial quality of water samples was
generally poor with about 50% of the supplies failing to meet the required standards.
Bad sanitation and leaching from waste disposal might be the major cause of
contamination.
The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality
in Oak Creek demonstrated by Christine Crabill et al., (1999) .in this study show
that sediment agitation by recreational activity and storm surges associated with the
summer storm season are responsible for the impact to water quality and not
recreational users directly, as suggested by previous studies. Sources of fecal
pollution in the Oak Creek watershed may include grazing cattle, natural animal
populations, septic tanks failed municipal sewage and recreational users.
Chandio (1999) suggested that applications of nitrogen-phosphorouspotassium (NPK) fertilizers have been increasing in Pakistan over the last few
decades, with applications of nitrogen fertilizers reaching and excess of 2 million tons
by the late 1990s. As a result, high concentration of NO3-.N has been reported to be
49
50
53
faecalis and Micrococcus sp were the bacteria species encountered in stored water
samples. E.coil was the most frequently encountered. The presence of these bacterial
species has significant health implications. Total viable counts in water samples
increased from 3.8 x 105 cfu/ml on day 0 to 42. 0x 105 cfu/ ml by the 16th week of
storage, while coliforms increased drastically from week two to week six of storage
after which the population began to drop. The samples contained coliforms cast a
doubt over the portability status of water supplied to the communities in the area
under study.
Samples of tap, well, stream, and wastewaters were collected form
Abeokuta and Ojota state and analyzed microbiologically using standard methods.
Okonko et al., (2007).reportedthat the total viable counts for all the water samples
were generally high exceeding the limit of 1.0x102 cfu/ml for water. The MPN count
ranged from 9.3 to 44 MPN/ 100ml. the fecal colifrom counts on EMB agar plate
ranged between 5 and 48 cells, also exceeding the standard limit for water. The
isolated organisms were identified to be Staphlococcus aureus, Salmonella species,
Escherchia coli, Pseudomonas aerugionosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus
species,
Proteus
species,
Kleslella
species,
Flavobacterium
species
and
Acinetobacter species.
Naaz Abaas et al 2007 determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was
3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Tista Prasaiet et al 2007 conducted a study to evaluate the quality of
drinking water of Kathmandu valley. A total of 132 drinking water samples were
randomly collected from 49 tube wells, 57 wells, 17 taps and 9 stone spouts in
different places of Kathmandu valley. The samples were analyzed for
54
microbiological parameters. Total plate and coliform count revealed that 82.6% and
92.4% of drinking water samples found to cross WHO guideline values for drinking
water. During the study, 238 isolates of enteric bacteria were identified of which
26.4% were E. coli, 25.6% were Enterobacter, 23% were Citrobacter, 6.3% were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 5.4% were Klebsiella, 4.0% were Shigella, 3.0% were
Salmonella, 3.0% were Proteus vulgaris, 3.0% were Serratia and 1.0% were Vibrio
cholera.
Naaz Abaas, et al.,(2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand
pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples
were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN)
was 3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal
streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.
Kassenga 2007 investigated the microbiological quality of bottled and
plastic-bagged drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 130 samples
representing 13 brands of bottled water were analyzed for total coliforms, fecal
coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria. These were compared with 61 samples of tap
water. Heterotrophic bacteria were detected in 92% of the bottled water samples
analyzed. Total and fecal coliform bacteria were present in 4.6% and 3.6%
respectively. Microbiological quality of tap water was found to be worse compared
with bottled water, showing the presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms with
49.2% and 26.2% respectively.
Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the bottled
mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The positive
samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%. The
recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water
when compared with tap water from municipal supplies.
Nurcihan Hacioglu et. al., (2008) investigated monthly variation of
comparison of data with WPCR. It is seen that waters of Biga stream at the sites
1,2and 3 belonged to class 4, for parameter BOD and fecal coliform and belonged to
class 3 for parameter total coliform. In that area a great potetential risk of infection of
waters from the Biga Stream.
