1.) Definition: Weathering is the gradual destruction of rock under surface conditions.

Weathering may involve

physical processes (mechanical weathering) or chemical activity (chemical weathering). Some workers also
include the actions of living things (organic weathering), although these can also be classified as mechanical or
chemical or a combination of both.
Weathering can range from a change in color all the way to the complete breakdown of minerals into clay and
other surface minerals. Weathering creates deposits of altered and loosened material, called residue, that are
ready to undergo transportationand thus be eroded. Erosion means weathering plus transportation at the same
time. Weathering is necessary for erosion, but a rock may weather without undergoing erosion.
2.) The process of weathering typically begins when the earths crust is uplifted by tectonic forces. After the physical breakup and chemical
decay of exposed rocks by weathering, the loosened rock fragments and alterations products are carried away through the process of erosion.
3.)Mass Movement?
- Downslope movement of material from direct action of
gravity;
- Major geologic process on all slopes.

Slope Failure Most Important Factors?

- Water Saturation of slope material
- Earthquakes
- Over steepening of slopes
- Freezing & thawing
- Strength of materials in the slope

Mass Movement Major Types?

- Creep
- Debris flow
- Slumps
- Rock falls
- Subsidence

Creep ?
- Very slow downslope movement of soil & rock
- Caused primarily by expansion & contraction of surface
materials

Debris Flow?
- Mixture of rock fragments & water
- Rapid downslope flow as viscous fluid
- Lahar is special type composed of volcanic materials.

Slumps or Landslides?
- Material moves as a unit or block
- Definite slippage planes

Rockfalls?
- Free-fall of single fragments
- Small grains up to huge blocks
- May breakup & become fluidized flow


Subsidence?
- Vertical motion caused by collapse into voids
- Compaction of loose material

Slope Systems?
- Dynamic systems... always moving;
- Regolith & near-surface rock move down slope toward main
stream;
- Main stream removes the material thru the drainage
system.

angle of repose (p. 294)

-The steepest angle at which loose grains will remain stable
without sliding downslope.

cohesive strength (p. 294)

-The strength caused by cohesive forces between atoms in a
mineral or rock. This strength is exceeded when the rock
fractures without plastic deformation.

creep (p. 298)

-The imperceptibly slow downslope movement of material as
a result of gravity.

debris flow (p. 302)

-The rapid downslope movement of debris (rock, soil, and
mud).

lahar (p. 304)

-A volcanic debris flow

landslide (p. 305)

-A general term for relatively rapid types of mass movement,
such as debris flows, debris slides, rockslides, and slumps

mass movement (p. 298)

-The transfer of rock and soil downslope by direct action of
gravity without a flowing medium (such as a river or glacial
ice). Synonymous with mass wasting.

mudflow (p. 304)

-A flowing mixture of mud and water

permafrost (p. 299)

-Permanently frozen ground

rock avalanche (p. 306)

-A large rockfall where a whole hillside breaks off from the
face of a mountain and evolves into a flowing mass of
particles rather than moving as a coherent sheet.

rockfall (p. 305)

-The most rapid type of mass movement, in which rocks
ranging from large masses to small fragments are loosened
from the face of a cliff.

rock glacier (p. 300)

-A mass of poorly sorted, angular boulders cemented with
interstitial ice. It moves slowly by the action of gravity

rockslide (p. 305)

-A landslide in which a newly detached segment of bedrock
suddenly slides over an inclined surface of weakness (such as
a joint or bedding plane).

slope system (p. 313)

-The series of processes and materials that drive the
evolution of slopes. Gravity is the most important energy
source.

slump block (p. 305)

-A landslide block that moves as a unit along a definite
fracture or shear plane.

solifluction (p. 299)

-A type of mass movement in which material moves slowly
downslope in areas where the soil is saturated with water. It
commonly occurs in permafrost areas.

subaqueous mass movement (p. 310)

-

subsidence (p. 309)

-A sinking or settling of a part of Earth's crust with respect to
the surrounding parts.
4.) The

flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface is estimated at

47 terawatts (TW)[1] and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts:
the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle
and crust, and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth.[2]

Earth's internal heat powers most geological processes[3] and drives plate
tectonics.[2] Despite its geological significance, this heat energy coming from
Earth's interior is actually only 0.03% of Earth's total energy budgetat the
surface, which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation.[4]

