Anda di halaman 1dari 13

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)

Volume 7, Issue 3, MayJune 2016, pp. 91103, Article ID: IJCIET_07_03_009


Available online at
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=3
Journal Impact Factor (2016): 9.7820 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
IAEME Publication

INVESTIGATING SURFACE DRAINAGE


PROBLEM OF ROADS IN KHARTOUM
STATE
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi
Civil Engineering Department, University of Khartoum,
Khartoum, Sudan
ABSTRACT
Poor drainage contributes immensely to pavement deterioration and
subsequently causing increased annual repair expenditure. The investigation
is conducted to provide extensive diagnosis to point out the causes of roads
problems associated with poor surface drainage and provides possible
mitigation measures to overcome the problem in Khartoum state. Some cases
of existing roads in different regions in Khartoum state, suffered from severe
distresses and damages due to poor drainage were studied. The method used
to assess the existing drainage system of the studied roads is field survey.
Based on field observations, the drainage structures suffered from blockage
with dumping wastes, inadequate inlets and outlet channels, failure of side
walls and bed erosion. This critical situation of drainage, leads to severe
distresses and damages of the investigated roads. The results revealed that the
causes of drainage problem were found mainly linked to poor design,
construction, and maintenance of drainage structures as well as negative
attitude of residents. Finally, based on the investigation results, some
recommendations are provided to design and construct adequate drainage
system and apply proper maintenance in order to enhance pavement
performance and life time.
Key words: Adequate Drainage, Deterioration, Distresses, Drainage Problem.
Cite this Article: Magdi M. E. Zumrawi, Investigating Surface Drainage
Problem of Roads In Khartoum State, International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 7(3), 2016, pp. 91103.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=3

1. INTRODUCTION
Drainage is very essential in design of roads since it affects the roads serviceability
and life time. Drainage design involves providing facilities that collect, transport and
remove runoff water from road pavement. There are two major road drainage systems,
surface drainage and subsurface drainage. It is essential that adequate drainage

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

91

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

systems provisions are made for road surface to ensure that a road pavement performs
satisfactorily. Thus, a drainage system which includes the pavement and the water
handling system must be properly designed, built, and maintained.
Though water is very essential for all life on earth, it can also cause disasters
through erosion and flooding. In fact, the surface runoff water is greatly increased in
urban areas as a result of the development of infrastructures. The presence of water in
pavement is mainly due to infiltration through pavement surfaces and shoulders,
capillary action, and seasonal changes in the water table. Thus, the water need to be
drained from road surface and safely disposed to rivers or outlet channels and thereby
avoid the damages which might occur to the road and property [1]. Moreover,
providing adequate drainage in urban areas has been proven as a necessary component
in maintaining the general health, safety, welfare, and economic well-being of the
residents of the region [2].
Poor drainage poses serious challenges in urban and suburban areas worldwide.
The drainage problems in roads can cause early distresses and lead to structural or
functional failures of pavement, if counter measures are not undertaken. Excessive
water on road surface can cause one or more forms of pavement deteriorations such as
reduction of subgrade and base/subbase strength, differential swelling in expansive
subgrade soils, and stripping of asphalt in flexible pavements [3].

1.1. Problem Statement


Khartoum state is the capital of Sudan with high population and increased rate of
transportation needs. The road network in Khartoum state has to sustain more traffic
load than any other states in Sudan. In fact, poor drainage in most of the roads in
Khartoum state greatly accelerates deterioration of pavements. Recently, Khartoum is
facing very serious drainage problem during the rainy season (July to September).
The state area has been experiencing drainage congestion and water logging for the
last few years which cause serious problems. Increased urban developments without
providing sufficient drainage facilities results in water logging leaving parts of the
state area inundated for several days. The logged water becomes polluted with solid
waste, soil and contaminants, leading to unhealthy environment and spreading serious
diseases. Thus, this problem becomes a burden for the residents and the public
authorities in Sudan and in particular in Khartoum state.
In the last year, heavy rains caused potential and severe damages in many roads in
Khartoum. Consequently damage of properties as well as residents' injuries occurred.
Moreover, traffic flow was completely ceased for a period due to inaccessible roads.
Even a single closed road has an impact on transport system and can also affect other
social activities. As can be seen in Fig.1, flooded roads create problems to vehicles
and pedestrians. The main reason of these problems and challenges faced the residents
is the inadequate drainage system of roads in Khartoum state. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is supposed to assess the current situation of drainage structures and road
conditions and to find out probable causes of drainage problem in Khartoum roads.
Moreover, it is supposed to minimize the possible damages of pavement through
proper drainage structure provisions.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