Taulo et al (2008) studied microbiological quality of water, associated
management practices and risks at source, transport and storage points in a rural
community of Lungwena,Malawi. Sampling points revealed a significant difference
55
(p=0.042) higher than that of Salmonella spp. The microbiological quality of water
was found to be poor as a result of both poorwater management and environmental
sanitation practices.
Al-Futaisi et al (2008) established that, urbanization, industrialization and
agriculture manifest in contamination of water sources in the Barka catchment of
Oman. They found saline water intrusion into the coastal aquifers and high nitrate
content and bacteriological population in the other areas due to anthropogenic
influence.
Adekunle (2008) examined the impact of industrial effluents on the
quality of well water in the Asa Dam industrial estate in Nigeria and observed high
turbidity, discolouration due to oily film and high bacterial count, due to dissolved
mineral salts, industrial effluents and organic matter, respectively.
Shittu et al., (2008) studied well water, stream water and river water used
for drinking and swimming purpose in Abeokutta, Nigeria. The results obtained were
compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water. The
samples complied with bacteriological standards as Total coliform counts generally
exceeded 1,600 MPN/ ml, and pathogen count such as Salmonella- Shigella counts
and Vibrio chelerae counts were very high. The presence of pathogens in water for
drinking and swimming purposes is of public health significance considering the
possibility of the presence of other bacteria, protozoa and enteric viruses that are
implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases and the low infectious dose for
these water borne pathogens.
Abdul Hussain Shar et al., (2008) analyzed the drinking water of Khairpur city. All
the water samples were contaminated (100%) with total coliform and fecal coliforms.
The counts were higher than the maximum microbial contaminant level established by
WHO. It was observed that pH was within the limits of WHO standards (6.5-8.5) and
the residual chlorine was not detected in any sample of drink and water.
Eschcol et al (2009) hypothesized that fecal contamination occurs mainly
during storage due to poor water handling. In their study 92% (47/51) of samples
tested at supply points were chlorinated and bacterial contamination was found in 2
samples. Samples collected from household storage containers showed an increase in
contamination in 18/50 houses (36%). Hence it was revealed that the biggest health
impact that can be made is at the household level
56
Lena Fadhil Hamza (2009), determined the efficiency of filter water for
pathogens. The results showed that some filters are not safe in elimination of bacteria
from water, as they have shown E.coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus fecalis and Vibrio cholerae. It revealed that the efficacy of
filters, time of usage and cleaning of devices were unable to remove the microbial
contamination from the drinking waters totally.
Jakhrani (2009) stipulated that one of the major source of ground water
contamination is the surface impoundments used by municipalities and industries,
which dispose of waste water without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by
farmers for agriculture purpose. Ground water quality is deteriorated because of
higher concentrations of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as
compared to WHO standards.
Syed Hafizur (2009),considering the hypothesis shallow tube-well water
might be contaminated by microorganisms from a nearby open pit latrine, studied
litho-stratigraphy, physico-chemical properties along with microbial contamination
level of shallow tube-well water and socio-economic aspects related to sanitation of a
rural village (Gakulnagar, Bangladesh). Values of all parameters were found
within the tolerable limits, except coli form, in very few samples, where pit latrines
were adjacent to the tube-well. Values of total coli form bacteria showed an inverse
relationship with the distance between the tube-well and the pit latrine.
The antibiotic resistance patterns of coagulase negative staphylococci
(CNS) isolated from a drinking water treatment plant (WTP), a drinking water
distribution network, responsible for supplying water to the consumers (WDN), and a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), responsible for receiving and treating domestic
residual effluents. Genotyping and the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis
demonstrated a higher diversity of species both in the WTP (6 species/19 isolates) and
WWTP
(12
species/47
(6species/172isolates). Staphylococcus
isolates)
than
in
the
WDN
epidermidis prevailed in the WTP and WDN and Staphylococcus saprophyticus in the
WWTP. Staphylococci with reduced susceptibility (resistance or intermediary
phenotype) to beta-lactams, tetracycline, clindamycin and erythromycin were
observed in all types of water and belonged to the three major species groups. The
highest resistance rate was found against erythromycin, presumably due to the
presence of the efflux pump encoded by the determinant msrA, detected in the
57
Faria et al.,
quality standards. Water samples contained varying levels of fecal coliform bacteria
ranging from a Most Probable Number (MPN) of 10 to 2.8X103 CFU/100ml. 78.1%
of samples were contaminated with E.coli.
