1. INTRODUCTION
Drainage is very essential in design of roads since it affects the roads serviceability
and life time. Drainage design involves providing facilities that collect, transport and
remove runoff water from road pavement. There are two major road drainage systems,
surface drainage and subsurface drainage. It is essential that adequate drainage
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systems provisions are made for road surface to ensure that a road pavement performs
satisfactorily. Thus, a drainage system which includes the pavement and the water
handling system must be properly designed, built, and maintained.
Though water is very essential for all life on earth, it can also cause disasters
through erosion and flooding. In fact, the surface runoff water is greatly increased in
urban areas as a result of the development of infrastructures. The presence of water in
pavement is mainly due to infiltration through pavement surfaces and shoulders,
capillary action, and seasonal changes in the water table. Thus, the water need to be
drained from road surface and safely disposed to rivers or outlet channels and thereby
avoid the damages which might occur to the road and property [1]. Moreover,
providing adequate drainage in urban areas has been proven as a necessary component
in maintaining the general health, safety, welfare, and economic well-being of the
residents of the region [2].
Poor drainage poses serious challenges in urban and suburban areas worldwide.
The drainage problems in roads can cause early distresses and lead to structural or
functional failures of pavement, if counter measures are not undertaken. Excessive
water on road surface can cause one or more forms of pavement deteriorations such as
reduction of subgrade and base/subbase strength, differential swelling in expansive
subgrade soils, and stripping of asphalt in flexible pavements [3].
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Drainage is simply defined as the natural or artificial removal of surface and
subsurface water from a catchment area. The surface drainage in roads is defined as a
process of removing runoff water from road surface and directing it towards a drain to
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be disposed away from road in a water course or open area [4]. OFlaherty [4] stated
that drainage system is an integral component of road pavement and therefore its
design cannot be undertaken in isolation from the road geometric design. Croke et al
[5] found that road network complements natural drainage network and therefore
modifies the path of runoff water flow within the slope and accelerates the water
cycle. Thus, surface water flows as a result of adequate sloped road cross section that
removes water from surface and then directed to drainage channels in the system.
According to Finn et al [6], the main functions of a road drainage system are to
prevent flooding of the road and ponding on the pavement surface, to protect the
bearing capacity of the pavement and the subgrade soils, and to avoid the erosion of
side slopes.
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inundated bridge supports, and road closures [15]. Many culverts, trenches, and other
drainage facilities lack the capacity to deal with the current frequency of extreme
flows. Increases in rainfall and severe weather events can affect the demand for
emergency responses.
Froehlich and Supik [10] proved that during a flood event the road network
delivers catchment area 60% of rainfall water and the specific flow on the road is
higher than those observed in the river channel. Higher stream density allows the
landscape to drain more efficiently. More efficient drainage means that water moves
into streams faster, causing peak flows to be larger and to occur sooner [16]. As a
result of this floods occur more frequently and are more severe - turning into flash
floods.
The drainage problems can directly cause or contribute to crashes. As an example,
drainage features that fail to remove runoff water because they are too small or are
clogged and pond water on the roadway can cause hydroplaning or force drivers to
leave their lane. Additionally, other drainage features which do not have anything to
do with causing a crash can significantly contribute to the severity of the crash, such
as an errant vehicle striking a culvert headwall [10].
It is important to identify these potentially hazardous situations as soon as
possible. Some of these conditions may have been in existence for quite some time,
while others may have recently developed as a result of flooding or change in weather
conditions. Drainage problem locations can be identified in several ways such as
residents' complains, local police, crash data and field review.
3. CASE STUDY
The current study aims to identify the causes of drainage problems that have led to
pavement distresses and failures. In order to achieve this objective, it is required to
survey and evaluate the existing condition of road surface and drainage facilities.
Thus, the study was carried out on selected three major roads in Khartoum state as
case study.
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survey to illustrate the existing condition and related obstacles in the drainage
structures and the road pavement.
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Figure 5 Large potholes with sever edge damages on Alazhari university road
Alazhari university road has drains on two sides, north and south sides. The north
side drain is located far from the asphalt at a distance of 4 to 6m. It is a covered drain
of small cross section, 1m width and 0.5 to 0.8 m depth. The drain is built and
covered with reinforced concrete and small manholes without covers are distributed at
5 m intervals. The south side is a small open earth drain; about 50 m length is located
adjacent to the asphalt layer. From Fig. 6, it can be seen that the drains are in a very
bad condition. The open and earth drain was completely blocked with rubbish and
solid waste. The covered drain suffered from debris and waste water at the locations
of the manholes without covers. Also, the drains blocked with soils accumulated on
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top at location of inlets and manholes, and over and above the drain outlets are
blocked with grasses and rubbish (see Fig. 6).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6 The side drains of Alazhari university road (a) south side drain (b&c) north side
drain
It was observed that the eastern carriageway of the road is connected with a side
drain. Most of the drain is covered with concrete slab and damage manhole covers.
The drain has small cross section of 1m width and not more than 1m depth. The
condition of the drain and its structures is very poor and rapidly deteriorated. The
drain suffered from low capacity, soil accumulation, absence of inlets, lack of proper
maintenance and disposal of solid waste into the drain and the crossing culverts. The
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drain blocked with silt and sand accumulation, debris and vegetation as shown in Fig.
8.
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In the three cases studied, the factors which contribute to poor drainage and
pavement failures in Khartoum state are: poor design and construction, lack of
maintenance, and negative attitude of residents.
In general, most of the side drains in Khartoum state are open earth drains. Some
drains built from bricks, stones or concrete. Others built drains are covered with
concrete slabs or blocks. Failure of built drains like collapse of side walls, beds and/or
covers caused by improper design and construction.
One of the main problems of drainage in Khartoum state is lack of maintenance.
As seen in the photographs taken from the drains sites, the drainage structures were
left to deteriorate. The drains and culverts are rarely maintained and whenever
maintenance is attempted it is done haphazardly.
The field survey observations as clearly seen in photographs shows the negative
attitudes of residents which have converted the drains and the culverts into refuse
dump places. As a result, blockage of drains will reduce the capacity and obstruct
water flow.
5.2. Recommendations
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maintenance/repair of culverts and bridges. They should also aim to employ drainage
inspectors who would monitor and report on required drainage maintenance works.
A program for cleaning out the surface drainage system is essential. Need to clean out
open drains and culverts by using manpower or machine. Also existing inlets and
outlets of drains need to be cleaned and maintained.
Developing the skills of using software programs for planning, analysis and design,
maintenance of road surface drainage system in urban areas and monitoring the
drainage infrastructures.
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