FEATURE: ADMIXTURES

Time-saving
design aids for
reinforced
concrete
PART 2: TWO-WAY SLABS
B Y D A V I D A . F A N E L L A , P H . D . , S . E . , P. E .

s in Part One, the time-saving methods addressed

here conform to the provisions of Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete (318-99) and Commentary
(318R-99), published by the American Concrete Institute. All referenced section numbers
and notations are from ACI 318-99.
Because of limited space, we were unable to
include the graphs in the printed version of this
article. Please see the complete article with
graphs on our Web site (www.gostructural.com)
under the editorial index.

Minimum slab thickness

Calculating deflections for two-way slabs is
complicated, even when linear elastic behavior

Editors Note
This is the second in a series of articles that introduces tools and design aids to assist engineers in producing safe, economical concrete structures in the
shortest possible time. The information provided
here will give practicing engineers a way to reduce
the design and detailing time required for nonprestressed two-way concrete slabs. Part One, which
appeared in the August issue, contains similar methods for beams and one-way slabs.

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is assumed. For routine designs, designers do

c1 (three-sided critical section),
column supports a tributary area A,
not need to perform complex deflection calcu square bays (l1 = l2),
lations for nonprestressed, two-way slab sys gravity load moment transferred between the
tems if the slab thickness meets the minimum
slab and edge column is in accordance with
requirements of Section 9.5.3. Graph 1 (all
Section 13.6.3.6, and
graphs may be viewed in the online version of
4,000-psi normal-weight concrete.
this article, at www.gostructural.com) contains
minimum slab thickness as a function of clear
A preliminary slab thickness (h) can be
span length (ln) in the long direction. This
assumes Grade 60 reinforcement and, for those
obtained by adding 1.25 inches to d from the
systems with edge and/or interior beams,
figure, where the total factored load (wu)
includes an estimate for the weight of the slab.
assumes they are relatively stiff.
For rectangular bays with l1 = 2l2, d from
When two-way slabs are supported directly
on columns (as in flat plates
and flat slabs), shear near the
columns is critically important, especially at exterior
slab-column connections
without spandrel beams. For
flat plates, slab thickness will
almost always be governed by
two-way shear rather than
serviceability requirements.
Graph 2, which is based on
the two-way shear requirements of Section 11.12, can
be used to determine a preliminary slab thickness for a
flat plate assuming the following:
Figure 1: Required conditions for analysis by Direct Design
square edge columns of size Method.

FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN

Graph 2 should be increased by about 15 percent, and for bays with l1 = 0.5l2, d may be
decreased by 15 percent.
Fire resistance requirements per the governing building code also must be considered
when specifying minimum slab thickness.

Table 1

Design for flexure

This portion of the article provides design
aids to help determine the design moments for
gravity loads and lateral loads. According to
Section 13.5.1.3, it is permissable to combine
the results of the gravity load analysis with
those of the lateral load analysis. Required reinforcement can be computed from Equation 1
for the governing load combination. For flat
plate and flat slab construction, theres more to
consider for the transfer of loads at the column-to-slab connection. Moments from gravity and lateral loads are transferred between a
slab and column by a combination of flexure
and eccentricity of shear. Only a portion of the
unbalanced moment (Mu) at the column is
transferred by flexure (f Mu); the remainder is
transferred by eccentricity of shear (vMu).
Please see the section entitled Moment transfer in slab-column connections for additional
information.
Gravity loads According to Section
13.5.1.1, either the Direct Design Method
(DDM) of Section 13.6 or the Equivalent
Frame Method (EFM) of Section 13.7 may be
used to determine the effects of gravity loads
on two-way slab systems in lieu of other methods that satisfy conditions of equilibrium and
geometric compatibility.
For routine cases, the DDM can be used to
determine moments in column and middle
strips quickly and easily as long as the conditions illustrated in Figure 1 are satisfied. The
requirements of Section 13.6.1.6 on relative
stiffness of beams in two perpendicular directions must also be satisfied. Moment redistribution, as permitted by Section 8.4, may not be
applied for slab systems designed by the DDM.
In essence, the DDM is a three-step analysis
procedure. The designer first calculates the total
factored static moment (Mo) for a panel. Secondly, he or she distributes Mo to negative and
positive moment sections. Thirdly, he or she
distributes negative and positive factored
moments to column and middle strips and to
beams, if any.
For uniform loading, Mo for a panel is computed from the following:

wu l2 ln

Mo =

( AC I E q u a t i o n 1 3 - 3 )

Table 2

Table 3

Table1: Design moment coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for flat
plates or flat slabs supported directly on columns. Table 2: Design moment coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for flat plate or flat slab with edge beams.
Table 3: Design moment coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for flat
plate or flat slab with end span integral with wall.