To assess the Quality of the island, ground water samples were collected by
Chin Yik Lin (2010) from five representative wells at the low lying area of Pulau
Tiga in order to study the physico-chemical parameters. In general, groundwater in
Pulau Tiga is moderate in conductivity and bacteriological analysis showed that the
groundwater quality was poor, with fecal coli form counts exceeding the WHO
permissible limits for drinking water. Coli form in ground water might be originated
from sanitation facilities located too close to the wells.
Obasohan (2010) highlighted the historical perspective of the
relationship between microbes and humans regarding the ranging water between
them, arising from the reckless exploitation of the biosphere by humans and the
resultant revolt by microbes in the form of various pathogenic diseases that now
plague mankind.
Assessment was done on the microbiological quality of water in hand-dug
wells in urban communities in Kumasi, Ghana byMoninuola (2010). A total of 256
water samples were taken from eight wells and examined for fecal coli forms,
enterococci and helminthes. High contamination levels were recorded in the wells,
more so in the wet season. This study shows a stronger influence of poor sanitation
and improper placement of wells on water quality compared to improvements made
from lining and protection of wells.
Muhammad Saeed Anwar (2010)studied a total of 530 water samples
collected from different localities of whole of the Lahore city, representing areas
with different socio-economic conditions. Among 530 water samples, 197 samples
(37.2%) were positive for bacterial contamination. It was observed that bacterial
contamination was maximum in areas with low SEC (43.6%), followed by
intermediate SEC (36.5%) and high SEC (22.9%). He concluded that bacterial
contamination is severe in Lahore.
A site survey , hydrologic assessment and sample analysis of indicator
bacteria in surrounding surface and ground waters, gives an idea on chemical
impacts of open dump sites on ground water quality .Consequently, field
logistics, sampling infrastructure and site data amassed for the chemical
59
evaluation study can be leveraged for use in the proposed microbial evaluation
study according to Schnabel., (2010).
Noel Sammon et al., (2010) studied drinking water quality, the potential
of water borne spores as a source of nosocomial fungal infection. The most commonly
recovered genera were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fuserium. This
study has demonstrated that numerous micro-fungal genera, including those that water
supply which are opportunistic human pathogens, populate a typical treated municipal
water supply in sub-tropical Australia.
The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is one of the most developed and densely
populated regions in China. Quantifying the amount of pathogens in the source of
drinking water is important for improving water quality. Results showed that external
environmental factors, such as precipitation, location, as well as the internal
environmental factors, i.e., physicochemical properties of the water, were closely
related with the distribution of coliforms. Seasonally, the coliform bacterial
concentrations in wet season were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those
in dry season. Spatially, coliform bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and
industrial areas were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in remote areas.
Correlation analyses by Huachang Hong et al.,(2010).showed that the
levels of coliforms had close relationships with pH, temperature, suspended solid,
organic and inorganic nutrients in water. Principal components analysis further
demonstrated that total coliforms in the reservoirs were closely related with water
physicochemical properties, while fecal coliforms were more associated with external
input brought in by seasonal runoff.
Sunette Walter (2010) reported that the presence of HPC bacteria in
drinking water distribution systems is usually not considered harmful to the general
consumer. However, precautions must be taken regarding the immune compromised.