92

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State

Figure 1 Flooded roads create problems to vehicles and pedestrians manover

1.2. The Study Scope and Objectives


The scope of this study is concerned on road surface drainage and the integration
between the drainage structures and the road network in Khartoum state. The study
focuses specifically on the current situation of roads and drainage facilities and
identifies causes of drainage problem of roads in Khartoum state.
The general objective of the study is to investigate and identify the causes of road
problems associated with poor drainage and its integration challenges in Khartoum
state. The specific objectives of the research as outlined below:

To evaluate the existing condition of roads and drainage structures,

To examine the problems experienced concerning drainage system of Khartoum


roads.
To explore the impacts of poor drainage on road performance and life time,
To identify the reasons behind drainage problem in roads focusing on current
situation of Khartoum main roads, and

To suggest technical improvements for the existing drainage facilities.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Drainage is simply defined as the natural or artificial removal of surface and
subsurface water from a catchment area. The surface drainage in roads is defined as a
process of removing runoff water from road surface and directing it towards a drain to

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

93

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

be disposed away from road in a water course or open area [4]. OFlaherty [4] stated
that drainage system is an integral component of road pavement and therefore its
design cannot be undertaken in isolation from the road geometric design. Croke et al
[5] found that road network complements natural drainage network and therefore
modifies the path of runoff water flow within the slope and accelerates the water
cycle. Thus, surface water flows as a result of adequate sloped road cross section that
removes water from surface and then directed to drainage channels in the system.
According to Finn et al [6], the main functions of a road drainage system are to
prevent flooding of the road and ponding on the pavement surface, to protect the
bearing capacity of the pavement and the subgrade soils, and to avoid the erosion of
side slopes.

2.1. Adequate Road Surface Drainage


It is an essential consideration that adequate provision is made for road drainage to
ensure a road pavement performs satisfactorily [4]. Collier [7] in his study
emphasized that a rainwater drainage system should be designed to collect and convey
runoff water generated within a catchment area during and after rainfall events, for
safe discharge into a receiving watercourse. Collier [7] found that the magnitude of
peak flows that have to be accommodated depends primarily on the intensity of
rainfall, topography, soil type, configuration and land use of the catchment area. Finn
et al [6] stated that drains are normally located and shaped to minimize the potential
traffic hazards and accommodate the anticipated surface water flows. Drainage inlets
are often provided to prevent water ponding and limit the spread of water into traffic
lanes.
Proper design of the surface drainage system is an essential part of economic road
design [4]. The surface drainage system collects and diverts runoff water from the
road surface and surrounding areas to avoid flooding. Road ditches decrease the
possibility of water infiltrating into pavement layers and thus help retain the roads
bearing capability. The road surface and cross-fall conduct water to surface drains,
which take care of the runoff water [8]. The majority of ditches normally have a Vshaped cross section. Roadside ditches and culverts carry flow from the area around
the road, especially during peak discharge events. This flow can be directed to
streams by either ditches or culverts [9]. Suitable drainage dimensioning always
contributes to the bearing capacity of the pavement and to road lifetime [8].
The effective road geometric factors on drainage are road cross-sectional width,
traverse and longitudinal slopes, and slope of shoulders or sidewalks. A typical road
drainage system is shown in Fig. 2. According to Finn et al [6] and OFlaherty [4],
drainage is a basic consideration in the establishment of road geometry and in general
this means that: (a) cross falls should be a minimum of 2.5% on carriageways, with
increased cross falls of up to 5.0% on hard shoulders draining to filter drains; (b)
longitudinal gradients should not be less than 0.5% on kerbed roads; (c) flat areas
should be avoided and consideration of surface water drainage is particularly
important at rollovers, roundabouts and junctions; (d) outfall levels must be
achievable; (e) the spacing of road gullies should be sufficient to remove surface
water whilst achieving an acceptable width of channel flow. One gully for every 200
m2 of paved surface is generally found to be satisfactory.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

94

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State

Figure 2 Typical road drainage system (source [10])