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FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN

and Grade 60 reinforcement:

Table 4

As =

Mu
4d

(Equation 1)

Table 5

Table 4: Design moment coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for flat
plate or flat slab with end span simply supported on wall. Table 5: Design moment
coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for two-way beam-supported slab
where wu is the factored load per unit area.
Clear span ln is defined in Section 13.6.2.5 for
both rectangular and nonrectangular supports,
and span l2 is transverse to ln. Section 13.6.2.3
defines l2 when the transverse span on either
side of the centerline of supports varies, and
Section 13.6.2.4 defines l2 when the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is being considered.
Moment coefficients contained in Sections
13.6.3 through 13.6.6 are applied directly to
Mo to determine the negative and positive
moments in the column and middle strips

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(and, if applicable, beam moments). For

design convenience, moment coefficients for
typical, two-way slab systems are contained in
Tables 1 through 5 for the DDM. Final
moments in column and middle strips can be
computed directly from the tabulated values,
where all negative moments are at the face of
the support.
Once the factored negative and positive
moments (Mu) are determined from the
applicable table, reinforcement can be computed easily by using the equation that was
developed in Part One for 4,000-psi concrete

where As is in square inches, Mu is in foot-kips,

and d is in inches.
According to Section 13.3, the minimum
reinforcement ratio in each direction (based
on gross concrete area) is 0.0018 for Grade 60
reinforcement, and maximum bar spacing is
the smaller of 2h or 18 inches.
Lateral loads Numerous analytical procedures exist for modeling frames subjected to
lateral loads. In general, any procedure that satisfies equilibrium and geometric compatibility
may be utilized as long as results from the
analysis are in reasonable agreement with test
data. For slab-column frames, where only a
portion of the slab is effective across its full
width in resisting the effects of lateral loads,
acceptable approaches include finite element
models, effective beam width models, and
equivalent frame models. Regardless of the
method used, frame member stiffness must
take into account effects of cracking and reinforcement so that drift caused by wind and/or
earthquake effects is not underestimated (Section 13.5.1.2).
For flat plate frames, the effective beam
width model will give reasonably accurate
results in routine situations. In this method,
the actual slab is replaced by a flexural element
with the same thickness as the slab and an
effective beam width be that is a fraction of the
actual transverse width of the slab. The following equation can be used to determine be for
an interior slab-column frame (from Models
for Laterally Loaded Slab-Column Frames by
Hwang and Moehle, ACI Structural Journal,
March-April 2000, pp. 345-352):

be = 2c1 +

l1
3

(Equation 2)

For an exterior frame, be equals half the

value computed from Equation 2. The reference shows that this solution produces an
accurate estimate of elastic stiffness for regular
frames.
To account for cracking in nonprestressed
slabs, bending stiffness is typically reduced to
between one-half and one-quarter of the
uncracked stiffness, which is a function of h
and be. When determining drifts or secondary

FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN

effects in columns, lower-bound slab stiffness
should be assumed. When slab-column frames
interact with structural walls, a range of slab
stiffnesses should be investigated in order to
assess the importance of interaction.

Design for shear

that the following is satisfied at critical sections

in both directions:

(Section 11.12.2):

u smallest of c=
Vu 2 fc l d

2+

(Equation 3)

When two-way slab systems are supported

by beams or walls, shear forces in the slab are
seldom a critical design factor. In contrast,
when they are supported directly on columns,
as in flat plates or flat slabs, shear around the
columns is critically important, especially at
exterior slab-column connections where the
total exterior slab moment must be transferred
directly to the column.
The designer must investigate both one-way
shear and two-way shear. For one-way or beamtype shear, which may govern in long, narrow
slabs, the critical section is at a distance, d, from
the face of the support (Section 11.12.1.1).
Design for one-way shear consists of checking

where l is equal to l1 or l2 and Vu is the corresponding factored shear force at the critical section. One-way shear rarely governs a design.
Two-way or punching shear is usually more
critical than one-way shear in slab systems supported directly on columns. The critical section
for two-way action is at a distance, d/2, from
edges or corners of columns, concentrated
loads, reaction areas, and changes in slab thickness such as edges of column capitals or drop
panels (Section 11.12.1.2). For nonprestressed
slabs of normal-weight concrete without shear
reinforcement, the following must be satisfied

sd
bo

4
fc

c
+2

fc

4 fc
(Equation 4)

where vu is the maximum factored shear stress

at the critical section and all other variables are
defined in Section 11.0. Graphs 3a through 3c
contain allowable shear stress c in slabs with
4,000-psi normal-weight concrete at interior,
edge, and corner columns.