He studied on the isolation, identification and characterization of HPC and other
bacteria from biofilm and bulk water samples from two sampling points. Application
of enrichment and selective media allowed for the isolation of 12 different bacterial
morphotypes. He also reported that the greatest diversity of bacteria was detected
early autumn 2008, while the lowest diversity occurred during mid-winter 2007.
60
Cameroon in Western Africa .They found that as long as any source of pollution
exists , water is of bad quality irrespective of the depth . They conclude that many
factors influence the groundwater quality: the type of pollution source(s) , the distance
separating the well and the pollution sources(s) , the maintenance of the well , the
nature of the ground , and many anthropogenic influences .
Akinbile et al., (2011) studied the impact of waste dumps on the quality of
groundwater in Akure , Nigeria and found high levels of contamination by heavy
metals and bacteria . The pollution was found related to the distance from the dump
sites.
Emile Jemgoua et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were
below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the
water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was
proposed.
Javed Ali et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water from Khyler agency,
Pakistan. It was found that the total plate count (TPC) was in the range of 3600-190
CFU/ml, which indicated that none of the samples were in accordance with the WHO
standards (100CFU/ml). Total faecal coliforms were present in 80% samples E.coli
were present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were contaminated with
staphylococcus aureus.
Gwimbi (2011) had examined the microbial content of 35 water samples
from different water sources. In his study 97% total coliforms and 71% E.coli were
detected. The concentration levels of total coliforms and E.coli were above the
permissible limits of the WHO drinking water quality guidelines in each case. He
observed that protected sources had significantly less number of colony forming
units[CFU] per 100ml of water sample compared to unprotected sources. His
findings suggest source water protection and good hygiene practices can improve the
quality of household drinking water where disinfection is not available.
Obi and George (2011) analyzed seven bore well waters by microbiological
and physico-chemical parameters in Nigeria. Five bacterial species namely
Enterobacteraerogenes, E.coli, Streptococci fecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated. The total HPC gave a range of 4.7x104 to
1.82x105cfu/ml, with a mean of 7.89x104cfu/ml. The total coliform count gave a
63
96%,
69%),
coliform
(96%,
77%,
92%,
81%)
and
electrical
conductivity(100%, 99%, 44%, 63%) respectively. However, the turbidity was lower
in underground water i.e,24% and 28% in dug wells and shallow pumps as compared
to open water i.e, 96% and 69% in canal and water supply schemes respectively. In
dug wells and shallow pumps, limits for TDS, alkalinity, hardness and sodium
exceeded respectively by 63% and 33%, 59% and 70%, 40% and 27% and 78% and
26%. Some common diseases found in the study area were gastroenteritis, diarrhea
and vomiting, kidney and skin problems.
64
65
66
Indian findings:
Verma et al., (1990) conducted a field study aimed at measuring the
personal cost of illness from five major water-related diseases and the work was
undertaken in a rural area of Uttar Pradesh (India) in 1981-82. The diseases included
in the study were enteric fever, actue diarrheal diseases, infective hepatitis,
conjunctivitis and scabies.
Karthikeyan et al, analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of 60 drinking
water samples from Erode district, Tamil Nadu. They observed the levels of pH,
electrical conductivity, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, bicarbonates, Ca, Mg, Nitrate, S, P,
Na and K. The concentration of nitrate, hardness, Ca & Mg in some samples seemed
to be more than the permissible limits. It is inferred from the study that these water
sources can be used for potable purpose only after prior treatment
Bhattacharjee et al (1992) evaluated the total and thermo tolerant coliform
counts in rural drinking water derived from ground water, piped supplies and surface
water for a number of areas in India. To evaluate these counts as indicators of recent
fecal contamination the total coliform and thermo tolerant coliform isolated have been
identified. Thermo tolerant E.coli formed 11.7% of the total coliform and 75.1% of
the thermo tolerant coliform. Citrobacter sp(20.4%) and Klebsiella sp(16.4%) was the
only other organism frequently encountered.