2.2. Drainage Problems


Successful drainage depends on early detection of problems before conditions require
major action. Signs of drainage problems requiring attention include: puddles on the
surface area, poor surface flow, slope erosion, clogged ditches, pavement edge
raveling, preliminary cracking, pavement pumping, and surface settlement [11]. These
signs indicate the start of failures which occur as soil particles are gradually washed
away and as excess water seeps into the roadway reducing the load carrying ability of
the subgrade. Major failures caused by poor drainage conditions include washouts,
slides, slip outs, road and pavement breakup and flood damage [11].
Water is the biggest enemy of roads and most experts believe that most of
pavement distresses and damages are due to poor drainage [12]. According to Ireri
[13], eighty percent of existing road way problems can be traced to the presence of
water from poor drainage either in or on the road pavement. Excessive water content
in the pavement layers such as base, subbase, and subgrade soils can cause early
distresses and lead to structural or functional failure of road, unless counter measures
are undertaken.
On his study, Anisha and Hossain [14] investigated the problem of water logging
in Bangladesh. Anisha and Hossain [14] found that there is a lack of planned and
adequate drainage network system in the Teknaf, a small urban area of southern part
of Bangladesh beside the Bay of Bengal. They proposed a new drainage network
composed of tertiary drains and cross drainage works (box and pipe culverts). The
negative effects of water on road as softening and reducing the load carrying ability of
subgrades and shoulders; increasing the disintegration of pavements and gravel
surfaces; eroding roadside surfaces; depositing sediment and debris in ditches, pipes,
catch basins and waterways; creating driving hazards for motorists and damaging
adjacent property [14].
Floods and high water flows significantly affect the performance of drainage
infrastructure. The anticipated pattern of flooding occasions will influence the number
of incidents such as landslides, landslips, roads being washed away, submerged and

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

95

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

inundated bridge supports, and road closures [15]. Many culverts, trenches, and other
drainage facilities lack the capacity to deal with the current frequency of extreme
flows. Increases in rainfall and severe weather events can affect the demand for
emergency responses.
Froehlich and Supik [10] proved that during a flood event the road network
delivers catchment area 60% of rainfall water and the specific flow on the road is
higher than those observed in the river channel. Higher stream density allows the
landscape to drain more efficiently. More efficient drainage means that water moves
into streams faster, causing peak flows to be larger and to occur sooner [16]. As a
result of this floods occur more frequently and are more severe - turning into flash
floods.
The drainage problems can directly cause or contribute to crashes. As an example,
drainage features that fail to remove runoff water because they are too small or are
clogged and pond water on the roadway can cause hydroplaning or force drivers to
leave their lane. Additionally, other drainage features which do not have anything to
do with causing a crash can significantly contribute to the severity of the crash, such
as an errant vehicle striking a culvert headwall [10].
It is important to identify these potentially hazardous situations as soon as
possible. Some of these conditions may have been in existence for quite some time,
while others may have recently developed as a result of flooding or change in weather
conditions. Drainage problem locations can be identified in several ways such as
residents' complains, local police, crash data and field review.

3. CASE STUDY
The current study aims to identify the causes of drainage problems that have led to
pavement distresses and failures. In order to achieve this objective, it is required to
survey and evaluate the existing condition of road surface and drainage facilities.
Thus, the study was carried out on selected three major roads in Khartoum state as
case study.

3.1. Project Description


Three major roads in Khartoum state were selected for the study. The three roads
were selected based on their different locations and different current drainage
conditions. The selected roads are Alferdos road in Khartoum, Alazhari university
road in Khartoum North, and Alarbeen road in Omdurman. These roads are located in
the most crowded areas in Khartoum state. They were subjected to maintenance
several times within the last ten years and still severing from severe distresses and
failures.
These roads are greatly suffered from poor drainage and have exhibited pavement
distresses and damages. The investigation consisted of field survey of the existing
condition of pavement and drainage facilities to identify the possible reasons of
drainage problem.

3.2. Data Collection


Two types of data were collected for the study, recorded data and field survey.
Documents review was employed to collect data related to the geometric design,
construction and maintenance records of the studied roads. This data was collected
from the reports and manuals of the Road Corporation of Infrastructure Ministry in
Khartoum state. Photographs were taken directly from the road sites during the field
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

96

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State

survey to illustrate the existing condition and related obstacles in the drainage
structures and the road pavement.