5.) Hot, molten rock is called magma. Magma is a mixture of liquid rock,
minerals, and dissolved gases. It is formed by the melting of earth's
mantle. Magma is found deep below the surface of the earth.
6. Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto
the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon,
where lava, pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt through a break in the
surface called a vent.[1] It includes all phenomena resulting from and
causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body, to rise through the
crust and formvolcanic rocks on the surface.
Plutonism (or volcanism) is the geologic theory that the igneous rocks forming
the Earth were formed by intrusive magmatic activity, with a continuing gradual
process of weathering and erosion wearing away rocks, which were then
deposited on the sea bed, re-formed into layers of sedimentary rock by heat and
pressure, and raised again. It proposed that basalt was solidified molten magma.
It was named after Pluto, the classical ruler of the underworld, or alternatively
after Vulcan, the ancient Roman god of fire and volcanoes.
The theory was first proposed before 1750, by Abb Anton Moro who had studied
volcanic islands, and was subsequently developed by James Hutton as part of
hisTheory of the Earth published in 1788. It contested Abraham
Werner's neptunist theory which proposed that the Earth had formed from a mass
of water and suspended material which had formed rocks as layers of deposited
sediment which became the continents when the water retreated, further layers
being deposited by floods and some volcanic activity.
The plutonists strongly disputed the neptunist view that rocks had been formed
by processes that no longer operated, instead supporting
Hutton's uniformitarianism. A key part of the debate was the neptunist belief
that basalt was sedimentary, and some fossils had been found in it. Against this,
Hutton's friend John Playfairargued that this rock contained no fossils as it had
been formed from molten magma, and it had been found cutting through other
rocks in volcanic dykes. The arguments continued into the 19th century, and
eventually the plutonist views on the origin of rocks prevailed. However,
sedimentary rocks such as limestone are considered to have resulted from

processes like those described by the neptunists, and so modern theory can be
seen as a synthesis of the two approaches.
7.) M e t a m o r p h i c

r o c k s

Metamorphism is the alteration of pre-existing rocks in the solid state due to changes
in temperature and pressure. Under increasing temperature and / or pressure
existing mineralsbecome unstable and break down to form new minerals. In the case
of regional metamorphism the rocks are subjected to tectonic forces which provide
the necessary mechanisms for metamorphism. Products
include schist and slate. Contact metamorphism involves metamorphosis through
heating by an intruding plutonic body. Hornfels is the result of this type of
metamorphism.
Metamorphic rocks are classified according to the conditions under which they
recrystallised, known as their metamorphic facies. The key parameters in this
classification are index minerals which indicate particular pressure / temperature
conditions. These minerals may only be present in small proportions, and in many
cases are difficult to recognise in hand specimen. An alternative classification, useful
in the field or for hand specimens, is based upon the degree of recrystallisation of
the original minerals, and so grain size and the degree of foliation (see below) are
important. As metamorphism occurs in areas undergoing deformation, look also for
structures that indicate deformation, such as folding (often shown as crenulations or
small crumpled folds), and small fractures or faults.
The two distinctive metamorphic textures are:
Foliation planes in gneiss
Foliation - This represents a distinct plane of weakness in the rock.Foliation is
caused by the re-alignment of minerals when they are subjected to high pressure
and temperature. Individual minerals align themselves perpendicular to the stress
field such that their long axes are in the direction of these planes (which may look
like the cleavage planes of minerals). Usually, a series of foliation planes can be
seen parallel to each other in the rock. Well developed foliation is characteristic of
most metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks often break easily
along foliationplanes.
Granular - This describes a metamorphic rock consisting of interlocking equant
crystals (granules), almost entirely of one mineral. A granular texture is developed
if a rock's chemical composition is close to that of a particular mineral. This mineral
will crystallise if the rock is subjected to high pressure and temperature.
A granular texture is characteristic of some metamorphic rocks.
Note: As the grade of metamorphism increases (more temperature and pressure),
both crystal size and the coarseness of foliation increase.
Therefore, gneiss represents more intense metamorphism (or a higher grade) than
does schist.
Some fine-grained metamorphic rocks, e.g. schist, have larger crystals present.
These crystals are called porphyroblasts. Porphyroblasts represent minerals that
crystallise at a faster rate than the matrix minerals. Garnet is a common
porphyroblast mineral.

8.) Compare and contrast the formation of igneous, metamorphic and

sedimentary rocks and relatethem to one another using the rock cycle. Include
in your response: the way each rock type isformed and also how the can
transform from one rock type to another using the rock cycle.Answer to
Question 1Igneous rocks are formed from volcanic magma that cools and
hardens on either the surface orbeneath the earth. If the lava cools quickly,
the rock becomes shiny and glass-like, and can alsohave holes or spaces
within it.Metamorphic rocks are formed by temperature, pressure and
chemicals, usually beneath theEarths surface, similar to igneous rocks. These
rocks have ribbon-like layers and evensometimes shiny crystals.Sedimentary
rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments, such as sand, shells,
pebblesand other fragments. Although, unlike igneous and metamorphic
rocks, they are formed solelyon the surface of the Earth.As for the rock cycle,
igneous rocks can change into both sedimentary rocks by weathering
anderosion, and metamorphic rocks by heat, pressure and/or chemical action.
Sedimentary rockscan change into metamorphic rocks by heat, pressure
and/or chemical action and igneous rocksby weathering and erosion. Lastly,
metamorphic rocks can change into igneous rocks by meltingand cooling and
sedimentary rocks by weathering and erosion.
9.