Jais et al., (1993) studied and assessed the bacteriological quality of
ground and surface water of Vijjaipur for E.coliforms and faecal coliforms. About
25% of the tube well samples were found to be contaminated by coliforms
particularly in the months of June and July.
Somasundaram et al(1993) studied the water quality for the aquifers in
the urban areas of Madras city and reported gross pollution of surface and
groundwater, with high levels of nitrates, heavy metals and micro organisms. They
suggest that this situatation is a result of factors such as inadequate sanitation,
industrial discharges and spillages and dumps.
Sharma et al., (1994) studied the ground water sources adjacent to the
sewage channel in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh for their microbial quality. About 69%
67
of the total samples, especially bore well water, were found to be contaminated. They
suggest that this might be due to the seepage from the sewerage channel and soak pits
near the bore wells, as well as the excessive extraction of the ground water through
bore wells which might have created vacuum thereby increasing the chances of
suction of contaminated waters.
Narain Rai and Sharma (1995) studied the bacterial contamination of
groundwater in rural areas of U.P. Total aerobic heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total
coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and Escherichia coli Type-1 (ECI) were
estimated in fifteen well water samples collected from rural areas of Barailly and
Nainital districts. Maximum THB, TC, FC, and ECI were 28,000/ml,,4460 and 305
per 100 ml of water respectively while a few samples were free from ECI. The
presence of FC and ECI revealed the insanitary conditions of the wells.
Kataria (1997) investigated total coliform count in the drinking water
sources of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Maximum Probable Number (MPN) in the study
area exceeded the WHO limit at different sampling stations as these were located in
low lying areas. Higher values in summer and monsoon indicated a higher degree of
pollution.
E.coli and total bacteria count was investigated by Rai et al (1998).in the
tube wells sources of Khagaria in Bihar. Very high MPN number at different stations
was attributed to the low landscape and stagnant ions present permanently in water
bodies throughout the study area.
From the microbial counts like TVC FC and FS, Das (2000) evaluated that
the rivers and canal at Cuttack are grossly polluted carrying high potency of microbes
and the concentration level reached an extreme level during the summer season
making the water unsuitable even for bathing
Garg (2003) studied the water quality of well and borewell of 10 selected
locations of Chitrakoot region.
Thakur et al (2003) opined that faecal contamination and sewage
contamination were the cause of high bacterial loads in the water samples of Jorhat
city. Water from the surface sources was found to be more polluted than the ground
sources.
68
Highest load of Colifrom of faecal origin was observed in the down stream
site of river Thamirabarani at Ambassamuudram,byUmamaheswari, (2004) which
may be due to frequent contamination by the excreta of humans, animals and birds.
The incidence of low count of coliform and streptococci of faecal origin in the
upstream site may be due to the continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious
organic matter and continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious organic matter and
continuous uses of detergents, antiseptics, soaps etc.
Sundari
and
Dheivamani
(2004)
conducted
experiments
on
252 samples from seven locations around the industrial zone were analyzed/ /+
bimonthly from July2001 to May 2003. Water from all the dug wells and 30 of the
tube well were found unfit for human consumption, whereas 70% of tube wells were
found to provide safe drinking during winter and summer.
Radha Krishna et al (2007) cocnducted experiments on the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of drinking, borewell and sewage water in
three different places of Sivakashi. Most of the physico-chemical characters of
drinking and borewell water were within permissible limits of BIS, whereas bacterial
count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO. They concluded that the
introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for
the bacterial contamination.
Roy and Thakuria (2007) conducted experiments on the drinking water
quality in schools of Bongaioan district of Assam. Water samples from 15 different
schools were studied for their bacteriogical and physico-chemical parameters
including heavy metals. The anions viz., sulphate, chloride and fluoride and heavy
metal viz., arsenic, lead and chromium were within the permissible limits, while
mercury was present in 20% and copper and iron in 33.3% of the water samples
studied. Sixty-seven percent of water samples were acidic, while in 40% of the
samples turbidity was above the permissible limits. Water samples, particularly from
ring wells, have been found bacterialogically contaminated.