3.3. Field Survey


A comprehensive field survey of the existing condition of drainage structures and
pavements was conducted in this study. The existing carriageway geometric data such
as length, width, longitudinal and cross falls slopes were measured using surveying
equipments. The visual inspection of the pavement surface was carried out by a car
driving at slow speed on the shoulders along the distresses locations. Frequently stops
were made near locations where severe distresses were witnessed. Drainage structures
intergraded with the studied roads were surveyed to identify the drainage problems. In
addition, photographs of the failed pavements and drainage structures were taken at
these locations. The details of the field survey of distresses for the three roads and the
drainage situations are given in the sections below.
3.3.1. Alferdos Road
Alferdos road starts from Alsteen road towards obeid Khatim road. The road is
categorized as collector road with relatively high traffic volume. The road is a single
carriageway of 1.8 km length and 7 m width. The longitudinal profile is almost flat
with some depressions. The slopes of cross falls measured for most sections of the
road are less than 1.5%, which is below the required minimum slope for adequate
drainage. This critical situation of road geometry leads to significant water pools on
the road surface.
From the field survey, it was observed that the road surface experienced potholes,
cracking, edge damages and accumulation of soil on a large area of road surface as
shown in Fig. 3. The existing drain is located on north side of the road. It is open and
earth drain with 1m width and 0.5 to 1 depth. The condition of this drain is very bad.
It was full with soil accumulation and refuse dumps. The drain and box culvert were
blocked with soil, debris, vegetation and solid waste as shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 3 Significant potholes and soil accumulation on Alferdos road

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

97

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

Figure 4 Existing drain and culvert of Alferdos road

3.3.2. Alazhari University Road


This road connects Almaona road and Alsayid Ali road in Khartoum North. The road
is a single carriageway of 1.0 km length and 7.5 m width. In this road, the cross falls
slopes are totally less than one percent and there is no uniform longitudinal slope with
some depressions.
From the field inspection, edge cracking and damages has been seen on the road
surface. Fig. 5 shows clearly severe and large potholes, edge failures and partial
removal of asphalt surface. It was observed soils accumulated on the road sides to a
level higher than the asphalt surface.

Figure 5 Large potholes with sever edge damages on Alazhari university road

Alazhari university road has drains on two sides, north and south sides. The north
side drain is located far from the asphalt at a distance of 4 to 6m. It is a covered drain
of small cross section, 1m width and 0.5 to 0.8 m depth. The drain is built and
covered with reinforced concrete and small manholes without covers are distributed at
5 m intervals. The south side is a small open earth drain; about 50 m length is located
adjacent to the asphalt layer. From Fig. 6, it can be seen that the drains are in a very
bad condition. The open and earth drain was completely blocked with rubbish and
solid waste. The covered drain suffered from debris and waste water at the locations
of the manholes without covers. Also, the drains blocked with soils accumulated on

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

98

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State

top at location of inlets and manholes, and over and above the drain outlets are
blocked with grasses and rubbish (see Fig. 6).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6 The side drains of Alazhari university road (a) south side drain (b&c) north side
drain

3.3.3. Alarbeen Road


This road is located in the eastern part of Omdurman town. The road connects the
most crowded areas in Omdurman. The road has two carriageways and four lanes, 15
m width and 2 km length. The road longitudinal and cross section slopes are almost
flat with some deformations. The damage pavement was observed mainly in the
middle portion of the road length, particularly in the edge lane of the eastern carriage.
The majority of the damage was moderate to severe edge cracking and raveling. The
severe raveling has lead to potholes and depression areas where the top surface has
delaminated from the road pavement as clearly shown in the photographs of Fig. 7.

Figure 7 Severe raveling and potholes on Alarbeen road

It was observed that the eastern carriageway of the road is connected with a side
drain. Most of the drain is covered with concrete slab and damage manhole covers.
The drain has small cross section of 1m width and not more than 1m depth. The
condition of the drain and its structures is very poor and rapidly deteriorated. The
drain suffered from low capacity, soil accumulation, absence of inlets, lack of proper
maintenance and disposal of solid waste into the drain and the crossing culverts. The

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

99

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

drain blocked with silt and sand accumulation, debris and vegetation as shown in Fig.
8.