Table 6

Table 7

Table 6: Properties of critical section interior rectangular column.

Table 7: Properties of critical section edge column, bending perpendicular to edge.

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FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN

Moment transfer in
slab-column connections
Transfer of moment in slab-column connections takes place by a combination of flexure (Section 13.5.3) and eccentricity of shear
(Section 11.12.6). The portion of total unbalanced moment (Mu) transferred by flexure is
f Mu, where f is defined in Equation 13-1. It
is assumed that f Mu, is transferred within an
effective slab width equal to c2 plus 1.5 slab or
drop panel thicknesses on each side of the column or capital. Reinforcement is concentrated
in the effective slab width such that Mn fMu
or, using Equation 1, As fMu/4d.
Graph 4 can be utilized to determine f for
various critical section dimensions b1 and b2.
Under certain conditions, f may be increased
to values greater than those from Equation 131 (see Section 13.5.3.3).

The portion of the total unbalanced

moment (Mu) transferred by eccentricity of
shear is vMu, where v = 1 f (Sections
13.5.3.1 and 11.12.6). When DDM is used, the
gravity load moment (Mu) to be transferred
between slab and edge column must be 0.3Mo
(Section 13.6.3.6).
Assuming that shear stress resulting from
moment transfer by eccentricity of shear varies
linearly about the centroid of the critical section, the factored shear stresses on the faces of
the critical section are as follows (Section
11.12.6.2):

u1 =

Vu
Ac

Mu
J/c

u2 =

Vu
Ac

Mu
J/c

(Equation 5b)

where A c is the area of the critical section and

J/c and J/c are the section moduli of the critical
section. As noted above, the maximum vu
must be less than or equal to the governing vc.
Numerous resources contain equations for
determining Ac, J/c, and J/c, including the Portland Cement Association publication, Simplified Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings
of Moderate Size and Height. Tables 6 through
10 facilitate calculation of these quantities for
rectangular and circular columns.

(Equation 5a)

Reinforcement details

Table 8

Table 9

Table 8: Properties of critical section edge column, bending parallel to edge.

Table 9: Properties of critical section corner rectangular column.

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Section 13.3 contains general reinforcement

requirements for two-way slabs, including the
minimum area of steel and maximum bar
spacing. When choosing bar sizes, the largest
bars satisfying maximum limits on spacing
generally provide overall economy. Critical
dimensions that limit bar size are thickness of
slab available for hooks and distances from
critical design sections to edges of slab.
ACI Figure 13.3.8 contains minimum extensions for reinforcement in two-way systems
without beams. These minimum lengths and
extensions may not be sufficient when a twoway slab is part of the lateral-force-resisting
(LFR) system (Section 13.3.8.4). In such cases,
bar lengths must be determined in accordance
with Sections 12.10 through 12.12.
Details at edge and corner columns that satisfy the requirements of Section 13.5.3 for
transfer of unbalanced moment by flexure are
shown in Figure 2 for flat plates.
When two-way slab systems are part of the LFR
system, distribution of
moment transfer reinforcement at interior columns,
as well as at edge columns
bending parallel to an
edge, depends on the ratio
of the factored moments
from gravity loads to factored moments from lateral loads in the slab. For
ratios greater than one, the
combined moment in the
slab on each face of the
support is negative, and all of the moment
transfer reinforcement should be placed at the
top of the slab. However, for ratios less than

FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN

Table 10

Table 10: Properties of critical

section interior circular column.

one, the combined moment is positive on one

face of the support and negative on the
other face. In this situation, its prudent to
divide moment transfer reinforcement
between the top and bottom of the slab, with
the top and bottom reinforcement continuous
over the column to account for moment
reversals.
Worked-out design examples illustrating
the use of the time-saving design methods pre-

sented here for two-way slabs can be found at

www.portcement.org/buildings.
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., is the
manager of Buildings and Special Structures
with the Portland Cement Association. Since
joining PCA in 1993, he has demonstrated
PCA services at many locations across the
country and has authored numerous PCA
publications.

Figure 2: Typical reinforcement details at

edge and corner columns in flat plates.

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Graph 1: Minimum slab thickness for two-way slab

systems per ACI Section 9.5.3

Graph2: Preliminary slab thickness for flat plate construction

based on two-way shear at an edge column ( fc = 4,000psi)

Graph 3a: Two-way shear strength of slabs

( fc =4,000psi) at an interior column ( s =40).

Graph 3b: Two-way shear strength of slabs

( fc =4,000psi) at an edge column ( s =30).

Graph 3c: Two-way shear strength of slabs

( fc =4,000psi) at an corner column ( s =20).

Graph 4: Fraction of unbalanced moment transferred

by flexure (ACI Equation (13-1)).