Anchal Sood et al., (2008) studied assessment of bacterial indicators in river
Ganga. The study confirmed the presence of bacterial indicators of fecal origin at
various altitudes in every stretch of Gangetic river system. The results of
bacteriological analysis of water revealed that the situation is alarming. The lower
regions of Gengetic river system of Uttarakhand facing sever anthropological
activities, mostly due to religious belief were heavily polluted. A huge bacterial gene
pool was obtained after study which was indicative of immense bacterial diversity in
the region.
Lalitha (2008) carried out experiments on microbiological quality of
drinking water in Warangal city and reported that ground water from deeper aquifers
had lesser microbial contamination.
Jain et al.,(2008) collected hydro-chemical and bacteriological data of
ground water and spring water at Nanital in Utterakhand. They report the absence of
70
71
developed and old parts of Bangalore city, where municipal, domestic and
industrial effluents are channelized in to an open sewerage system. Most of the
wells situated within 2km radius of this open sewerage networks were found to
be loaded with total and faecal coliforms. The average counts of total and faecal
coliforms were 82 and 14 CFU/100ml from the open wells and 63 and 34
CFU/100ml from the bore wells, respectively. They conclude that proximity of
contaminating surfaces and interaction with surface water are some of the
well waters randomly. The bacteriological examination of water samples showed that
the total coliform count (MPN/100ml) was not detected in any samples taken from
bottled water, while it was detected in desalinated, surface and well waters with
12.9%, 80.0% and 100% respectively. Fecal coliforms were detected in desalinated,
surface and well waters with 3.23%, 60% 87.88% respectively. About 6.45% of
desalinated water, 53.33% of surface water and 57.58% of well water was found
positive for fecal streptococci.
Zeenat et al 2009 carried out a study to determine the bacteriological quality
of different bottled waters. 75 samples of bottled mineral water belonging to three
domestic brands and 25 samples of one imported brand were analyzed for HPC
bacteria and fecal coliforms. Among the domestic brands 7% of the samples were
positive for fecal coliforms. All imported bottled mineral water samples were within
WHO standards. While the overall quality of the product was generally good, there is
a need to enforce stringent quality standards for the domestic bottlers to ensure the
safety of consumers.
72
India and reported that the contamination level was higher in monsoon and
post-monsoon seasons. Sixteen bacteriological genera were identified. Heavy
metal resistant bacteria were identified and studied.
major concern during construction of Dam reservoir. Therefore, drinking water was
examined for the presence/absence of Salmonella, Citrobactor, Escherichia and
Vibrio species in the Indira Sagar/ Omkareshwar Project (ISP/OSP) affected areas and
Rehabilitation/Resettlement (RR) colonies of Sardar Sarover Project (SSP) in Madhya
Pradesh. V. cholerae and V. parahaemolytica were positive in 24 and 6 water samples
respectively. Salmonella and Citrobactor species were found in 21water samples.
Drinking water samples of most of the villages located at bank of Narmada River
were positive with Vibrio species. While Salmonella and Citrobactor species were
present in the drinking water of the nearby villages, Rehabilitation/Resettlement
colonies and command areas of the river/ canal. Seasonal variation was also observed
in the presence/absence of tested microbes in different survey. Thus, there may be the
role of reservoir water in the groundwater microflora change in the nearby areas.
Hiremath, et al, (2011) analyzed seasonally the physico-chemical parameters
of 36 samples from different sources in Karnataka. Parameters like pH, conductivity,
TDS, total hardness, sulfate and chloride were studied and compared with WHO
standards. The present investigation revealed that the water quality of sources and
some of the water samples are unfit for drinking.