Figure 8 The side drains of Alarbeen road

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


The results of the field survey, to measure the existing slopes of the longitudinal and
cross falls of the studied roads showed almost flat with some depressions levels. This
non-uniform surface level of the roads may cause significant water logging on the
road surface. This problem probably affects the drainage system of the road. To avoid
accumulation of water on the road surface, it is suggested to redesign the geometry of
the three roads. This can be attained by changing the road surface slopes in the
traverse and longitudinal directions. Providing the road profile with a gentle
longitudinal gradient (1:1000) improves the road surface drainage. This slope
facilitates the discharge of water from sections of the road surface with limited crossslope. For roads with asphalt surface, the camber is normally 2% to 3%, because
water will easily flow off a asphalt surface.
The field observations for the three roads showed different defects and damages
on pavements. Figs. 3, 5, and 7 show the photos of pavements having severe potholes,
cracking and edge failures appeared at the middle and side edges of the carriageway.
Moreover, it can be observed that the roads suffered from soil accumulation and the
defected areas are almost adjacent to the side drains which show significant
depressions. These distresses and deformations on pavement results in non uniform
surface which may fail to remove runoff water from the pavement surface and direct it
to the side drains.
The drainage structures connected to the investigated roads are shown in Figs. 4,
6, and 8. From figures, it can be seen the drains and culverts suffered from serious
problems. Drains were blocked with soil and debris accumulation in drains and it may
reduce the drain capacity. It is clear that the drains being converted to dumpy places
and subsequently obstructed the water flow. The existence of erosion on drain side
slopes and earth bed is a common problem. Most of covered drains have no inlets,
manholes without covers, indefinite outlets. This critical situation of the drainage
mainly causes severe flooding which creates damages and problems to the road
pavement.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

100

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State

In the three cases studied, the factors which contribute to poor drainage and
pavement failures in Khartoum state are: poor design and construction, lack of
maintenance, and negative attitude of residents.
In general, most of the side drains in Khartoum state are open earth drains. Some
drains built from bricks, stones or concrete. Others built drains are covered with
concrete slabs or blocks. Failure of built drains like collapse of side walls, beds and/or
covers caused by improper design and construction.
One of the main problems of drainage in Khartoum state is lack of maintenance.
As seen in the photographs taken from the drains sites, the drainage structures were
left to deteriorate. The drains and culverts are rarely maintained and whenever
maintenance is attempted it is done haphazardly.
The field survey observations as clearly seen in photographs shows the negative
attitudes of residents which have converted the drains and the culverts into refuse
dump places. As a result, blockage of drains will reduce the capacity and obstruct
water flow.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION


5.1. Conclusion
This paper focuses on surface drainage problem of roads in Khartoum state. Based on
the study results, the following conclusions are drawn.

The drainage problem is highly compounded in Khartoum state because of inadequate


drainage system thereby result in damages of pavements and leading to unhealthy
environment. Thus, this problem will become a burden for the residents and public
authorities unless counter measures are undertaken. .
The drainage infrastructures built in most roads in Khartoum state cannot flush out
rain water. Moreover, the surface drains and culverts usually remain clogged due to
the dumping of garbage of all sorts by residents. Thus, stagnant rain water causes
severe damage to the road pavements.
Poor drainage conditions especially during rainy seasons, force the water to enter the
pavement from the sides as well as from the top surface. In case of open graded
bituminous layer, this phenomenon becomes more dangerous and the top layer gets
detached from the lower layers.
The most common causes of road drainage problem were found related to improper
road geometry, insufficient capacity of drainage structures, poor construction, and
lack of proper maintenance.

5.2. Recommendations

Proper road geometry needs to be maintained to provide required crown and


longitudinal slopes. This will reduce the drainage path lengths of the water flowing
over the pavement and will prevent flow build-up.
Provision of proper connections or integrations between the road network and
drainage network systems is required with regular maintenance.
Deficiencies in road drainage should be identified and ranked in order of priority as
part of the normal maintenance program. Where remedial treatments to road
pavements are being carried out any deficiencies in road drainage must be addressed
prior to or in conjunction with the pavement improvement works.
Road authorities should consider providing a specific budget on an annual basis for
both drainage maintenance works, drainage improvement works and for the

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

101

editor@iaeme.com

Magdi M. E. Zumrawi

maintenance/repair of culverts and bridges. They should also aim to employ drainage
inspectors who would monitor and report on required drainage maintenance works.
A program for cleaning out the surface drainage system is essential. Need to clean out
open drains and culverts by using manpower or machine. Also existing inlets and
outlets of drains need to be cleaned and maintained.
Developing the skills of using software programs for planning, analysis and design,
maintenance of road surface drainage system in urban areas and monitoring the
drainage infrastructures.