Mohan Krishna Reddy et al (2012) assessed the status of urban drinking
water quality of Lucknow city in India. Samples were collected from the piped
supplies as well as groundwater sources from different localities of residential,
commercial and industrial areas during pre-monsoon for estimation of coliform and
fecal coliform bacteria, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and heavy metals. Bacterial
contamination was found to be more in the samples from commercial areas than
residential and industrial areas. OCPs were found to be present in most of the samples
from study area. The total organochlorine pesticide levels were found to be within the
European Union limit in most of the samples. Most of the heavy metals estimated in
73
the samples were also found to be within the permissible limits as prescribed by
World Health Organization for drinking water. Thus these observations show that
contamination of drinking water in urban areas may be mainly due to municipal,
industrial and agricultural activities along with improper disposal of solid waste. This
is an alarm to safety of public health and aquatic environment in tropics.
Palit et al., (2012), investigated the potentiality of different water sources
in urban slums in Kolkata. Out of 517 water samples collected from different sources,
stored water (washing) showed higher prevalence of fecal coliform (58%) when
compared with stored water (drinking) samples (28%) and tap water (8%)
respectively. Among different sources, stored water (washing) samples had the
highest non-permissible range of physico-chemical parameters. Fecal coliform levels
in household water containers (washing) were comparatively high 7% stored water
(washing) samples were found to be harboring Vibrio Cholera. This attempt
highlights the transmission of diseases via fecal-oral route.
Neha Bhatnagar et al, 2012 evaluated the levels of fecal coliform in
water distribution network in Jaipur. They found that residual chlorine was present in
permissible limits in all areas, however, showing the presence of microbes &
coliform. Out of 12 sites showed, 8 sites were found to have coliform bacteria
showing the possibility of contamination of water supply by sewage discharges due to
leakage in pipes. It is possible that microbes may enter through damaged pipes. So
water should be protected from contamination.
Koul Nishitha et al., (2012) determined the physico-chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of tap water samples collected from selected sites of
Gurgaon, Haryana. It was found that the pH, DO, TDS, total hardness, nitrate and
sulfate levels of the water samples seemed to be within the permissible limits of WHO
standards. However, 30.7% of Total coliforms were detected in the water samples.
While the fecal bacteria were not found in any of the samples. Thus, due to presence
of total coliforms, the water is unfit for consumption.
74
Puram industrial area in Bangalore was studied by Sankar2000 . The WQI for
these 30 samples ranged from 20.20 to 309.75 with an average value of
104.67 . The high value of WQI at these stations has been found to be mainly
from the higher values of Iron ,Nitrate ,TDS ,Total hardness and fluorides in
the ground water .
Ground water quality in two well-developed cities of Haryana, viz.
Hisar and Panipat was assessed by Kaushik (2002).for drinking purpose based
on water quality parameters, with respect to different land-use areas viz.
residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural. Water quality index based
on 9 parameters showed that at Panipat, underground water in all the land-use
zones was fit for consumption (WQI < 50), whereas at Hisar, water in
agricultural areas was good in quality, but that in other areas varied in
magnitude of pollution (WQI > 50 to 100).
Murali (2002) concluded that the ground water quality of different wards
of Coimbatore east zone was suitable after examining various physico-chemical
parameters. The water quality index (WQI), calculated for five parameters of these
samples, ranged between 75 and 100. The results show that the water is suitable
for domestic purposes.
Physico-chemical characteristics of bore wells of industrial areas of
Visakhapatnam were monitored by Ramakrishna Rao (2004). Water Quality
Index calculated from ten physicochemical parameters taken together varied
from 50.0 - 97.41. The water was not confirming to drinking standards and
hence it is suggested to take all the necessary precautions before the waters are
sent into public distribution system.
Yogendra (2007) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of an urban
water body ,Gopishettykere ,in Shimoga town Karnataka in order to ascertain
the quality of water for public consumption. In this study , Water Quality Index
was determined on the basis of various Physico Chemical parameters and was
categorized based on water quality rating scale .