REFERENCES
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]
[5]

[6]

G.K. Warati, T.A. Demissie, Assessment of the Effect of Urban Road Surface
Drainage: A Case Study at Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma Town, International
Journal of Science, Technology and Society (IJSTS), 2015, 3(4), pp. 164-173.
M.K. Rathi, P.D. Rajiv, Study of Problems and Corrective Actions of Urban
Drainage Network, Proceeding of International Conference on Electric
Technology and Civil Engineering (ICETCE), 22-24 April 2011, Lushan, China,
pp. 1561-1564
R.L. Lytton, D.E. Pufahl, and Michalak, An Integrated Model of the Climatic
Effects on Pavements, FHWA Report No. FHWARD-90-033, 1993, Mclean,
Virginia.
C.A. OFlaherty, Surface drainage for roads. Chapter 7, Highways, 4th Ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 2002, pp. 185209.
J. Croke, S. Mockler, P. Fogarty, I. Takken, Sediment concentration changes in
runoff pathways from a forest road network and the resultant spatial pattern of
catchment connectivity. Geomorphology, 2005, 68(34): 257-268.
G. Finn, D. Buckley, K. Kelly, J. McDaid, D. Mullaney, J. Power, Guidelines
for Road Drainage, Technical Document, Department of the Environment,
Heritage and Local Government, 2004.

[7]

J. Collier, Stormwater Drainage Manual Wanchi, Hong Kong: Drainage


Services Department, 43/F Revenue Tower, Sgloucester Road, 2000.

[8]

J.S. Fasca, Control of pavement water and pollution prevention water in road
structures, A. Dawson, ed., Springer, Amsterdam, 2008, 299356.
B.C. Wemple, J.A. Jones, and G.E. Grant, Channel network extension by
logging roads in two basins, Western Cascades, Oregon 1. J. Am. Water Resour.
Assoc., 1996, 32(6), pp. 11951207.
W. Froehlich, J. Supik, The role of road in flow and erosion formation in the
flysch Carpathian basins. Przegld Geograficzny, 1986, 58(14): pp. 67-85.
L.M. Nyuyo, Maintenance of drainage systems in nairobis Bahati estate, B.A
Land Ecomics, University of Nairobi, 1993.
R.L. Copstead, and D.K. Johansen, Water/road interaction: Examples from three
flood assessment sites in western Oregon. Water/road interaction technology
series, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, San Dimas Technology and
Development Center, San Dimas, CA, 1998.
L.N. Ireri, An Investigation into Suitability of Storm Water Drainage Systems in
Nairobis CBD, B.A Building Economics, University of Nairobi, 2009.
N.F. Anisha, S. Hossain, A Case Study on Water Logging Problems in An
Urban Area of Bangladesh and Probable Analytical Solutions, Proceedings of
2nd International Conference on Advances in Civil Engineering 2014 (ICACE2014), 26 28 December, 2014 Cuet, Chittagong, Banglades.

[9]

[10]
[11]
[12]

[13]
[14]

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

102

editor@iaeme.com

Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State


[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

L. Bizikova, T. Neale, and I. Burton, Canadian communities guidebook for


adaptation to climate change, 1st Ed., Environment Canada and Univ. of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 2008.
Thair Jabbar Mizhir Alfatlawi, Study on Roadway Subsurface Drainage System
and Related Performance Using Fem, International Journal of Civil Engineering
and Technology, 6(9), 2015, pp. 128138.
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi, Investigating Causes of Pavement Deterioration In
Khartoum State, International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology,
7(2), 2016, pp. 203214.
Magdi M. E. Zumrawi and Hussam Elnour, Predicting Bearing Strength
Characteristics From Soil Index Properties, International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology, 7(2), 2016, pp. 266277
T. Bryndal, W. Cabaj, and R. Suligowski, Hydro-meteorological analysis of
flash floods in small basins located in headwater of Wielopolka river on the 25 th
of June 2009. Monografie Komitetu Inynierii rodowiska PAN, 2010, 69:8191.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp

103

editor@iaeme.com

Anda mungkin juga menyukai