Prachi Thambe (2008) studied the bacteriological quality of rural water
supplies and improved water management through increased community
75
participation. 313 water samples from different sources, such as well, tank,
community stand post, hand pumps, percolation lakes, and streams and from
households were collected from 6 villages in Maharashtra, India over a one year
period. Overall, 49.8% of the 313 samples were polluted whereas 45.9% of the
samples from piped water supply were polluted. The quality of groundwater was
generally good compared to open wells. No major diarrheal epidemics were
recorded. As a result of a continuous feedback of bacteriological findings to the
community, perceptions of the people changed with time. An increased awareness
was observed through active participation of the people.
The water quality index (WQI) for the ground water of Tumkur taluk was
determined by Ramakrishnaiah (2009). For calculating the WQI, 12 parameters have
been considered. The WQI for these samples ranges from 89.21 to 660.56. The high
value of WQI has been found to be mainly from the higher values of iron, nitrate, total
dissolved solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate and manganese in the groundwater.
The analysis reveals that the groundwater of the area needs some degree of treatment
before consumption.
Rajankar (2009) calculated
ground water sources i.e. dug wells bore wells and tube wells at Khaperkheda region,
Maharashtra (India). Twenty two different sites were selected in post monsoon, winter
and summer season. The calculated WQI showed fair water quality rating in post
monsoon season which then changed to medium in summer and winter seasons for
dug wells, but the bore wells and hand pumps showed medium water quality rating in
all seasons where the quality was slightly differs in summer and winter season than
post monsoon season.
Rizwan (2009) assesed the water quality index (WQI) for the river water of
Angul district of Orissa. The samples (n=12) were collected from various location of
river Brahmani and their tributaries. The highest value of WQI of the samples was 89
in monsoon season while the lowest value was 50 in summer season. The lower value
of WQI has been found mainly due to the higher values of BOD, Coli form and
slightly lower value of DO in the river water during summer.
Charmaine Jerome and Anita Pius (2010) concluded that Groundwater
is an essential and vital component of our life support system. Groundwater samples
from selected bore wells were analyzed for important physico-chemical attributes and
from the data obtained, the water quality index (WQI) was calculated. The WQI
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values ranged from 49.2 to 409.94. The Pearson correlation was performed to find the
relationship between WQI and quality of life. It was observed that the correlation
coefficient r was -0.499(p<0.001).
The water quality index (WQI) was calculated by Gunvant (2010) for the
assessment of ground water quality near to the dye user industry. Various
physicochemical parameters have been calculated in all the samples. In some of the
parameters the concentration observed were found to be above the permissible limits
of WHO, BIS and ICMR. Drinking water was found to be severely contaminated at
all the sites of study.
In his work Sundar kumar (2010) has estimated the ground water quality
of Rajam Mandal, which is located on the east coast of Srikakulam district of
Andhrapradesh, India. More than 170 samples of the ground water were collected
manually from the bore wells which were approximately equally distributed all over
31 villages of Rajam Mandal. The data base obtained from water quality testing was
used as attribute data base for preparation of thematic maps showing distribution of
various water quality parameters and Water Quality Index.
A study was conducted to assess the spatio-temporal variation in water of
Sabarmati River and Kharikat canal at Ahmadabad by Rita Kumar (2010). An
assessment of various physico-chemical characteristics of water was carried for a
period of 12 months. Statistical analysis among various physicochemical parameters
and WQI has been carried out. Spatial and temporal variation was observed in river
with increasing value of various parameters from upstream to downstream and
relatively high pollution load at two sites of Kharicut canal.
Physico Chemical analysis of well and bore well water samples was
carried out from eight sampling sites of Guntur rural area for the month of
February 2010. The analysis of different parameters were carried out as per
standard methods by Chandaluri Subba Rao . The results obtained on WQI
from different sampling stations were found to be varied from 38.3 to 42.6.
A study conducted by Yadav (2010) deals with the statistical analysis and
study of water quality index to assess hardness of groundwater in derailing tensile of
Tonk district of Rajasthan state. The study has been carried out to examine its
suitability for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose. The presence of problematic
salts contains in groundwater due to local pollutants and affected the groundwater
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